Science Framework, part 1 - Free Downloads (CA Dept of Education)

Science Frameworkfor CaliforniaPublic SchoolsKindergarten ThroughGrade TwelveWith New Criteria forInstructional MaterialsAdopted by the California State Board of EducationPublished by the California Department of EducationSacramento, 2004

ScienceFrameworkfor CaliforniaPublicSchoolsKindergartenThroughGrade TwelveWith New Criteriafor InstructionalMaterialsDeveloped by theCurriculum Development and SupplementalMaterials CommissionAdopted by theCalifornia State Board of EducationPublished by theCalifornia Department of Education

DEPARTMENTOFEDUCATIONSTATEOFCALIFORNIAPublishing InformationOn March 10, 2004, the California State Board of Education approved themodified Criteria for Evaluating Instructional Materials in Science,Kindergarten Through Grade Eight, The following persons were serving onthe State Board at that time: Reed Hastings, President; Joe Nuñez, VicePresident; Ruth Bloom; Don Fisher; Ruth E. Green; Glee Johnson; JeannineMartineau; Bonnie Reiss; Suzanne Tacheny; Johnathan Williams. The newcriteria are included in this edition of the framework.When the Science Framework for California Public Schools: KindergartenThrough Grade Twelve was adopted by the California State Board ofEducation on February 6, 2002, the members of the State Board were thefollowing: Reed Hastings, President; Joe Nuñez, Vice-President; RobertAbernethy; Donald G. Fisher; Susan Hammer; Nancy Ichinaga; CarltonJenkins; Marion Joseph; Vicki Reynolds; Suzanne Tacheny; and ErikaGoncalves.The framework was developed by the Curriculum Development andSupplemental Materials Commission. (See pages vi–viii for the names of themembers of the commission and the names of the principal writers and otherswho made significant contributions to the framework.)This publication was edited by Faye Ong and Janet Lundin, working incooperation with Greg Geeting, Assistant Executive Director, State Board ofEducation; Tom Adams, Administrator, and Christopher Dowell, EducationPrograms Consultant, Curriculum Frameworks and Instructional ResourcesDivision, California Department of Education. It was designed and preparedfor printing by the staff of CDE Press, with the cover and interior designcreated and prepared by Paul Lee. Typesetting was done by Jeannette Huffand Carey Johnson. The framework was published by the Department ofEducation, 1430 N Street, Sacramento, California 95814-5901. It wasdistributed under the provisions of the Library Distribution Act andGovernment Code Section 11096.© 2004 by the California Department of EducationAll rights reservedISBN 0-8011-1599-XOrdering InformationCopies of this publication are available for $17.50 each, plus shipping andhandling charges. California residents are charged sales tax. Orders maybe sent to the California Department of Education, CDE Press, Sales Office,1430 N Street, Suite 3207, Sacramento, CA 95814-5901; FAX (916) 323­0823.An illustrated Educational Resources catalog describing publications, videos,and other instructional media available from the Department can be obtainedwithout charge by writing to the address given above or by calling the SalesOffice at (916) 445-1260.Photo CreditsThe California Department of Education gratefully acknowledges the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration for the use of the photographs onpages 34, 63, 64, 70, 73, 74, 89, 234, 259, 266, and 270; the NationalAeronautics and Space Administration for the use of photographs on pages 52,77, 81 (the background), 94, 137, 172, 251, 255, 274, and 299 (the background);and Paul A. Thiessen for theuse of the illustrations on pages 153 and 224.Prepared for publicationby CSEA members

iiiContentsForeword vAcknowledgments viState Board of Education Policy onthe Teaching of Natural Sciences ix123Introduction to theFramework 1Audiences for the Framework 2Instructional Materials 3The Challenges in Science Education 3Science and the Environment 8Guiding Principles 9Organization of the Framework 13The Nature of Science andTechnology 15The Scientific Method 16Scientific Practice and Ethics 18Science and Technology 18Resources for Teaching Scienceand Technology 20Science and Society 20The Science Content Standards forKindergarten Through Grade Five 23Kindergarten 26Grade One 31Grade Two 36Grade Three 45Grade Four 56Grade Five 66The Science Content Standards4 for Grades Six Through Eight 81Grade Six: Focus on Earth Sciences 84Grade Seven: Focus on Life Sciences 103Grade Eight: Focus on PhysicalSciences 1255The Science Content Standards forGrades Nine Through Twelve 153Physics 156Chemistry 185Biology/Life Sciences 220Earth Sciences 251Investigation and Experimentation 2786789Assessment of Student Learning 281Purposes of Assessment 282Science Assessment Strategies 284STAR Program Results 285Summary 285Universal Access to the ScienceCurriculum 287Science and Basic SkillsDevelopment 288Academic Language DevelopmentEnglish Learners 289Advanced Learners 289Students with Disabilities 289288Professional Development 293What Is Professional Development? 295Who Should Teach the Teachers? 296When Is a Program Aligned with theScience Content Standards? 296When Is a Professional DevelopmentProgram Deemed Successful? 297How Will Tomorrow’s Science TeachersBe Developed? 297Criteria for Evaluating InstructionalMaterials in Science, KindergartenThrough Grade Eight 299Criteria Category 1: Science Content/Alignment with Standards 302Criteria Category 2: ProgramOrganization 303Criteria Category 3: Assessment 304Criteria Category 4: UniversalAccess 304Criteria Category 5: InstructionalPlanning and Support 306Selected References309AppendixRequirements of the Education Code310

vForeword“The education of young people in science isat least as important, maybe more so, thanthe research itself.”—Glenn T. SeaborgIn 1998, with the adoption of theScience Content Standards for CaliforniaPublic Schools, California made acommitment that we will provide all studentsa world-class science education.Now, more than ever before, our studentsneed a high degree of science literacy. Thisupdated edition of the Science Frameworkfor California Public Schools builds on thecontent standards, provides guidance forthe education community to achieve thatobjective, and includes the 2004 evaluationcriteria for the kindergarten-throughgrade-eightinstructional materialsadopted by the State Board of Education.This framework is California’s blueprintfor our science curriculum, instruction,professional preparation and development,and instructional materials.The framework offers guidance forscience instruction in elementary, middle,and high schools. In kindergarten throughgrade five, students receive a solid foundationand acquire basic knowledge regardingphysical, life, and earth sciences as wellas learn investigation and experimentationskills.Science instruction increases in depthand complexity in the middle grades,where the emphasis is on one sciencestrand each year. In grade six, studentsfocus on earth sciences; in grade seven,on life sciences; and in grade eight, onphysical sciences. The investigation andexperimentation standards increase in sophisticationin the middle grades and requirestudents to formulate a hypothesisfor the first time, communicate the logicalconnections among hypotheses, and applytheir knowledge of mathematics to analyzeand report on data from their experiments.At the high school level, science contentis presented as four separate strands—physics, chemistry, biology/life sciences,and earth sciences—each providing studentsthe rigor they need to prepare forcollegiate-level study and career pathways.Both the content standards and the frameworkare designed so that the standardscan be organized either as strand-specificcourses or as courses that draw contentfrom several strands. The high school investigationand experimentation standardsensure that students have experience in alaboratory setting.The framework addresses a numberof audiences—teachers, administrators,instructional materials developers, professionaldevelopment providers, parents,guardians, and students. It makes the importantpoint that science education musttake place in conjunction with other coresubjects, not in isolation from them.This document establishes guidingprinciples that define the attributes of aquality science curriculum at all grade levels.The framework reflects the fundamentalbelief that all students can acquire thescience knowledge and skills needed tosucceed in the world that awaits them.JACK O’CONNELLState Superintendent of Public InstructionRUTH E. GREENPresident, California State Board of Education

viAcknowledgmentsWhen the Criteria for EvaluatingInstructional Materials in Science,Kindergarten Through Grade Eightwas adopted by the California State Board ofEducation on March 10, 2004, the followingpersons were serving on the State Board:Reed Hastings, PresidentJoe Nuñez, Vice PresidentRuth Bloom, MemberDon Fisher, MemberRuth E. Green, MemberGlee Johnson, MemberJeannine Martineau, MemberBonnie Reiss, MemberSuzanne Tacheny, MemberJohnathan Williams, MemberThe new criteria are included in this version ofthe framework.Members of the Curriculum Developmentand Supplemental Materials Commission(Curriculum Commission) serving at the timethe criteria were recommended for approval tothe State Board were:Edith Crawford, San Juan Unified SchoolDistrict, ChairNorma Baker, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrict, Vice ChairWilliam D. Brakemeyer, Fontana UnifiedSchool DistrictMilissa Glen-Lambert, Los Angeles UnifiedSchool DistrictKerry Hamill, Oakland Unified SchoolDistrict,Deborah Keys, Oakland Unified SchoolDistrictWendy Levine, Inglewood Unified SchoolDistrictSandra Mann, San Diego City Unified SchoolDistrictJulie Maravilla, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictMichael Matsuda, Anaheim Union HighSchool DistrictMary-Alicia McRae, Salinas City ElementarySchool DistrictStan Metzenberg, California State University,NorthridgeCharles Munger, Stanford Linear AcceleratorCenterRosa Perez, Canada CollegeJoseph (Jose) Velasquez, Los Angeles UnifiedSchool DistrictRichard Wagoner, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictMembers of the Science Subject MatterCommittee of the Curriculum Commissionresponsible for overseeing the development ofthe Criteria for Evaluating Instructional Materialsin Science, Kindergarten Through GradeTwelve were:Sandra Mann, San Diego City Unified SchoolDistrict, ChairCharles Munger, Stanford Linear AcceleratorCenter, Vice ChairMichael Matsuda, Anaheim Union HighSchool DistrictStan Metzenberg, California State University,NorthridgeRichard Wagoner, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictSpecial appreciation is extended to:Rae Belisle, Executive Director, State Boardof Education, for her leadership andcollaboration with representatives fromthe state science community in revisingthe criteriaSue Stickel, Deputy Superintendent, Curriculumand Instruction Branch, CaliforniaDepartment of Education, for herassistance in revising the criteria__________Note: The titles and affiliations of persons named in this list were current at the time the document wasdeveloped.

viiThe development of the Science Frameworkinvolved the effort, dedication, and expertiseof many individuals. The original draft ofthe framework was prepared between October1998 and December 2000 by the Science CurriculumFramework and Criteria Committee(CFCC), a diverse group that included teachersand school administrators, university faculty,representatives of the business community, andparents (guardians) of students in publicschools. The State Board of Education and theCurriculum Commission commend the followingmembers of the Science CFCC and extendgreat appreciation to them:Michael Rios, Montebello Unified SchoolDistrict, ChairRichard Berry, San Diego State University,Vice ChairWallace Boggess, Simi Valley Unified SchoolDistrictRobert Bornick, California State University,NorthridgeLiselle Clark, Stockton Unified School DistrictRichard Feay, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictJonathan Frank, San Francisco Unified SchoolDistrictHanna Hoffman, San Jose, CaliforniaRita Hoots, Yuba CollegeG. Bradley Huff, Fresno County Office ofEducationLinda Kenyon, Ceres Unified School DistrictMary Kiely, Stanford UniversityJanet Kruse, Discovery Museum, Sacramento,CaliforniaCharles Munger, Stanford UniversityEric Norman, Lawrence Berkeley NationalLaboratoryKeith Nuthall, Poway Unified School DistrictLynda Rogers, San Lorenzo Unified SchoolDistrictUrsula Sexton, San Ramon Unified SchoolDistrictSteve Shapiro, Los Angeles, CaliforniaJody Skidmore, North Cow Creek ElementarySchool DistrictWilliam Tarr, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictLane Therrell, Placerville, CaliforniaCommendation and appreciation are alsoextended to the principal writers of the ScienceFramework:Roland (Rollie) Otto, Center for Science andEngineering Education, Lawrence BerkeleyNational LaboratoryKathleen Scalise, Lawrence Hall of Science,University of California, BerkeleyLynn Yarris, Lawrence Berkeley NationalLaboratoryThe members of the CurriculumCommission’s Science Subject Matter Committee(SMC), along with 2001 CurriculumCommission Chair Patrice Abarca, providedoutstanding leadership in overseeing the developmentand editing of the Science Framework:Richard Schwartz, Torrance Unified SchoolDistrict, Science SMC ChairVeronica Norris, Tustin, California, ScienceSMC Vice ChairCatherine Banker, Upland, CaliforniaEdith Crawford, San Juan Unified SchoolDistrictViken “Vik” Hovsepian, Glendale UnifiedSchool DistrictOther members of the Curriculum Commissionwho were serving at the time theScience Framework was recommended forapproval to the State Board were:Patrice Abarca, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrict, 2001 ChairRoy Anthony, Grossmont Union High SchoolDistrictMarilyn Astore, Sacramento County Office ofEducation, 2000 ChairRakesh Bhandari, Los Altos, CaliforniaMary Coronado Calvario, Sacramento CityUnified School DistrictMilissa Glen-Lambert, Los Angeles UnifiedSchool DistrictLora L. Griffin, Retired Educator, SacramentoCity Unified School DistrictJanet Philibosian, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictLeslie Schwarze, Trustee, Novato UnifiedSchool DistrictSusan Stickel, Elk Grove Unified SchoolDistrict, 2001 Vice ChairKaren S. Yamamoto, Washington UnifiedSchool District

viiiOther individuals who served on the CurriculumCommission during the period of theScience Framework’s development (1999-2000)were:Eleanor Brown, San Juan Unified SchoolDistrict, 1999 ChairKen Dotson, Turlock Joint Elementary SchoolDistrictLisa Jeffery, Los Angeles Unified SchoolDistrictJoseph Nation, San Rafael, CaliforniaBarbara Smith, San Rafael City Elementaryand High School DistrictSheri Willebrand, Ventura Unified SchoolDistrictThe Curriculum Commission and itsScience SMC received outstanding support andassistance from the State Board’s curriculumliaison, Marion Joseph.Final revision and editing of the ScienceFramework were conducted under the oversightof the State Board’s science liaison, Robert J.Abernethy, who was assisted by Greg Geeting,Assistant Executive Director of the State Board,and Charles Munger, Stanford University.During the review process, the ScienceSMC was aided by the following individualswho provided technical advice on science contentissues:Douglas E. Hammond, University of SouthernCaliforniaWilliam Hamner, University of California, LosAngelesEric Kelson, California State University,NorthridgeGeorge I. Matsumoto, Monterey BayAquarium Research InstituteStan Metzenberg, California State University,NorthridgeMartha Schwartz, University of SouthernCaliforniaSteve Strand, University of California, LosAngelesCalifornia Department of Education staffmembers who contributed to the ScienceFramework’s development included:Joanne Mendoza, Deputy Superintendent,Curriculum and Instructional LeadershipBranchSherry Skelly Griffith, Director, CurriculumFrameworks and Instructional ResourcesDivisionThomas Adams, Administrator, CurriculumFrameworks Unit, Curriculum Frameworksand Instructional ResourcesDivisionChristopher Dowell, Education ProgramsConsultant, Curriculum FrameworksUnitRona Gordon, Education Programs Consultant,Child, Youth, and Family ServicesBranchDiane Hernandez, Education ProgramsConsultant, Standards and AssessmentDivisionBarbara Jeffus, School Library Consultant,Curriculum Frameworks UnitPhil Lafontaine, Education Programs Consultant,Professional Development andCurriculum Support DivisionMartha Rowland, Education ProgramsConsultant, Curriculum FrameworksUnitStacy Sinclair, Education Programs Consultant,Curriculum Frameworks UnitMary Sprague, Education Programs Consultant,Education Technology OfficeWilliam Tarr, Education Programs Consultant,Standards and Assessment DivisionDeborah Tucker, Education ProgramsConsultant, Professional Developmentand Curriculum Support DivisionChristine Bridges, Analyst, CurriculumFrameworks UnitBelen Mercado, Analyst, Curriculum FrameworksUnitTeri Ollis, Analyst, Curriculum FrameworksUnitLino Vicente, Analyst, Curriculum FrameworksUnitTracie Yee, Analyst, Curriculum FrameworksUnitTonya Odums, Office Technician, CurriculumFrameworks UnitBeverly Wilson, Office Technician, CurriculumFrameworks Unit

ixState Board of Education Policy onthe Teaching of Natural SciencesThe domain of the natural sciencesis the natural world. Science islimited by its tools—observablefacts and testable hypotheses.Discussions of any scientific fact, hypothesis,or theory related to the origins ofthe universe, the earth, and life (the how)are appropriate to the science curriculum.Discussions of divine creation, ultimatepurposes, or ultimate causes (the why) areappropriate to the history–social scienceand English–language arts curricula.Nothing in science or in any otherfield of knowledge shall be taught dogmatically.Dogma is a system of beliefsthat is not subject to scientific test andrefutation. Compelling belief is inconsistentwith the goal of education; the goal isto encourage understanding.To be fully informed citizens, studentsdo not have to accept everything that istaught in the natural science curriculum,but they do have to understand the majorstrands of scientific thought, including itsmethods, facts, hypotheses, theories, andlaws.A scientific fact is an understandingbased on confirmable observations and issubject to test and rejection. A scientifichypothesis is an attempt to frame a questionas a testable proposition. A scientifictheory is a logical construct based on factsand hypotheses that organizes and explainsa range of natural phenomena. Scientifictheories are constantly subject to testing,modification, and refutation as new evidenceand new ideas emerge. Because scientifictheories have predictive capabilities,they essentially guide further investigations.From time to time natural scienceteachers are asked to teach content thatdoes not meet the criteria of scientific fact,hypothesis, and theory as these terms areused in natural science and as defined inthis policy. As a matter of principle, scienceteachers are professionally bound tolimit their teaching to science and shouldresist pressure to do otherwise. Administratorsshould support teachers in this regard.Philosophical and religious beliefs arebased, at least in part, on faith and are notsubject to scientific test and refutation.Such beliefs should be discussed in thesocial science and language arts curricula.The Board’s position has been stated in theHistory–Social Science Framework (adoptedby the Board). 1 If a student should raise aquestion in a natural science class that theteacher determines is outside the domainof science, the teacher should treat thequestion with respect. The teacher shouldexplain why the question is outside thedomain of natural science and encouragethe student to discuss the question furtherwith his or her family and clergy.Neither the California nor the UnitedStates Constitution requires that time begiven in the curriculum to religious viewsin order to accommodate those who objectto certain material presented or activitiesconducted in science classes. It may beunconstitutional to grant time for thatreason.Nothing in the California EducationCode allows students (or their parents orNote: This policystatement on theteaching of naturalsciences, which wasadopted by theState Board ofEducation in 1989,supersedes theState Board’s 1972AntidogmatismPolicy.

xguardians) to excuse their class attendanceon the basis of disagreements with thecurriculum, except as specified for (1) anyclass in which human reproductive organsand their functions and process are described,illustrated, or discussed; and (2)an education project involving the harmfulor destructive use of animals. (SeeCalifornia Education Code Section 51550and Chapter 2.3 of Part 19 commencingwith Section 32255.) However, theUnited States Constitution guarantees thefree exercise of religion, and local governingboards and school districts are encouragedto develop statements, such as thisone on policy, that recognize and respectthat freedom in the teaching of science.Ultimately, students should be madeaware of the difference between understanding,which is the goal of education,and subscribing to ideas.Notes1. History–Social Science Framework for California Public Schools (Updated edition with contentstandards). Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2001.

Introductionto theFramework1

2Introduction tothe FrameworkCalifornia is a world leader inscience and technology and, asa result, enjoys both prosperityand a wealth of intellectual talent. Thenation and the state of California havea history that is rich in innovation andinvention. Educators have the opportunityto foster and inspire in students aninterest in science; the goal is to havestudents gain the knowledge and skillsnecessary for California’s workforce tobe competitive in the global, information-basedeconomy of the twenty-firstcentury.The Science Framework for CaliforniaPublic Schools is the blueprint forreform of the science curriculum, instruction,professional preparation anddevelopment, and instructional materialsin California. The framework outlinesthe implementation of the ScienceContent Standards for California PublicSchools (adopted by the State Board ofEducation in 1998) 1 and connects thelearning of science with the fundamentalskills of reading, writing, and mathematics.The science standards containa concise description of what to teachat specific grade levels; this frameworkextends those guidelines by providingthe scientific background and the classroomcontext.Glenn T. Seaborg, one of the greatscientific minds of this era, definedscience as follows: “Science is an organizedbody of knowledge and a methodof proceeding to an extension of thisknowledge by hypothesis and experi-ment.” 2 This framework is intended to(1) organize the body of knowledgethat students need to learn during theirelementary and secondary school years;and (2) illuminate the methods of sciencethat will be used to extend thatknowledge during the students’ lifetimes.Although the world will certainlychange in ways that can hardly be predictedin the new century, Californiastudents will be prepared to meet newchallenges if they have received asound, basic education. This frameworkoutlines the foundation of scienceknowledge needed by students and theanalytical skills that will enable them toadvance that knowledge and absorbnew discoveries.Audiences for theFrameworkOne of the primary audiences forthis framework is the teachers who areresponsible for implementing the sciencestandards. These teachers are elementaryand middle school teacherswith multiple-subject credentials,middle and high school teachers withsingle-subject credentials in science,and those who may be teaching outsidetheir primary area of expertise. TheScience Framework is designed to providevaluable insights to both noviceand expert science teachers.For designers of science instructionalmaterials, the framework may

3serve as a guide to the teaching of thescience standards and as an example ofthe scholarly treatment of science thatis expected in their materials. Publisherssubmitting science instructionalmaterials for adoption in the state ofCalifornia must adhere to a set of rigorouscriteria described in this framework.The criteria include carefulalignment with and comprehensivecoverage of the science standards, goodprogram organization and provisionsfor assessment, universal access for studentswith special needs, and instructionalplanning and support for theteacher.The organizers of both programs ofpreservice professional preparation andin-service professional developmentwill find this framework helpful. Skillis needed to teach science well, andtraining programs for teachers need tobe especially mindful of the expectationsplaced on students.Scientists and other professionals inthe community often seek ways to helpimprove their local schools, and thisframework will be helpful in focusingtheir efforts on a common set of curriculargoals. By providing ideas andresources aligned with grade-level standards,professionals can make sure theiroutreach efforts and donations to classroomswill be put to best use.For many high school seniors,commencement is followed shortlythereafter by baccalaureate courses.The Science Framework communicatesto the science faculty at all Californiainstitutions of higher education whatthey may expect of entering students.Finally, the parents, guardians, andother caregivers of students will findthe Science Framework useful as theyseek to help children with homeworkor gain an understanding of what theirchildren are learning in school.Instructional MaterialsOne of the best measures that localeducational agencies (LEAs) can take isto ensure that all teachers of students inkindergarten through grade eight areprovided with materials currentlyadopted by the State Board of Education(especially in science, mathematics,and reading/language arts) and aretrained in their use. Those materialsundergo a rigorous review and provideteachers and other instructional staffwith guidance and strategies for helpingstudents who are having difficulty.In choosing instructional materialsat the high school level, LEAs need tobe guided by the science standards andthe evaluation criteria set forth inChapter 9. An analogy used in theReading/Language Arts Framework forCalifornia Public Schools is equally applicableto the teaching of science:“Teachers should not be expected to bethe composers of the music as well asthe conductors of the orchestra.” 3 Inaddition to basic instructional materials,teachers need to be able to gainaccess to up-to-date resources in theschool library-media center that supportthe teaching of standards-basedscience. The resources must be carefullyselected to support and enhancethe basic instructional materials.The Challenges inScience EducationElementary school students oftenlearn much from observing and recordingthe growth of plants from seeds inChapter 1Introduction tothe Framework

4Chapter 1Introduction tothe Frameworkthe classroom. But are the same studentswell served if seed planting is afocus of the science curriculum in thenext year and the following one aswell? The same question may well beasked of any instructional activity. Toovercome the challenges in scienceeducation, several strategies are recommended:Prepare Long-Term PlansLong-term planning of a sciencecurriculum over a span of grades helpsstudents learn new things and developnew skills each year. A standardsbasedcurriculum helps students whomove from district to district; theywill be more likely to receive a systematicand complete education.The Science Content Standards andthe Science Framework are designed toensure that all students have a richexperience in science at every gradelevel and that curriculum decisions arenot made haphazardly. Instructionalprograms need the content standardsto be incorporated at each grade leveland should be comprehensive andcoherent over a span of grade levels.Reforming science curriculum,instruction, and instructional materialswill be a time-consuming process.To achieve the reform objectives, alleducational stakeholders need to adhereto the guidance provided in thisframework. The hope is that in thenear future teachers will have a muchgreater degree of certainty about theknowledge and skills the studentsalready possess as they file into theclassroom at the beginning of a schoolyear. Less time will be spent on review,and teachers will also have aclear idea of the content their studentsare expected to master at each gradelevel and in each branch of science.Meet the CurricularDemands of Other CoreContent AreasThe Reading/Language Arts Frameworkand Mathematics Framework 4explicitly require uninterrupted instructionaltime in those subjects. In theearly elementary grades, students needto receive at least 150 minutes of reading/languagearts instruction daily and50 to 60 minutes of mathematics instruction.At the elementary schoollevel, the pressure to raise the academicperformance of students in reading/language arts and mathematics has ledsome administrators to eliminate orcurtail science instruction. This action isnot necessary and reflects, in fact, a failureto serve the students. The ScienceFramework helps to organize and focuselementary science instruction, bringingit to a level of efficiency so that it neednot be eliminated.All teachers, particularly those whoteach multiple subjects, need to usetheir instructional time judiciously. Oneof the key objectives set forth in theMathematics Framework applies equallywell to the study of science: “During thegreat majority of allocated time, studentsare active participants in the instruction.”5 In this case active meansthat students are engaged in thinkingabout science. If the pace of an activityis too fast or too slow, students will notbe “on task” for much of the allottedtime.When large blocks of time for scienceinstruction are not feasible, teachersmust make use of smaller blocks. Forexample, an elementary teacher and the

5class may have a brief but spirited discussionon why plant seeds have differentshapes or why the moon looksdifferent each week. For kindergartenthrough grade three, standards-basedscience content is now integrated intononfiction material in the basic reading/languagearts reading programsadopted by the State Board of Education.Publishers were given the followingmandate in the 2002 K–8 Reading/Language Arts/English Language DevelopmentAdoption Criteria:In order to protect language arts instructionaltime, those K–3 contentstandards in history–social science andscience that lend themselves to instructionduring the language artstime period are addressed within thelanguage arts materials, particularly inthe selection of expository texts thatare read to students, or that studentsread. 6There is no begrudging of the extendedtime needed for students tomaster reading, writing, and mathematics,for those are fundamentalskills necessary for science. The Reading/LanguageArts Framework statesthis principle clearly: “Literacy is thekey to becoming an independentlearner in all the other disciplines.” 7The Mathematics Framework bears asimilar message: “The [mathematics]standards focus on essential contentfor all students and prepare studentsfor the study of advanced mathematics,science and technical careers, andpostsecondary study in all contentareas.” 8Despite the aforementioned curriculardemands, the science standardsshould be taught comprehensivelyduring the elementary grades. Thischallenge can be met with careful planningand implementation.Set Clear InstructionalObjectivesIn teaching the science standards,LEAs must have a clear idea of theirinstructional objectives. Science educationis meant to teach, in part, the specificknowledge and skills that willallow students to become literateadults. As John Stuart Mill wrote in1867:It is surely no small part of educationto put us in intelligent possession ofthe most important and most universallyinteresting facts of the universe,so that the world which surrounds usmay not be a sealed book to us, uninterestingbecause unintelligible. 9Science education, however, ismore than the learning of interestingfacts; it is the building of intellectualstrength in a more general sense:The scholarly and scientific disciplineswon their primacy in traditional programsof education because they representthe most effective methods which. . . have been [devised] through millenniaof sustained effort, for liberatingand organizing the powers of the humanmind. 10Science education in kindergartenthrough grade twelve trains the mindand builds intellectual strength andmust not be limited to the lasting factsand skills that can be remembered intoadulthood. Science must be taught at alevel of rigor and depth that goes wellbeyond what a typical adult knows. Itmust be taught “for the sake of science”and not with any particular vocationalgoal in mind. The study of scienceChapter 1Introduction tothe Framework

6Chapter 1Introduction tothe Frameworkdisciplines the minds of students; andthe benefits of this intellectual trainingare realized long after schooling, whenthe details of the science may be forgotten.Model Scientific AttitudesScience must be taught in a waythat is scholarly yet engaging. That is,an appropriate balance must be maintainedbetween the fun and serioussides of science. A physics teachermight have students build paper airplanesto illustrate the relationshipbetween lift and drag in airflow; but ifthe activity is not deeply rooted in thecontent of physics, then the fun oflaunching paper airplanes displaces theintended lesson. The fun of sciencemay be a way to help students rememberimportant ideas, but it cannot substitutefor effective instruction andsustained student effort.There are certain attitudes aboutscience and scientists that a teachermust foster in students. Scientists aredeeply knowledgeable about their fieldsof study but typically are willing toadmit that there is a great deal they donot know. In particular, they welcomenew ideas that are supported by evidence.In doing their research goodscientists do not attempt to prove thattheir own hypotheses are correct butthat they are incorrect. 11 Thoughsomewhat counterintuitive, this path isthe surest one to finding the truth.Classroom teachers must alwaysprovide rational explanations for phenomena,not occultic or magical ones.They need to be honest about whatthey do not know and be enthusiasticabout learning new things along withtheir students. They must convey tostudents the idea that there is much tolearn and that phenomena not currentlyunderstood may be understoodin the future. Knowledge in science iscumulative, passed from generation togeneration, and refined at every step.Provide Balanced InstructionSome of the knowledge of scienceis best learned by having students readabout the subject or hear about it fromthe teacher; other knowledge is bestlearned in laboratory or field studies.Direct instruction and investigativeactivities need to be mutually supportiveand synergistic. Instructional materialsneed to provide teachers with avariety of options for implementationthat are based on the science standards.For example, students might learnabout Ohm’s law, one of the guidingprinciples of physics, which statesthat electrical current decreases proportionatelyas resistance increases in anelectrical circuit operating under a conditionof constant voltage. In practice,the principle accounts for why a flashlightwith corroded electrical contactsdoes not give a bright beam, even withfresh batteries. It is a simple relationship,expressed as V=IR, and embodiedin high school Physics Standard 5.b.In a laboratory exercise, however, studentsmay obtain results that seem todisprove the linear relationship becausethe resistance of a circuit element varieswith temperature. The temperature ofthe components gradually increases asrepeated tests are performed, and thedata become skewed.In the foregoing example, it wasnot Ohm’s law that was wrong but anassumption about the stability of theexperimental apparatus. This assump-

7tion can be proven by additional experimentationand provides an extraordinaryopportunity for students tolearn about the scientific method.Had the students been left to uncoveron their own the relationshipbetween current and resistance, theirskewed data would not have easily ledthem to discover Ohm’s law. A sensiblebalance of direct instruction and investigationand a focus on demonstrationof scientific principles provide the bestscience lesson.Ensure the Safety ofInstructional ActivitiesSafety is always the foremost considerationin the design of demonstrations,hands-on activities, laboratories,and science projects on site or awayfrom school. Teachers need to be familiarwith the Science Safety Handbookfor California Public Schools. 12 It containsspecific and useful informationrelevant to classroom teachers of science.Following safe practices is a legaland moral obligation for administrators,teachers, parents or guardians,and students. Safety needs to betaught. Scientists and engineers in universitiesand industries are required tofollow strict environmental health andsafety regulations. Knowing and followingsafe practices in science are apart of understanding the nature ofscience and scientific procedures.Match InstructionalActivities with StandardsTeachers need to use instructionalmaterials that are aligned with theScience Content Standards, but how dothey know when a curriculum orsupplemental material is a good match?The State Board of Education establishescontent review panels to analyzethe science instructional materials submittedfor adoption in kindergartenthrough grade eight. The panels consistof professional scientists and expertteachers of science. Local educationalagencies would be well advised to usematerials that have passed this stringenttest for quality and alignment. Thecriteria are included in the ScienceFramework (Chapter 9) and may helpguide the decisions of school districtsand schools when they adopt instructionalmaterials for grades nine throughtwelve.In brief, teachers need to use instructionalactivities or readings that aregrounded in science and that provideclear and nonsuperficial lessons. Thecontent must be scientifically accurate,and the breadth and depth of the sciencestandards need to be addressed.Initial teaching sequences must communicatewith students in the moststraightforward way possible, and expandedteaching used to amplify thestudents’ understanding. 13 The concreteexamples, investigative activities,and vocabulary used in instructionneed to be unambiguous and chosen todemonstrate the wide range of variationon which scientific concepts can begeneralized.For example, in grade four Standard2.a is: “Students know plants arethe primary source of matter and energyentering most food chains.” 14 Thisstandard may be taught by using numerousconcrete examples. Mastery ofthe concept, however, requires thatstudents understand how the concept isgeneralized. Having learned by explicitChapter 1Introduction tothe Framework

8Chapter 1Introduction tothe Frameworkinstruction that plants are primary producersin deserts, forests, and grasslands,the students must be able togeneralize the principle accurately toinclude other habitats (e.g., saltmarshes, lakes, tundra). Although thestandard is easily amenable to laboratoryand field activities, it cannot beentirely grasped by observation of orcontact with nature.In high school this standard is exploredin considerable depth as studentscome to learn about energy,matter, photosynthesis, and the cyclingof organic matter in an ecosystem.Standard 2.a in grade four preparesstudents to learn more.Another example of “preteaching”embedded in the science standards isStandard 1.h in grade three: “Studentsknow all matter is made of small particlescalled atoms, too small to seewith the naked eye.” 15 The intent ofthis standard is not to make third-gradestudents into atomic scientists, butsimply to introduce them to a way ofthinking that is reinforced in gradesfive and eight and then taught ingreater depth in high school.This framework is designed to ensurethat instructional materials aredeveloped to the intended depth ofeach standard and that the relationshipsare made clear among standardsacross grade levels and within branchesof science.Science and theEnvironmentEnvironmental concerns that oncereceived relatively little attention(e.g., invasive species of plants andanimals, habitat fragmentation, loss ofbiodiversity) have suddenly becomestatewide priorities. Entire fields ofscientific inquiry (e.g., conservationbiology, landscape ecology, ethnoecology)have arisen to address thoseconcerns. In general, there is an increasedsense of the complexity andinterconnectedness of environmentalissues. The public response to California’senvironmental challenges hasbeen profound as evidenced by the enactmentof Senate Bill 373 (Chapter926, Statutes of 2001). Senate Bill 373requires the following topics to be includedin this framework:• Integrated waste management• Energy conservation•Water conservation and pollutionprevention• Air resources• Integrated pest management• Toxic materials•Wildlife conservation and forestrySeveral science standards addressthose topics directly; provide studentswith the foundational skills and knowledgeto understand them; or incorporateconcepts, principles, and theoriesof science that are integral to them.The suggestions in this framework includeways of highlighting the topicsas follows:• Students in kindergarten throughgrade five learn about the characteristicsof their environment throughtheir studies of earth, life, and physicalsciences. For example, in gradethree students learn how environmentalchanges affect living organisms.• Students in grades six through eightfocus on earth, life, and physical sciences,respectively; and standards ateach grade level include the study ofecology and the environment.

9• Students in grades nine throughtwelve expand their knowledge ofhabitats, biodiversity, and ecosystemsassociated with the biology/life sciencecontent standards. High schoolearth science standards include thestudy of energy and its usage as wellas topics related to water resourcesand the geology of California.The Legislature has declared “that[we have] a moral obligation to understandthe world in which [we live] andto protect, enhance, and make thehighest use of the land and resources[we hold] in trust for future generations,and that the dignity and worthof the individual requires a qualityenvironment in which [we] can developthe full potentials of [our] spiritand intellect” (Education Code Section8704). Toward that end LEAs andindividual schools throughout Californiaare contributing to the bettermentof the environment in many ways, includingreplacing asphalt schoolgrounds with gardens, recycling schoolwaste, exchanging scientific data withthe international community throughWeb sites, and restoring local habitats.Specific programs of environmentaleducation enhance the learning ofscience at all grade levels. These programsenhance scientific and criticalthinking skills, enabling students toperceive patterns and processes of nature,research environmental issues,and propose reasoned solutions. Environmentaleducation is not advocacyfor particular opinions or interests, butit is a means of fostering a comprehensiveand critical approach to issues.Students get a personal sense of responsibilityfor the environment; consequently,schools are tied more closelyto the life of the communities theyserve.Guiding PrinciplesThe following principles form thebasis of an effective science educationprogram. They address the complexityof the science content and the methodsby which science content is best taught.They clearly define the attributes of aquality science curriculum at the elementary,middle, and high schoollevels.Effective science programs arebased on standards and usestandards-based instructionalmaterials.Comprehensive, standards-basedprograms are those in which curriculum,instruction, and assessment arealigned with the grade level-specificcontent standards (kindergartenthrough grade eight) and the contentstrands (grades nine through twelve).Students have opportunities to learnfoundational skills and knowledge inthe elementary and middle grades andto understand concepts, principles, andtheories at the high school level. Studentsuse instructional materials thathave been adopted by the State Boardof Education in kindergarten throughgrade eight. For grades nine throughtwelve, students use instructional materialsthat are determined by localboards of education to be consistentwith the science standards and thisframework.A California Standards Test in scienceis now administered at grade five,reflecting the cumulative science standardsfor grades four and five. Therefore,science instruction must be basedChapter 1Introduction tothe Framework

10Chapter 1Introduction tothe Frameworkon complete programs that cover allthe standards at every grade level. Thecriteria for evaluating K–8 science instructionalmaterials (see Chapter 9)state: “All content Standards as specifiedat each grade level are supportedby topics or concepts, lessons, activities,investigations, examples, and/orillustrations, etc., as appropriate.”At the high school level, the ScienceContent Standards document does notprescribe a single high school curriculum.To allow LEAs and teachers flexibility,the standards for grades ninethrough twelve are organized as contentstrands. There is no mandate thata particular content strand be completedin a particular grade. Studentsenrolled in science courses are expectedto master the standards that apply tothe curriculum they are studying regardlessof the sequence of the content.Students in grades nine through twelveuse instructional materials that reflectthe Science Content Standards and thisframework, and LEAs must criticallyreview the standards maps that are nowto be provided by publishers of highschool instructional materials. 16The California Standards Tests forgrades nine through eleven pertainspecifically to the content of the particularscience courses in which studentsare enrolled. The CaliforniaDepartment of Education makes blueprintsfor those tests and sample questionsavailable to the public. Localeducational agencies are encouraged toreview and improve (as necessary) theirhigh school science programs toachieve the following results:1. All high school science courses thatmeet state or local graduation requirementsor the entrance requirementsof the University of Californiaor The California State Universityare based on the Science ContentStandards.2. Every laboratory science course isbased on the content standards andensures that students master boththe content-specific standards andInvestigation and Experimentationstandards.3. Every science program ensures thatstudents are prepared to be successfulon the California Standards Tests.4. All students take, at a minimum, twoyears of laboratory science providingfundamental knowledge in at leasttwo of the following content strands:biology/life sciences, chemistry, andphysics. Laboratory courses in earthsciences are acceptable if prerequisitecourses are required (or provide basicknowledge) in biology, chemistry, orphysics. 17Effective science programsdevelop students’ command ofthe academic language ofscience used in the content standards.The lessons explicitly teach scientificterms as they are presented inthe content standards. New words(e.g., photosynthesis) are introduced toreflect students’ expanding knowledge,and the definitions of common words(e.g., table) are expanded to incorporatespecific meanings in science. Developingstudents’ command of the academiclanguage of science must be a part ofinstruction at all grade levels (kindergartenthrough grade eight) and in thefour content strands (grades ninethrough twelve). Scientific vocabulary isimportant in building conceptual understanding.Teachers need to provide

11explanations of new terms and idiomsby using words and examples that areclear and precise.Effective science programsreflect a balanced, comprehensiveapproach that includes theteaching of investigation and experimentationskills along with direct instructionand reading.A balanced, comprehensive approachto science includes the teachingof investigation and experimentationskills along with direct instruction andreading. Investigation and experimentationstandards are progressive andneed to be taught in a manner integralto the physical, life, and earth sciencesas students learn quantitative skills andqualitative observational skills. Forexample, the metric system is first introducedin grade two, but students useand refine their skill in metric measurementthrough high school. The methodsand skills of scientific inquiry arelearned in the context of the key concepts,principles, and theories set forthin the standards. Effective use of limitedinstructional time is always a majorconsideration in the design oflessons and courses. Laboratory spaceand equipment, library access, andresources are essential to support students’academic growth in science.Effective science programs usemultiple instructional strategiesand provide students withmultiple opportunities to master thecontent standards.Multiple instructional strategies,such as direct instruction, teacher modelingand demonstration, and investigationand experimentation, are usefulin teaching science and need to be includedin instructional materials. Thosestrategies help teachers capture studentinterest, provide bridges across contentareas, and contribute to an understandingof the nature of science and themethods of scientific inquiry.Standards for investigation andexperimentation are included at eachgrade level and differ from the otherstandards in that they do not representa specific content area. Investigationand experimentation cuts across allcontent areas, and those standards areintended to be taught in the contextof the grade-level content. Hands-onactivities may compose up to a maximumof 20 to 25 percent of the scienceinstructional time in kindergartenthrough grade eight. Instruction is designedand sequenced to provide studentswith opportunities to reinforcefoundational skills and knowledge andto revisit concepts, principles, andtheories previously taught. In this waystudent progress is appropriatelymonitored.Effective science programs includecontinual assessment ofstudents’ knowledge and understanding,with appropriate adjustmentsbeing made during the academic year.Effective assessment (on a continuingbasis through the academic year) isa key ingredient of standards-basedinstruction. Teachers assess students’prerequisite knowledge, monitor studentprogress, and evaluate the degreeof mastery of the content called for inthe standards. Lessons include embeddedunit assessments that provide formativeand summative assessments ofstudent progress. Teachers and administratorsregularly collaborate to improvescience progress by examiningChapter 1Introduction tothe Framework

12Chapter 1Introduction tothe Frameworkthe results of California Standards Testsin science (both the general test atgrade five and the specific tests ingrades nine through eleven).Effective science programscontinually engage all studentsin learning and prepare andmotivate students for further instructionin science.Students who are unable to keep upwith the expectations for learning scienceoften lack basic skills in readingcomprehension and mathematics.Therefore, students who need extraassistance to achieve grade-level expectationsare identified early and receivesupport. Schools need to use transitionalmaterials that accelerate the students’reading and mathematicsachievement to grade level. Advancedlearners must not be held back but beencouraged to study science content ingreater depth.Effective science programs usetechnology to teach students,assess their knowledge, developinformation resources, and enhancecomputer literacy.Across the nation science in thelaboratory setting involves specializedprobes, instruments, materials, andcomputers. Scientists extend their abilityto make observations, analyze data,study the scientific literature, and communicatefindings through the use oftechnology. High-performance computingcapabilities are used in scienceto make predictions based on fundamentalprinciples and laws. Technology-basedmodels are used to designand guide experiments, making it possibleto eliminate some experimentsand to suggest other experiments thatpreviously might not have been considered.Students have the opportunityto use technology and imitate the waysof modern science. Teaching scienceby using technology is important forpreparing students to be scientificallyand technologically literate. AssemblyBill 1023 (Chapter 404, Statutes of1997) requires that newly credentialedteachers demonstrate basic competencein the use of computers in theclassroom.Effective science programs haveadequate instructional resourcesas well as library-media andadministrative support.Standards-based teaching andlearning in science demand adequateinstructional resources. Local educationalagencies and individual schoolsites need to include science resourcesas an integral part of the budget.Library-media staff must have scienceas a priority for resource acquisitionand development. Administratorsmust ensure that funds set aside forthe science resources are spent efficiently(e.g., through clear processesand procedures for purchasing andmaintenance) and support students’mastery of the content standards. Thispriority requires planning, coordination,and dedication of space for scienceresources.Effective science programs usestandards-based connectionswith other core subjects to reinforcescience teaching and learning.Science instruction provides multipleopportunities to make connectionswith other content areas.Reading, writing, mathematics, andspeaking skills are needed to learn and

13do science. In self-contained classrooms,teachers incorporate sciencecontent in reading, writing, and mathematicsas directed in the Reading–Language Arts Framework andMathematics Framework. In departmentalizedsettings (middle and high schoollevels) science teachers need to includeessay assignments and require that students’writing reflect the correct applicationof English-language conventions,including spelling and grammar.Organization ofthe FrameworkThe Science Framework is primarilyorganized around the Science ContentStandards. The framework:• Discusses the nature of science andtechnology and the methods bywhich they are advanced (Chapter 2)• Describes the curriculum content andinstructional practices needed formastery of the standards (Chapters 3,4, and 5)• Guides the development of appropriateassessment tools (Chapter 6)• Suggests specific strategies to promoteaccess to the curriculum for studentswith special needs (Chapter 7)• Describes the system of teacher professionaldevelopment that needs to be inplace for effective implementation ofthe standards (Chapter 8)• Specifies the requirements for evaluatingscience instructional resources,including investigative activities, forkindergarten through grade eight(Chapter 9)• Provides information on pertinentrequirements of the California EducationCode regarding science educationin this state (Appendix)The science standards are embeddedin Chapters 3, 4, and 5 and are gradelevelspecific from kindergarten throughgrade eight. The standards for gradesnine through twelve are organized bystrands: physics, chemistry, biology/lifesciences, and earth sciences.Chapter 1Introduction tothe FrameworkNotes1. Science Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2000.2. Glenn T. Seaborg, “A Letter to a Young Scientist,” in Gifted Young in Science: Potential ThroughPerformance. Edited by Paul Brandwein and others. Arlington, Va.: National Science TeachersAssociation, 1989. The late Dr. Seaborg was chair of the California Academic StandardsCommission’s Science Committee that created the Science Content Standards for CaliforniaPublic Schools.3. Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through GradeTwelve. Sacramento: California Department of Education, 1999, p. 2.4. Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2000.5. Mathematics Framework, p. 13.6. These criteria are available on the Web site.Click on Criteria Category 2, third bullet.7. Reading/Language Arts Framework, p. 3.

14Chapter 1Introduction tothe Framework8. Mathematics Framework, p. 18.9. John Stuart Mill, inaugural address to the University of St. Andrew, quoted in George E.DeBoer, A History of Ideas in Science Education. New York: Teachers College Press, 1991, p. 8.10. Arthur E. Bestor, Educational Wastelands: The Retreat from Learning in Our Public Schools.Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1953. p. 18.11. J. R. Platt, “Strong Inference,” Science, Vol. 146 (1964), 347–53.12. Science Safety Handbook for California Public Schools. Sacramento: California Department ofEducation, 1999.13. Siegfried Engelmann and Douglas Carnine, Theory of Instruction: Principles and Applications.Eugene, Ore.: ADI Press, 1991.14. Science Content Standards, p. 11.15. Ibid., p. 8.16. According to Education Code Section 60451, standards maps are documents that school districtsuse in determining the extent to which instructional materials (for pupils in grades nineto twelve, inclusive) are aligned to the content standards adopted by the State Board of Education.Publishers prepare the standards maps using a form created and approved by the StateBoard of Education.17. The laboratory science subject requirement for admission to the University of California and(beginning in fall 2003) to The California State University reads as follows: “d. LaboratoryScience. Two years required, three recommended. Two years of laboratory science providingfundamental knowledge in at least two of these three disciplines: biology (which includesanatomy, physiology, marine biology, aquatic biology, etc.), chemistry, and physics. Laboratorycourses in earth/space sciences are acceptable if they have as prerequisites or provide basicknowledge in biology, chemistry, or physics. The appropriate two years of an approved integratedscience program may be used to fulfill this requirement. Not more than one year ofninth-grade laboratory science can be used to meet this requirement.”Source: University of California Office of the President and The CaliforniaState University .

The Nature ofScience andTechnology2

16The Nature of Scienceand TechnologyScience is the study of nature at alllevels, from the infinite to theinfinitesimal. It is the asking andanswering of questions about naturalprocesses or phenomena that are directlyobserved or indirectly inferred.From these questions and answerscome tentative explanations called hypotheses,which lead to testable predictionsabout the natural processes andphenomena. Hypotheses that withstandrigorous testing of predictions willgradually lead to an accretion of factsand principles, which serve as the foundationof scientific theories. Scientificknowledge gives rise to many technologiesthat drive the economy and improvethe quality of life for people. Theterm technology embraces not only tools(e.g., computers) but also methods,materials, and applications of scientificknowledge.Scientific knowledge and technologybuilt on that knowledge have expanded—onemight even sayexploded—in the last 50 years. Thevery nature of science as a humanendeavor has made this expansion possible.Scientific research and developmentare both collaborative andinternational; literally millions of menand women around the world participatein the science and engineeringenterprise.To stay current with scientific developments,school science programsneed to develop partnerships with library-mediacenters, museums, scienceand technology centers, colleges anduniversities, industry, and subject matterprojects to build support for suchprograms.The Scientific MethodThe scientific method is a processfor predicting, on the basis of a handfulof scientific principles, what will happennext in a natural sequence ofevents. Because of its success, this inventionof the human mind is used inmany fields of study. The scientificmethod is a flexible, highly creativeprocess built on three broad assumptions:• Change occurs in observable patternsthat can be extended by logic to predictwhat will happen next.• Anyone can observe something andapply logic.• Scientific discoveries are replicable.The first assumption may be contrastedwith the idea that the complexityof the natural world is so great as tobe outside human understanding. Scienceasserts that change occurs in patternswithin the human capability toperceive, that these patterns may bediscerned by observation, and that thechanges are subject to logic. The simplelogic of if-A-then-B suffices to understandsimple patterns; complex patternsrequire the more complex logic expressedin mathematics. The concentrationof thought that mathematics

17lends to the study of the natural worldis stunning. For example, the positionof the planets over millions of years inthe past can be closely approximated byusing only two strings of symbols takenfrom Newton’s laws of motion andgravity:F = ma and F = Gm 1m 2/d 2The second assumption is that anyonecan measure the strength of a scientifictheory by fairly testing itspredictions. Scientific research papersthus contain not only the results of aninvestigation, but all the informationneeded to replicate the research. Thelifetime work of many scientists is replicatingother scientists’ experiments inorder to test their conclusions.The third assumption is that individualsand groups can make progresstoward understanding natural phenomena,and their discoveries can be replicatedat any time and suitable place byan objective observer. Truth in scienceknows no cultural or national boundaries.Science is not a system of beliefsor faith but a replicable body of knowledge.In fact, science is incapable ofanswering questions that are based onfaith. Within the scientific community,individuals or groups may sometimessee only what they desire to see or havebeen conditioned to see. Scientificprogress is sometimes stalled by incorrecttheories or results; but once it isshown that those theories or resultscannot be confirmed by others,progress resumes in the correct direction.The scientific method ultimatelyallows for the formulation of scientifictheories. Part of science education is tolearn what these theories are and tracetheir operation in the world. A theory inpopular language is a collection of relatedideas that one supposes to betrue; in science, a theory is defined bythe principles of the scientific method.Those principles, in order of precedence,are as follows:1. A scientific theory must be logicallyconsistent and lead to testable predictionsabout the natural world.2. The strength of a scientific theorylies solely in the accuracy of thosepredictions.3. Of two scientific theories that makeaccurate predictions, the theory thatmakes a greater number of predictionswith fewer underlying assumptionsis likely to prove stronger.The making and testing of predictionsis what distinguishes sciencefrom other intellectual disciplines, andemphasizing the accuracy of predictionsrather than the cogency of explanationsis the key to scientific progress.A large assortment of recorded observationscan often be accounted forwith explanations that sound good butare nonetheless wrong. Predictionsthat can be tested and verified, however,provide a sound standard bywhich a scientific theory can bejudged.The requirement that a scientifictheory makes predictions might seemto reject as unscientific any theory thatdescribes the past. However, scientifictheories that describe the past (such asthose set forth by geologists, paleontologists,and so forth) do make predictionsabout what will be observed inthe future. For example, if there was amass extinction at the boundary betweenthe Cretaceous and Tertiaryperiods more than 65 million yearsago, then a sample of sedimentary rockChapter 2The Nature ofScience andTechnology

18Chapter 2The Nature ofScience andTechnologyat or below that boundary would beexpected (at many sites) to show amuch greater number (and diversity) offossils than would a sample of rockimmediately above it. Furthermore, ifthe extinction were to have been causedby the impact of an asteroid, the layerof “dust” falling after the impact wouldbe expected to show signs of the explosivenature of the impact and the compositionof the asteroid.The three principles of the scientificmethod cannot be used to determinehow the predictions of scientifictheory should be tested. Nor can theybe used to create new and even strongertheories. Inventing ways to testexisting theories or devising new theoriesrequires creativity as well as knowledge.The opportunity to makediscoveries through creative experimentsis what attracts many youngpeople to science careers. As with allendeavors, practice, experience, and theopportunity to watch others engaged insimilar efforts are highly beneficial tostudents.Scientific Practiceand EthicsScientists have the responsibility toreport fully and openly the results oftheir experiments even if those resultsdisagree with their favored hypothesis.They also have the responsibility toreport fully and openly the methods ofan experiment. For a scientist to hidedata, arbitrarily eliminate anomalies ina data set, or conceal how an experimentwas conducted is to invite errorsand make those errors difficult to discover.All scientists must seek explanationsfor anomalous observations andresults in order to improve their proceduresor to discover something new.They also carefully consider questionsraised by fellow scientists about theaccuracy of their experiments. Theseaccepted ethical practices of scientistsneed to be taught in the classroom at allgrade levels.Students sometimes feel pressure tocome up with the right or expectedanswer when performing an investigation.Some may even alter the results ofan experiment because they assume anerror has been made in observing, measuring,or recording data. Teachersmust encourage students to report theresults they actually get. Variations inresults allow students the opportunitiesto find problems with a procedure or anapparatus. Learning that such problemscome with doing science and learninghow to detect and correct these problemsare as important as reaching thenominal goal of an investigation. Todiscard the unusual in order to reachthe expected is to guarantee that nothingbut the expected will ever be seen.That step would be a distortion of science.Science and TechnologyTechnology is the repeatable andcontrolled manipulation of the naturalworld to serve human ends. A deepunderstanding of a phenomenon is notnecessary for successful technology. Forexample, the Romans did not understandwhy mixtures of limestone powder,clay, sand, and water hardened, butthey had no trouble using the result tomortar bricks. Still, the most spectaculartechnological advances often havefollowed from an understanding of fundamentalscientific principles. Ancient

19peoples, for example, used the principlesof genetic heredity to improve afew characteristics of some crops andanimals, but not until Gregor Mendel’sexperiments on garden peas in themid-1800s were the patterns of hereditydiscovered. Mendel’s experimentsmarked the birth of genetic science,which has led to today’s high-yieldagricultural technologies and a new erain medicine. The Roman civilizationand other earlier civilizations had theability to combine and utilize raw materials.Only after scientists had sufficientknowledge of physics andchemistry to take those raw materialsapart and rebuild them on a moleculeby-molecule(or even an atom-byatom)basis did the stuff of today’stechnologies—from semiconductorsand superconductors to a bewilderinglydiverse array of synthetics—come intobeing.As new scientific principles arediscovered, new technologies can bedevised, and the use of existing technologiescan be expanded. The newtechnologies available even in the nextdecade cannot be predicted, but newtechnologies will certainly be needed tocope with foreseeable problems, suchas human population growth, environmentalpollution, and finite energyresources. It is also certain that technologicaladvancements will be neededfor the problems that no one has foreseen.Teachers have the opportunity toincorporate technology, help studentsmaster the science standards, enhancestudents’ abilities to use technologyeffectively, and help students understandthe relationship between scienceand technology. Technology may servethe following functions in education:• Enable teachers and students to haveaccess to the latest information inscience. In grade seven of the sciencestandards, Standard 7.b calls for studentsto “use a variety of print andelectronic resources (including theWorld Wide Web) to collect informationand evidence as part of a researchproject.” 1 Any Internet usage,of course, must comply with the provisionsof applicable law and policiesadopted by the local educationalagency (LEA).• Provide students with experience ineffective communication. The investigationand experimentation standardsprovide a range of skillsbeginning in kindergarten (“Communicateobservations orally andthrough drawings”) 2 and culminatingin grades nine through twelve (“Selectand use appropriate tools andtechnology [such as computer-linkedprobes, spreadsheets, and graphingcalculators] to perform tests, collectdata, analyze relationships, and displaydata”). 3• Further scientific study in business,industry, and postsecondary education.The technologies used to addressenergy needs are discussed inChapter 4 under “Grade Six,” andchips and semiconductors are discussedunder “Grade Eight.” In thehigh school grades, the science standardscall for students to “know howgenetic engineering (biotechnology)is used to produce novel biomedicaland agricultural products.” 4• Become integrated in instructionwhere it is likely to improve studentlearning. The focus must be on learningscience and using technology as atool rather than as an end in itself.Chapter 2The Nature ofScience andTechnology

20Chapter 2The Nature ofScience andTechnologyThe Mathematics Framework containsan important precaution that equallyapplies to science: “The use of technologyin and of itself does not ensureimprovements in student achievement,nor is its use necessarily betterfor student achievement than aremore traditional methods.” 5• Simulate or model investigations andexperiments that would be too expensive,time-consuming, dangerous, orotherwise impractical. Investigationand Experimentation Standard 1.grequires students in grades ninethrough twelve to “recognize the usefulnessand limitations of models andtheories as scientific representationsof reality.” 6• Support universal access to sciencecontent through assistive technologies,consistent with a student’s 504accommodation plan 7 or individualizededucation program. 8Resources for TeachingScience and TechnologyAs students learn the skills andknowledge called for in the ScienceContent Standards for California PublicSchools they will come to know implicitlythe nature of science. They willunderstand the key concepts, principles,and theories of science and willhave practiced scientific inquiry. Theguidance and information provided inthis framework may be used to implementeffective science education programsin public schools from kindergartenthrough grade twelve that willprovide students with the opportunityto become scientifically literate andunderstand the nature of science andtechnology.The number of electronic resourcesfor science education is increasing rapidly.The California Learning ResourceNetwork provides a way for educators to identifysupplemental electronic learning resources,including Web sites, that simultaneouslymeet local instructionalneeds and align with the Science ContentStandards and this framework.Educators should comply with applicablepolicies of their school districtsregarding Internet resources.When science and technology arediscussed in the context of history andhistorical figures, instruction is oftenenriched. The History–Social ScienceContent Standards follows this principle.9 The standards:• Include references to scientists suchas Ben Franklin, Louis Pasteur,George Washington Carver, MarieCurie, Albert Einstein, NicolausCopernicus, Galileo Galilei, JohannesKepler, and Isaac Newton.• Cover inventors such as ThomasEdison, Alexander Graham Bell, theWright brothers, James Watt, EliWhitney, and Henry Bessemer.• Encompass the effects of the informationand computer revolutions,changes in communication, advancesin medicine, and improvements inagricultural technology.Science and SocietyScience does not take place in asecret place isolated from the rest ofsociety. Nor are the technologies thatit creates shielded from public scrutiny.The continued expansion of scientificknowledge and the new technologiesthat spin off that knowledge will inevi-

21tably challenge citizens to rethinktheir ideas and beliefs. For example, asnew genetically modified crops andlivestock are developed by scientists,some people have expressed concernabout food safety and the ethics ofsuch practices. On the other hand,people in developing countries have acompelling interest to use the newtechnologies to rid themselves of famineand diseases. Those types of tradeoffsare likely to become the focus ofintense public discussion and politicaldebate.The presentation of some scientificfindings or practices may be troublingto students who genuinelybelieve that those findings or practicesconflict with their religious or philosophicalbeliefs. Dealing constructivelyand respectfully with thosebeliefs while holding firm to the natureof science is one of the greatestchallenges to public school teachers.Scientifically literate students needto understand clearly the major scientifictheories and the principles behindthe scientific method. They must alsounderstand that though the scientificmethod is a powerful process for predictingnatural phenomena, it cannotbe used to answer moral and aestheticquestions. Nor can it be used to testhypotheses based on supernatural intervention.Science exclusively concernsitself with predicting the occurrenceand consequences of natural events.This concern is explicitly expressed inStandard 7.10 of grade seven of theHistory–Social Science Content Standards:“Students analyze the historicaldevelopments of the Scientific Revolutionand its lasting effect on religious,political, and cultural institutions” 10The students go on to consider thisanalysis in terms of the roots of thescientific revolution, the significance ofnew scientific theories, the influence ofnew scientific rationalism on thegrowth of democratic ideas, and thecoexistence of science with traditionalreligious beliefs.Chapter 2The Nature ofScience andTechnologyNotes1. Science Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve.Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2000, p. 25.2. Ibid., p. 2.3. Ibid., p. 52.4. Ibid., p. 44.5. Mathematics Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten Through Grade Twelve. Sacramento:California Department of Education, 2000, p. 227.6. Science Content Standards, p. 52.7. A Section 504 accommodation plan is a document typically produced by school districts incompliance with the requirements of Section 504 of the federal Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Theplan specifies agreed-on services and accommodations for a student who, as the result of anevaluation, is determined to have a “physical or mental impairment [that] substantially limitsone or more major life activities.” In contrast to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act(IDEA), Section 504 allows a wide range of information to be contained in a plan: (1) the natureof the disability; (2) the basis for determining the disability; (3) the educational impact ofthe disability; (4) necessary accommodations; and (5) the least restrictive environment in whichthe student may be placed.

22Chapter 2The Nature ofScience andTechnology8. ­An individualized education program (IEP) is a written, comprehensive statement of the educational needs of a child with a disability and the specially designed instruction and related services to be employed to meet those needs. An IEP is developed (and periodically reviewed andrevised) by a team of individuals, including the parent(s) or guardian(s), knowledgeable aboutthe child’s disability. The IEP complies with the requirements of the federal IDEA and coverssuch items as (1) the child’s present level of performance in relation to the curriculum; (2)measurable annual goals related to involvement and progress in the curriculum; (3) specializedprograms (or program modifications) and services to be provided; (4) participation withnondisabled children in regular classes and activities; and (5) accommodation and modificationin assessments.9.­ History–Social Science Content Standards for California Public Schools, Kindergarten ThroughGrade Twelve. Sacramento: California Department of Education, 2001.10. Ibid., p. 31.