Near Threatened Amphibian Species - Amphibian Specialist Group

636Threatened Amphibians of the WorldRhacophorus taipeianus Liang and Wang, 1978This species is endemic to Nantou County, northern Taiwan, Province of China, where it has been recorded below1,500m asl. It is a common species. It inhabits orchards, forests and arable lands in hilly areas. It breeds in still-waterhabitats such as blocked ditches, rain pools, paddy fields, ponds and marshes. Paddy fields in the hilly areas are itsmajor breeding habitat. The main threat to this species is the decreasing area of paddy fields for breeding in as aresult of market-based decisions on what crops will be cultivated in the fields. Several protected areas are presentwithin its range and it is also a nationally protected species.Bibliography: Chou, W.-H. and Lin, J.-Y. (1997b), Fei, L. et al. (1999), Liang, Y.S. and Wang, C.S. (1978), Lue, K.-Y., Tu, M.-C. and Hsiang,G. (1999), MacKinnon, J. et al. (1996), Yang, Y.-J. (1998)Data Providers: Lue Kuangyang, Chou WenhaoTheloderma stellatum Taylor, 1962This species is known from south-eastern Thailand (Taylor 1962) with certainty, and there are referred populationsfrom southern Viet Nam (Orlov 1997b; Inger, Orlov and Darevsky 1999). It probably occurs more widely than currentrecords suggest, especially in areas between known sites, and it is expected to occur in Cambodia. It has beenrecorded at altitudes between 50 and 1,200m asl. It is generally a rare or uncommon species, and only small serieshave been collected. It is known from evergreen forest, and has also been recorded from a rubber plantation. It hasbeen heard calling from high in the canopy, and it breeds in water-filled tree holes, particularly in fallen rotting treetrunks. The main threat to this species is clearance or damage to remaining evergreen forests in its range due tosmallholder farming and selective logging. It occurs in protected areas in Thailand and Viet Nam (in Khao Sebaband Cat Tien National Parks, respectively), but ensuring that suitable habitat in Gia Lai Province, southern Viet Nam,becomes effectively protected would benefit this species.Bibliography: Inger, R.F., Orlov, N. and Darevsky, I.S. (1999), Murphy, R.W. (n.d.), Orlov, N.L. (1997b), Taylor, E.H. (1962)Data Providers: Peter Paul van Dijk, Tanya Chan-ardSpea hammondii (Baird, 1859)SCAPHIOPODIDAEWESTERN SPADEFOOTThis species occurs in the Central Valley and bordering foothills of California and along the Coast Ranges (southof San Francisco Bay) in the USA, southward into north-western Baja California, Mexico. It is found from near sealevel to 1,363m asl (Zeiner et al. (eds.) 1988, cited by Jennings and Hayes 1994), but usually below 910m asl (Stebbins1985b). Jennings and Hayes (1994) mapped several dozen localities with extant populations. The total adultpopulation size is unknown but is likely to be at least many thousands. Since the 1950s, substantial declines havebeen noted in the Central Valley and southern California. In southern California, more than 80% of the previouslyoccupied habitat has been developed or converted to incompatible uses; more than 30% has been similarly affectedin northern and central California (Jennings and Hayes 1994). In both the US and Mexican portions of its range,this species is still common where appropriate habitat exists. It lives in a wide range of habitats, from lowlands tofoothills, in grasslands, open chaparral and pine-oak woodlands. It is fossorial, and breeds in temporary rain poolsand slow-moving streams (for example, in areas flooded by intermittent streams). It also breeds in stock tanks andother artificial water bodies as long as the surrounding habitat is not developed for human settlement or irrigatedagriculture. The main threat to this species is the development and conversion of habitat to incompatible uses suchas human settlement and irrigated agriculture, which destroy the terrestrial habitat and change the hydroperiod oftemporary pools. Recruitment may be unsuccessful in pools with bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) or introduced fish (forexample, at least historically, those containing mosquitofi sh (Gambusia) used for mosquito abatement). This speciesis protected in a few small Nature Conservancy preserves, some US Department of Defence, Department of Energy,and Bureau of Land Management lands, some National Monuments, and some National Wildlife Refuges. It alsooccurs within the University of California’s Natural Reserve System. This species is also covered in some US federalHabitat Conservation Plans, but is is not listed by US state or federal agencies.Taxonomy: Spea multiplicata formerly was included in this species, which is frequently considered a synonym of S. multiplicata.Bibliography: Behler, J.L. and King, F.W. (1979), Blackburn, L., Nanjappa, P. and Lannoo, M.J. (2001), Bragg, A.N. (1965), Brown, H.A.(1976), Ervin, E.L. et al. (2001), Hall, J.A. (1998), Jennings, M.R. and Hayes, M.P. (1994), Morey, S. and Reznick, D. (2004), Stebbins, R.C.(1954), Stebbins, R.C. (1985a), Tanner, W.W. (1989), Wiens, J.J. and Titus, T.A. (1991)Data Providers: Georgina Santos-Barrera, Geoffrey Hammerson, Steven MoreyCAUDATAAmbystoma barbouriKraus and Petranka, 1989AMBYSTOMATIDAESTREAMSIDE SALAMANDERThis species occurs in the USA in central Kentucky, south-western Ohio, south-eastern Indiana, and also Tennessee(Scott et al. 1997). There are isolated populations in Livingston County, Kentucky, and westernmost West Virginia.Kraus and Petranka (1989) and Kraus (1996) provide further information on this species’ range. Its total adult populationsize is unknown. This species can be found in upland deciduous forest in regions of undulating topography, mostly inareas with limestone bedrock, although some are found in non-calcareous regions with sandstone and shale (Krausand Petranka 1989). Adults are usually found underground, under rocks, leaves, and logs. This species breeds mostfrequently in first and second order streams, and typically deposits eggs singly on undersides of flat rocks in poolsand (less often) in faster-flowing regions. It less frequently breeds in ponds. Its breeding is most successful in streamsthat are seasonally ephemeral, have natural barriers (such as cascades and waterfalls) that prevent the upstreammovement of predatory fish, and that have large flat rocks for oviposition (Kraus and Petranka 1989). This speciesmight be restricted to upper portions of breeding streams because of fish predation (Petranka 1983). Larvae in streampools in Kentucky were most abundant among filamentous green alga (Cladophora), which provides protection frompredators and supports prey organisms (Holomuzki 1989). The main threats to this species have been destruction ofnative forests and their replacement with pastureland or residential areas (Petranka 1998). Stream drying, flooding,and predation were observed to be important sources of mortality in Kentucky by Petranka (1984b). Additional protectionof forested ravines is needed as a conservation measure for this species in the Bluegrass region of Kentucky,which is undergoing rapid urbanization.Taxonomy: This species was formerly included in Ambystoma texanum (Kraus and Petranka 1989).Bibliography: Anderson, J.D. (1967), Barbour, R.W. (1971), Blackburn, L., Nanjappa, P. and Lannoo, M.J. (2001), Collins, J.T. (1990),Green, N.B. and Pauley, T.K. (1987), Holomuzki, J.R. (1989), Jones, T.R., Kluge, A.G. and Wolf, A.J. (1993), Kraus, F. (1985), Kraus, F. (1988),Kraus, F. (1996), Kraus, F. and Petranka, J.W. (1989), Minton Jr, S.A. (1972), Minton Jr, S.A. (2001), Petranka, J.W. (1983), Petranka, J.W.(1984a), Petranka, J.W. (1984b), Pfingsten, R.A. and Downs, F.L. (1989), Scott, A.F. et al. (1997), Shaffer, H.B., Clark, J.M. and Kraus, F.(1991), Storfer, A. (1999)Data Providers: Geoffrey HammersonAmphiuma pholeter Neill, 1964AMPHIUMIDAEONE-TOED AMPHIUMAThis species can be found in the lower Gulf coastal plain of Alabama, Florida, and Georgia, USA. It is nearly endemicto the Florida panhandle and adjacent Alabama (west to the western side of Mobile Bay) and Georgia (with two knownlocalities), but with occurrences extending southward along the Gulf Coast of peninsular Florida to Levy and HernandoCounties. It appears not to range more than 80-120km inland from the coast (Means 1996). The total adult populationsize is unknown. This species is found in deep, organic, liquid muck in alluvial swamps of low-gradient second or thirdorder streams, spring runs, and occasionally swampy terrace streams in floodplains. It is very habitat-dependent, somaintenance of non-polluted muck is essential for its survival. Potential threats to this species include exploitationand degradation of surrounding habitat (for logging and mining activities, and for the disposal of power plant sludge,for example). Stream pollution (for example by agricultural runoff), and groundwater disturbance are also potentialthreats. It occurs in very few protected areas, so its habitats are at significant risk. To assist its conservation, furtherwork is needed to verify extant occurrences and field-check the type locality (Levy County). Surveys for this species inmanaged areas within its range need to be conducted, and potential sites should be identified from topographic maps.Entire drainage basins (including uplands) need to be preserved, and occurrences in at least 10 different drainages,preferably including at least one occurrence each in Georgia and Alabama, should be protected. Direct exploitationof this species needs to be monitored, and state limits on collecting should be established if exploitation is extensive.Pollution of its habitat also needs to be prevented.Bibliography: Bartlett, R.D. and Bartlett, P.P. (1999), Behler, J.L. and King, F.W. (1979), Blackburn, L., Nanjappa, P. and Lannoo, M.J.(2001), Bury, R.B., Dodd, Jr., C.K. and Fellers, G.M. (1980), Conant R. (1975), Frost, D.R. (1985), Karlin, A.A. and Means, D.B. (1994),Means, D.B. (1992), Means, D.B. (1996), Moler, P.E. (1992b)Data Providers: Geoffrey Hammerson, Dale JacksonAndrias japonicus (Temminck, 1836)CRYPTOBRANCHIDAEJAPANESE GIANT SALAMANDERThis species is endemic to Japan and is distributed in western Honshu, Shikoku and Kyusyu. It is an uncommon species.It lives and breeds in small to large rivers, preferring clear water, usually in forested areas. It has occasionallybeen found in rivers in urban areas. The adults can tolerate a wide variety of habitats, but are not necessarily able tobreed in these habitats. Females lay their eggs in a string underwater and the larvae then develop in the streams. It isestimated to take at least fi ve years for the young to reach maturity. This species is threatened by dam construction,the construction of artificial concrete riverbanks, and the alteration of river courses. Suitable habitats are thereforebecoming increasingly fragmented. It might also be facing competition from the introduced Chinese Giant Salamander(Andrias davidianus). Genetic uniformity in this species is high, which increases its vulnerability to threatening processes.It has been designated as a special natural monument in Japan and is totally protected, and its habitats areprotected in some areas. Asa Zoo has been breeding this species in captivity since 1979 (although no re-introductionshave been performed), and it also rescues individuals from degraded habitats. CITES Appendix I.Bibliography: Environment Agency (2000), Matsui, M. (2000e), Sengoku, S. et al. (1996), Zippel, K. (2005)Data Providers: Yoshio Kaneko, Masafumi MatsuiCryptobranchus alleganiensis (Daudin, 1803)HELLBENDERThis species occurs in the USA from southern Illinois (with a recent record from Wabash River; Smith 1961; Brandonand Ballard 1994; Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999), southern Indiana (Minton 1972), Ohio (Pfingsten and Downs1989), Pennsylvania (McCoy 1982), and south-western and south-central New York (Bishop 1941), to central andsouth-central Missouri (Johnson 1987), northern Arkansas (the Black River system and north fork of White River, andEleven Point River, Randolph County; Trauth, Wilhide and Daniel 1992), northern Mississippi, Alabama (Tennessee Riverdrainage; Mount 1975), northern Georgia, the western Carolinas (Martof et al. 1980), western Virginia (Tobey 1985),West Virginia (throughout, west of the Allegheny Front; Green and Pauley 1987), and extreme western Maryland. InKentucky, near the centre of the range, Barbour (1971) regarded the species “most common in the upper reaches ofthe Cumberland, Kentucky, and Licking river systems”. In Tennessee, no records exist for locations west of the TennesseeRiver (Redmond and Scott 1996). Collections are known from south-eastern Kansas (Neosha River), but theseare likely to have been from introduced individuals and not from a naturally occurring population (Collins 1982, 1993;W.H. Busby pers. comm.). There are early reports, of uncertain validity, of Hellbenders in Iowa (Nickerson and Mays1973b). Old records from the Great Lakes (Lake Erie) drainage, New Jersey, and Louisiana are probably erroneous(Pfi ngsten and Downs 1989; Harding 1997). The total adult population size is unknown, but the population is in overalldecline (although there are secure populations in many areas). It can be found in rocky, clear creeks and rivers, usuallywhere there are large rocks for shelter. It usually avoids water warmer than 20°C. Males prepare nests and attendeggs beneath large flat rocks or submerged logs. The principal threat to this species is degradation of habitat, sinceit is a habitat specialist with little tolerance of environmental change (Williams et al. 1981). It breathes primarily(approximately 90%) through the skin (Guimond 1970) and is therefore dependent on cool, well-oxygenated, fl owingwater. Construction of dams stops swift water flow and submerges riffles. Logging, mining, road construction andmaintenance, and other activities, can cause extensive sedimentation that covers the loose rock and gravel importantas nest sites, and for shelter and food production. In Illinois, “most former rocky habitat has been buried under silt”(Phillips, Brandon and Moll 1999). Chemical pollutants and acid mine drainage are probably destructive, especially toeggs and larvae. Thermal pollution of water with a consequent oxygen loss would also be detrimental. Several streamsin Alabama “have been polluted, impounded, or otherwise modifi ed to the extent that they are, from all indications,incapable of supporting hellbender populations” (Mount 1975). Injuries and deaths sometimes also result when the