Page numbers in italics refer to maps. Abbott, Teddy Blue, 121, 124 ...

IndexPage numbers in italics refer to maps.Abbott, Teddy Blue, 121, 124, 125, 132Acoma people, 14, 15Act for the Government and Protection ofIndians (1850), 100Adams, Charles Francis, 114Adams, John Quincy, 69, 71–72, 79aerospace industry, 205–7African Americans: “Buffalo Soldiers,” 93,212; challenge to social order by, 216,218, 221; communities of, 151–52; ascowboys, 125–26; cultural mix withIndians, 30–31; elected to public office,217; and labor unions, 107, 108; migrationto West, 64–66, 173, 216; povertyof, 218; school desegregation, 217–18;in Seminole nation, 70; sharecroppers,144; social class of, 158, 160; in urbanriots, 218, 221; voting rights of, 217Agnew, Spiro, 224agrarian revolts, 24, 34–35, 143Agricultural Adjustment Act (1932), 186Agricultural Workers Organization, 144Alabama, slaves in, 65Alamo, battle of, 67–68Alaska: acquisition of, 88, 102; boundary of,72, 79; development of, 224–25; furtrade in, 35–36, 103; gold rush in, 95,103–5; national parks in, 223; oil industryin, 224–25Albright, Horace, 183–84Alcatraz Island, Indian occupation of, 214Aleut people, 35–36, 57Algonquian people, 22–23, 24–26, 28, 33Allen, Paul, 207Allotment Act (1888), 154Almquist, Alan, 100Alta California, 37American Express Company, 111American Forestry Association, 181American Fur Company, 57American G.I. Forum, 217American Indian Movement (AIM), 214, 216American Railway Union (ARU), 119–20American Revolution, 39–40Ames, Oakes, 113–14Amherst, Jeffrey, 33Ammons, Edith, 139Anderson, Bronco Billy, 201Anthony, Susan B., 151Apache people, 91, 117, 203Appalachian Mountains: as barrier to expansion,32; expansion into, 29–30, 34Apple computers, 207Arapaho people, 88, 92–93, 101Arikara people, 88Arizona: ethnic diversity in, 221; farming in,231

1812, 50, 57, 71; withdrawal from U.S.soil, 48Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at WoundedKnee, 214, 216Brown, Jerry, 219Brown, John, 89Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 218Bryan, William Jennings, 142Buchanan, James, 85, 151buffalo: Army slaughter of, 127–28; competitionwith cattle, 127, 130; on Indianhunting grounds, 87, 88, 92, 101, 102,127; natural cycle of, 128; overhuntingof, 55, 87, 127–28, 177“Buffalo Bill’s Wild West” show, 200–201Buntline, Ned, Buffalo Bill, 200Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 190Bureau of Reclamation, 184, 185–86, 224Burghardt, Andrew Frank, 166Burks, A., 126Burnett, Peter H., 74, 100Burnham, Frederick Russell, 158Bush, George H. W., 211, 212Bush, George W., 211Bustamante, Carlos María de, 83Butler, Anne, 105Butterfield, John, 110, 111Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, 12, 13Cain, James M., The Postman Always RingsTwice, 170Calamity Jane, 194Calhoun, John C., 29, 85California: aerospace industry in, 205–7;Asian immigrants in, 158–59, 220; borderof, 72, 79; cattle industry in, 106,122; cities in, 167–70, 172–75; corporationsin, 172, 189; development of, 168,209–10; economy of, 37, 97, 106; ethnicdiversity in, 220–21; farming in, 106,138, 145, 159, 161–62, 170, 186, 219;Franciscan missions in, 36–38, 122;gold rush, 94–100, 104, 108, 113, 144;grape boycott in, 219; highways in,169; Indians in, 100; industrializationin, 173, 189, 205–7; Japanese Americandetention camps in, 175; labor unionsin, 161–62, 219; logging industry in,181; Mexican War over, 82–83, 85; migrationto, 77–78, 98–99, 147, 186–87,216, 221; mining law in, 105–6; multipurposeriver development in, 189;national parks in, 178–79, 180; outmigrationfrom, 221; petrochemicalsin, 173, 206; population growth in, 173,208–10; Proposition 14 in, 218; Proposition187 in, 220; racism in, 98–99, 100,217–18, 220; railroads in, 114–15, 117;Republic of, 83–84; Silicon Valley, 207;and slavery, 89; statehood of, 45, 87,89; state societies in, 172–73; steel industryin, 205; in Sunbelt area, 209–10;territory of, 8, 37, 82, 85; water for,168–69, 175, 189, 224California Battalion of Volunteers, 84California Redwood Company, 135Californios, 84, 85, 98Canada: boundary with, 71–72, 79, 81, 88;French and Indian War in, 32–33; furtrade in, 53, 57–58, 79; gold rush in, 95,104; population of, 30; settlement of,17–18, 19Canary, Martha Jane, 194Cane Ridge, Kentucky, 149Carlisle Indian School, Pennsylvania, 153Carmack, George, 103Carson, Kit, 76, 91, 184, 193Cartier, Jacques, 17–18Cartwright, Peter, 149Casey, Lily, 127Cassidy, Butch, and “Sundance Kid,” 201Cather, Willa, 225Catholic Church: missions of, 11, 14–16, 20–21, 30, 36–38, 74, 78, 122; nativism vs.,86; rites of, 11Catlin, George, 194–95, 199cattle ranching, 106, 122–32; boom and bustin, 207–8; and buffalo extinction, 127,130; cowboys, 121, 122, 124–26, 129,131; dogies, 122; federal inspections,124; “great die up,” 130–31; in GreatPlains, 102, 121, 123, 128, 130; JohnsonCounty War, 131; and labor organizers,129; land acquisitions for, 135, 223;Maverick Law, 131; in Mexican territory,63, 122; open-range herding,122, 123, 128, 130, 131–32; outsideinvestors, 128–29, 130; overgrazing,130, 187, 188, 223; and railroads, 121,122–23, 124; rancheros, 78, 122, 160;i n d e x 233

cattle ranching (continued)selective breeding in, 131, 132; sheepmenvs., 129–30; stockmen’s associations,129, 130; stockyards, 123–25, 166;Texas longhorns, 122, 128, 132; vaqueros,78, 122, 125, 126; women in, 126–27Cayuga people, 18Cayuse people, 73Central America, refugees from, 220Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 206Central Pacific Railroad, 111, 112, 113, 114,115, 138Champion, Nathan, 131Champlain, Samuel de, 18–19Charbonneau, Toussaint, 54Chase, Alston, 180Chávez, César, 218–19Cherokee people: as cowboys, 125; GreatIntrusion, 69; herded into concentrationcamps, 69–70, 175; independentnation of, 68–69; land taken from, 34,68–70; revitalization of, 50–51; Trailof Tears, 70, 152Cheyenne, Wyoming, 166Cheyenne Autumn (movie), 212–13Cheyenne people, 88, 92–93, 100–102Chicago: development of, 165–66; as gatewaycity, 166; immigrants in, 166, 171;stockyards in, 123–24, 166Chicago and Rock Island Railroad, 165Chicanos, 219Chickasaw people, 33, 68, 69Chico, Francisco, 145–46China: and labor unions, 108; trade, 71Chinatowns: in California, 159, 172; massacres,119Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), 119, 145Chinese immigrants: in cities, 159, 172;farmers, 145, 159; miners, 99, 107;and racism, 99, 106, 107, 119, 145, 158–62, 172; railroad laborers, 114–15, 119Chiricahua people, 117Chisholm Trail, 124Chivington, John M., 92–93Choctaw people, 33, 68, 69Chouteau family, 58, 61Christianity. See religionChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.See MormonsCíbola, 12, 13Cincinnati, Ohio, 163, 164cities: abandoned, 164; automobiles in, 169;in California, 167–70, 172–75; competitionbetween, 164–65, 167; easterncontrol of, 164–65, 167–68; economicpower in, 208–9; federal spending in,173; gateway, 166–67; immigrants arrivingin, 171–75; industrialization in,97, 164, 168, 170, 173, 188, 198; movementfrom farm to, 170, 172; multipliereffect in, 170, 173; population growthin, 173, 208; racial unrest in, 218, 221;in trans-Appalachian West, 163–65; intrans-Mississippi West, 163, 166–67;transportation systems in, 166–67, 169;unemployment in, 218; urban sprawlin, 169, 210; water diverted for use in,168–69, 185, 224; women migrating to,170–71Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 188civilization: and end of frontier, 198; meaningof term, 192; wilderness vs., 180Civil Rights Act (1870), 99Civil War, U.S.: economic effects of, 90, 140;events leading to, 89; Indian fightingduring, 92; secession and, 90; andtransportation, 109, 110–11; weaponsin, 90Clappe, Louisa Amelia Knapp Smith, 98Clark, William, 53–56Clay, Henry, 81Cleveland, Grover, 120, 181clipper ships, 106Cody, William “Buffalo Bill,” 166, 184,200–201, 212Collier, John, 190Collins, Elizabeth, The Cattle Queen ofMontana, 127Colonization Law (1830), 66Colorado: mining in, 95, 100, 104, 167; SandCreek massacre in, 92–93, 100; territoryof, 85Colorado River, 189, 224Colt, Samuel, 90Colter, John, 58Columbia River: British claims to, 71, 72, 79;and fur trade, 56, 57, 79; Grand CouleeDam on, 189; hydroelectric system of,189, 207, 224; and Oregon Trail, 74Columbus, Christopher, 1, 2, 7–8234 i n d e x

Comanche people, 88community: African American, 151–52; immigrant,156, 157, 158–62; Indian, 152–56;pioneer construction of, 148; religious,148–51, 156; restlessness vs., 147; rurallife, 148; small towns, 156–58; socialclass in, 158Community Service Organizations, 217, 219Comstock, Henry “Old Pancake,” 104, 106Comstock Lode, Nevada, 104, 106, 107, 167Conestoga Indians, 34–35Conestoga wagons, 110Confederation Congress, 40–45Congress, U.S.: and conservation, 178–79,181, 182, 223; on free land, 90, 133–35;on immigration, 220; and Indian removals,93, 153, 154, 214; and landreform, 151, 181; and Mexican War,83; and money supply, 140–41; andrailroads, 90, 111, 112, 116, 166; andreligion, 151; and slavery, 89; andstatehood, 81; and water use, 169,189, 224. See also specific legislationconquistadors, 8–14, 13, 122conservation movement, 178–86; commercialinterests vs., 183, 185, 188, 223; compromisein, 180; corporate control in,183, 189; Dust Bowl vs., 187–88; ecologicalstudies, 181; farming vs., 184,186–87; federal lands, 187, 188; forestrangers, 183–84; habitat destruction,177–78, 180–82, 223; and Indian removals,189–90; multipurpose riverdevelopment, 188–89; national parks,178–80, 182, 183, 223; preservation ofwilderness, 178–80, 223; preservationvs. conservation, 181–83, 184, 223–25;regulation of use, 178, 181, 183, 223–24;and romanticism, 178; scientific managementin, 183, 188; tourism and, 179,180; water for irrigation, 184–86, 224;wildlife destruction, 176–78; wildliferefuges, 178, 182Cooke, Jay, 179Cooper, Gary, 202Cooper, James Fenimore: The Last of theMohicans, 192; “The Leather-StockingTales,” 192; The Pioneers, 176Cornplanter, Seneca leader, 49Cornwallis, Charles, 39Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, 12–14Cortés, Hernán, 8–10, 11, 12, 84, 122Cortina, Juan Nepomuceno, 87Covered Wagon, The (movie), 201–2cowboys: African American, 125–26; at thecampfire, 126; cattle drives, 124; ascowpunchers, 125; end of the era, 121;Indians as, 125; outlaws, 125, 131; andunion organizers, 129; vaqueros, 78,122, 125, 126Crazy Horse, Sioux leader, 100–102Credit and Finance Corporation, 114Crédit Mobilier, 113–14, 115Creek Confederacy: cowboys, 125; in FiveCivilized Tribes, 68; in Florida, 30–31;germ warfare on, 33; treaties of removal,69, 175Creoles, 36Crèvecoeur, J. Hector St. John de, 43Crocker, Charles, 113, 114, 115Crockett, Davy, 58, 65, 67, 183, 193Crook, George, 117Crow people, 88cultural pluralism, 190cultures, mixing of: in cattle industry, 122; infrontiers, 216; in fur trade, 61; huntersettler,55; in immigration assimilations,156; Indian–African American,30–31; Indian-European, 5, 9, 14–16,19–20, 28–29, 55, 205; in marriage, 19,156; mestizos, 12, 15, 16, 36, 205; métis,19–20, 36, 76; Mexican-whites, 68,86–87, 107; in mining, 98–100, 107;missionaries, 20–21, 73; in multiculturalsociety, 205, 221, 222Custer, George Armstrong, 48, 100–102Cutler, Manasseh, 43Dakota Territory: farm families migratingfrom, 186–87; farming in, 137, 138, 139,140; gold in, 95, 101; Little Bighorn, 48,100–102; rail transportation to, 167;Sioux removed to, 91, 100–101; statehoodof, 197Dallas, Texas, 208Dalrymple, Oliver, 138Dances with Wolves (movie), 213Dawson Charley, 103Debs, Eugene, 120Delaware people, 31, 33i n d e x 235

Delaware Prophet (Neolin), 33Delaware River valley, 28–29, 31Democratic Party, 89, 143Denver: defense spending in, 207; developmentof, 166, 167; jetport in, 209; andmining industry, 167, 197Denver Pacific Railway, 166de Smet, Pierre, 73Deutsch, Sarah, 161Devil’s Tower, Wyoming, 182DeVoto, Bernard, 55, 60, 188, 204Díaz, Porfirio, 160Disney, Walt, 206Dodge, Richard, 127Dodge City (movie), 203Dole, Robert, 211Dominguez, Manuel, 98Donnelly, Ignatius, 141, 142Douglas, Donald, 206Douglas, Stephen A., 80, 87, 89Douglass, Frederick, 85Durant, Thomas C., 113, 115Dust Bowl, 187–88Dutch colonies, 24, 25, 29Earp, Wyatt, 125Eastwood, Clint, 213ecology, 181. See also conservation movementEdmunds Act (1882), 151Eisenhower, Dwight D., 211elections: and political power, 81; and slaveryquestion, 89–90electoral college, 81Elephant Butte Dam, 184–85Eliot, John, 26, 27Elizabeth I, queen of England, 21Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 180encomienda system, 10England. See BritainEnlightenment, 42Espuela Cattle Company, 128Europeans: colonial empires of, 11–12, 21; immigrationof, 29–30, 156; mixing Indiancultures with, 5, 9, 14–16, 19–20, 28–29,55, 205. See also Britain; France; SpainEvans, George Henry, 134Evans, John, 92, 93Everglades, Seminoles in, 70–71Exodusters, 152Exxon Valdez, 224–25Fallen Timbers, battle of (1794), 48, 50Farmers’ Alliance, 142farming: absentee owners, 138, 139; agribusiness,185, 186, 224; bankruptcies,186–87; bonanza farms, 138, 139; boomand bust in, 137–38, 139, 140, 143–44,170, 186–88, 207–8; Bracero Program,219; in California, 106, 138, 145, 149,161–62, 170, 186, 219; chemical fertilizersin, 184; commodity trading, 166,186; droughts, 137, 143, 187; ecologicaldamage from, 177, 184, 187; federalsubsidies for, 224; forests cleared for,184; golden age in, 143–44; in GreatPlains, 130, 136–37, 144, 145, 148, 166;high-yield hybrid crops, 184; and immigrantsettlers, 138; industrial capitalismin, 138, 139; irrigation for, 184–86,224; and labor unions, 108, 144–46,161–62, 218–19; mechanization of, 137–38, 144, 159, 170, 184, 186, 219; migrantworkers in, 144–46, 160–62, 185, 186–87, 218–20; movement to cities from,170, 172; and New Deal, 186–88; organizations,141–42; and overseas markets,143; Populist movement, 141–43,186; prices, 140–41, 143–44, 186; socialisolation of, 148; soil fertility, 46, 74;subsistence living, 138–40, 185, 186;surpluses, 184, 186; tenant farmers,138–39, 144; urban markets for, 164;“Winter Garden” area, 144–46; women’slives in, 171; working conditionsin, 161–62Fenimore, James “Old Virginny,” 104Fergus, James and Pamelia, 104fiat money, 140filibusters, 63Filson, John, The Adventures of Col. DanielBoon, 191Fink, Mike, 58Florida: ceded to Britain, 33; ceded to U.S.by Spain, 72, 88; Creek Confederacyin, 30–31; Everglades in, 70–71; Jackson’sinvasion of, 72; land claims in,47; Seminole nation in, 70–71; Spanishmissions in, 30Ford, John, 201, 203, 212–13Foreign Miner’s Tax, 98–99Forest Management Act (1897), 181236 i n d e x

Forest Reserve Act (1891), 181Fort Duquesne, 32Fort Laramie, 88Fort Mandan, 54Fort Pitt, 32Fox people, 71Foxwoods casino, 27France: colonial wars with, 30–31; explorersfrom, 17–21; Jesuit missionaries from,20–21; and Louisiana Purchase, 52–53;New World colonies of, 18, 21, 24, 30,32, 33, 52; revolutionary, 48; tradewith, 18, 30; war between Britain and,31–33Franklin, Benjamin, 34–35Free Soil party, 89–90, 134Frémont, Jessie Benton, 76Frémont, John Charles, 76, 83–84, 89–90, 194French and Indian War, 31–33, 52Frontenac, Louis de, 20frontier: American tradition of, 223; artisticdepictions of, 194–97, 199; collision ofcultures in, 216; end of, 158, 188, 189,197–98; expansion of, 26, 29–30, 31,80–81, 88–89, 128, 130, 133–36, 197–98;federal support for, 80–81, 87; historicalconcepts of, 5, 6, 26; international,198; meanings of the term, 223; mythof, 191–93, 198–201, 202–3, 212–13;social mobility in, 97, 98; towns andcities in (see cities)Frontier Marshall (movie), 203frontier of exclusion, 23, 24frontier of inclusion, 16frontier thesis, 163, 198, 205Fuller, Margaret, 85fur trade: in Alaska, 35–36, 103; Astor in,56–57; British, 18, 47, 56; in Canada,53, 56, 57–58, 79; in China trade, 71;and extinct species, 61; French, 18, 30;Indian, 18–19; in Oregon, 73, 74; andOverland Trail, 59, 74; rendezvous of,59–60; wars fought over, 30, 33; andwomen, 105Gadsden Purchase (1853), 86, 88Galbraith, Thomas J., 153Galveston Bay, attack on, 67Garland, Hamlin, 148; Main-Traveled Roads,141, 157Gates, Bill, 207Gentleman’s Agreement, 159Geological Survey, U.S., 179George, Henry, 118, 167–68; Progress andPoverty, 197Georgia: Indian lands in, 68–70; land scam in,43–44Geronimo, Chief, 117, 203Ghost Dance movement, 154–55ghost towns, 170Giannini, Amadeo Peter, 172, 189, 206Glacier National Park, 180Glass, Hugh, 58–59Goetzmann, William, 194, 195gold: in Alaska, 95, 103–5; bonanzas, 95; inCalifornia, 94–100, 104, 108, 113, 144;and Columbus, 7–8; economic effectsof, 97, 106–7, 144, 177; European questfor, 7–8, 10, 11, 13–14, 17; on Indianlands, 69, 101–2; placer mining of, 95,96, 98; quartz mining of, 96–97; tortureby, 10; Western mining, 96, 104–8Golden Gate Bridge, 206Goldsoll, Mayer, 124Goldwater, Barry, 211Gonzáles, Henry B., 217Goodnight, Charlie, 124–25Goodnight-Loving Trail, 124–25Gould, Jay, 119Grand Canyon, Arizona, 182Grand Coulee Dam, 189Grange movement, 141, 143Grant, Ulysses S., 83, 115Gray, Robert, 71Great Depression, 174, 186–87, 202, 204Great Northern Railway, 117, 120Great Plains: adapting to environment of,136–37; buffalo herds of, 127–28; andcattle ranges, 102, 121, 123, 128, 130;commodity trading in, 166; Dust Bowlin, 187; environmental management of,188; farming in, 130, 136–37, 144, 145,148, 166; gateway cities, 166; ghosttowns, 170; as Great American Desert,63, 136; Great Migration across, 74, 75;immigrant populations, 138; Indians of,55, 71, 87–88, 102; Lewis and Clark expedition,54–55; social isolation of, 148;sod houses, 138–39; wealth gap, 158Great Salt Lake, 77, 149–51i n d e x 237

Great Train Robbery, The (movie), 201Greeley, Horace, 134Greenbackers, 141, 143Greenwood, Alfred B., 91Grey, Zane, Riders of the Purple Sage, 202Grinnell, George Bird, 178Guggenheim family, 16728, 33, 49, 55, 87, 88, 101, 102, 103, 127;as killers, 182; and wildlife extinction,61, 176–78Huntington, Collis P., 106, 113, 114, 169Huntington, Henry E., 169, 170, 173, 210Huron people, 18, 20, 21hydroelectric power, 188–89, 205, 207, 224Haida people, 2Haiti, slave revolt in, 53Handsome Lake, Iroquois warrior, 49Harmar, Josiah, 48Harrison, Benjamin, 181Harrison, William Henry, 50, 131, 133Hart, Albert Bushnell, 153Hart, William S., 201Harte, Bret, 109Hawaii: annexation of, 88; workers from,78, 145Hawkins, Augustus, 217Hayden, Ferdinand V., 196Hayes, Rutherford B., 119Haywood, Bill, 108, 144Hearst, George, 106–7Hearst, William Randolph, 106Heizer, Robert, 100Hell’s Hinges (movie), 201Hetch Hetchy valley, flooding of, 185Hewlett-Packard, 207Hickok, Wild Bill, 193Hill, James J., 117Hispaniola, 11, 12Hoar, George, 114Hochelaga (in Canada), 17–18Holladay, Ben, 110–11Homestead Act (1862), 42, 90, 111, 133–36, 139Hoover, Herbert, 174, 189Hoover Dam, 189Hopi people, 15Hopkins, Mark, 113, 117Houston, Sam, 29, 67, 68Houston, Texas, 167, 208, 220Hudson’s Bay Company, 18, 56, 59, 79Huerta, Dolores, 219Hughes, Howard, 206Hughes Aircraft Corporation, 206Hunt, Francis, 165Hunt, Wilson Price, 57hunters: federal regulation of, 178; andhabitat destruction, 177; Indian, 18,Ickes, Harold, 188Idaho: gold in, 95; labor unions in, 107–8;statehood of, 197Ikard, Bose, 126Illinois: grain trade in, 165; migration across,147; in Northwest Territory, 45;and transcontinental railroad, 89, 165;urban development in, 165–66; womenmoving to cities, 170–71Illinois Central Railroad, 112Immigration Act (1917), 145Ince, Thomas, 201India, as British colony, 33, 36Indiana: Indian lands ceded in, 48; inNorthwest Territory, 45Indian Claims Commission, 214Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988), 216Indian Intercourse Act (1790), 47–48Indian Removal Act (1830), 69–71, 70, 87Indian Reorganization Act (1934), 190Indians: activism of, 213–16; alcohol abuseamong, 31, 39, 49, 103, 214; “allotmentin severalty” program, 153–54; andAmerican Revolution, 39–40; artisticdepictions of, 194–95; as cannibals,11; as cattle wranglers, 125; changingattitudes toward, 213–14; as colonialsubjects, 36, 47, 48–51; communities,152–56; in concentration camps, 69–70;confederations of, 18, 30, 31, 39, 40,47, 48, 49, 50; conquistadors vs., 8–14;crops grown by, 2, 7, 29; and culturalpluralism, 190; cultures of, 3, 4–5, 7, 8,14–15, 17–18, 19, 20, 73; desperation of,90–93; diseases brought to, 10, 12, 15,16, 18, 20–21, 24, 25, 33, 37, 39, 73, 100,103; disempowerment of, 87; economicdependency of, 39; as entertainers,200, 202, 203; as European allies, 18,30–31, 33–34, 39–40; European condescensiontoward, 2, 7–8, 11, 40; expansioninto territory of, 26, 29, 34, 40,238 i n d e x

47–48, 87–88, 117; Five CivilizedTribes, 68; French and Indian War, 31–33; gaming parlors of, 216; genocide of,11–12, 25, 50, 83, 91, 100; Ghost Dancemovement, 154–55; gift-giving protocolof, 33; and gold rush, 69, 99–100, 101–2,106; government policies toward, 47–48, 87–88, 90–93, 100, 101, 103, 128, 135,153–54, 189–90; guns supplied to, 47,90; horse trading, 78; hunters, 18, 28,33, 49, 55, 87, 88, 92, 101, 102, 103, 127;independent nations of, 68–69; kidnappedand sold, 100; land set asidefor, 34, 40, 47, 77–78, 87–88, 91, 117,128, 152–54, 214, 215, 216; land titleextinguished, 68–71, 154, 154, 190; languagesof, 31; lifestyles of, 2–4, 7; atLittle Bighorn, 48, 100–102; as manuallaborers, 37, 78, 99–100, 103; matriarchiesof, 14, 15, 17, 19; movement of,48, 214; of Pacific region, 57; pen-andinkfrauds against, 31; populations of,12, 15, 24, 49, 100; poverty of, 190, 214;progressives vs. traditionalists among,49–50; and railroads, 117; religions of,5, 16, 48–50, 154–55; religious conversionresisted by, 15, 36; removals of,27, 69–71, 70, 87–88, 91–93, 152–56, 175,189–90, 214; reparations to, 213–14;resources on lands of, 69, 101–2, 216;revitalization movements of, 48–51;rights to the land, 5, 15, 16, 25, 26, 34,40, 47, 87; Sand Creek Massacre, 92–93, 100, 101; schools for, 153, 190, 216;settlers helped by, 22–23, 25; sovereigntyof, 190, 205, 214, 216; taken intoslavery, 14, 26, 30, 78, 100; trade with,17, 18–19, 24, 25, 31, 55; Trail of Tears,70, 152; treaties with, 24, 69, 87–88, 91,101, 153; tribal locations, 4; uprisingsof, 15, 23–24, 26, 33, 37–38, 93, 154–56,214, 216; use of term, 2; and War of1812, 50; wars with, 26–27, 30, 44;water diverted from lands of, 175, 185;women’s roles, 60. See also specifictribesIndian Self-Determination Act (1975), 214Indian Territory (Oklahoma), 152, 197Industrial Workers of the World (IWW;Wobblies), 108, 144, 145Intel Corporation, 207Interior Department, U.S., 87–88, 185Interstate Commerce Act (1887), 141Iowa: farmlands in, 136; population growth in,75; women moving to cities in, 170–71Iron Horse, The (movie), 201Iroquois people: as British ally, 39; Confederacy,18, 30, 31; declining populations of,48–49; Five Nations of, 18; land of, 34,40, 43, 47, 49; longhouses of, 17, 49; SixNations of, 39, 40, 49; spirituality of, 49Irvine, James, 106Jackson, Andrew, 29, 69, 71, 72Jackson, William Henry, 179, 196James, Jesse and Frank, 118–19, 193, 203James I, king of England, 22, 23Jamestown, Virginia, 22–24Japan: attack on Pearl Harbor by, 205;Gentleman’s Agreement with, 159Japanese immigrants: American-born Isseiand Nisei citizens, 159, 174; farmworkers, 145, 159; picture brides,159–60; prejudice against, 158–62, 173,174–75; removed to detention camps,174–75Jefferson, Thomas: on democratic colonialpolicy, 44; on land distribution, 42, 43,133; Lewis and Clark expedition, 53,55, 62; and Louisiana Purchase, 52; onslavery, 80Jesse James (movie), 203Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California, 207Jobs, Steve, 207Johnson, Lyndon B., 211, 212, 214, 217Johnson County War, 131Joliet, Louis, 20Jordan, Barbara, 217Jordan, Terry, 128Joseph, Chief, 152Juárez, Benito, 161Judah, Theodore, 113Julian, George Washington, 136Juneau, Joe, 103Justin, Joe, 125Kaiser, Henry J., 189, 205–6; Kaiser-Permanente Health Plan, 205Kansas: African American community in,151–52; cattle ranching in, 102, 122–23,i n d e x 239

Kansas (continued)123, 124, 125, 130, 132; explorationof, 63; farm families migrating from,186–87; farmlands in, 136, 137, 140;ghost towns, 170; segregation in, 218;and slavery question, 89, 165Kansas Pacific Railway, 122, 166Karatofsky, Jacob, 124Kearney, Dennis, 119Kearny, Stephen Watts, 83, 84Kelley, Hall Jackson, 72Kennedy, John F., 214Kentucky: land surveys in, 42; populationgrowth in, 47; religious revivals in,149; settlers in, 46, 62; statehood of, 47;tall tales of, 74, 191; towns and citiesin, 163Kern, Edward and Richard, 194King, Richard, 129King George’s War (1740s), 31King Philip’s War (1675), 26–27King Ranch, 129King William’s War (1689), 30Kiowa people, 88Kitano, Harry, 174Knights of Labor, 119, 129, 141Knox, Henry, 47Kroeber, Alfred L., 38Ku Klux Klan, 173Kwakiutl people, 2labor unions: ethnic violence in, 119–20; migrantworkers in, 108, 144–46, 161–62,218–19; in mining industry, 107–8; formutual aid, 107; in railroads, 119–20;and ranches, 129; and sabotage, 145;for wages, 107, 120, 219Lakota people, 53land: and conservation movement, 181–83,188; conversion to private ownership,42; for farms (see farming); federal,187, 188; federal revenues from, 42,43; fertility of soil, 46, 74; fraudulentclaims to, 135; free, end of, 188, 197–98;grants of, 32, 40–44, 63–64, 111–12, 116,134, 136, 138, 166; Homestead Act, 42,90, 111, 133–36, 139; Indian rights to, 5,15, 16, 25, 26, 34, 40, 47; legal deeds to,25; Northwest Ordinance, 44–45, 45,47, 89; preemptive claims to, 133, 135;proving up claims to, 135–36; in publicdomain, 41, 47, 74, 90, 98, 133–36, 188;purchased from Indians, 29; for railroads,111–12, 116–17, 118, 135, 166;rising price of, 144; sales of, 134–36;settlers’ claims to, 25, 32, 41, 42, 43, 47–48, 62, 111, 133–34, 144, 197–98; speculators,31–32, 43–44, 74, 133, 135, 139;squatters’ rights to, 133–35, 197; surveysof, 42, 43, 44, 56, 62, 76, 87, 135,194, 196; taken from Indians, 26, 30, 31,47–48, 68–71, 91–93, 154; water rights,106; wealthy owners of, 134, 158land-grant colleges, 135land monopoly, 134, 135Land Ordinance: 1784, 188; 1785, 42, 43, 133Lange, Dorothea, 202La Salle, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de, 20Las Casas, Bartolomé de, Destruction of theIndies, 11Las Gorras Blancas, 130Latinos: Chicanos, 219; cultural renaissanceof, 219; elected to public office, 217,221; immigration of, 220; and laborunions, 107, 108; migrant workers, 145;miners, 98; oppressed caste of, 106,160, 221. See also Mexican Americans;MexicoLawrence, Kansas, proslavery mob in, 89League of United Latin American Citizens(LULAC), 217Lease, Mary Elizabeth, 142Lee, Rev. Jason, 73, 74Lee, Robert E., 87Leutze, Emanuel Gottlieb: Washington Crossingthe Delaware, 196; Westward theCourse of Empire Takes Its Way, 196Levittown, New York, 210Lewis, Meriwether, 53, 55Lewis, Sinclair, Main Street, 156–57Lewis and Clark expedition, 53–56, 54, 62,71, 72Lincoln, Abraham, 80, 90, 111Lindsay, Vachel, 158Lisa, Manuel, 58Little Bighorn (1876), 48, 100–102Little Turtle, Miami chief, 48Lockheed, Allan, 206Log Cabin Bill (1841), 133, 135log cabins, 28240 i n d e x

logging industry, 177, 180–83, 207, 223–24Lonesome Dove (TV), 213Long, Stephen H., 63, 136Longoria, Felix, 217Los Alamos, New Mexico, atomic laboratory,206–7Los Angeles: automobile culture in, 169;development of, 168–70, 173, 208–10;Great Depression in, 174; home constructionin, 206, 210; immigrants in,172–75, 220–21; and Mexican War, 84;migrant workers in, 186; populationgrowth, 173, 208; racism in, 173–75,221; settlement of, 37; as trade center,181; water diverted for use in, 168–69,185, 224; Watts Riot, 218, 221Louisiana: borders of, 72; cattle raising in,122; Indians in, 30; naming of, 20;slaves in, 65; territory of, 52–53, 55Louisiana Purchase, 52–53, 54, 57, 62–63, 80,88, 89Love, Nat, 126Loving, Oliver, 124–25mail delivery, 110–11Malíntzin (La Malínche), 9Mandan people, 53–54, 88Manifest Destiny, 2, 26, 80Man Who Shot Liberty Valance, The(movie), 212Manzanar War Relocation Center, 175Marquette, Jacques, 20Marsh, George Perkins, Man and Nature,181Marshall, James, 94Marshall, John, 69Marshall, Robert, 223masculinity, cult of, 199, 202Mason, John, 26Massachusetts, settlement of, 72Massasoit, Wampanoag chief, 25Masters, Edgar Lee, Spoon River Anthology,157Maverick Law (1884), 131McCone, John, 206McCormick Reaper, 137McGovern, George, 211McKinley, William, 142, 181McLoughlin, John, 56, 79McMurtry, Larry, Lonesome Dove, 213McWilliams, Carey, 159, 162, 169Means, Russell, 214, 216Melville, Herman, 90Metacomet, Wampanoag chief, 26, 27Mexican Americans: challenge to social orderby, 216–21; Chicanos, 219; culturalrenaissance, 219–20; and labor unions,162, 218–19; pachucos, 174; El Plande San Diego, 160; populations, 220;prejudice against, 86–87, 106, 158, 160,217–18; voters, 217Mexican immigrants: and Border Patrol, 219,220; and Bracero Program, 219; andcitizenship, 161; legislation about, 220;migrant workers, 145–46, 160–62, 218–20; miners, 95, 98–99, 107; prejudiceagainst, 98, 174; sin fronteras, 161,220; in southern California, 173–74;undocumented workers, 220Mexico: boundary with, 81–82, 85–86, 88,220; Catholic missions in, 14–16; cattleranching in, 63, 122; independence of,77–78; mass migrations from, 160–62;missions secularized in, 77–78; population,12; rebellion against Spain, 63;revolution (1911), 160, 161, 162; slaveryabolished in, 64, 65–66; and Southwestterritory, 64–68, 81–83, 82, 84–86;Spanish conquest of, 8–14; Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgo, 85, 86, 98, 99; andU.S. slavery question, 88–89; war with,81–86, 82, 88–89, 219Mexico City, 10, 84Miami people, 48Michener, James A., 204Microsoft Corporation, 207Míkmaq people, 2, 17Miller, Alfred Jacob, 195Miller, Joaquin, 76mining, 96; boom and bust in, 207–8; commercialeffects of, 106–7; copper, 107;corporate investment in, 107, 118, 167;gold (see gold); and habitat destruction,177; hazards of, 107; and Indians,99–100, 103; labor unions, 107–8; andlaws, 105–6; mercury, 177; and mobility,104, 105, 108; and railroads, 118;silver, 97; women’s roles in, 104–5Minnesota: cities in, 167; farmlands in, 136,137; immigrant communities in, 156;i n d e x 241

Minnesota (continued)in Northwest Territory, 45; womenmoving to cities in, 170–71Minnetaree people, 53–54Mississippi: slaves in, 65; towns and citiesin, 163–64Mississippi River: bridges across, 165;exploration of, 20; navigation of, 48,52; settlements along, 30; steamboatson, 164Missouri: statehood of, 80; tall tales of, 74;territory of, 66Missouri Compromise, 80, 89Missouri Fur Company, 58Missouri River, 55, 58, 59, 224Mix, Tom, 201Moctezuma II, Aztec ruler, 8–10Mohawk people, 18money supply, 140–41Monroe Doctrine, 72Montana: cattle in, 128, 130; hunting groundsin, 100; mining in, 95, 107, 108, 110; andrailroads, 110; statehood of, 197Montcalm, Marquis de, 32–33Montreal, settlement of, 19Moran, Thomas, 179, 196–97; Smelting Worksat Denver, 197Morgan, Neil, 204, 205Mormons: communities of, 149–51; migrationof, 77; and urban development, 166–67Mount Rainier National Park, 180Muir, John, 180, 182, 185Mulrooney, Belinda, 105Munn v. Illinois, 141Murrieta, Joaquín, 86Muskogee language, 31Myer, Dillon S., 175mythology, 191–93, 198–201, 202–3, 212–13Narragansett people, 25, 26, 27National Council of American Indians(NCAI), 213–14National Forest Service, 182, 183, 223–24National Grange of the Patrons ofHusbandry, 141national parks, 178–80, 182, 183, 197, 223National Park Service, 183–84, 223Native Americans. See Indiansnativism, 86, 119, 175, 220Naturalization Act (1790), 158Navajo people, 5, 91–92, 203Nebraska: exploration of, 63; farmlands in,136, 137; and slavery question, 89Neolin (Delaware Prophet), 33, 154Nevada: border of, 72; mining in, 95, 97, 104,106, 107, 167; statehood of, 45; territoryof, 85; water and electricity to,189New Deal, 143, 186–90, 204, 205, 224New England: King Philip’s War, 26–27; landgrants in, 40, 41, 42; liquor manufacturedin, 31; settlement of, 24–27, 34New France, 19–20, 33New Mexico: atomic labs in, 206–7; ElephantButte Dam in, 184–85; Indians removedto, 91; Latino renaissance in,219, 221; missions in, 14, 16; Pueblopeople in, 14, 15–16; ranching in, 129;religious strife in, 15; settlement of,66; and slavery question, 89; statehoodof, 197; territory of, 82, 85, 86, 89New Orleans, 20, 30, 33, 48, 52, 53New Spain, 12, 13, 14, 16, 19, 36, 37, 57New Sweden, 28–29New York Morning News, 80, 85Nez Percé people, 152, 175Nicodemus, Kansas, 152Nixon, Richard M., 211, 219Noonan, Peggy, 211Nootka Convention (1790), 57, 71Northern New Mexico Small Cattlemen andCowboys’ Union, 129Northern Pacific Railway, 116, 117, 179, 180Northern Wyoming Farmers and StockgrowersAssociation, 131Northrop, John, 206North West Company (Nor’Westers), 56, 57Northwest Ordinance (1787), 44–45, 47, 89Northwest Territory, 45, 45, 47, 48, 56Nueces Strip, 81–82Oakley, Annie, 200Oglalas. See Sioux peopleOhio: Indian lands in, 40, 48; in NorthwestTerritory, 45; towns and cities in, 163,164Ohio Company, 32Ohio Company of Associates, 43–44Ohio Country, 31–32, 48Ohio Indians, 33, 40, 43, 47, 48242 i n d e x

Ohio River, 32, 164Ohio River valley, land in, 34, 44, 47oil industry, 167, 173, 177–78, 224–25Oklahoma: exploration of, 63; farm familiesmigrating from, 186–87; oil in, 173;settlement of, 152, 197; statehood of,197; steel industry in, 205Old Time Trail Drivers’ Association, 125Olmsted, Frederick Law, 164, 178Oñate, Juan de, 14, 122Oneida people, 18Onís, Luis de, 72Onondaga people, 18Oregon: acquisition of, 88; exploration of,55, 58, 71; fur trade in, 73, 74; GreatMigration to, 73–79, 75, 147; loggingindustry in, 181; settlement of, 71–74,79; statehood of, 81, 87Oregon Trail, 74–75, 76Osceola, Seminole chief, 70O’Sullivan, John L., 80, 85Overland Mail, 110Overland Trails: cattle on, 127; fur trade on,59, 74; Great Migration on, 74–77, 75,87, 147; Mormons on, 77; and railroads,111, 116; and women, 74–75Owens River, diversion of, 169, 185Ox Bow Route, 110Pacific Electric, 169Pacific Northwest: Canadian boundary,71–72, 79, 81; clear-cutting forests in,223–24; fur trade in (see fur trade);Great Migration to, 73–79, 75; settlementof, 71–73, 75–76Pacific Ocean: and fur trade, 57–58; Lewisand Clark expedition to, 55; transcontinentalU.S. reaching, 87, 88Pacific Railroad Bill (1862), 90, 111–12Pacific Railroad Survey Act (1853), 111Paiute people, 175Panic of 1837, 74Panic of 1873, 97, 116, 197Patuxet, 24–25Paxton Boys, 34–35, 106Pearl Harbor, attack on, 205“pen-and-ink” frauds, 31Penn, William, 29, 31Pennsylvania: Indian lands seized by, 31;Paxton raid in, 34–35; settlement of, 29Pequot people, 25, 26, 27Pequot War, 25Perot, Ross, 211Petrified Forest, Arizona, 182petroleum industry, 167, 173, 177–78, 206,207Phelan, James, 159–60Philippines: migrant workers from, 145;as U.S. colony, 198Pike, Zebulon, 62–63Pilgrims, 24–26Pillsbury Corporation, 167Pinchot, Gifford, 181–83, 184Pitt, William, 32Pittsburgh, Fort Pitt renamed as, 32Plymouth Colony, 24–25, 26Pocahontas, 23, 193Polk, James K., 79, 80–85, 95polygamy, 150–51Pontiac’s Rebellion (1763), 33, 154Pony Express, 110, 200Poor, Henry Varnum, 116Popé of San Juan pueblo, 15Populist (People’s) Party, 141–43, 186Porter, Edwin S., 201Portolá, Gaspar de, 36Powhatan, Algonquian chief, 22–23Prentiss, Narcissa, 73Prince William Sound, oil spill in, 225Proclamation Line, 34Progressive Party, 143Promontory, Utah, Golden Spike driven at,109, 115Pueblo people, 14, 15–16Pueblo Revolt, 15Pullman Sleeping Car Company, strike, 120Puritans, 24–26Quaker colony, 29, 34, 49Québec: French and Indian War in, 32–33;settlement of, 18, 19Queen Anne’s War (1702–13), 30racism: against blacks (see African Americans);against Chinese, 99, 106, 107,119, 145, 158–62, 172; against Indians(see Indians); against Japanese, 158–62, 173, 174–75; against Mexicans, 86–87, 98, 106, 158, 160, 173–74, 217–18;as nativism, 86, 119, 175, 220i n d e x 243

ailroads, 116; and cattle industry, 121, 122–23, 124; and earlier transportationmethods, 110–11; and extinction of thebuffalo, 127–28; financing of, 97, 102,111–12, 158, 165, 166; fortunes madefrom, 111, 112–14, 119, 140; freightrates, 140; impact of, 109, 118; and Indianlands, 117; Interstate CommerceAct, 141; labor unrest in, 119–20; landfor, 111–12, 116–17, 118, 135, 166; legislationfor, 111–12; and logging industry,181; and mining, 118; monopolies of,119; “Octopus” network of, 118; regulationof, 141; surveys for, 194; and tourism,179, 180; train robberies, 118–19,120; transcontinental, 75, 87, 89, 90,109–10, 111–20; and urban development,166; workers on, 114–15, 119Raleigh, Sir Walter, 21–22rancheros, 78, 122, 160Rayburn, Sam, 189Raza Unida Party, 219Reagan, Ronald, 211, 212, 219Reclamation Act (1902), 184–85Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC),189Red Cloud, Sioux chief, 100–101, 117Red Jacket, Seneca leader, 49Regulator movement, 35, 106religion: Bible teachings, 5; camp meetings,149; Catholic missions, 11, 14–16, 20–21, 30, 36–38, 74; circuit riders, 149;in communities, 148–51, 156; in Europeanvs. Indian cultures, 5; Indianresistance to conversion, 15, 36; Indianspirituality, 5, 16, 48–50, 154–55; intoleranceof, 86, 158; Mormons, 77, 149,166–67; Puritan settlers, 24–26; revivals,149; rites in, 11Remington, Frederic, 198, 199, 202Reno, Marcus, 101Republican Party, 89–90, 111, 134, 150–51Rhode Island, settlement of, 26Ridge, Major, 50, 69Rio Grande, 85, 224RKO Pictures, 206Roanoke colony, 22Robbins, William, 118, 183Rockefeller family, 167Rock Springs, Wyoming, mob violence, 119Rocky Mountain Arsenal, Denver, 207Rolfe, John, 23Rölvaag, Ole, Giants in the Earth, 156romanticism, 178Roosevelt, Franklin D., 174, 186–88, 189Roosevelt, Theodore: Boone and CrockettClub, 178, 182, 199; and conservationmovement, 182, 183, 184, 187, 199;and frontier myth, 198–99, 202, 211;Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan,159; and Owens River project, 185;Ranch Life and the Hunting Trail,199; as Rough Rider, 199Ross, Chief John, 50, 69, 70Rough Riders, 199Royal Proclamation (1763), 34, 40Roybal, Edward, 217Rural Electrification Act, 189Russell, Majors, and Waddell, 110Russian America (Alaska), 35–36, 71, 72, 79,102–5Russian-American Company, 57, 103Sacajawea, 54, 55Sacramento River, 189St. Clair, Arthur, 48Saint Lawrence River: exploration of, 17, 20;French and Indian War along, 32–33;settlements along, 30Saint Louis, 30, 58, 164–65, 167Salt Lake City, 77, 107, 151, 166–67, 171Sand Creek Massacre, 92–93, 100, 101San Diego, native uprising in, 37Sandoz, Mari, Old Jules, 171San Fernando Valley, 169San Francisco: Bank of America in, 172;Chinatown, 172; development of,167–68; earthquake (1906), 172; establishmentof, 37; and gold rush, 97; immigrantsin, 171–72, 220; population,171, 208; “Silver Kings” in, 104; astrade center, 106, 168, 181; watersupply for, 185San Francisco Bay, pollution of, 177San Francisco Bay Bridge, 189San Joaquin River, 189Santa Anna, Antonio López de, 67–68, 81, 83Santa Fe, 14, 15Santa Fe Railway, 116–17, 122–23, 168Santa Fe Trail, 66, 110244 i n d e x

Sauk people, 71, 152Saunders, George, 125Scandinavian settlers, 28Scotch-Irish settlers, 29Scott, Winfield, 69, 84, 85Searchers, The (movie), 212Security First National Bank, 206Seguín, Juan, 68Seminole nation, 31, 68, 70–71, 82, 152, 216Seneca people, 18, 49Sequoia National Park, 179Sequoyah (Cherokee), 51Serra, Junípero, 37Sgt. Rutledge (movie), 212Shannon, Fred, 136Shawnee people, 33, 49–50, 175sheepherders, 129–30; sheep grazing, 182Shenandoah River valley, 29–30Sheridan, Philip H., 93, 127Sherman, William Tecumseh, 127Shifflett, James, 218Shirley, Dame, 98Shoshone people, 55, 175Sierra Club, 180, 223Silicon Valley, 207silverites, 141, 142silver mining, 97Simpson, Jeremiah “Sockless Jerry,” 142Sinclair, Upton, The Jungle, 124Singleton, Benjamin, 151–52Sioux people: and Buffalo Bill Cody, 200; onbuffalo killings, 128; and Ghost Dancemovement, 155; land ceded by, 88, 91;Lewis and Clark expedition, 53, 55; atLittle Bighorn, 100–102; railroads encroachingon lands of, 117; and SandCreek, 93; at Wounded Knee, 214, 216Sitting Bull, Sioux leader, 100–102, 155, 200Skookum Jim, 103Slaughter, Cora, 126slavery: abolitionists vs., 85, 89; and cattleindustry, 122; and “contract labor,” 66;and “free soil,” 89–90, 134; on Hispaniola,12; Indians taken into, 14, 26,30, 78, 100; in Mexican territory, 64,85; and Missouri Compromise, 80;outlawed in Northwest Territory, 45;popular sovereignty, 89; and statehood,80, 89, 165; in Texas, 65–66, 68, 74, 80;and wars, 30, 88–89Slidell, John, 81–82Sloat, John, 83–84Slotkin, Richard, 191–92Smith, Jedediah Strong, 59, 60Smith, John, 23Smith, Joseph, 77, 150Soil Conservation Service, 188South: as colonial economy, 188; cotton productionin, 68; Democratic Party in,143; industrialization of, 188; landgrants in, 41–42; land reform in, 151–52; rural electrification of, 188, 189;secession of, 90, 111, 134; slaves in, 65;as Sunbelt, 209–10South Carolina, Regulators in, 35Southern Pacific Railroad, 116–17, 118, 168,169, 179, 180Southwest: and Indian removal, 91–93; landclaims in, 68, 84–86, 87; and MexicanWar, 81–83, 82, 84–86; populationgrowth in, 220–21; rail connections to,66; settlement of, 64–68; and slaveryquestion, 89; as Sunbelt, 209–10;wealth gap in, 221Spain: boundary disputes with, 47, 48; colonialauthority of, 15–16, 21, 33; colonialwars with, 30–31, 63; conquistadorsfrom, 8–14, 13, 122; Florida ceded by,72, 88; Franciscan missionaries from,11, 14–16, 30, 36–38; immigration toNew World from, 12; and LouisianaPurchase, 52–53; U.S. war with, 143,145, 198, 199; war between Britainand, 22Spalding, Henry and Eliza, 73Spanish-American War (1898), 143, 145, 198,199Spindleton oil gusher, 167, 177Spotted Eagle, Sioux chief, 117Squanto, 25Stagecoach (movie), 203stagecoach lines, 110–11Stanford, Leland, 113, 115Stanford University, 207Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 151Stegner, Wallace, 126, 147, 223Steinbeck, John, The Grapes of Wrath, 186,202Stetson, John B., 125Stevenson, Robert Louis, 120i n d e x 245

Stewart, Elinore Pruitt, Letters of a WomanHomesteader, 139Stewart, Richard, 175Stewart, William Drummond, 195Stockton, Robert, 84Strauss, Levi, 96, 124, 210Sugar Creek, Illinois, 147Sumner, Charles, 83, 102Sunbelt, 109–10Supreme Court, U.S.: on desegregation, 218;on farm issues, 141; on immigrants,158, 175; on Indian affairs, 69, 153, 185;on voting rights, 217Sutter, John A., 78, 94, 95Swan Land and Cattle Company, 128Swift, Gustavus, 124Taft, William Howard, 183Taíno people, 7, 11–12Talleyrand-Périgord, Charles-Maurice de, 53Tape, Mary and Joseph, 172Taylor, Buck, 200Taylor, Zachary, 82, 83Taylor Grazing Act (1934), 188Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, 50, 82, 155Tejanos, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 82, 86–87, 160telegraph, 110Tennessee: settlement of, 34; slaves in, 65;towns and cities in, 163Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), 189Tenochtitlán, 8–9, 10Tenskwatawa (Shawnee Prophet), 49–50, 155Texas: African Americans in, 64–66; aircraftindustry in, 205; Alamo, 67–68; annexationof, 66, 81, 85, 88; bandits in, 86–87;borders of, 72, 85–86, 219, 220; cattleranching in, 63, 102, 121, 122, 123, 124,128, 129; farm families migrating from,186–87; farming in, 137, 144, 145, 160;Franciscan missions in, 36; immigrantpopulations in, 138, 221; independentrepublic of, 67–68; land grants in, 63;and Mexican revolution, 67–68; Mexicanterritory of, 62, 63–64, 64, 66, 81;petrochemicals in, 167, 173, 177–78,206; politicians from, 211–12; populationgrowth in, 208; Raza Unida Partyin, 219; rural electrification in, 189;segregation in, 217; settlement of,63–64; slavery in, 65–66, 68, 74, 80;statehood of, 45, 68, 80, 81, 87; steelindustry in, 205; in Sunbelt area, 209;tall tales of, 74; voting rights in, 217Texas longhorns, 122, 128, 132Texas Rangers, 86–87, 129, 160, 184Texians, 64, 66–67, 68Thayendanegea (Brant), 39Thoreau, Henry David, 85Thorn, Jonathan, 57Tijerina, Reies, 219Timber Cutting Act (1878), 181Timucua people, 2Tlaxcalan people, 9–10, 13, 14Tlingit people, 2, 103tobacco, 23–24Tonquin, 57, 58Torres, Art, 221tourism, 179, 180, 206Toussaint, François Dominique(L’Ouverture), 53Townes, Samuel, 65Trail of Tears, 70, 152Transcendentalists, 85, 180Trans World Airlines (TWA), 206Traven, B., Treasure of the Sierra Madre,104Travis, William Barret, 66, 67Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), 85, 86,98, 99Treaty of Paris (1763), 33, 47Trist, Nicholas, 85Truman, Harry S, 211, 224Tumbleweeds (movie), 201Turner, Frederick Jackson, 5, 163, 197, 198Tuscorora people, 39Twain, Mark, 111, 196Two Moons, Cheyenne chief, 102Tyler, John, 81Unforgiven (movie), 213Union Pacific (movie), 203Union Pacific Railroad, 111, 112, 113, 114–15,117, 119, 166United Farm Workers (UFW), 219United States: ethnic diversity in, 222; immigrantcommunities in, 156, 157, 158–62;imperialism of, 198; independence of,40; internal migration in, 147; populationof, 62; post-World War II, 204;right of conquest, 40, 47; as transconti-246 i n d e x

nental nation, 87, 88; urban vs. ruralcommunities, 157–58, 163; wealth gapin, 65, 158, 221Utah: border of, 72; mining in, 107; Mormonsin, 77, 149–51, 166–67; Mountain Meadowsattack in, 151; polygamy in, 150–51; and slavery question, 89; statehoodof, 151, 197; steel industry in, 205; territoryof, 85, 89; urban development in,166–67, 208Vallejo, Mariano, 83Vallejo, Salvador, 78Vancouver Island, 79Van Dyke, Theodore, Millionaires of a Day,168vaqueros, 78, 122, 125, 126Vermont, settlement of, 34Verrazano, Giovanni da, 17Victoria, British Columbia, 79Villa, Francisco “Pancho,” 161Villaraigosa, Antonio, 221Virginia, settlement of, 22, 24Virginia Company, 22–24Vogt, William, 178Voltaire, Candide, 33Walker, Robert J., 85Wallace, Henry, 211Wampanoag people, 25, 26War of 1812, 50, 57, 71War Relocation Authority, 175Washington, George, 32, 44, 47, 48, 196Washington state: aerospace industry in, 205–7; farming in, 145; logging industry in,181; Olympic peninsula, 182; statehoodof, 197; urban development in, 208Watson, Ella “Cattle Kate,” 131Watts Riot, 218, 221Wayne, Anthony, 48Wayne, John, 203Weaver, James B., 142Webb, Walter Prescott, 136, 160Weber, Adna, 163Wells Fargo, 111, 207West: artistic depictions of, 194–97, 199;backcountry pioneers in, 34; cattleranching in, 63, 78, 102, 106, 127; citiesin, 163, 209; corporations in, 172, 189,207; cultural influence of, 204–5, 210;distribution of land in, 40–44, 41, 90(see also land); eastern financing in,35, 42, 43, 48, 106–7, 118, 140–41, 158,167, 179, 188; farming in, 136–37, 144–46, 148, 160–62; federal governmentinvolvement in, 76, 87, 188–89; federallands in, 187, 188; gold rush in, 94–100;guns in, 125; historical meanings of,5–6; industrialization of, 173, 188, 189,205–7, 216; labor system in, 144; Lewisand Clark expedition to, 53–56, 54, 62,71, 72; mining in, 96, 97, 100, 104–8,118, 177; mountain men of, 46, 58–61,76; nabobs vs. nobodies in, 65; politiciansfrom, 211; population growth in,47, 62, 75, 208–9; racial prejudice in(see racism); and railroads (see railroads);religion in, 148–51; restlessnessin, 104, 105, 108, 147; settlers vs.Indians for control of, 39–40, 62, 102;trans-Appalachian, 163–65; trans-Mississippi, 87, 90, 197; vigilantes in,34–35, 45, 89, 106, 119, 129–30, 131;water diverted for, 168–69, 184–86,224. See also specific statesWestern Federation of Miners (WFM), 107–8Westerns: artworks, 194–97, 199; dime novels,193–94, 200; and frontier myths, 191–93, 212–13; historic reenactments, 200–201; movies, 201–3, 211–13; politicalside of, 212–13; pulp fiction, 202; revisionist,213; on television, 212; “wildwest shows,” 200–201Western Trail, 124Western Union (movie), 203West Virginia, settlement of, 34Weyerhaeuser Company, 183Wheeler, Edward L., Deadwood Dick onDeck, 194White, John, 22White Bull, Sioux warrior, 102Whitman, Marcus, 73, 74Wilbur, Charles Dana, 136–37Wilde, Oscar, 116wilderness: preservation of, 178–80, 182, 223;public’s notion of, 180, 182Wilderness Act (1964), 223Wilderness Society, 223wildlife: extinction of, 61, 127–28, 176–78, 181;and habitat destruction, 177–78, 181;i n d e x 247

wildlife (continued)myth of abundance, 178; in nationalparks, 180; refuges created, 178, 182Willamette River, 74Williams, Roger, 26Williams, William Appleman, 143Wilmot Proviso, 89Wilson, Luzena, 104–5Wilson, Woodrow, 108, 145, 185, 198Winthrop, John, 7, 25Wisconsin: communities in, 157–58; graintrade, 165; in Northwest Territory,45Wister, Owen, 198, 202; The Virginian, 199,202Wobblies (IWW), 108, 144, 145Wolfe, James, 32–33women: in cattle ranches, 126–27; in dimenovels, 193–94; fertility of, 26, 29; infur trade society, 195; in Great Migration,74–75; homesteaders, 139, 140,142; Indian matriarchies, 14, 15, 17,19; lawyer, 142; male violence toward,171; in mining camps, 104–5; movingto cities, 170–71; as park rangers, 183–84; and patriarchy, 171; picture brides,159–60; prostitutes, 19, 105; rurallives of, 148, 171; social isolation of,148; voting rights for, 151Wooden Leg, Cheyenne warrior, 101Workingman’s Party, 119World’s Columbian Exhibition, Chicago, 197World War I: Americanization in, 156; cattleindustry, 132; labor unions, 108World War II: cultural transition in, 216–17;federal spending in, 205, 207; Indiansin armed services during, 213; JapaneseAmericans interned in, 174–75;Liberty Ships in, 205; Pearl Harborattack in, 205; postwar populationboom, 208–9; postwar U.S. economy,204–5; technical productivity in, 189,205–7; veterans returning from, 217Worster, Donald, 177Wounded Knee massacre, 155–56, 214, 216Wovoka (shaman), 155Wozniak, Steve, 207Wyeth, Nathaniel, 72Wyoming: cattle ranches in, 131; JohnsonCounty War in, 131; railroads in, 166;statehood of, 197Wyoming Stock Growers’ Association, 131Yellowstone country, gold in, 100Yellowstone National Park, 179, 180, 197Yellowstone River, 58, 179York (slave), 53Yosemite National Park, 178–79, 180, 182, 185Young, Brigham, 77, 150, 151Yukon River, gold discovered at, 103Zapata, Emiliano, 161Zoot Suit Riots, 174Zuni people, 15248 i n d e x