A brief history of forensic DnA - Environmental Science & Research

A brief history of Forensic DNA1990 – 2010marking 20 years of DNA analysis for theNew Zealand criminal justice system2100 2400 2718001600140012001000800600400200022 B: 22•2300434405 / EPOS22 Y: 22•2300434405 /Page 1www.esr.cri.nz www.esr.cri.nz

It seems hard to believe that only a little more than two decades ago, usingDNA to fight crime was unheard of. The development of DNA ‘fingerprinting’revolutionised forensic science and the investigation of crime worldwide.In the early years DNA profiling was primarily used to solve serious crimes.It is now routinely used to investigate a range of crimes from burglaries, tohomicides. Often the investigation of a major crime using DNA technologyhas led to a number of different and often completely unrelated crimesbeing solved. When confronted with DNA evidence many offenders pleadguilty, saving resources and money in criminal investigations, and throughthe court system. The continual development and improvements in the useof forensic DNA technology has enabled some of New Zealand’s mostchallenging cold cases to be solved. And it is alsoan extremely important tool in exonerating theinnocent. Behind the scenes it can be thetool that excludes suspects or changes thefocus of a police investigation.ESR provides independent impartial forensic service expertise to supportthe New Zealand justice system. This comprehensive forensic service isunderpinned by robust research and the latest DNA technology.New Zealand has continually been at theforefront of developing and utilising forensicDNA technology. Our forensic scientists havebeen instrumental in major technologicaladvances; most notably in the development oflow copy number trace DNA and interpretationof DNA profiles. New Zealand’s ‘hit rate,’linking individuals to crimes through thedatabank, is one of the highest in theworld. Our DNA expertise is recognisedthroughout the world and our forensicsystems and scientists are sought after by otherjurisdictions particularly in Australasia. The New Zealandcriminal justice system has benefitted from two decades of continuousdevelopment and implementation of forensic DNA. The partnership betweenusers of the criminal justice system, and particularly between ESR and theNew Zealand Police, should ensure that New Zealand retains its place as aworld leader in the use of this crime fighting technology.Page 2Page 1www.esr.cri.nz

Forensic DNA timeline1985British scientists, Drs Peter Gill,Alec Jeffreys and Dave Werrettpublish “Forensic application ofDNA fingerprints.”Early 1990sAmplification of DNAMid 1990s – 2000ESR introduces moresensitive and discriminatingDNA technology2001Theresa Cormack ‘coldcase’ solved using improvedDNA technology2004New Zealand exportsforensic databaseexpertise2007Increaseddiscriminationbetween DNAprofiles2006Y-STR introduced1987–1988NZ scientists begin trainingin the new technologyIntroduction of DNAprofiling into casework inNew Zealand2006Low Copy Numbertechnology introducedto NZ casework1990First DNA evidencepresented in NZ court1995–1996National DNADatabank established2002NZ’s purpose built forensicDNA laboratory opens2005Robots introduced tothe DNA laboratory2008New extractiontechnologyintroduced2009 – 100,000thindividual profileadded to databankPage 2Page 3www.esr.cri.nz

A brief history of forensic DNA analysis inNew Zealand1985In 1985 British scientists, DrsPeter Gill, Alec Jeffreys and DaveWerrett published a paper in Nature,“Forensic application of DNAfingerprints.”This provided a method foridentification of individuals by DNAprofiling and was the beginning ofDNA testing in forensic science.It’s proved to be the biggestsingle advance in the field sinceconventional fingerprinting.In a paper to mark 20 years since thediscovery Drs Gill and Prof Joblingsaid – “Sherlock Holmes said ‘it haslong been an axiom of mine that thelittle things are infinitely the mostimportant’, but he never could haveimagined that such a little thing, theDNA molecule, could become perhapsthe most powerful single tool in themultifaceted fight against crime. Twentyyears after the development of DNAfingerprinting, forensic DNA analysis iskey to either conviction or exonerationof suspects. It is also central to theidentification of victims of crimes,accidents and disasters, driving thedevelopment of innovative methods inmolecular genetics, statistics and the useof massive intelligence databases.”At the time of the DNA breakthroughin the UK, New Zealand’s DSIRChemistry Division provided forensicservices for theNew Zealand Policeincluding theidentification andgrouping of bloodstainsand semen stains. This wasdone using blood typing.The new DNA-based methodwould prove to be farmore discriminating thanconventional blood typing forthe identification of individualsinvolved in crime.1987-1988 New Zealandscientists begin training in thenew technologyIn 1987 forensic scientist Dr SteveCordiner was awarded a fellowship tostudy the new technique with Dr GeoffChambers at Victoria University.At the same time Dr Margaret Lawton,Government Analyst at DSIR Auckland,was given responsibility for managingthe introduction of DNA profiling intocasework in New Zealand.Funding was provided to establish newDNA testing facilities, and in 1988 agroup of NZ forensic scientists wentto the UK to train at the Home OfficeLaboratory with Drs Gill and WerrettWhen they returned to NZ they beganestablishing DNA profiling laboratories.1990 DNA evidence presentedin New Zealand courtIn 1990 Dr Lawton presented DNAevidence for the first time in a NewZealand court in Q v Pengelly.Michael James Pengelly was accused ofthe murder of an elderly woman in herAuckland home. Various bloodstainswere located in the house. These wereblood typed, then DNA tested. It wasfound that some of the bloodstainscould not be from the deceased. DNAtesting showed that the blood could befrom the accused, and Pengelly was laterconvicted of the murder.Early 1990s Amplificationof DNAThe first PCR-based methods wereintroduced into NZ in the early 1990s.This meant the DNA could be extractedand amplified (copied many times) toobtain a DNA profile. Results wereobtained within a few days rather thanthe previous timeframes of weeks.Police recognised that a large numberof sexual assaults in South Aucklandbetween 1983 and 1994 occurred withthe same modus operandi and developeda profile of an assailant. ESR reviewedold cases and was able to link 15 ofthe sexual assaults using the newDNA testing.A mass DNA screen was undertakenand 700 suspects were eliminated fromthe investigation. One male on thesuspect list matched. Joseph Thompsonadmitted a total of 61 charges of sexualviolation and 68 other offences and wassentenced to 30 years in prison.In 1995 seven rapes and a homicide inSouth Auckland were linked by DNAtesting. In 1996 DNA linked anotherseries of rapes in central Auckland to theSouth Auckland rapes. A mass DNAscreen of several thousand men wasundertaken. Malcolm Rewa headed thesuspect list but couldn’t be located. InMay 1996 Rewa was arrested followingan attack on a 16 year old girl. HisDNA profile matched the DNA linkedcrimes. On the first day of his trial hepleaded guilty to all cases where therewas DNA evidence except for thehomicide. He was found guilty in 26other cases. A second trial found himguilty of the homicide.It was these types of investigationsthat provided the impetus for theestablishment of the NZ National DNADatabank.Page 4Page 5www.esr.cri.nz

The National DNA Databasecontains DNA profiles fromindividuals and the CrimeSample Database containsDNA profiles from unsolvedcrimes. By comparing the twodatabases, possible suspectscan be identified and crimeslinked.When introduced, the NewZealand National DNA Databankwas the second national DNADatabank in the world, the firstbeing established in the UnitedKingdom in 1995.Image depicts raw data from forensic DNA sequencerIn the UK in 1993 –‘94 Dr Gill wasleading the team which confirmedthe identity of the remains of theRomanov family, murdered in 1918,and the subsequent investigation whichdisproved the claim of Anna Andersonto be the Duchess Anastasia.This work led the way for the use offorensic DNA analysis methods inthe investigation of historic crimesof international significance, andultimately the use of these and similartechniques in the investigation of massdisasters, including war crimes.1995-1996 National DNADatabank establishedThe introduction of the CriminalInvestigations (Blood Samples) Act1995, legislated for a “DNA ProfileDatabank”. The New Zealand NationalDNA Databank was implemented inAugust 1996 and is composed of twoseparate databases;• the National DNA Database• the Crime Sample Database.Mid 1990s – 2000In 1995 ESR introduced the moresensitive and discriminating STR(Short Tandem Repeat) technology intoforensic casework. This involved theanalysis of three STR DNA loci plusa gender test. The increased sensitivityallowed for results to be obtainedfrom smaller forensic samples such asbloodspots and saliva stains, as well assmall numbers of spermatozoa.Between 1996 and 2000, ESR increasedthe number of STR loci tested from 3 to6, then 10.Discrimination between individualsimproved from likelihood ratios ofone in 100s in the early days to onein hundreds of millions. Sensitivityalso improved with modifications totechnology and equipment used.2001 Cold case solved usingimproved DNA technologyDue to advances in geneticfingerprinting, a minute sample ofsemen from the Theresa Cormack casewas able to be profiled.Fifteen years after Cormack’s death,police arrested Jules Mikus forCormack’s murder.Page 6Page 7www.esr.cri.nz

2006 Low Copy Numbertechnology introduced to NZcaseworkIn the first years of forensic DNA a largebloodstain the size of an old 50 centcoin was thought to be the minimumamount of sample required for successfulDNA analysis. By 2006 a mere smudge,such as a nose-print against a glass, wasenough to give a DNA result that couldbe linked to an offender.2006 Y-STR introducedIn Y-STR analysis, specific regions ofDNA on the Y male chromosome aretargeted and copied many times. Y-STRDNA profiling system selectively targetsmale DNA even in the presence of largeamounts of female DNA (e.g. traces ofmale DNA on a vaginal swab which willhave lots of female DNA present on it).This means that results can be obtainedfrom very small amounts of male DNA.2008 Familial testing assistswith murder caseFamilial DNA testing, successfully ledto the apprehension of a suspect in thehistoric Marie Jamieson homicide.2002 NZ’s purpose built DNAlaboratory opensIn May 2002 ESR opened a purposebuilt DNA testing facility in Auckland.NZ is one of only a few countriesto have purpose built forensic DNAlaboratory facilities designed tominimise contamination.2004 Exporting databankexpertiseForensic DNA systems developedby ESR are introduced in Thailand.Following the Boxing Day Tsunami,ESR assisted with DNA expertise andsystems for disaster victim identification.2005 Robots introduced toparts of the DNA laboratoryAutomation enables faster processingand help ensures consistency,minimising handling errors.The Forensic Science Service, led byDr Gill, developed and implementedLow Copy Number DNA profiling inthe late 1990s and early 2000s. ESRPrincipal Scientist, Dr John Buckleton,worked with Dr Gill and others at theUK Forensic Science Service to establishthe technique and develop interpretationguidelines.After a period of extensive validationand upgrading of ESR’s forensiclaboratories in Auckland, Christchurchand Wellington, the technology wasimplemented into forensic casework.The LCN technique copies a DNAsample through 34 cycles comparedwith 28 under standard DNAmethods. This equates to a 50-foldincrease in sensitivity. It can beused to obtain profiles from itemsthat have only been touched, andon samples where standard DNAtesting is unsuccessful.It is only used in a limited numberof appropriate cases.2007 Increased discriminationESR increased the number of locitested to 15, allowing even morediscrimination between profiles andassisting in cases where discriminationbetween closely related family membersis required.FaSTR DNA, a software programme,designed and built by ESR for theautomated interpretation of DNAprofiles was also introduced.Since the outcome of such a searchrequires careful consideration and muchinvestigative follow-up by the Police,familial searching is only recommendedin a small number of selected cases.These are typically homicides or serioussexual assaults where no link has beenestablished with the national DNAdatabank and all other persons ofinterest have been eliminated. To datefamilial searching has been undertakenin fewer than 20 cases.2008 New extractiontechnology introducedDNA IQ, allowed for the developmentof robotic methods for the extraction ofcase samples.2009 100,000th individualprofile added to databankPage 8Page 9www.esr.cri.nz

LOOKING FORWARDthe new zealand national dna databankESR will introduce the definitiveidentification of human body fluidsand tissues by mRNA profiling. Thisinnovative technology will be initiallyapplied to selected casework samples.It allows for the identification ofbody fluids, (vaginal fluids, menstrualblood and saliva) at the same time asdetermination of the DNA profile.The introduction of this technology is adirect consequence of ESR investmentin research and development.Also coming is the Laser Microdissector.This combination of microscope anddissection apparatus will allow ESRscientists to identify and select cellsindividually for further profiling. Thus,spermatozoa will be able to be selectedand processed independently of othercells and body fluids in case samples.Current areas of research anddevelopment in the DNA/RNAarea include:• the identification of botanicalevidence including DNA profiling ofcannabis seizures to establish commonorigins and the discrimination ofpsychoactive cannabis from hemp(fibre producing cannabis)• investigations of the behaviour of lowlevel contributions to DNA mixtures• ageing of injuries and bruises usingmolecular biology and proteomicmethods• development of cell identificationmethods using proteomics (the largescalestudy of proteins, their structureand functions)• ageing body fluid stains at crime scenesThe New Zealand National DNADatabank has two databases:• National DNA Database (profiles ofindividuals)• Crime Sample Database (profiles fromunsolved crimes)Now most individual profiles loadedto the databank come from buccalscrapes (taken from inside the mouth).Once a DNA profile has been taken thesample is destroyed and only the profileis retained. The profile is a string ofnumbers that are stored on the profiledatabase. The only genetic informationthat can be obtained from this profileis gender.The overall success rate in DNAmatching in NZ is world-leading.63% of all unsolved cases loaded to thecrime sample databases are linked toindividuals, and more than 30% linkedto another crime.ESR and the New Zealand Policecomply with all requirements of theCI(BS) Act in order to maintain theintegrity of the DNA Databank as aforensic investigative tool. The Actis designed with a strong focus onthe rights of the individual. It placesrigorous requirements on the police asinvestigators and collectors of samples,and also on ESR as custodians of thedatabank.ESR has strict protocols in regard tomanagement of the National DNADatabank and takes its custodial role1800160014001200100080060040020002100 2400 2700 3000 3300 360022 B: 22•2300434405 / EPOSOb22 Y: 22•2300434405 /very seriously. The databank system ison a separate dedicated secure systemthat is physically isolated and contains anumber of security features.External parties, including the NewZealand Police, cannot access anyinformation on the database.Access by ESR staff is extremely limited,physically and by system securityfeatures, to only those working with theforensic DNA facility.ESR’s DNA laboratory has three teams:• the National DNA Database team• the Crime Sample Database team• the Priority Casework team.The Priority Casework team in the DNAlaboratory analyses forensic samplesfor major criminal investigations.Priority cases are commonly run underextremely tight timings, with scientistsoften in the laboratory around the clock.22 G: 22•2Page 10Page 11www.esr.cri.nz

Wayne Jarden caseIn 1988 a woman was brutally attackedand raped in her flat in St. Albans,Christchurch. Samples were analysed,but at the time there was insufficientDNA to be useful.Twelve years later, ESR scientistsanalysed the biological samples usingnew DNA technology. It indicated thatthe attacker was responsible for anotherunsolved Christchurch rape, that of a90-year-old in April 1996.Despite this, a suspect was notidentified, as the DNA profilesLois Dear caseIn July 2006, the body of 66-year-oldteacher Lois Dear was discovered inher Tokoroa classroom at StrathmorePrimary school. There were nofingerprints, nor any blood found at thescene; however, there was a hair and ashoeprint. Ten years earlier it wouldn’thave been possible to collect DNA froma single strand of hair. However, newtechnologies led to the identificationgenerated from the biological samplesdid not match any individual profilesheld on the DNA database. In 2007the case was re-examined using a newtechnique of familial testing. Thisinvolves looking for people who may beclosely related to the offender.Police obtained DNA samples from twofamily members. A profile was generatedwhich matched crime scene profilesfrom the two rapes and in 2009 WayneRobert Jarden pleaded guilty to bothrapes.Recent DNA forensic stories - every contact leaves a traceof the hair as belonging to 23-year-oldWhetu Te Hiko.In addition, shoeprints invisible to thenaked eye were discovered at the sceneof the crime, leading from the classroomto a bathroom. ESR scientists liftedthe prints using an electrostatic dustliftingkit.The soles of the shoes were identifiedas a brand sold at The Warehouse inTokoroa. Police discovered only threepairs had been sold, only one in the sizethat Te Hiko wore. Police then trolledthrough store security tapes for thatparticular occasion and found video ofTe Hiko purchasing those shoes.Te Hiko pleaded guilty to the murderand in May 2007 was sentenced to lifeimprisonment with a minimum of18 years non-parole.Janelle Patton caseESR’s LCN DNA laboratory andexpertise in trace DNA analysis wereused for a high-profile Norfolk Islandhomicide case.Australian Federal Police sought ESR’sexpertise in the case of 29-year-oldSydney woman Janelle Patton, murderedon Norfolk Island on Easter Sunday2002, the first homicide on the islandfor 150 years.ESR scientists were able to obtaina DNA profile corresponding tothe murder victim from a sampleextract from the boot of the accused’scar, supporting the prosecution case that28-year-old New Zealand chef GlennPeter McNeill had killed Miss Patton,then moved her body by car to anotherlocation.He was found guilty of murder inMarch 2007, and sentenced to 24 yearsin jail with a minimum non-paroleperiod of 18 years.Operation BackCaptureChanges to the New Zealand CriminalInvestigations (Bodily Samples) Act,(1995), allowed for the compulsorycollection and storage of DNA profilesfrom imprisoned offenders.The Act permits comparison of theseDNA profiles to DNA profiles obtainedfrom crime scene samples stored on theNew Zealand Crime Sample Database.This operation identified 87 links tocrimes. Of these links, 65% were ‘coldlinks’, meaning a previously unreportedsuspect was linked to a crime throughDNA.Operation OakleyThe case started with the discoveryof semen on doorknobs and car doorhandles at an address in Mt Albert overseveral months. Samples submitted tothe Crime Sample database showedthat these cases were linked to thesame offender.Using a covertsurveillance camera,the Police arrested amale suspect, whoconsented to providinga DNA sample. The suspect’s profilematched that of the samples from thecrime scene, and he received a sixmonthsuspended sentence.. . . but the story doesn’t end there.Later, a series of serious sexual assaultson young females began. Samples fromthe scenes linked the assaults not onlyto each other, but also to the earlierPage 14Page 15www.esr.cri.nz

indecencies in Mt Albert. The offenderpleaded guilty and is serving 18 yearsimprisonment.Attempted child abductionTwo attempts were made to abductyoung girls off an Auckland street. Thefirst girl got away with a ripped jacket,but a second was forced into a car. Shemanaged to escape from a rear doorof the moving car, dragging an itemfrom the car with her. Urgent forensicexamination of this item yielded a DNAprofile, which linked to a person not onthe suspect list.As a result, the police were able to makea speedy arrest. A full confession wasobtained and the girls were spared theordeal of facing the offender in court.Low Copy Number DNA profilelinks rape and murderESR scientists were able to generate aDNA profile using low copy numbertechnology. A DNA profile wasgenerated from the rope used to stranglea Dunedin student in a rape.The profile linked to Liam Reid, whowas also identified through standardDNA testing as the likely perpetrator inthe Emma Agnew murder case.The two cases were heard together ina combined trial in November 2008.Reid was found guilty and sentencedto a minimum non-parole term of26 years.A DNA profile using low copy number technology was generated from the rope used to strangle aDunedin student in a rape.DNA profiling is used as a powerful andaccurate forensic tool in many differentways by the New Zealand Police, inmore than three thousand cases peryear. Some of the less well-known usesinclude:Post-mortem examinationDNA profiling can be used in postmortemexamination where identificationof the deceased is difficult due toincineration, drowning, or complete orpartial decomposition. It is used in caseswhere the more common methods ofradiography (X-rays) and odontology(forensic dentistry) are unsuitable.Other uses for forensic DNADistribution of BloodDNA profiling is also highly useful forresolving the distribution of blood at acrime scene and for investigating crimeswhere more than one person has beenkilled or injured.By identifying the likely source ofa bloodstain at a crime scene, theinvestigation team can determine thelocation of people during the offenceand track how individuals movedthrough the crime scene.In 2007 when Graham Burton wenton a shooting spree in hills nearWellington, Police were concernedthat there may be more victims thanwere immediately found. UrgentDNA analysis from the multiple bloodtrails came from victims that wereaccounted for.Prolonged abuseA case using profiling results hasproved that physical abuse occurred ata dwelling over a long period of time.The result was achieved by positivelyidentifying the source of minutebloodstains distributed throughout thecrime scene as belonging to the victims.Page 16Page 17www.esr.cri.nz

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