Tracing the Maze - Equitable Tourism Options
Tracing the Maze - Equitable Tourism Options
Tracing the Maze - Equitable Tourism Options
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ContentsIntroduction ~ 03Section 1: Women and <strong>Tourism</strong> Policy• y Women and <strong>Tourism</strong>: Unfulfilled Promises, Continuing Myths, EQUATIONS ~ 06• y Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>: Realities, Dilemmas and Opportunities, EQUATIONS ~ 14• y Analysing <strong>the</strong> Gender Dimensions of <strong>Tourism</strong> as a Development Strategy, Lucy Ferguson ~ 22Section 2: <strong>Tourism</strong> and Gender Relations• y <strong>Tourism</strong> Processes and Gender Relations: Issues for Exploration and Intervention, Indra Munshi ~ 42• y <strong>Tourism</strong>, Liberalization, Gender and <strong>the</strong> GATS, Mariama Williams ~ 55• y <strong>Tourism</strong> and its Impact on Gender: A Case Study of Goa, Anita Haladi ~ 63Section 3: Women’s Engagement with <strong>Tourism</strong> - Issues and Concerns• y Women in Bangalore’s Hotel Industry, EQUATIONS ~ 75• y Women Speak! Women’s Engagement with Community Based and Nature Based <strong>Tourism</strong>,EQUATIONS ~ 103• y Silence is Not Spoken Here: Women, HIV and <strong>Tourism</strong>, EQUATIONS ~ 110Annexure:• y Code of Conduct for Safe and Honourable <strong>Tourism</strong>, Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Government of India ~ 136• y Opening Doors is not Enough: Equality, Equity and Empowerment is What Women Seek in <strong>Tourism</strong>,EQUATIONS ~ 141• y Global Report on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> 2010: Preliminary Findings, UNWTO - UN WOMEN ~ 145• y About <strong>the</strong> Authors ~ 1531
SECTION 01Women and <strong>Tourism</strong> Policy5
Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> ~Unfulfilled Promises, Continuing MythsEQUATIONS, 2011*AbstractThis introductory paper aims at taking stock of developments in <strong>the</strong> last decade inrelation to how women have fared in tourism development and processes in India.Drawing from published work including EQUATIONS own research, featured in thisdossier as well as trends in <strong>the</strong> media , it aims to examine if any of tourism promises towomen have been fulfilled and if any of <strong>the</strong> myths have been exposed.6On <strong>the</strong> world stage, one of <strong>the</strong> major claims beenmade with regard to women and tourism, is by<strong>the</strong> UNWTO on World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day 2007 - ‘<strong>Tourism</strong>Opens Doors for Women’. This claim was debatedby several civil society organisations includingEQUATIONS in its statement ‘Opening Doors is notEnough’ on World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day who asserted that<strong>the</strong> balance had not yet tilted in favour of womenand that even at <strong>the</strong> level of disaggregated data<strong>the</strong>re was little to show for tourism’s benefits towomen.There is growing academic and activist literaturepointing to <strong>the</strong> ways in which eroticisation oflabour and feminisation of low-income jobs in <strong>the</strong>entertainment industry exacerbate vulnerabilitiesof marginalised women ra<strong>the</strong>r than tending to‘empower’ <strong>the</strong>m. Civil society critique of tourismpractices in <strong>the</strong> last two decades has consistentlyanchored itself on <strong>the</strong> position that <strong>the</strong> expansionof women’s roles in <strong>the</strong> economic spheres throughincreased work participation is an unsatisfactoryindicator of gender equality in tourism.Subsequently UNWTO and UN Women (formerlyUNIFEM) have been working toge<strong>the</strong>r to bringgender to <strong>the</strong> forefront of tourism, promotinggender equality, women’s empowerment and <strong>the</strong>mainstreaming of gender issues in national tourismpolicies and corporate decisions. The outcome of<strong>the</strong>se efforts is <strong>the</strong> Global Report on Women in<strong>Tourism</strong> 2010, <strong>the</strong> preliminary findings of which havebeen released. 1 Focused on developing countries,<strong>the</strong> report aims to develop a quantitative frameworkfor monitoring women working in tourism, andmakes <strong>the</strong> claim that tourism has <strong>the</strong> potential tobe a vehicle for <strong>the</strong> empowerment of women. Thisis promising and we need to wait for <strong>the</strong> actualreport to be able to engage in a substantive waywith <strong>the</strong> research methodology and analysis. Thatbeing said this introductory paper spans <strong>the</strong> issuesbased more on trends from <strong>the</strong> media, EQUATIONSown engagement with tourism development in <strong>the</strong>country, and <strong>the</strong> voices and perceptions of womenengaged in different roles.At <strong>the</strong> national level, starting from <strong>the</strong> declarationof ‘Women’s Empowerment Year’ in 2001 byGovernment of India, 2 <strong>the</strong> formulation of ‘Nationalpolicy for <strong>the</strong> Empowerment of Women 2001 3 andestablishing ‘National Mission for Empowermentof Women in 2010 by Ministry of Women and ChildDevelopment 4 is a long journey to ensure all rounddevelopment of women. The Working Group andsub-groups on Empowerment of Women wereformulated in 2006 to engender planning processes.There are initiatives taken by <strong>the</strong> Ministry ofWomen and Child Development to identify gaps inexisting laws. Important changes have taken placein <strong>the</strong> legal framework including amendments inlaws. Landmark judgments have been recorded inrecent years on cases relating to sexual harassmentat <strong>the</strong> work place, divorce, maintenance rights andguardianship. There has been a push to mainstreamgender concerns into various policies, programmesand action of Central as well as State governmentsthrough innovative tools and processes suchas gender budgeting which tracks <strong>the</strong> planningprocess for targeting public expenditure in favor ofwomen.
Corresponding to <strong>the</strong> push for gender sensitivityin planning process, <strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> hasacknowledged tourism industry with a strongfemale presence and placed this as <strong>the</strong> reasonwhy gender sensitisation and ensuring equalrights to women are important concerns of <strong>the</strong>Ministry. 5 <strong>Tourism</strong> is seen to be a priority sectoron <strong>the</strong> grounds of having extensive forward andbackward economic linkages that build overallincome, employment, especially for women, youthand disabled persons, <strong>the</strong>reby, bringing greatersocial equity and justice. The Ministry has takeninitiative to include <strong>the</strong> gender component in itspolicy statements and projects when referringto eco-tourism and rural tourism. The NationalPolicy of <strong>Tourism</strong> has identified eco-tourism as ameans to ending unemployment, creating newskills, enhancing status of women thus, facilitatinggrowth of a more just and fair social order. 6These are fairly ambitious intentions and it isimportant to see <strong>the</strong> extent to which intentionshave translated to results and changes on <strong>the</strong>ground.The Impact of <strong>Tourism</strong> on WomenEmployment Opportunities Offered by <strong>Tourism</strong>:To start with <strong>the</strong> much publicised role of tourism ingenerating employment, it is true that <strong>the</strong> sectoremploys large number of women but genderedpatterns in tourism careers and employment areequally well documented. The preliminary findingsof <strong>the</strong> UNWTO - UN Women Global Report reinforcethis trend. Concentration of women in lower gradejobs, invisibility of women labour and wage disparityis documented by <strong>the</strong> Global Report on Women in<strong>Tourism</strong>: 2010 7 recently published by UNWTO - UNWomen. The report highlights that:• y Women are well represented in service andclerical level jobs but poorly represented atprofessional levels.• y Women in tourism are typically earning 10% to15% less than <strong>the</strong>ir male counterparts.• y A large amount of unpaid work is being carriedout by women in family tourism businesses.The industry segregates women into areas ofemployment which commercialize <strong>the</strong>ir perceiveddomestic skills and “feminine” characteristics. Theattitude towards domestic skills and feminine natureof work has fur<strong>the</strong>r links with lower economic gains.The paper on Women in Bangalore’s Hotel Industryby EQUATIONS has documented <strong>the</strong> vertical andhorizontal segregation along with <strong>the</strong> workingconditions influencing <strong>the</strong>ir career prospects.<strong>Tourism</strong> provides a market to harness women’straditional skills and knowledge and thus offeran alternate source of income. However <strong>the</strong>irparticipation in tourism reinforces existing genderrelations as well as extension of <strong>the</strong>ir traditionalroles. This is particularly visible in handloom, souvenirand textile sectors where women are concentratedin work which has as its basis <strong>the</strong>ir traditionalknowledge and skills. While <strong>the</strong>y undeniably reapeconomic benefit out of <strong>the</strong> opportunities beingthrown up by tourism, <strong>the</strong> form of participation ismore covert leading to invisibility of women’s labor.This is more acute in <strong>the</strong> case of women workingas craftsperson, home-stay facilities etc. Theyare not seen as ‘actual contributors’ to tourism,recognized as stakeholders and thus <strong>the</strong>ir interestsand concerns are overlooked in tourism planningprocesses.Even <strong>the</strong>ir contribution is recognized, <strong>the</strong>perception attached to <strong>the</strong> work involved into<strong>the</strong>se domain often results in <strong>the</strong>ir labor beingunder-estimated and under-valued. The measuresto include women through <strong>the</strong>se activities dotalk about women representation but rarely giveserious thought to <strong>the</strong> process as how to enablewomen to break boundaries of back stage roleand to take front stage role. Thus what getsneglected is <strong>the</strong> additional support and capacitybuilding for women in terms of skill building,linkage with market, accessibility to materials andcredit. There is a tendency to equate this type ofwomen’s involvement with women participation(an idea which would also imply assertion of <strong>the</strong>irrights and influence) which necessitates <strong>the</strong> needto examine <strong>the</strong> nature of women participation in<strong>the</strong>se activities. Questions that accompany thistrend are – <strong>the</strong> kind of opportunities being offeredand how? Does it streng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> existing divisionof labor or offer choices to women as to where and7
what kind of role <strong>the</strong>y want to play? Do <strong>the</strong>y have asay about how <strong>the</strong>y would prefer to use <strong>the</strong>ir skillswhile accessing those opportunities? Do <strong>the</strong>y haveinfluence to ask for <strong>the</strong> price of <strong>the</strong> services <strong>the</strong>yare offering?It is well established fact that <strong>the</strong> process andactivities of development are reflection of <strong>the</strong>form of relationships that prevails in society - <strong>the</strong>relationship between man and woman, <strong>the</strong> divisionof labour among <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong> role as defined by <strong>the</strong>society determines tourism activities. Given thissocio-cultural fabric of tourism process, accessibilityto <strong>the</strong> opportunities is ano<strong>the</strong>r challenge beforewomen. Patriarchal norms still have a stronghold on <strong>the</strong>ir mobility. In this respect, <strong>the</strong> paper<strong>Tourism</strong> Processes and Gender Relations: Issues forExploration and Intervention by Indra Munshi showshow <strong>the</strong> andocentric nature of tourism processalong with class and racial hierarchy advances <strong>the</strong>male viewpoint.There is a need to recognize <strong>the</strong> socio-culturaldimension of women’s inclusion and design<strong>the</strong>m into <strong>the</strong> strategies. Only creating economicopportunity is not enough until <strong>the</strong> processsignificantly alters <strong>the</strong> gendered power relations.The growth of tourism has a two way impact on<strong>the</strong> existing gender relations. On <strong>the</strong> one handit consolidates <strong>the</strong> existing gender relations bydenying women’s capacities to contribute in <strong>the</strong>planning and decision making process and confining<strong>the</strong>ir roles to traditional maintenance and nurturing.On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand it does create openings to involvewomen in activities that are male bastions.There are examples when women participation isarchitectured into some of tourism projects but<strong>the</strong>se initiatives require much attention to <strong>the</strong>socio-cultural context of women’s participation.The Endogenous <strong>Tourism</strong> Project is an example.The Endogenous <strong>Tourism</strong> Project- Rural <strong>Tourism</strong>Scheme (ETP-RTS) was a joint project ofGovernment of India- Ministry <strong>Tourism</strong> and UnitedNations Development Programme (GoI-UNDP)to support <strong>the</strong> rural tourism initiatives of <strong>the</strong> GoIwhich would serve to create sustainable livelihoodopportunities among low income communitiesliving in rural areas. 8 One of <strong>the</strong> key characteristicof this model was empowerment of women, youthand o<strong>the</strong>r sections of <strong>the</strong> community through<strong>the</strong> creation of livelihood options and managerialresponsibilities. UNDP put down a norm that atleast half <strong>the</strong> participants in <strong>the</strong> capacity buildingactivities and decision making bodies promotedshould be women. 9 The institutional frameworklike Village <strong>Tourism</strong> Committee (VTC), Heritageand <strong>Tourism</strong> Committee (HTC) sought to addressgender issues by challenging existing powerstructures, but social structures proved too hardto break through. The strong resistance by <strong>the</strong>men towards <strong>the</strong> participation of women in anyof <strong>the</strong> decision making forums was quite evidentwith women being completely absent from ofdecision-making structures and process relatedto tourism. EQUATIONS paper ‘Women Speak!Women’s Engagement with Community Based andNature Based <strong>Tourism</strong>’ explores <strong>the</strong> opportunitiescreated by tourism, <strong>the</strong> spaces available to womenand <strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong>se opportunities haveaccommodated women skills as well as <strong>the</strong>irconcerns.Affecting Lives and Livelihoods:<strong>Tourism</strong> has encroached on traditional livelihoodsand increased <strong>the</strong> drudgery on women. Theexpansion of <strong>the</strong> tourism industry has, in manyareas displaced communities, distancing <strong>the</strong>m fromaccess to natural resources, a phenomenon thatimpacts women <strong>the</strong> most. From beach destinationslike Kovalam and Goa, to <strong>the</strong> serene Uttarakhand,tourism has broken down <strong>the</strong> earlier distribution ofroles, with women having to bear greater burdenof household chores. Before tourism became aprovider of lowly jobs as guides, touts and masseursand sellers of trinkets, when fishing and agriculturewas <strong>the</strong> way of life, women and men used to bearequal responsibilities for livelihoods, with mencatching <strong>the</strong> fish and women selling <strong>the</strong> catch. With<strong>the</strong> fishing grounds gone, men have become partof <strong>the</strong> tourism industry, and women confined to<strong>the</strong> four walls, <strong>the</strong>ir importance within <strong>the</strong> familyreduced and <strong>the</strong>ir empowerment reduced, as mendo not give <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> same respect when <strong>the</strong>ywere part of <strong>the</strong> process of earning <strong>the</strong> family’slivelihoods.In <strong>the</strong> hill areas of north India, as men become tourguides in <strong>the</strong> tourist spots of <strong>the</strong> higher reachesof Himalayas, women have to bear <strong>the</strong> burden of8
agriculture. In <strong>the</strong> hill areas, men in jobs, any kindof jobs are looked up to as “being in service” andwomen’s contribution through agriculture goesunnoticed and unsung. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, with home staysbecoming a new source of livelihood, <strong>the</strong> burdenon women is even greater, as <strong>the</strong>y have to fetchwater and fuel, and cook not only for <strong>the</strong> family butalso for <strong>the</strong> tourists, which is by and large part of<strong>the</strong>ir traditional role. Therefore, <strong>the</strong>ir contributionremains invisible that turns <strong>the</strong> opportunity intoburden. The tourists are also an intrusion into <strong>the</strong>familial space, with women expected to keep awayfrom <strong>the</strong>m, which means <strong>the</strong>y have to fur<strong>the</strong>risolate <strong>the</strong>mselves in <strong>the</strong> interiors of <strong>the</strong> house.The rampant growth of tourism industry has ledto <strong>the</strong> scarcity of resources such as water, landand environmental degradation. In Pilikula NisargaDhama, one of <strong>the</strong> tourist destinations in Karnataka,government acquired <strong>the</strong> land for a Lake Gardenand amusement park. Due to large scale tourismdevelopment <strong>the</strong> local community is denied of <strong>the</strong>access to <strong>the</strong> pond and <strong>the</strong> area is facing acuteshortage of water.Inflation of prices of local goods is ano<strong>the</strong>r falloutof tourism development. The higher end of <strong>the</strong>industry as well as tourists can afford higher pricesand <strong>the</strong>y tend to corner <strong>the</strong> market. But <strong>the</strong> bruntof this price rise is borne by <strong>the</strong> local community,who cannot afford to buy commodities at such highprices on a daily basis. Women suffer <strong>the</strong> most dueto <strong>the</strong> price inflation, as once again it is <strong>the</strong> womenwho take care of <strong>the</strong> needs of <strong>the</strong> family especially<strong>the</strong> needs like food. Additionally, <strong>the</strong>y spend moretime at <strong>the</strong> market negotiating over <strong>the</strong> prices ofessential commodities especially food items. Italso affect <strong>the</strong>ir health and well being as price riseresults in reduced amount of food availability andusually it is <strong>the</strong> women who go without food orhave to manage with what ever less amount thatis available.Commoditisation of Women:The language of patriarchy, heterosexuality andtourism promotion are inter linked primarilyaddressed to <strong>the</strong> need of male tourists. Thelanguage and <strong>the</strong> images used to market tourismcreate certain images about <strong>the</strong> place and womenin tourist’s mind. Along with gender, racial and classhierarchy also matters where dark women fromdeveloping countries or poor background are seenas available.The marketing of tourism is one area which featureswomen prominently. One wonders about <strong>the</strong>intention underlying such promotional activities. Is itto market tourism or to market women as a tourismproduct? The marketing of tourism has interpreted<strong>the</strong> leisure activity as a hedonistic pursuit, ra<strong>the</strong>rthan a healthy voyage of discovery and anopportunity to rejuvenate <strong>the</strong> body and <strong>the</strong> mind.Such marketing of tourism is a global phenomenon.From Bahamas to Thailand, from <strong>the</strong> Gold Coast toSri Lanka and to Goa, tourism is identified with anopportunity to have sex. Generally <strong>the</strong> brochuresof beach resorts show women in bikinis lolling onbeaches in order to attract male tourists. Goa isa case in point. <strong>Tourism</strong> here is synonymous sex,prostitution, alcohol, drugs and <strong>the</strong> attendantdangers.The goal of generating revenue by using seductivelanguage with images of women has made womenvulnerable on various fronts. It starts with <strong>the</strong>perception about women as sex object and goes to<strong>the</strong> issues like trafficking, flesh trade and HIV/AIDS.With sex tourism being <strong>the</strong> most negative andprominent example, <strong>the</strong>re is a significant amountof sexual objectification of women working in <strong>the</strong>tourism industry. EQUATIONS paper Women in<strong>Tourism</strong>: Realities, Dilemmas and Opportunitiesdemonstrate how women are expected to dressin an “attractive” manner, to look beautiful (i.e.slim, young, pretty) and to “play along” withsexual harassment by customers. For advertisingand marketing, stereotypical images of womenare in many cases part of <strong>the</strong> tourism product.Friendly smiling women, fitting certain standardsof attractiveness, who seem to be waiting tosubmissively serve <strong>the</strong> customer’s every wish arebeing portrayed. Women working at destinationsas well as indigenous women are shown in astereotypical way in tourism brochures and o<strong>the</strong>rmaterial. Women are often used to promotetourism, even if not linked to sexual exploitation.Beautiful, smiling women are often picked tocover brochures and o<strong>the</strong>r promotional material.Indigenous women are also used in promotional9
materials and art of <strong>the</strong> area, depicting <strong>the</strong>m as acultural attraction. Even more disturbing is how <strong>the</strong>tribal woman is represented as exotic and desirable.Brochures and promotional materials are repletewith phrases such as “a Reang belle with traditionaljewellery”, “a smiling young Tripura girl”, “Khasibelle in dance costume” or just “tribal women”.Commoditisation is evident – a traditional motifbecomes an “artefact” or “souvenir”, traditionaldresses and accessories – “costumes” and ancestraltraditions – an “experience”. 10Employment opportunities in <strong>the</strong> tourism and travelsector have traditionally been associated withobjectification and sex tourism in South East Asiaand in some Latin American and Caribbean Basincountries as also in African countries like Malawi.With greater international awareness about <strong>the</strong>indignity and human rights violation that governsex tourism, and increased and sustained resistancefrom civil society groups, country governments andtourism operators have toned down advertising sextourism with <strong>the</strong> wantonness that it was peddledsome years ago (as sea, sun, sand and sex), but <strong>the</strong>debate continues whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> international effortsto enhance awareness have had any effect on sextourism at all.EQUATIONS paper on Women and HIV/AIDSshows how <strong>the</strong> projection of women in tourismpromotional material along with <strong>the</strong>ir alienationfrom traditional livelihoods and resources, patternsof employment, and socio-economic status – cometoge<strong>the</strong>r to make <strong>the</strong> position of women in tourismprecarious indeed. Women in tourism are eroticisedand discriminated against; <strong>the</strong> natural outcome ofthis has been <strong>the</strong> rise of sex tourism. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, italso includes media articles to confirm <strong>the</strong> growingnexus between tourism and HIV/AIDS.The first victims of such tourism are women,particularly young girls and boys. In order to meet<strong>the</strong> demand of <strong>the</strong> predatory male tourists, <strong>the</strong>industry has looked <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, and even providedpassive encouragement to trafficking. Traffickingby organised gangs has assumed disturbingdimensions as girls from north Karnataka and <strong>the</strong>Konkan region and sou<strong>the</strong>rn Maharashtra andNepal are shanghaied into <strong>the</strong> sex work industryin Goa. The rise of <strong>the</strong> moneyed middle class inIndia with its yen for <strong>the</strong> white skin has also seengirls from <strong>the</strong> erstwhile Eastern Bloc becoming sexworkers in Goa.The loss of dignity involved in such a development isonly one of <strong>the</strong> aspects of <strong>the</strong> tragedy. The problemwith sex work is that women who are driven intoit hardly ever can find ano<strong>the</strong>r, more dignified job.The lethal danger of HIV/AIDS constantly haunts<strong>the</strong>m, as do <strong>the</strong> depredations of <strong>the</strong> pimps and <strong>the</strong>police. It is a life that has no security of any sort.Most of <strong>the</strong> women from north Karnataka who aretrafficked return to <strong>the</strong>ir broken families after years,broken and many carrying <strong>the</strong> deadly virus. Most of<strong>the</strong> HIV/AIDS cases in north Karnataka have <strong>the</strong>irorigins in <strong>the</strong> sex shanties of Goa or <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>ls ofMumbai.The responsibility of <strong>the</strong> industry in encouragingsex tourism cannot be underplayed. Of late, <strong>the</strong>industry and <strong>the</strong> governments across <strong>the</strong> worldhave woken up and are making half-hearted effortsto cleanse tourism of its odium. For decades, <strong>the</strong>tourism industry consciously promoted tourism,implying directly or indirectly of <strong>the</strong> bounties of sexavailable in <strong>the</strong> tourism destinations.The Impact on Local Culture and Mores:<strong>Tourism</strong> has also brought in its train a culturalbaggage which is alien to most communities.The leisure activities of <strong>the</strong> tourist, many timesbohemian and hedonistic, have had <strong>the</strong> men andyoung men aping it. Alcoholism is common in mostof <strong>the</strong> tourist destinations. Crime and prostitutionis rife, in places in Mahabalipuram, which before itbecame a playground of <strong>the</strong> middle class of Chennaiand <strong>the</strong> tourists, devastating <strong>the</strong> fisher economy,and changing <strong>the</strong> cultural mores and live itselfforever. There is a tendency to perceive tourism asan exemption from behavioral norms set by socialstructure. It is believed that holidaying means beingaway from home and indulging in activities notsocially approved in general. This belief has hadvaried impact on local culture and mores whichin turn has intruded privacy of <strong>the</strong> place and hasaffected women’s mobility in public spaces.In Kovalam and Goa, where tourists flock in for <strong>the</strong>beaches, <strong>the</strong> scanty clothing worn by <strong>the</strong> touristsand <strong>the</strong> influx of sex workers from <strong>the</strong> erstwhile10
Soviet republics like Russia and Ukraine, <strong>the</strong> potseekingtourists from Europe and Israel have allbroken taboos. The impact is on women, as <strong>the</strong>ystruggle to keep <strong>the</strong> youngsters within <strong>the</strong> confinesof <strong>the</strong> family, resisting <strong>the</strong> undesirable changes,worrying about <strong>the</strong> future of <strong>the</strong>ir children, and <strong>the</strong>possible waywardness of <strong>the</strong>ir men folk.<strong>Tourism</strong> has contributes to a wide range of issues– many of which seem insignificant but detractfrom <strong>the</strong> quality of life of local residents. Intrusionon daily life, loss of privacy, and a sense ofcrowding contribute to ill feelings towards tourismdevelopment. (George:2005). 11Women in Governance - Rhetoric inCommitments: Compromising Goals:EQUATIONS paper ‘Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>: Realities,Dilemmas and Opportunities’ argues thatinternational, national and state level policieson tourism do state a general commitment towomen’s empowerment but rarely go beyond thatto understand and evolve specific measures.In general <strong>the</strong> political and economic forums thatstructure and drive tourism policy and tourismdevelopment are dominated by male economicinterests and agents. Capacitating women to take<strong>the</strong> leadership roles is missing. Silence on women’spotential to shape tourism policy and programmescontinue whilst infrastructure led developmenthas had a direct impact upon every woman. LucyFerguson’s paper ‘Analysing <strong>the</strong> Gender Dimensionsof <strong>Tourism</strong> as a Development Strategy’ shows thatdevelopment policies are not only ‘gender neutral’but also ‘gender blind’.The assumption inherent in <strong>the</strong> initiatives taken by<strong>the</strong> government is that women are readily available toabsorb <strong>the</strong> slack in demand or employment. Variousschemes can be examined where women are seenat receiving end but not in <strong>the</strong> role of influencersand shapers. The Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> has come upwith certain schemes like bed and breakfast, homestays facilities which seemingly present opportunityfor women to harness <strong>the</strong>ir potential and benefit ona commercial basis. However, it doesn’t include anyprocess like capacity building, building leadershipskills, awareness programme or institutional help toenable <strong>the</strong>m to take charge of <strong>the</strong> projects on <strong>the</strong>irown. Therefore, integration of women in tourismis being promoted with little attention paid to <strong>the</strong>challenges that women will face in accessing <strong>the</strong>seopportunities.Similarly, <strong>the</strong> interventions made to includewomen focus mostly on creating opportunitiesnot onto building <strong>the</strong>ir skills to access thoseopportunities. For instance in <strong>the</strong> case of women’sentrepreneurship related to cultural tourism <strong>the</strong>yface many typical obstacles - lack of capital to investin raw materials, scarcity of raw materials and <strong>the</strong>iravailability at reasonable rates, absence of directmarketing outlets, difficulty of access to urban area,production problems, lack of guidance in productdesign and development. The initiatives takenduring <strong>the</strong> 11th Five Year Plan which aimed at holisticgrowth and development of <strong>the</strong> handicrafts sectorbarely address <strong>the</strong> concerns of women artisans.Many promotional schemes like capacity buildingfor service provider for Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> project byMinistry of <strong>Tourism</strong>, six generic schemes - BabaSaheb Ambedkar Hastashilp Vikas Yojana, Designand Technical Up-gradation, Marketing Support andServices, Human Resource Development Scheme,Research & Development and Handicrafts ArtisansComprehensive Welfare Scheme make no mentionon how to transform de jure equity into de factoequity. In spite of significant contribution of womenin <strong>the</strong> sector, none of <strong>the</strong> schemes talks about howto ensure a large number of women artisans arebenefited by <strong>the</strong> schemes or how to capacitate<strong>the</strong>m to join <strong>the</strong> tourism development processas a confident partner. The Capacity Building forService Provider schemes for Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> projectcovers building capacity/design inputs related toart and craft skills, cultural and natural heritagebut with intention to develop tourism productand integration of target group with tourismsupply chain. Its quite clear that <strong>the</strong> focus of <strong>the</strong>seactivities are more on creating linkage with artisanas part of <strong>the</strong> tourism promotion and not to buildentrepreneurial skills among women.The process of including women is oftendisconnected with <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>ir participationin public spaces is inter-woven with socio-culturalnorms. These, <strong>the</strong>refore, require sensitivelydesigned interventions for building <strong>the</strong>ir capacityand generating awareness and social change before11
and during implementation of <strong>the</strong> projects. Merecreating opportunities will not increase women’sparticipation but may even backfire to increase<strong>the</strong>ir burden.The tourism policy starts with <strong>the</strong> aim to positiontourism as major engine of economic growthwhich limits its vision to women empowerment.Empowerment of women is seen narrowly where<strong>the</strong>re participation has been confined only toeconomic gains disregarding <strong>the</strong> fact that economicgains doesn’t necessarily transform into genderequality or women’s empowerment.Civil Society has critiqued that expansion of women’sroles in <strong>the</strong> economic spheres through increasedwork participation is an unsatisfactory indicator ofgender equality in tourism. In fact, experiences on<strong>the</strong> ground show that women displaced from <strong>the</strong>irtraditional livelihoods are forced to take up <strong>the</strong>opportunities offered by tourism in informal sector.There is no empowerment in <strong>the</strong> process and inmost cases <strong>the</strong>y have no say in <strong>the</strong> process.Measuring empowerment in quantifiable termsdoes not necessarily transform <strong>the</strong> power-relationsexerting influence on women participation.Introducing quota system can increase <strong>the</strong>ir numbersbut not <strong>the</strong>ir capacity to mould <strong>the</strong> developmentprocess in favor of women. Quantitative measuresof participation in development may not accuratelyreflect <strong>the</strong> degree of power which women are ableto exercise. Thereby, focusing only on quantityand not on <strong>the</strong> process can result in ano<strong>the</strong>rform of exclusion and does not acknowledge <strong>the</strong>complexities embedded in socio-cultural realities.Broader Questions Emerging from <strong>the</strong> Trends:The discussion above has brought followingchallenges to <strong>the</strong> fore that needs to be answered ifwomen are to be confident players and beneficiariesof tourism:1. How can tourism be shaped to be more equitableand gender just in <strong>the</strong> light of <strong>the</strong> andocentricnature of tourism process and activities? This is aquestion that should be uppermost on <strong>the</strong> mindsof policymakers considering that <strong>the</strong> majorgrowth in tourism is taking place in Asia. While<strong>the</strong> global average annual growth between 1995- 2020 is forecast around 4.1% and in Europe at 3%,<strong>the</strong> growth in Asia is around 6.3%. The main driversof this projected growth are China and India,both countries not known for gender sensitivity.Given <strong>the</strong> fact that women in Asia, particularlyin India enjoy less gender equality than <strong>the</strong>ircounterparts elsewhere, and that <strong>the</strong>y bear <strong>the</strong>burden of home chores, such growth is likely toonly increase <strong>the</strong> burden of drudgery on <strong>the</strong>m.2. What steps can be envisaged at <strong>the</strong> internationaland national level to rid tourism of its undesirableaspects such as commoditisation of womenand <strong>the</strong> attendant dangers of trafficking, sextourism, paedophilia and HIV/AIDS. Governmentsdependent on tourism revenue tend to be tardyin taking clear steps to protect women fromexploitation in tourism for <strong>the</strong> fear that it maydrive down tourist arrivals and would eventend to deny <strong>the</strong> existence of any problem.Hence, an overarching international conventionbanning sex tourism and asking governmentsto take specific and time-bound steps toimplement <strong>the</strong> provisions should be debated.3. How to make gender equality a fundamentalcomponent of sustainable tourism approach?This question entails many aspects such as whatkind of development paradigm we want to workwith? In that, where and how do we want tosee women? What about differences betweenwomen along caste, class and ethnicity lines?What strategies should be adopted to achievegender equality in spirit? There is a need topush Gender Development Index (GDI) as wellas Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) if wewant to broaden <strong>the</strong> narrow empowermentframework being used in tourism sector.4. What could be measures to increase participationof women in political spaces of tourism to tilt<strong>the</strong> tourism development process in favor ofwomen? Increasing <strong>the</strong> numbers of women indecision-making positions in political spaces doesnot in itself translate to greater empowermentfor women. Quantitative measures of women’sparticipation are inadequate as measures ofwomen’s empowerment. Measures to increase<strong>the</strong> quantity of women representatives need12
to be accompanied by measures to improve<strong>the</strong> quality of participation, in order to supportwomen’s empowerment and more attentionis needed to ways of assessing qualitativelywomen’s empowerment through politicalspaces. Hence confining <strong>the</strong>ir participation inquantifiable manner should be debated.11. Commodifying Local Culture for Rural Community<strong>Tourism</strong> Development: Theorizing <strong>the</strong>Commodification Process, George, Wanda, 2005http://msvu.academia.edu/WandaGeorge/Papers/435737/Commodifying_Local_Culture_for_Rural_Community_<strong>Tourism</strong>_Development_Theorizing_<strong>the</strong>_Commodification_ProcessEndnotes:* The paper was written by Surabhi Singh and S.Vidya based on a draft and framework by AashaRamesh (an independent researcher on gender anddevelopment issues).1. Global Report on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> 2010:Preliminary Findings, UNWTO & UN Women, 20112. Research Reference and Training Division, Ministryof Information and Broadcasting, Governmentof India http://www.rrtd.nic.in/INTERNATIONAL%20WOMEN.html3. Ministry of Women and Child Development,Government of India http://wcd.nic.in/4. Results Framework Document (RFD) for Ministryof Women and Child Development, 2010-2011 http://wcd.nic.in/5. Annual Report 2010-11, Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>. http://tourism.gov.in/AR2011n.pdf6. National <strong>Tourism</strong> Policy 2002, Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>and Culture, Government of India http://tourism.gov.in/policy/<strong>Tourism</strong>policy.pdf7. Global Report on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> 2010:Preliminary Findings, op. cit. p18. EQUATIONS was commissioned by UNDP toreview <strong>the</strong> process and learning to streng<strong>the</strong>n itas sustainable model of tourism. ‘Sustainability in<strong>Tourism</strong>: A Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> Model. A Review Report’2008.9. Ibid10. This is our Homeland - A Collection of Essays on <strong>the</strong>Betrayal of Adivasi Rights in India, EQUATIONS, 200713
Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> ~Realities, Dilemmas and OpportunitiesEQUATIONS, 2007*Abstract 1In 1950, <strong>the</strong> top 15 destinations of <strong>the</strong> world absorbed 88% of international arrivals,in 1970 this proportion dipped to 75% and even fur<strong>the</strong>r to 57% in 2005, reflecting<strong>the</strong> emergence of new destinations, many of <strong>the</strong>m in developing countries. In thiscontext, this paper explores what this growth has meant for women – particularly forwomen in destinations of <strong>the</strong> global south. To what extent do <strong>the</strong>y benefit from thisphenomenon? Has tourism opened doors for women? Has its unstoppable growthcontributed to women‘s empowerment? The paper examines <strong>the</strong> status of womenand <strong>the</strong>ir leadership in tourism, <strong>the</strong> nature of women’s employment in tourism,women in tourism’s informal sector, <strong>the</strong> effect of depletion of natural resources onwomen and <strong>the</strong> challenges to women’s rights as stakeholders in all aspects of tourismdevelopment.The <strong>Tourism</strong> Industry – On a Roll:Consistent growth and increasing diversification hasgiven <strong>the</strong> global tourism industry <strong>the</strong> reputation ofbeing one of <strong>the</strong> fastest growing economic sectorsworldwide. An ebullient World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisationreports (UNWTO) that international tourism is verymuch on <strong>the</strong> rise - <strong>the</strong> number of internationalarrivals grew from 25 million in 1950 to 842 millionin 2006 representing a 4.6% annual growth rate. Theincome generated by <strong>the</strong>se arrivals surpassing <strong>the</strong>growth rate of <strong>the</strong> world economy, grew at a rateof 11.2% during <strong>the</strong> same period, reaching aroundUS$ 735 billion in 2006.While in 1950, <strong>the</strong> top 15 destinations of <strong>the</strong> worldabsorbed 88% of international arrivals, in 1970 thisproportion dipped to 75% and even fur<strong>the</strong>r to 57% in2005, reflecting <strong>the</strong> emergence of new destinations,many of <strong>the</strong>m in developing countries. The UNWTOforecasts that international arrivals are expected toreach nearly 1.6 billion by <strong>the</strong> year 2020. Of <strong>the</strong>se,1.2 billion will be intraregional and 378 million will belong-haul travellers.Continuing world prosperity has clearly been <strong>the</strong>main driver behind this boom. Asia and <strong>the</strong> Pacificstand out as <strong>the</strong> motors of international tourismexpansion and <strong>the</strong> tourism juggernaut continues tomove notwithstanding manmade and natural crises.Emerging markets and developing economiesespecially in Asia, tourism promotion by nationalgovernments especially in developing regions,increased investment in infrastructure, marketingand advertising, development of domestic markets,liberalisation of air transport, growing intraregionalcooperation and a growing number of public-privatepartnerships are key factors in this expansion in <strong>the</strong>tourism business.So what does this growth mean for women –particularly for women in destinations of <strong>the</strong> globalsouth? To what extent do <strong>the</strong>y benefit from thisphenomenon? Has tourism opened doors for women?Has its unstoppable growth contributed to women‘sempowerment?Frameworks for Women’s Empowerment:The advancement of women and <strong>the</strong> achievementof equality between women and men is a matter ofhuman rights and a condition for social justice. Theseare essential to build a sustainable, just, secure14
and developed society. For decades now, throughvibrant movements and political struggles, womenhave challenged existing gender relations andpatriarchal systems to reframe <strong>the</strong> developmentdialogue. They have placed issues of violence,race, caste and o<strong>the</strong>r forms of discrimination thathit women <strong>the</strong> hardest; and <strong>the</strong> need for equalityand human rights of women - including social,economic, political, legal, sexual and reproductiverights - at <strong>the</strong> center-stage of this struggle.Global processes from Rio, Copenhagen, Vienna,Cairo and Beijing to Durban, particularly <strong>the</strong>CEDAW (Convention for Elimination of all formsof Discrimination against Women), <strong>the</strong> UN FourthWorld Conference on Women and its subsequentBeijing Platform for Action, have set out criticalconcerns and strategic action points. The battle forequality, to challenge <strong>the</strong> status quo, to demandaction on women’s key concerns, to mobilise civilsociety in both <strong>the</strong> global North and South, and topush for a global reordering of <strong>the</strong> world’s resourcescontinues with <strong>the</strong> same intensity but leaving onewith little sense of progress on substantive issues.There has been enormous frustration at <strong>the</strong> lackof government commitment and accountability todevelopment goals in general and gender equalitycommitments in particular.So, what is <strong>the</strong> role that tourism has played and canplay in this important struggle for equality, equityand empowerment of women? In 1996, VivianKinnaird and Derek Hall in ‘Understanding <strong>Tourism</strong>Processes: a gender aware framework’ 2 invite us tounderstand tourism processes from a framework ofsocial differentiation. Gender is one key component.Kinnaird and Hall argue that tourism involvesprocesses which are constructed out of complexand varied social realities and relations that areoften hierarchical and usually unequal. The divisionof labour, <strong>the</strong> social constructions of “landscape” -both natural and human - influenced how societiesconstruct <strong>the</strong> cultural “o<strong>the</strong>r” and <strong>the</strong> realities ofexperiences of tourist and host all show that inexamining <strong>the</strong> issues of relationships; differences,and inequalities exist. They went fur<strong>the</strong>r to arguethat tourism’s identification as an industry based on<strong>the</strong> economic, social and political power relationsbetween nations or groups of people represents<strong>the</strong> extension of <strong>the</strong> politics of gender relations.Margaret Swain 3 similarly argues that tourism isbuilt on attractions to sameness and differences. “Is<strong>the</strong> world’s largest industry willing to be feminist?”she asks. A feminist worldview is non-androcentric.It explains phenomena in terms of women’s as wellas men’s experiences. It is political when askinghow to promote equity among women and men,based in understandings of <strong>the</strong> cultural and socialpositions of women and <strong>the</strong>ir subordination inrelationship to men. It asks <strong>the</strong> question “does thiswork for women?” and seeks <strong>the</strong> perspective ofwomen as well in interrogating data, frameworks,experiences and policies.EQUATIONS has argued that international, nationaland state level policies on tourism do state a generalcommitment to women’s empowerment but rarelygo beyond that to understand and evolve specificmeasures. The UNWTO’s Global Code of Ethics for<strong>Tourism</strong>, for instance, does not specifically address<strong>the</strong> gendered aspects of tourism although Articles2, 6 and 9 are linked to some of <strong>the</strong> issues beingdebated. Article 2 calls to respect equality betweenmen and women and promote human rightsparticularly individual rights for marginalised andvulnerable groups. It disapproves of exploitation ofhuman beings, such as sexual exploitation. Article6 concerns travel-related press material and o<strong>the</strong>rmedia and states that <strong>the</strong>se should contain truthfuland balanced information on travel destinationsthat could influence <strong>the</strong> flow of tourists. Thesemedia should not in any way promote sex tourism,it asserts. Article 9 on Rights of <strong>the</strong> workers andentrepreneurs in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry, focuseson <strong>the</strong> protection of legal rights of workers, <strong>the</strong>irsalaries and working conditions and argues that<strong>the</strong>se should be guaranteed under <strong>the</strong> supervisionof <strong>the</strong> national and local administrations. It alsosuggests that workers should be given sufficientsocial protection. Despite <strong>the</strong>se clauses, it seemscritical that <strong>the</strong> Global Code address issues of <strong>the</strong>empowerment and exploitation of women moredirectly, given <strong>the</strong> significant role that women playin tourism and <strong>the</strong> significant violations of ethicsthat are linked to women’s experiences in tourism.Often women are exhorted to subscribe to anindividual empowerment ethic - overcome what’s inyour mind and you can do it! In celebration of World<strong>Tourism</strong> Day 2007 a leading travel and tourism15
magazine 4 ran a lead feature on India’s “IncredibleWomen in <strong>Tourism</strong>” – profiling a series of urbanupper/middle class women who worked in upmarkettravel agencies, hotels and <strong>the</strong> governmentin <strong>the</strong> sector. Most subscribed heavily to <strong>the</strong>individual empowerment ethic. Most felt <strong>the</strong>y werenot disadvantaged being a woman and <strong>the</strong> key tosuccess was hard work and <strong>the</strong> individual will toachieve. If <strong>the</strong> magazine had featured local womenin tourism destinations struggling in <strong>the</strong> sector; <strong>the</strong>irperspectives, experiences and realities would havebeen very different. But apparently, <strong>the</strong>se massesof women do not count. This attitude that policymakers, governments and <strong>the</strong> industry of tourismhave adopted of viewing women’s empowermentas an individual’s challenge can prove to be verydangerous as it diverts focus away from <strong>the</strong> needto deal with institutionalized gender discriminationin tourism.Policies and budgets have <strong>the</strong> potential both toperpetuate gender bias and blindness, and totransform <strong>the</strong>m. Gender disaggregated data,gender-sensitive policies and indicators areessential to building up a picture of <strong>the</strong> nature andextent of gender inequality. We need to understand<strong>the</strong> way institutions with <strong>the</strong>ir gendered rules workand we need to develop <strong>the</strong> political will, processesand tools to challenge and change <strong>the</strong>m. Genderaudits and gender budgeting are tools that could beemployed meaningfully - particularly at communitylevels. These in turn will impact women’s politicalparticipation and decision making on <strong>the</strong> forms,impacts, models and pace of tourism in <strong>the</strong>ircommunities. It is time tourism recognised women’sagency and heard <strong>the</strong>ir voices in its development.Women’s Status and Leadership – Participationin Decision Making and Political Processes:In India, women have been viewed by governmentsand policy makers merely as extensions of <strong>the</strong>traditional roles <strong>the</strong>y play in families and society -that of nurturers and caregivers. The focus wason promoting <strong>the</strong> welfare of women and <strong>the</strong>reby,children ra<strong>the</strong>r than empowering women to acquire<strong>the</strong>ir rights. Schemes and policies for women,<strong>the</strong>refore, were limited in both vision and approach.Rural India, where two-thirds of India’s populationresides, faces enormous challenges in health,education, nutrition, employment and environment.Women bear primary responsibility in every one of<strong>the</strong>se areas — day after day. India’s rural womenhave been systematically denied <strong>the</strong> freedom,resources, information and decision-making power<strong>the</strong>y need to carry out <strong>the</strong>se responsibilities andhave been kept in an almost unimaginable state ofpowerlessness, illiteracy, isolation and malnutrition.The 73rd Amendment of <strong>the</strong> Indian Constitutionmandated an unprecedented transfer of decisionmakingpower and resources in <strong>the</strong> rural areas tolocal democratic councils - <strong>the</strong> panchayats. Mostrevolutionary of all, one-third of all panchayat seatsare reserved for women — guaranteeing <strong>the</strong>m arole in determining <strong>the</strong> future of <strong>the</strong>ir communities.If fully implemented, women potentially have avoice in <strong>the</strong> decisions that affect <strong>the</strong>ir lives.Early advocates of tourism viewed tourismemployment as a positive way of integrating underprivilegedsubgroups of society into mainstreameconomy. However, <strong>the</strong>se have tended largely toreinforce an existing sexist, ethnic and caste-basedsystem of social stratification. In tourism particularly,women’s roles in economic production cannotbe understood without reference to <strong>the</strong> culturalcontext of women’s structural position in societyand <strong>the</strong> home. Kinnaird and Hall 5 cite <strong>the</strong> exampleof tourism-dependent areas of Britain and Irelandto make this point. They argue that innovationslike <strong>the</strong> ‘bed and breakfast accommodation’ intourism ghettoize women in ways of work thatare an extension of <strong>the</strong>ir domestic activities. Thisis particularly interesting in <strong>the</strong> context of India’sMinistry of <strong>Tourism</strong> (headed in succession bytwo very articulate women as <strong>Tourism</strong> Ministers)showcasing bed and breakfast accommodationschemes as a policy intervention towards women’sempowerment. Similarly <strong>the</strong> Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> Projectof <strong>the</strong> Ministry, while having <strong>the</strong> laudable aim ofwomen’s empowerment among o<strong>the</strong>r aims, haslargely conceptualised empowerment in economicterms without taking into account <strong>the</strong> socialpatriarchal structures and roles that <strong>the</strong>ir lives areembedded in. These policy initiatives reveal <strong>the</strong>naiveté of <strong>the</strong> government in offering simplisticsolutions to <strong>the</strong> need for genuine empowerment ofwomen in tourism.16
Often women’s economic empowermentprogrammes, particularly those for poor ruralwomen, focus on micro-credit and self-help groups.This in some ways only increases <strong>the</strong> burdenon women and limits <strong>the</strong>ir capacity to leverageproductive and scaled up micro-enterprise. Anevaluation report of <strong>the</strong> Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> Project of<strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> 6 has more or less equatedgender sensitisation to <strong>the</strong> formation of women’sself help groups and seems to believe that this isan adequate indicator of women’s empowerment.The focus instead should be on collective enterprisewith women’s ownership and to ensure its successrequires significant capacity building and marketlinkages.The Nature of Women’s Employment in <strong>Tourism</strong>:A very strong argument in favour of tourismdevelopment is that it generates employment atdifferent levels due to <strong>the</strong> wide range of servicesand products it requires. Undoubtedly, <strong>the</strong>re istruth and merit in this argument. However, it isimportant to understand what kind of employmentlocal women have access to in tourism and whathappens to men and women employed in tourism.<strong>Tourism</strong> does provide a range of activitieswhere women can participate and also createsopportunities for entrepreneurship development.Global data on numbers of women and men workingin tourism-related professions suggests that <strong>the</strong>organised tourism sector is a particularly importantsector where 46% of <strong>the</strong> workforce compriseswomen (in general, 30-40% of <strong>the</strong> workforce iswomen) (ILO 2007). Of <strong>the</strong> data available for <strong>the</strong>years between 1988 and 2005, it appears that <strong>the</strong>rehas been a broad increase in <strong>the</strong> participation ofwomen in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry at a global level.However apart from <strong>the</strong>ir overall presence in <strong>the</strong>industry, o<strong>the</strong>r factors indicate that women do notseem to benefit and be empowered particularly fromtourism. As in many o<strong>the</strong>r sectors, <strong>the</strong>re is significanthorizontal and vertical gender segregation of <strong>the</strong>labour market in tourism. Vertically, <strong>the</strong> typical“gender pyramid” is prevalent - lower levelsand occupations with few career developmentopportunities being dominated by women and keymanagerial positions being dominated by men. InIndia too, women in <strong>the</strong> organised sector in tourismare relegated to relatively low skill, low paying orstereotypical jobs like front-desk and reception,housekeeping, catering and laundry services. Theyface very high risks of sexual harassment andexploitation and are discouraged from formingunions or associations to consolidate <strong>the</strong>ir strengthand influence. The proportion of women’s to men’swages is less. Women feature significantly morein part time and/or temporary employment andare typically paid less than men for <strong>the</strong> same workdone.The feminisation and informalisation of <strong>the</strong>workforce in tourism, particularly in developingcountries, is a matter of concern. Unfortunately,few research studies focus on <strong>the</strong> gender dimensionresulting in little quantitative data on this trend.Women are seen, and hence favoured, as a passive,compliant and sometime invisible workforce thatwill accept low wages without demanding for <strong>the</strong>irlabour and human rights. What remains constantis <strong>the</strong> low economic value accorded to workperformed by women in conditions of exploitation,no job security and violations of human rights.This occurs both directly through prohibitions onlabour organisation and indirectly through fur<strong>the</strong>rabuses where women have claimed rights such asto organise or to be free from sexual harassment.Many women workers face difficult, oftenexploitative conditions. India’s national newspaperscarried a horrifying story of a woman working inan ayurvedic massage parlour in Kerala who wasallegedly set on fire by her employer after she refusedsexual favours to clients. The International LabourOrganisation published a report highlighting <strong>the</strong>high levels of violence, stress and sexual harassmentin hotels, catering and tourism. Unsurprisingly, it ismostly women in junior positions who experience<strong>the</strong>se problems, but unlike in o<strong>the</strong>r sectors, womenface harassment not only from colleagues andmanagers but also from clients. Factors such aslate working hours, service of alcohol, dress codes,racism, negative attitudes towards service staffand <strong>the</strong> uninhibited, sexualised nature of tourismand tourism promotion contribute to a high-riskenvironment for women and younger workers,as well as ethnic minority, migrant and part-timeworkers. 7 That <strong>the</strong>se attitudes and difficulties17
prevail primarily in small scale enterprises is ano<strong>the</strong>rmyth that needs to be exposed. As <strong>the</strong> case below(see box) highlights it took India’s national airline sixdecades to acknowledge that women can supervisecabin crew as ably as men!The Maharaja’s New Year gift:Air India, India’s national airline, has finally decidedto catch up with <strong>the</strong> 21st century and to accept <strong>the</strong>non-discriminatory provisions in <strong>the</strong> Constitutionthat guarantee women equal rights. Incredible as itmight seem, it has taken <strong>the</strong> airline six decades toacknowledge that women can supervise members of<strong>the</strong> cabin crew as ably as men.On December 28, 2005, Air India issued a directivestating that women could henceforth be in-flightsupervisors. All <strong>the</strong>se years — <strong>the</strong> airline has beenin existence since 1946 — <strong>the</strong>re were differentemployment conditions that applied to men andwomen. For example, Air India’s female cabin crewwere forced to retire many years earlier than <strong>the</strong>irmale counterparts. The first age set for retirementfor <strong>the</strong>m was 30. Slowly, after many battles it creptup to 50. Finally, some of <strong>the</strong>se women turned to <strong>the</strong>Bombay High Court in 2003 and won <strong>the</strong> right to goon flying until 58, like <strong>the</strong> men. But <strong>the</strong> victory couldnot be savoured as within months <strong>the</strong> Supreme Courtoverturned <strong>the</strong> High Court judgment and held that itwas not discriminatory to ask women to retire at 50.The struggle was <strong>the</strong>n taken directly to <strong>the</strong> Executiveand in December 2003, <strong>the</strong> government of Atal BihariVajpayee and <strong>the</strong> Civil Aviation Ministry passedan order asking Air India to allow airhostesses tocontinue flying until <strong>the</strong> age of 58.Kalpana Sharma, India Toge<strong>the</strong>r January 2006Sexist and gendered attitudes abound, making itdifficult for women at all levels to claim equality andequity. The Chief Justice of Karnataka High CourtCyriac Joseph, speaking to an all-woman audienceat <strong>the</strong> Asia Women Lawyers’ Conference 8 on <strong>the</strong><strong>the</strong>me “Women’s rights are human rights’ declared“<strong>the</strong>re was no point in women trying to be men anddo all that a man is expected to do.” Cautioningwomen, he said, “Once you lose your womanhood,<strong>the</strong>re is nothing left to be protected.”The Informal Sector 9 in <strong>Tourism</strong> – InvisibilisingWomen’s Labour:The informal sector is <strong>the</strong> most direct sourceof income for local communities in tourism indeveloping countries. In <strong>the</strong> developing world 60%of women (in non-agricultural work) work in <strong>the</strong>informal sector. Much of this is linked directly andindirectly to tourism. The role of women in informaltourism settings such as running home-stay facilities,restaurants and shacks, crafts and handicrafts,handloom, small shops and street vending issignificant. But <strong>the</strong>se roles and activities thatwomen perform in tourism are treated as invisibleor taken for granted. The need to acknowledge<strong>the</strong> important economic contribution of womenand ensure for <strong>the</strong>m, access to credit, capacitybuilding and enhanced skills, access to <strong>the</strong> market,encouragement to form unions, associations andcooperatives to increase <strong>the</strong>ir bargaining powerand to ensure that <strong>the</strong>ir safety health and socialsecurity needs are met is critical.Creating opportunities for income generatingactivities, effective marketing and integratingwomen’s entrepreneurship with variousgovernment schemes to promote women’s selfemployment, would be an important componentto promote women’s participation in tourismdevelopment. The sharing of experiences intourism, understanding and demystifying complexofficial documents, such as tourism policies, masterplans, related to <strong>the</strong> industry, providing informationabout access to documents are also importantsteps.Community based tourism initiatives, particularlyof local women’s groups and co-operatives can bean accessible and suitable entry point for women’sparticipation in tourism. They seem to generatemore long-term motivation than initiatives fromoutside. 10 These activities help to create financialindependence for local women and help <strong>the</strong>mto develop <strong>the</strong> necessary skills and improve <strong>the</strong>ireducation, which in turn increase self-esteem andhelp create more equitable relationships in familiesand communities.18
Women and Natural Resources:There is a direct correlation between <strong>the</strong> depletionof natural resources and increased burden onwomen in daily work in any region of <strong>the</strong> world.When tourism restricts community access to orcontributes to <strong>the</strong> depletion of natural resources,it is women not only as homemakers, but alsoas community members, who suffer <strong>the</strong> most.Women’s access to and control over forest produceand water comes into sharp conflict when tourismusurps <strong>the</strong>se very resources needed to fulfil <strong>the</strong>ir lifeand livelihood needs. The daily burden on womenof finding water for <strong>the</strong> household or firewood forcooking is oftentimes doubled or tripled.When tourism displaces people from traditionallivelihoods or worse still physically displaces <strong>the</strong>m,<strong>the</strong> worst affected are women who are engagedin <strong>the</strong> bulk of ancillary occupations like tobaccocultivation, coconut harvesting, fish sorting andprocessing which are jeopardised through suchdisplacement. Transition from certain activitiesto o<strong>the</strong>rs, for example away from agriculture,could have implications for food security. Certaintraditional occupations risk being crowded outthat could have an effect on <strong>the</strong> society as a whole.A study in Kumarakom in Kerala showed thatwomen moved out of agriculture to tourism linkedconstruction work as it paid <strong>the</strong>m better dailywages. But having neglected <strong>the</strong> fields, <strong>the</strong>y endedup losing on both counts as <strong>the</strong> construction workwas only short-term but <strong>the</strong>y could not return tocultivate fields overgrown with weeds. It becomes<strong>the</strong> prerogative of governments and <strong>the</strong> industryto ensure that ra<strong>the</strong>r than displace <strong>the</strong>m, tourismshould build and bolster supplementary livelihoodoptions that women can choose from.The demand for water by hotels can mean lesslocal water for nearby farmers, which can affectfood production and increase <strong>the</strong> workload ofwomen in collecting water from o<strong>the</strong>r sources. Theestablishment of golf courses and special tourismzones or enclaves can also put severe constraintson land and water resources for communitiesburdening <strong>the</strong> women <strong>the</strong> most. The incriminatinglinks between tourism and climate change willunfortunately add to <strong>the</strong> burden women alreadybear.Severe Abuse of Human Rights –Trafficking ofWomen and Sex <strong>Tourism</strong>:The gross violation of human rights due to sextourism and trafficking of women are <strong>the</strong> shadowside of <strong>the</strong> booming tourism industry. Migration andtrafficking of women, both from within developingcountries and cross border to service <strong>the</strong> touristtrade is commonplace. Russian women to Thailandand <strong>the</strong> Philippines and Goa, eastern Europeanwomen to European countries and women fromNepal and Bangladesh are trafficked to India toservice <strong>the</strong> sex trade. The reports of <strong>the</strong> SpecialRapporteur on Violence against Women (UNCHR)have highlighted <strong>the</strong> linkages between countries ineconomic transition and <strong>the</strong> increase in traffickingand forced prostitution of women.Though <strong>the</strong>re are efforts by few tourism serviceproviders to condemn child sex tourism and activelyparticipate in campaigns that combat it, tourismindustry bodies have not taken serious actionagainst <strong>the</strong> exploitation of women in trafficking andsex tourism. In fact while tourism is celebrated as aglobalised and modernised form of development -it is global tourism, globalised crime and technologylike <strong>the</strong> internet that have also given <strong>the</strong> sex industrynew means of exploiting, marketing and supplyingwomen and children as commodities to buyers. 11The Representation of Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>:The ideological constructs of <strong>the</strong> advertisingindustry have infused <strong>the</strong> tourism, aviation andhospitality industry. In tourism marketing, womenare <strong>the</strong> ‘face’ of <strong>the</strong> sector, being <strong>the</strong> most widelyusedobjects in tourism promotion after naturalbeauty and cultural heritage. Women have beenobjectified and depicted as pleasure providers 12 -<strong>the</strong>ir images often exoticised, patronising andmisleading.There is also a strong case for eliminating sexualobjectification of women working in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry. With sex tourism being <strong>the</strong> most negativeand prominent example, <strong>the</strong>re is a significantamount of sexual objectification of women workingin <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. Women are expectedto dress in an “attractive” manner, to lookbeautiful (i.e. slim, young, and pretty) and to “playalong” with sexual harassment by customers. 1319
Stereotypical and sexist images of women areoften part of tourism promotion in brochures andadvertisements. Friendly, smiling and pliant womenfitting certain standards of attractiveness, attired intraditional costumes, waiting to submissively serve<strong>the</strong> customer’s every wish is <strong>the</strong> typical portrayal ofwomen in tourism material. The industry howeverhas chosen not to be particularly disturbed by thisview of women, of seeing it as a gross violation of<strong>the</strong>ir dignity and rights, and believes it to be justifiedin <strong>the</strong> sale of a product. It is time <strong>the</strong> global tourismindustry takes responsibility for <strong>the</strong> way women areused in <strong>the</strong> selling of tourism and also addressesthis in its code of ethics.<strong>Tourism</strong> modifies local cultural practices in waysthat affect men and women differentially. Forexample, in Kumarakom, increased houseboattourism severely restricted privacy of local womenwho used <strong>the</strong> same backwaters to ba<strong>the</strong> and tomeet with o<strong>the</strong>r women socially. When tourismmakes products of culture, it tends to commodifywomen in particular – although both men andwomen are impacted by <strong>the</strong> insensitive selling ofculture. Jane Henrici 14 gives an interesting exampleof women in Peru – “Before <strong>the</strong> tourists came, whena woman wore flowers in her hair in public, it meantshe was available to enter into a dating relationship.Once <strong>the</strong> tourists arrived <strong>the</strong>y liked to take picturesof <strong>the</strong> photogenic women wearing flowers. Soon <strong>the</strong>pressure built for all women in <strong>the</strong> market to wearflowers – detaching it from its cultural meaning andbecoming a pure aes<strong>the</strong>tic signifier in a touristicframe.”The Challenges Ahead:The tourism industry and stewards of tourismdevelopment face many serious social and humanchallenges in <strong>the</strong> years ahead. The growing linksbetween migration - both voluntary and forced -and tourism needs to take into account <strong>the</strong> genderdimensions of this global phenomenon. HIV/AIDS isnot only driven by gender inequality but entrenchesit. <strong>Tourism</strong> is increasingly seen to have a role in thisentrenchment in its links to trafficking, prostitutionand sex tourism.A categorical position condemning <strong>the</strong> blatant andinhuman exploitation of women in tourism throughtrafficking and <strong>the</strong> sex industry is a moral challengethat <strong>the</strong> global tourism industry needs to respondto. Declaring that <strong>the</strong> tourism product will not bepromoted at <strong>the</strong> expense of women’s dignity,respect and rights is <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r position that <strong>the</strong>industry needs to endorse and practice.The increasing trend of promoting tourism inconflict zones and <strong>the</strong> consequent impacts it hason women who are already battling for survival isano<strong>the</strong>r matter of serious concern. Disasters andepidemics have an uneasy relationship with tourism– but gender dimensions are rarely integrated intoassistance and reconstruction efforts with <strong>the</strong> focusbeing largely on <strong>the</strong> safety of tourists and revival oftourism infrastructure.Engendering tourism policy and understandingtourism’s impacts on women will be key steps tocombating <strong>the</strong> feminization and informalisation of<strong>the</strong> workforce in tourism, particularly in developingcountries. Research that focuses on <strong>the</strong> genderdimension of this process could lead to policy andinterventions that can work to <strong>the</strong> advantage ofwomen. Most policies today focus on and favourlarge and medium enterprise in tourism. Shifting<strong>the</strong> focus to privilege small and micro-enterprisewill not only lead to sustainable options, but createmore viable spaces for women’s engagement intourism.Poverty, and in particular urban poverty, whichthreatens to be an issue of growing magnitude hasdeep roots in gender injustice. <strong>Tourism</strong> often wipesout <strong>the</strong> existence and means of livelihood of <strong>the</strong>urban poor in an overt manner while continuing todepend covertly on cheap labour and exploitativerelationships in order to flourish. Ensuring basicprotection in terms of social security, access toinformation and credit and market linkages will becritical to enable larger numbers of women in <strong>the</strong>informal economy - both in rural and urban areas -to gain from tourism.Women’s engagement to assert <strong>the</strong>ir rights asstakeholders in all aspects of tourism development(planning, implementation, participation,ownership and monitoring) is also determined by<strong>the</strong>ir informed participation in decision-makingspaces. Facilitating an understanding of tourismand its patterns among women would not only20
enable <strong>the</strong>m to raise questions about <strong>the</strong> course oftourism development but also make claims on itsoutcomes.Endnotes:* The paper was written by Rosemary Viswanathand presented at <strong>the</strong> conference “<strong>Tourism</strong> OpensDoors for Women” - UNWTO Think Tank: The Roleof Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> on 27.09.2007 organisedby United Nations World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organization atBentota, Sri Lanka.1. The experience of women as tourists is increasinglya topic for study and research. This paper howeverfocuses on women who live in tourism destinations,particularly destinations in <strong>the</strong> global South.2. <strong>Tourism</strong> Management, Vol 17, No 2 19963. Gender/<strong>Tourism</strong>/Fun (?) Eds. Swain and Momsen CCC2002. Swain (1995) offered <strong>the</strong> following definitionof Gender in tourism : A system of culturallyconstructed identities, expressed in ideologies ofmasculinity and feminity, interacting with sociallystructured relationships in divisions of labour andleisure, sexuality, and power between women andmen.4. Express Travel World September 20075. Kinnard Vivian & Hall Derek, ‘Understanding tourismprocesses: a gender-aware framework’ <strong>Tourism</strong>Management, Vol 17, No. 2, 1996issues referred to in this paper is provided by <strong>the</strong>ILO in its report – “Decent Work and <strong>the</strong> InformalEconomy” (International Labour Conference, 90thsession, 2002). “…These different groups have beentermed “informal” because <strong>the</strong>y share one importantcharacteristic: <strong>the</strong>y are not recognized or protectedunder <strong>the</strong> legal and regulatory frameworks. This isnot, however, <strong>the</strong> only defining feature of informality.Informal workers and entrepreneurs are characterizedby a high degree of vulnerability. They are notrecognized under <strong>the</strong> law and <strong>the</strong>refore receive littleor no legal or social protection and are unable toenforce contracts or have security of property rights.”10. Gender & <strong>Tourism</strong>: Women’s Employment andParticipation in <strong>Tourism</strong>, UNED- UK project reportsummary 199911. Hughes, M.D., “The Internet and Sex Industries:Partners in Global Sexual Exploitation,” Technologyand Society Magazine, Spring 2000.12. <strong>Tourism</strong> – Its Effects on Women in Goa, a report to <strong>the</strong>People’, Bailancho Saad, Goa, 198713. Gruetter, K. & Pluess, Ch. (Hg.), 1996. HerrlicheAussichten! Frauen im <strong>Tourism</strong>us. Zuerich:Rotpunktverlag (Splendid Views! Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>)14. Calling to <strong>the</strong> Money: Gender and <strong>Tourism</strong> in PeruJane Henrici Gender/<strong>Tourism</strong>/Fun (?) Eds Swain andMomsen CCC 20026. Evaluation study Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> Scheme,Mott MacDonald Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>, June 20077. Gender, Globalisation and <strong>Tourism</strong> Cultures,Presented by Dr. Annette Pritchard at <strong>the</strong> SpecialMeeting of Women Ministers of Culture, 2005 http://womenministers.government.is/Programme//nr/32698. Women must not try to be men: Cyriac Joseph,23/09/2007, http://www.<strong>the</strong>hindu.com/2007/09/23/stories/2007092354980500.htm9. There is no universally accepted upon definition of<strong>the</strong> “informal sector”. However, <strong>the</strong> interpretationof <strong>the</strong> term best suited for an understanding of21
Analysing <strong>the</strong> Gender Dimensions of <strong>Tourism</strong>as a Development StrategyLucy Ferguson, 2009*AbstractFor several decades, <strong>the</strong> relationship between tourism and development has beenexplored in <strong>the</strong> discipline of tourism studies and in policy-making circles. However, verylittle research has been carried out into <strong>the</strong> gender dimensions of this relationship. Thispaper is a first attempt to unpack some of <strong>the</strong> issues involved in such an undertaking,and to provide an overview of some of <strong>the</strong> key empirical areas that need to be takeninto account for fur<strong>the</strong>r research. Using <strong>the</strong> third Millennium Development Goal –gender equality and women’s empowerment – as its focus, this paper explores this<strong>the</strong>me from a critical perspective informed by feminist approaches to development.Combining literature reviews, analysis of policy documents and primary research thispaper aims to provide an overview of <strong>the</strong> potential of tourism to contribute to <strong>the</strong>gender equality and women’s empowerment, and <strong>the</strong> tensions and complexities thatthis presents. It concludes by offering some tentative policy recommendations and anagenda for future research.1. Introduction:Although highly contested, <strong>the</strong> links betweentourism and development are now well establishedin academic and policy circles. Less clear is <strong>the</strong>potential of tourism to contribute more specificallyto <strong>the</strong> achievement of <strong>the</strong> third MillenniumDevelopment Goal (MDG3), to ‘promote genderequality and empower women’. In order toexplore this issue, this paper offers a feministcritique of contemporary tourism developmentpolicy. Drawing toge<strong>the</strong>r extensive research into<strong>the</strong> gender dimensions of tourism; I set out <strong>the</strong>tensions between feminist visions of developmentand tourism development policy. It must be notedat this stage that <strong>the</strong> links between gender andtourism have been established relatively recentlyin development policy. As such, this paper is notintended to be a definitive evaluation of <strong>the</strong>sepolicies, but ra<strong>the</strong>r a preliminary explorationof some of <strong>the</strong> conceptual issues and practicalquestions that need to be taken into account whenlooking at this <strong>the</strong>me. Early critical work on tourismdevelopment focussed on how <strong>the</strong> tourism industryoften exploited colonial associations and turned tocolonial power structures to promote and construct<strong>the</strong> industry in developing countries (Perez 1974,1975; Britton 1982; Nash 1989). In response, tourismstudies turned its attention to ‘alternative’ formsof tourism, suggesting that <strong>the</strong>se were morelikely to overcome <strong>the</strong> exploitative dimensions ofmass tourism in developing countries (Lea 1993;Brohman 1996; Khan 1997). Research into <strong>the</strong>distribution of benefits from alternative forms oftourism suggests <strong>the</strong>re is no automatic connectionbetween ‘ecotourism’ (Duffy 2004) or ‘new tourism’(Mowforth and Munt 2008) and greater equality intourism destinations. The ‘pro-poor tourism’ (PPT)approach can be seen as an attempt to take <strong>the</strong>sequestions into account and to target <strong>the</strong> benefitsof tourism more directly towards poverty reduction(Brown and Hall 2008). PPT has been extensivelydebated in <strong>the</strong> literature, with critics arguing thatit serves to facilitate a reinforcement of globalinequalities by not taking into account broaderpower relations of global political economy(Harrison 2008).22
While this work on tourism development is usefulin understanding changes in tourism developmentpolicy, it says little about <strong>the</strong> specifically genderedaspects of inequality embedded within tourismpolicy. A well established tradition of work ongender and tourism has addressed a broad range ofissues, case studies and approaches. Scholars withintourism studies have long argued that tourism is ahighly gendered industry (Kinnaird, Kothari and Hall1994; Kinnaird and Hall 1996). As Vivian Kinnaird andDerek Hall argue:Unless we understand <strong>the</strong> gendered complexitiesof tourism, and <strong>the</strong> power relations <strong>the</strong>y involve,<strong>the</strong>n we fail to recognise <strong>the</strong> reinforcement andconstruction of new power relations that areemerging out of tourism processes. From <strong>the</strong> valuesand activities of <strong>the</strong> transnational tourist operatorto <strong>the</strong> differential experiences of individualsparticipating as ei<strong>the</strong>r hosts or guests, all partsof <strong>the</strong> tourism experience are influenced by ourcollective understanding of <strong>the</strong> social constructionof gender. (Kinnaird and Hall 1996: 100)In spite of <strong>the</strong> diversity of research on gender andtourism, strong associations persist in <strong>the</strong> popularimagination between tourism and prostitution.Indeed, for many, this is <strong>the</strong> extent of ‘genderissues’ in tourism. Certainly, <strong>the</strong> sexual exploitationof women and children is a serious issue that needsto be addressed, and <strong>the</strong> emerging phenomenonof ‘sex tourism’ in developing countries has beenextensively researched by feminists (Pettman1997; Jeffreys 1999). However, recent work hassuggested that sex tourism should be understoodmore as a phenomenon of inadequate stateprovision ra<strong>the</strong>r than as an intrinsic feature oftourism in itself (Montgomery 2008). Although thisis a controversial argument with which many willdisagree, it prompts us to acknowledge <strong>the</strong> politicaleconomy and developmental issues involved whendiscussing <strong>the</strong> relationship between tourism andprostitution. Moreover, <strong>the</strong> assumption that allresearch into tourism and gender is or should beabout sex work and sexual exploitation servesto obscure <strong>the</strong> more subtle and nuanced aspectsof <strong>the</strong>se processes. If we look exclusively at <strong>the</strong>more obvious and sensationalist areas of ‘hyperexploitation’of women in tourism, many importantgender dynamics fall by <strong>the</strong> wayside.One such dynamic is <strong>the</strong> gendered characteristicsof tourism work. Feminist research has identified aclear segmentation of men’s and women’s work intourism. This shows how <strong>the</strong> majority of women’swork is concentrated in seasonal, part time andlow paid activities such as retail, hospitality andcleaning (Sinclair 1997; Chant 1997). Research hasalso identified <strong>the</strong> ways in which global genderinequalities are embedded within <strong>the</strong> promotionand marketing of tourism destinations (Cohen1995; Marshment 1997; Pritchard and Morgan2000). However, to date, <strong>the</strong> majority of this workhas focussed on <strong>the</strong> gendered outcomes of tourismdevelopment. In contrast, <strong>the</strong> aim here is toconcentrate more specifically on <strong>the</strong> ways in whichtourism development policy is in itself gendered.This paper argues that <strong>the</strong>re are two distinct waysin which gendered assumptions operate in tourismdevelopment policy: implicitly (i.e. ‘gender-blind’)and explicitly (i.e. ‘gender aware’). If we are tounderstand tourism development policy, I argue,we need to develop an analysis which incorporatesboth <strong>the</strong>se aspects. We begin by looking at implicitor gender-blind assumptions, demonstrating howmacro-level tourism development policy relieson gender inequalities embedded in processesof restructuring of <strong>the</strong> global economy. This taskdraws on a wealth of analysis from feministsworking within development studies and globalpolitical economy, who offer an extensive critiqueof contemporary development policy and <strong>the</strong>contradictions and complexities this produces forgender equality and women’s empowerment.Next, <strong>the</strong> paper turns to analyse <strong>the</strong> more genderawareaspects of tourism development policy– that is, policies which openly seek to affectchange in gender equality or promote women’sempowerment, in line with MDG3. In order todo this I begin by outlining feminist critiques ofcontemporary development policy, setting out<strong>the</strong> dominant ‘gender paradigm’ and <strong>the</strong> ways inwhich gender is conceptualised in developmentinstitutions. I <strong>the</strong>n go on to offer an overviewof gender-aware tourism development policiesand projects, exploring gender policy in <strong>the</strong>World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation and <strong>the</strong> World Bank,<strong>the</strong> two most significant global institutions fortourism development. Using policy documents and23
interviews, I show how <strong>the</strong> gender aspect of WorldBank projects corresponds to <strong>the</strong> ‘gender paradigm’of contemporary development policy. The final partof <strong>the</strong> paper offers some tentative conclusions andrecommendations around <strong>the</strong> potential for tourismto contribute to MDG3.2. ‘Gender-blind’ <strong>Tourism</strong> Development Policy:‘Development’ is not a neutral, benign processbut one that takes place within a context of globalrestructuring, of which gender inequalities are afundamental component. Although many aspects oftourism development policy do not contain an overtgender component, implicit gendered assumptionsare never<strong>the</strong>less present. These assumptionsoperate in two key ways in development policy.First, macroeconomic development policy assumesthat women will ‘pick up <strong>the</strong> slack’ of restructuringby continuing to carry out social reproduction worksuch as parenting and domestic work regardlessof external circumstances. Empirical studies indeveloping countries mapped <strong>the</strong> ways in whichstructural adjustment programmes (SAPs) in <strong>the</strong>1980s tended to increase and intensify women’sreproductive work, while also increasing women’slabour force participation, particularly in <strong>the</strong>informal sphere (Palmer 1992; Çatagay, Elson andGrown 1995). Such restructuring was found totransfer <strong>the</strong> costs of social reproduction from <strong>the</strong>state onto private households and communities,where most of <strong>the</strong> work was taken up by women(Kanji 1991, Chant 2006). O<strong>the</strong>rs concluded that<strong>the</strong> drastic cutbacks in state services and subsidiesthrough development policy had led to a ‘tripleburden’ (Momsen 1991) – of reproductive work,community responsibility, and paid work - forwomen. More recently, feminists have shown howsocial reproduction is being ‘reprivatised’ by <strong>the</strong>global restructuring of production (Bakker 2003),leading to an ‘increasing emphasis on individualresponsibility for, and informalization of, socialreproduction’ (Bakker and Silvey 2008: 8). Indeveloping countries, this has meant that ‘muchof <strong>the</strong> care burden has inevitably fallen back onwomen and girls’ (Razavi 2007: 1).The second gender-blind assumption ofmacroeconomic development policy involves <strong>the</strong>gendered inequalities which are integral to globalproduction. A long tradition of research into womenworkers in <strong>the</strong> export oriented economy outlines<strong>the</strong> global gendered division of labour (Kofmanand Raghuram 2006). Such research has exploredwomen’s work in a variety of sectors, includinggarment factories (Elias 2004), home-basedwork (Prügl 1999; Kantor 2003), domestic service(Ehrenreich and Hochschild 2003) and <strong>the</strong> servicesector in general (Guy and Newman 2004; McDowellet al. 2005). O<strong>the</strong>r studies include Carolyne Dennis’research on women’s self-employment in Nigeria,showing how <strong>the</strong> SAPs of <strong>the</strong> 1980s made it moredifficult for women to enter <strong>the</strong> most profitableparts of <strong>the</strong> informal sector due to <strong>the</strong> male bias in<strong>the</strong> growth of industrial employment, while at <strong>the</strong>same time increasing women’s need for such access(Dennis 1995). In her research on maquiladora(factories in export processing zones) workers inMexico’s export processing zones - an industrialexpansion hailed as being beneficial to women -Ruth Pearson argued that although Mexico’s shareof technical, managerial and administration jobshas increased, <strong>the</strong>se opportunities had not beenmade available to Mexican women (Pearson 1995).Collectively, this work demonstrates <strong>the</strong> waysin which gendered – and ethnic - inequalities are‘central to <strong>the</strong> functioning of <strong>the</strong> global politicaleconomy’ (Elias 2004: 27).In summary, as Shirin Rai (2004: 583) argues:…(P)articipants come to specific markets with‘unequal’ capabilities and bargaining capacitiesand resources, as a result of and which inhere inunequal market structures, regulated and stabilizedby gendered state formations, and characterized bymore or less unequal power. Class and gender aretwo bases for unequal power relations operating in<strong>the</strong> market.So what does this mean in terms of tourism?What does implicitly gendered (or gender blind)tourism development policy look like? Theassumptions outlined above are manifested intourism development policy at <strong>the</strong> macroeconomiclevel. The primary example of this is <strong>the</strong> extensivepromotion of foreign direct investment (FDI) indeveloping countries’ tourism sectors. Employmentin global hotel chains is notorious for poorworking conditions, as documented extensivelyin <strong>the</strong> tourism studies literature. However, <strong>the</strong>seconditions become even starker when looked at24
through <strong>the</strong> lens of gender. The tourism industryis characterised by ‘<strong>the</strong> seasonal nature of many ofits activities and (by) important fluctuations evenin normal periods’. These features of <strong>the</strong> industrycreate a ‘generic tendency to operate on <strong>the</strong> basisof a core staff and to employ <strong>the</strong> labour needed forday-today operations under atypical contractualarrangements’ (ILO 2001: 48). This involvesmaintaining a large pool of temporary labour tobe drawn upon in times of high demand, made upof predominantly young and/or female workers.O<strong>the</strong>r features of <strong>the</strong> tourism industry include highstaff turnover, long working hours, subcontracting,‘flexible’ working conditions, <strong>the</strong> prevalenceof ‘casual workers’ and seasonal variations inemployment (ILO 2001: 56-63).In gender terms, <strong>the</strong> ILO reports that women accountfor 46 per cent of workers in wage employment intourism globally. However, expanding <strong>the</strong> definitionto include catering and accommodation brings <strong>the</strong>proportion of female labour up to 90 per cent. Toquote <strong>the</strong> report in detail:They [women] occupy <strong>the</strong> lower levels of <strong>the</strong>occupational structure in <strong>the</strong> tourism labourmarket, with few career development opportunitiesand low levels of remuneration (some estimatessuggest that wages for women are up to 20 percent lower than those for men). The greaterincidence of unemployment among women isattributed to <strong>the</strong>ir low skill levels and <strong>the</strong>ir lowsocial status in many poor countries. They also tendto be <strong>the</strong> first affected when labour retrenchmentoccurs as a result of recession or adjustment tonew technology. It should also be noted that <strong>the</strong>majority of workers in subcontracted, temporary,casual or part-time employment are women (ILO2001: 74).Any analysis of <strong>the</strong> gender dimensions ofmacroeconomic tourism development policy thatpromotes FDI by large tourism companies needsto take into account <strong>the</strong> structural genderedfeatures of work in tourism. M. Thea Sinclair(1997) argues that work in tourism should beunderstood as a reflection of wider inequalities in<strong>the</strong> tourism industry. She points to <strong>the</strong> fact that<strong>the</strong> fun and escapism enjoyed by tourists dependon <strong>the</strong> labour provided by workers in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry. However, <strong>the</strong>se power relations need tobe analysed carefully, as <strong>the</strong>re are not only divisionsbetween tourists and workers in terms of incomeand wealth, but also between workers, primarilyalong gender but also race lines. Such inequalitiesbetween workers, she argues, affect <strong>the</strong> relativeincome, status and power of those involved,resulting in a clear segmentation of men’s andwomen’s work in tourism, <strong>the</strong> majority of women’swork being concentrated in seasonal, part time andlow paid activities such as retail, hospitality andcleaning (Sinclair 1997). Sylvia Chant (1997) alsopoints to <strong>the</strong> gendered nature of work in tourism:Female recruitment in formal sector enterprisescatering for international tourists tends to drawheavily on male constructed and male-biased genderstereotypes and to place women in occupationswhich in many respects crystallise and intensify <strong>the</strong>irsubordinate positions in society, whe<strong>the</strong>r through<strong>the</strong>ir assignation to low-level, behind-<strong>the</strong>-scenesdomestic work as laundrywomen or chambermaids,or to jobs where <strong>the</strong>ir physical attributes are usedto attract men or to gratify male sexual needs, asin front-line hotel, commercial and restaurant postsand in entertainment establishments (Chant 1997:161).Multinational hotel chains have been criticised assetting a precedent for flexibilised, low-skill labourwith little room for mobility and promotion of staff(ILO 2001). However, in many ways this is also trueof smaller organisations such as ‘boutique’ hotelsemploying between 20 and 100 staff. Likewise insmall, ‘family run’ enterprises those employeeswho make up <strong>the</strong> main body of <strong>the</strong> workforce donot tend to see much social mobility in <strong>the</strong>ir jobs(Sinclair 1997a). As such, <strong>the</strong>re is strong evidencethat tourism employment generated through FDIpromotion is unlikely to greater gender inequality,and indeed may exacerbate inequalities.2.1. Outcomes of ‘Gender-Blind’ <strong>Tourism</strong>Development Policy:In spite of <strong>the</strong> structural gendered inequalitiesof work in tourism, feminists have always beenacutely aware of <strong>the</strong> ways in which women’s entryinto <strong>the</strong> paid workforce tends to have contradictoryand complex effects on gender relations and <strong>the</strong>lives of women workers (Tinker 2006). Analyses25
of women’s work in <strong>the</strong> global economy offer aframework for analysing <strong>the</strong>se tensions. As Chant(2002: 550) argues, ‘<strong>the</strong> emancipatory prospects offemale labour force participation are constrained by<strong>the</strong> prejudicial terms under which women enter <strong>the</strong>workforce’. Diane Elson and Pearson (1998: 199), ina discussion of women’s work in export processingzone factories, identify a ‘tendency to intensify<strong>the</strong> existing forms of gender subordination; atendency to decompose existing forms of gendersubordination; and a tendency to recompose newforms of gender subordination’ (emphasis added).Processes of tourism development have involvedsimilarly complex challenges to traditional genderedpower relations, as will be outlined below.In many ways, tourism development has had aradical impact on gender relations in destinationcountries. As Chant argues, despite <strong>the</strong> structuralinequalities of women’s participation in tourismproduction, such work has some benefits for <strong>the</strong>empowerment of women workers: <strong>the</strong> bringingtoge<strong>the</strong>r of women in such a way, she argues, has<strong>the</strong> potential to lead to women tourism workers‘acting by <strong>the</strong>mselves, for <strong>the</strong>mselves, to demandfairer treatment in <strong>the</strong> workplace, <strong>the</strong> home, and inwider society’ (Chant 1997: 164-5). Sinclair (1997a)similarly points to some of <strong>the</strong> increased benefitsof work in tourism for women – for example, sheargues that such work can lead to greater statusin <strong>the</strong> household and consequently increasedbargaining power in <strong>the</strong> household context. In<strong>the</strong> words of Irene Tinker, such changes can beinterpreted as ‘empowerment just happened’.Global socioeconomic transformations of <strong>the</strong> lasttwenty years have led to a shift in gender relationsby undermining ‘subsistence and traditionalfarming communities, altering <strong>the</strong> sexual divisionof labor and opening cracks in <strong>the</strong> foundations ofpatriarchal control’ (Tinker 2006: 270). In my ownresearch, many women workers in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry in Central America discussed how <strong>the</strong>y feltworking in tourism contributed to <strong>the</strong>ir personaland economic empowerment. They talked abouthow male control over household income hadbeen diminished by <strong>the</strong> many opportunities forwomen to earn money in tourism communities.O<strong>the</strong>rs enjoyed <strong>the</strong> interaction with people fromaround <strong>the</strong> world, in particular being exposed todifferent gender norms such as women travellingalone or men taking primary responsibility forchildcare. 1 However, <strong>the</strong>se benefits tend not to beaccompanied by wider influence in society, due to<strong>the</strong> dominant ideology of <strong>the</strong> ‘normal’ householdstructure, and <strong>the</strong> absence of women’s controlover local decision-making.In summary, <strong>the</strong> implicit or gender-blind assumptionsof macroeconomic tourism development policywhich has promoted FDI in <strong>the</strong> context of globalrestructuring has lead to a series of complex andsometimes contradictory outcomes for genderequality and women’s empowerment. Althoughtourism work is highly stratified by gender due to<strong>the</strong> kinds of labour it requires and <strong>the</strong> ways in whichsuch labour is to be performed, to some extent itcan be argued to have contributed to economic andpersonal empowerment. However, it is less clearwhe<strong>the</strong>r such individual gains have been translatedinto broader social and political influence in society.A large body of literature exists to analyse <strong>the</strong>setensions, and can help us understand <strong>the</strong> implicit orgender-blind assumptions of tourism developmentpolicy and how <strong>the</strong>se map onto broader questionsabout gender equality and women’s empowerment.We now move on to discuss <strong>the</strong> more explicitgender dimensions of tourism development policy.3. Feminist Approaches to Gender andDevelopment Policy:In order to explore <strong>the</strong> gender dimensions oftourism policy, it is useful first to set <strong>the</strong> contextwithin which such policy is made. I begin by offeringan historical literature review on feminist critiquesof development, before setting out more clearlyhow this can be applied to contemporary tourismdevelopment policy. The debates summarisedhere are well rehearsed in <strong>the</strong> field of gender anddevelopment. However, it is worth going into somedetail here in order to contextualise contemporaryissues for those who may not be familiar with thisbody of literature. The point here is to demonstratethat <strong>the</strong> inclusion of ‘gender’ within a developmentpolicy is not unproblematic. That is, <strong>the</strong>re is nostraight-forward relationship between making‘gender’ more visible in development policy andgender equality and empowerment outcomes.The seminal work of this kind is Ester Boserup’sWomen’s Role in Economic Development, in which26
she argued that women had been left out ofdevelopment policies and as such <strong>the</strong>ir needs hadbeen, marginalised (Boserup 1970). Building onthis argument, <strong>the</strong> women in development (WID)approach aimed to include women in developmentpolicy in order to decrease inequalities betweenwomen and men (Tinker 1976). Working largelyfrom a liberal feminist perspective, early work in<strong>the</strong> WID field argued that <strong>the</strong> solution to genderinequality lay in widening women’s access to tools,technology and education. The most effectiveway of achieving women’s integration into <strong>the</strong>development process, such writers argued, wasthrough increased access to employment and entryinto <strong>the</strong> marketplace (Rogers 1980).General disillusionment in <strong>the</strong> late 1970s with <strong>the</strong>supposed ‘trickle-down’ effect of <strong>the</strong> modernisationapproach to development encouraged a rethinkof approaches, giving rise to <strong>the</strong> ‘anti-poverty’approach of WID which argued that low-incomewomen should be identified as a vulnerable groupin need of particular attention from developmentplanners (Waylen 1996: 39). The solutions proposedwere based mainly around income-generatingprojects for women, making no analytical connectionbetween women’s reproductive roles and <strong>the</strong>links between <strong>the</strong> reproductive and productiveeconomy (Waylen 1996; Rai 2002). WID feministsdid not offer a radical critique of <strong>the</strong> modernisationapproach to development and remained within <strong>the</strong>paradigm of modernisation <strong>the</strong>ory, using insightsfrom liberal feminism to inform <strong>the</strong>ir critique ofdevelopment policy and outcomes (Kabeer 1994).As summarised by Jaquette and Staudt (2006: 46),<strong>the</strong> WID view ‘was that women were excludedfrom or discriminated against in markets and that<strong>the</strong>y would act entrepreneurially if <strong>the</strong>y had evenminimal resources to do so’.Socialist feminists in <strong>the</strong> 1980s argued that <strong>the</strong> WIDparadigm failed to take into account <strong>the</strong> exploitationinvolved in <strong>the</strong> spread of capitalist social relations,of which <strong>the</strong>y identified gender inequality as afundamental component (Benería and Sen 1981).Studies from a gender and development (GAD)perspective concentrated on global processes of<strong>the</strong> spread of capitalism and <strong>the</strong> impact of suchprocesses on inequality. The focus was also turnedaway from women as a group to <strong>the</strong> more overtlypolitical category of gender and gender relations,centring more explicitly on power relations (Waylen1996, Rai 2002). Caroline Moser (1989) argued fora re-focussing on gendered power relations in<strong>the</strong> study of development in order to challengegender roles and tackle macroeconomic issuesfrom an overtly feminist perspective. This shift toa discussion of gender relations and inequalitywas not merely a <strong>the</strong>oretical shift, but should alsobe understood as a response to changes in <strong>the</strong>international system such as <strong>the</strong> introduction and<strong>the</strong> emerging era of democratisation (Jaquette andStaudt 2006).Early work in <strong>the</strong> field of GAD involved studies thattraced <strong>the</strong> links between <strong>the</strong> household and <strong>the</strong>broader international context. Maria Mies (1982,1986), for example, analysed <strong>the</strong> links betweenprocesses of informalisation and ‘housewifisation’in <strong>the</strong> global economy. In <strong>the</strong>ir article on ‘nimblefingers’, Elson and Pearson (1981) noted howgender inequalities were exploited by firms lookingfor fast, obedient workers. Much of this earlysocialist feminist work was criticised by feminists indeveloping countries working from a postcolonialperspective, who argued that <strong>the</strong> work of ‘FirstWorld’ feminists portrayed poor women as victimsand failed to see how racial hierarchies intersectedwith gender hierarchies to produce historically andculturally specific forms of oppression that GADanalysts could not account for (Mohanty 1988,Lim 1990). As such, it was argued that early GADwork was overly deterministic in its approach, notallowing for <strong>the</strong> agency of women in developingcountries. In many ways <strong>the</strong> rise of <strong>the</strong> postcolonialfeminist critique of development can be seen aspart of a wider process of <strong>the</strong> diminishing influenceof materialist explanations of gender inequality(Jaquette and Staudt 2006). Work such as thatof Marianne Marchand and Jane Parpart (1995)began to question notions of GAD from a morepostcolonial perspective, exploring ideas about<strong>the</strong> role of language and discourse in development<strong>the</strong>ory and policy.In policy terms, <strong>the</strong> shift to <strong>the</strong> gender anddevelopment paradigm manifested itself moststrongly in terms of commitments to gendermainstreaming by international institutions(Hafner-Burton and Pollack 2002). In spite of27
this, some feminists have argued that <strong>the</strong> radicalterminology of <strong>the</strong> GAD critique has often beenused interchangeably with <strong>the</strong> more (neo) liberalaspects of <strong>the</strong> WID perspective (Pearson 1999). Forexample, Rai (2002: 73) argues for a re-focussingof feminist development work on relations ofproduction and accumulation in order to avoid <strong>the</strong>‘cooptation’ of feminist language and politics indevelopment policy and practice. The point hereis that <strong>the</strong> relationship between feminist academicanalysis and gender policy in development is highlycontentious, and reiterates <strong>the</strong> point that policycommitments to ‘gender’ need to be criticallyanalysed if we are to understand <strong>the</strong>ir potentialto contribute to gender equality and women’sempowerment.More recently, commitments to GAD andgender - mainstreaming have been somewhatovershadowed by <strong>the</strong> introduction of MDG3 as<strong>the</strong> primary reference point for gender policy indevelopment. In many ways, MDG3 can be seen asa less radical goal than its forerunner – <strong>the</strong> BeijingPlatform for Action, which established gendermainstreaming– as it does not make links betweeneconomic restructuring and gender inequality. It isimportant to note that <strong>the</strong> target associated withgoal three (promote gender equality and empowerwomen) is to ‘eliminate gender disparity in primaryand secondary education preferably by 2005 and inall levels of education no later than 2015’. As Eliasand Ferguson (2007) argue, <strong>the</strong> MDGs sanction anapproach in which:‘(a) gender issues are reduced to easily quantifiablemeasures of economic efficiency (or ‘human capital’development) and (b) ‘gender mainstreaming’ hasbeen effectively replaced by a development agendathat views gender issues in a much more limitedsense.’One institution that has received a high level ofattention from feminist academics and activistsis <strong>the</strong> World Bank. Since <strong>the</strong> emergence of <strong>the</strong>‘post Washington consensus’ in <strong>the</strong> late 1990s,<strong>the</strong> emphasis on poverty alleviation (or ‘pro-poorgrowth’) has had a significant impact on genderequality policies and programmes within <strong>the</strong>Bank. Contemporary feminist work has arguedthat this attempt to combine a ‘gender-friendly’approach to poverty reduction whilst maintaininga commitment to neoliberal structural adjustmentis ultimately limiting (Perrons 2005, Griffin 2006,Bergeron 2001). The problem for some feministswith <strong>the</strong> overarching interest in poverty reductionis that it is characterised by a lack of any discussionconcerning <strong>the</strong> links between economic growth,development and macroeconomic policy changesand <strong>the</strong> perpetuation of gender inequality.Alongside commitments to poverty reduction, <strong>the</strong>second central component to Bank gender policy –consistent since <strong>the</strong> 1970s – is <strong>the</strong> firm belief thatemployment and income generation should beunderstood as <strong>the</strong> foundation of empowermentfor women (Bedford 2003). This commitment toeconomic empowerment for women manifestsitself in various ways in contemporary World Bankpolicy. Despite an official change in rhetoric fromWID to GAD, in practice gender policy in <strong>the</strong> Bankhas meant getting more women into paid work. Inrecent World Bank publications on gender and <strong>the</strong>MDGs, it is clear that gender inequality is viewednot so much as a problem in itself, but ra<strong>the</strong>r asa barrier to economic development and povertyreduction. The most recent substantive statementof gender policy within <strong>the</strong> Bank is Gender Equalityas Smart Economics, which aims to ‘increaseWorld Bank Group work to empower womeneconomically’. 2 As argued above in <strong>the</strong> critiqueof MDG3, this programme fits within a somewhat‘instrumentalist’ understanding of <strong>the</strong> relationshipbetween gender equality and development. As <strong>the</strong>report clearly states:Studies show that when women are given economicopportunity, <strong>the</strong> benefits are also large for <strong>the</strong>irfamilies, <strong>the</strong>ir communities, and ultimately fornational development efforts. Opening economicopportunities for women puts poverty reductionon a faster track and steps up progress towards <strong>the</strong>Millennium Development Goals, which include <strong>the</strong>eradication of poverty and hunger by 2015 (WorldBank 2007: 5).As such, <strong>the</strong> key paradigm for gender policywithin <strong>the</strong> Bank can be understood to have twofundamental objectives: to empower womeneconomically (without any discussion of broadernotions of empowerment); and to do this in order28
to more efficiently achieve o<strong>the</strong>r poverty reductiongoals. This overview of gender and developmentpolicy demonstrates <strong>the</strong> tensions and conflicts over<strong>the</strong> meaning and deployment of ‘gender’. We nowturn to an analysis of how <strong>the</strong>se debates can beapplied more specifically to tourism developmentpolicy.4. ‘Gender-Aware’ <strong>Tourism</strong> Development Policy:As set out above, gender policy in development ismade in a somewhat de-politicised environment,where many of <strong>the</strong> more radical aspects of<strong>the</strong> feminist agenda have been obscured ormarginalised (Cornwall et al. 2007). This is <strong>the</strong>context in which tourism development policy ismade. As such, we should not expect <strong>the</strong> gendercontent of tourism development policy to easilyovercome <strong>the</strong>se constraints, and should bear thisin mind when analysing its potential to contributeto MDG3. The discussion above demonstratedhow making ‘gender’ visible in development policydoes not necessarily lead to gender equality andwomen’s empowerment. The aim here is <strong>the</strong>reforeto explore how <strong>the</strong>se tensions and issues play outin <strong>the</strong> context of tourism development. There is noglobally-agreed policy statement on tourism andMDG3. Never<strong>the</strong>less, some bilateral donors havedemonstrated a commitment to promoting genderequality and women’s empowerment throughtourism. The Japan International CooperationAgency (JICA) funds a number of projects whichintegrate gender and tourism, along with o<strong>the</strong>raspects such as reproductive health. 3 In Honduras,for example, JICA gender specialists have providedawareness-raising and confidence-building trainingfor indigenous women making handicrafts ando<strong>the</strong>r products for <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. 4 Also inHonduras, Norwegian funding and expertise wasdirected towards a feasibility study on <strong>the</strong> potentialfor tourism to contribute to gender equality (WorldBank 2003). However, such examples are sporadicat best and suggest that <strong>the</strong> links between genderand tourism have not been explicitly made inbilateral institutions. As such, we now look at twoglobal institutions in turn – <strong>the</strong> World <strong>Tourism</strong>Organisation and <strong>the</strong> World Bank – in order toanalyse <strong>the</strong> content and focus of <strong>the</strong>ir gender andtourism policy.4.1. The World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation:One institution we might expect to provide someguidance on gender equality issues is <strong>the</strong> World<strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation (UNWTO). However, despitebeing a United Nations specialised agency, <strong>the</strong>UNWTO has been comparatively slow on <strong>the</strong>uptake with gender mainstreaming compared witho<strong>the</strong>r global institutions. Although <strong>the</strong> Sustainable<strong>Tourism</strong>-Eliminating Poverty (ST-EP) programme hasbeen well-established since 2002, gender equalityobjectives have never been an explicit componentof this. Indeed, gender as a concept was not widelyused in <strong>the</strong> organisation until 2007. Within <strong>the</strong>institution, gender falls within <strong>the</strong> remit of ‘Cultural,Social and Ethical Aspects of <strong>Tourism</strong>’ department,where it is just one of several areas <strong>the</strong> small teamis concerned with, along with migration, humanrights, non-discrimination and <strong>the</strong> protection ofchildren. As such, <strong>the</strong>re are limited resources withwhich to develop and promote a strong genderagenda. Never<strong>the</strong>less, those within <strong>the</strong> UNWTOwith a concern for gender issues managed to takeadvantage of <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me of World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day2007: ‘<strong>Tourism</strong> Opens Doors for Women’ in order toraise <strong>the</strong> profile of gender issues in <strong>the</strong> institution.As part of this event, a roundtable involving a broadrange of participants was held with <strong>the</strong> expresspurpose of exploring <strong>the</strong> relationship between this<strong>the</strong>me and <strong>the</strong> MDGs, setting up a work agenda for<strong>the</strong> future.Following on from this, a fur<strong>the</strong>r UNWTO Forum inBerlin in March 2008 explored <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me of Womenin <strong>Tourism</strong>. The Action Plan to Empower Womenthrough <strong>Tourism</strong> developed during <strong>the</strong> Forumincludes <strong>the</strong> following objectives:• y Establish a multi-stakeholder taskforce;• y Put in place of a data collection system,including desk research and case studies;• y Initiate a biennial UNWTO-UNIFEM report on<strong>the</strong> situation of women in tourism;y • Expand <strong>the</strong> website www.tourismgender.cominto a PORTAL to serve as a global knowledgesharing e-network;29
• y Build international awareness aboutopportunities for women in tourism;• y Call upon UNWTO members to take vigoroussteps to support gender mainstreamingin national development processes so as toachieve women’s equality in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector;• y Foster a network of activists, ambassadors andadvocates and experts in gender issues fromaround <strong>the</strong> world’. 5Of particular interest amongst <strong>the</strong>se activities is <strong>the</strong>Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> Taskforce. The first activity ofthis Taskforce is a project aimed at women workingin five star hotels in developing countries, offeringeducation, human resources and decent training forwomen. The Taskforce will work with hotel chainsand local NGOs in order to teach basic skills in orderto boost women’s confidence in o<strong>the</strong>r aspects of<strong>the</strong>ir lives. 6 However, in spite of <strong>the</strong>se initiatives<strong>the</strong> only clear over-arching policy statement from<strong>the</strong> UNWTO is <strong>the</strong> institution’s ‘triple commitment’to <strong>the</strong> MDGs. These are outlined as follows: thattourism should benefit <strong>the</strong> poor; promote <strong>the</strong>protection of <strong>the</strong> environment; and support <strong>the</strong>empowerment of women. 7 As such, it is too earlyto make any in-depth analyses of UNWTO genderpolicy. Never<strong>the</strong>less, it will be interesting to keep aclose watch on <strong>the</strong>se activities and <strong>the</strong>y will meritfuture research in order to explore <strong>the</strong> ways <strong>the</strong>institution grapples with <strong>the</strong> complex issues ofgender equality and women’s empowerment.4.2. The World Bank:<strong>Tourism</strong> development policy in <strong>the</strong> World Bank hasin recent years moved beyond macroeconomicstrategies of FDI promotion and employmentgeneration. <strong>Tourism</strong> features as a focal sector in90 per cent of Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers(PRSPs), <strong>the</strong> key framework documents for donorsupport (UNWTO 2005: 12). Hawkins and Mann(2007) note that <strong>the</strong> Bank’s total portfolio of tourismfunding amounts to US$3.5billion spanning ninetyfour ongoing projects. They identify four stagesin <strong>the</strong> World Bank’s approach to tourism: ‘macrodevelopment’(1969-1979); ‘disengagement’ (1980-1990); ‘sustainable development’ (1991-1999) and‘micro-development’ (2000-2006).A key tourism policy shift has taken place frommacro-economic concerns towards micro-economicanalysis:The Bank uses <strong>the</strong> analytical lens of tourism toexplore barriers and constraints (...) to investment,to examine micro-policy reform, to decentralizeinstitutional structures, and to promote publicprivatepartnerships. (...) This approach is leading toimportant and more focused micro-level and policyinterventions that are targeted at outcomes likeraising <strong>the</strong> livelihoods of local people (Hawkins andMann 2007: 358).This research is useful in understanding <strong>the</strong> way <strong>the</strong>Bank’s overall approach to tourism developmenthas been reoriented towards micro-economic andpoverty reduction or ‘propoor’ objectives. However,it tells us little about how gender is conceptualisedwithin this new approach. Although no singledocument exists to outline <strong>the</strong> Bank’s approach,several projects identify an explicit link betweentourism and gender equality or empowerment.We outline four of <strong>the</strong>se here, paying particularattention to a project in Copán, Honduras, on whichextensive primary research was carried out by <strong>the</strong>author. These projects are firmly embedded within<strong>the</strong> World Bank’s gender paradigm set out above,which sanctions women’s integration into <strong>the</strong>productive market economy as <strong>the</strong> primary routeto empowerment.The ‘Transfrontier Conservation Areas and <strong>Tourism</strong>Development’ project in Mozambique is cited in aWorld Bank list of ‘gender and rural development’projects so is useful in understanding <strong>the</strong> paradigmof gender and tourism policy. 8 The Project AppraisalDocument states that:<strong>Tourism</strong>, natural resource management and smallenterprise development are all areas that offerparticular opportunities for employment, incomeand participation by women. In cooperation withNGOs, <strong>the</strong> Government is also supporting women’sassociations that assist women household headswith weak economic capacity (World Bank 2005:132).As such, <strong>the</strong> ‘gender’ component of this projectis reduced to creating opportunities for women’s30
economic empowerment. Although listed as ashowcase project for gender and rural development,questions of equality and empowerment are notpresent in <strong>the</strong> project documentation. In Bolivia,a tourism development project for Lake Titicacaincludes a ‘gender’ component. It aims to ‘promoteactions aimed at improving gender equity andimprove opportunities for Aymarh women’ (WorldBank 2007a: 98). However, <strong>the</strong>re is little explorationof how this might be done and what this mightmean in practice.A recently approved ‘Sustainable <strong>Tourism</strong>Development’ project in Ethiopia (June 2009)is more explicit in its understandings of gender,which suggests that <strong>the</strong> links between tourismdevelopment and gender may be becomingmore prominent in World Bank work. The ProjectAppraisal Document offers more details about howwomen are to be involved:In Axum <strong>the</strong> social issues are largely around <strong>the</strong>planned activity of (i) enhancing <strong>the</strong> town squareas a social arena (e.g. cafes and souvenir outletsmanaged by locals) and (ii) restoring some traditionalhouses possibly to transform <strong>the</strong>m into small lodgesrun by community-based entrepreneurs who couldalso benefit from <strong>the</strong> matching grant scheme. Itis desirable that a particular attention be given tovulnerable groups such as women and <strong>the</strong> youth soas to generate employment and incomes for <strong>the</strong>m(World Bank 2009: 33).The construction of Ethiopian women as a‘vulnerable group’ is interesting here, as it clearlycasts women as victims in need of <strong>the</strong> ‘help’ oftourism development. The only solution offeredto overcome such vulnerability is generatingemployment and incomes. In practical terms, it issuggested that ‘<strong>the</strong>se groups’ be given priority injobs in <strong>the</strong> new tourism site in areas such as ‘ticketsales, parking attendants, guides etc.’ (World Bank2009: 33). Again, understandings of gender withinthis project are firmly embedded with <strong>the</strong> economicempowerment approach set out above.One project in particular is being hailed as asuccess story for tourism development’s potentialto contribute to gender equality and women’sempowerment. The ‘Regional Development in<strong>the</strong> Copán Valley’ project in Honduras included‘gender’ as a key component from <strong>the</strong> outset. I dealwith this topic in greater detail in a forthcomingarticle (Ferguson 2010), yet some key points areworth emphasising here in order to understandin more detail <strong>the</strong> World Bank’s approach. Asmight be expected, ra<strong>the</strong>r than addressing issuesof inequality in development outcomes andprocesses, <strong>the</strong> Valle de Copán project focuses on<strong>the</strong> potential of tourism to generate <strong>the</strong> conditionsfor ‘marginal groups’ (women, young people andold people) to access <strong>the</strong> opportunities affordedby tourism. Women’s participation in handicraftproduction for <strong>the</strong> tourism market is perceivedby development workers as a method by whichwomen’s groups can be integrated into <strong>the</strong> marketas well as offering a tourist attraction to potentialvisitors to rural communities, which at <strong>the</strong> sametime is said to enhance cultural awareness and localconditions. <strong>Tourism</strong> in this sense is understood asan economic activity that can integrate womeninto <strong>the</strong> economy, which in turn allows <strong>the</strong>m tocontribute to <strong>the</strong> family economy and streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>the</strong>ir personal development.This conceptualisation of gender equality fitsbroadly within <strong>the</strong> World Bank paradigm outlinedabove. The primary understanding of gender policywithin <strong>the</strong> project is that it relates to women in <strong>the</strong>irroles as producers of tourism goods and services. Ingeneral, support and assistance for <strong>the</strong>se productiveactivities is what constitutes <strong>the</strong> gender componentof policy. 9 As such, issues of gender equality areleft out of <strong>the</strong> picture as equality of opportunityand participation are <strong>the</strong> goals of policy. Womenreceiving training in Honduras through <strong>the</strong> CopánValley project argued that such training did not takeinto account broader issues within <strong>the</strong>ir lives. Forexample, although women may receive training inbasic accounting and marketing skills, wider issuesof concern to <strong>the</strong>m were not addressed. 10Women’s integration into <strong>the</strong> tourism marketthrough World Bank projects is being pursuedwith little awareness of <strong>the</strong> significant barriersto participation faced by women working ontourism microenterprise projects. Research on <strong>the</strong>outcomes of gender and tourism projects is scarce,predominantly because of <strong>the</strong> relative newnessof <strong>the</strong> phenomenon. As such, a summary of <strong>the</strong>31
32gendered outcomes of <strong>the</strong> Copán project will haveto serve as a guide here. First, as argued above,<strong>the</strong> outcomes of tourism development on genderrelations in tourism destinations are complex anduneven. Just because <strong>the</strong> World Bank project didnot take a radical view in its ‘gender component’,that does not mean it did not provide opportunitiesfor local women to challenge gendered powerrelations. Even activities such as women travellingfrom rural villages into town to attend workshopsand events caused a disruption of traditional powerrelations. Likewise, <strong>the</strong> granting of sums of moneyto groups of women to set up <strong>the</strong>ir own businesseshad a significant impact on rural communities andchallenged <strong>the</strong> ways that both women and menperceived and performed traditional gender roles.The aim here is certainly not to say that WorldBank tourism development funding is unableto contribute to gender equality and <strong>the</strong>empowerment of women in tourism destinations.Indeed, in many ways <strong>the</strong> effects of such funding ongender relations have been significant. The point isthat more radical starting points and more feministexpertise at all stages of gender and tourismdevelopment policy could offer greater potential tomove beyond narrow understandings of economicempowerment. I now turn to some reflecting pointson what this might mean for future gender andtourism policy, and what kinds of research might beneeded to support this.5. Conclusions and Recommendations:This paper has taken a critical approach to <strong>the</strong>relationship between tourism and MDG3. Byexploring both implicit and explicit genderedassumptions embedded in tourism developmentpolicy, <strong>the</strong> paper has highlighted some of <strong>the</strong>tensions and complexities of this issue. A keycriticism of current policy is that very limited notionsof women’s empowerment – that is, economicempowerment - are used to justify and legitimise<strong>the</strong>se policies. As Chant (2006: 101) argues, accessto material resources is ‘unlikely to have a significantimpact on women’s empowerment withoutchanges in o<strong>the</strong>r social, cultural, and legal structuresof gender inequality’. There is no necessarycorrelation between an increase in resources and<strong>the</strong> redress of power relations (Kabeer 1999). Assuch, it can be concluded from <strong>the</strong> research thateconomic empowerment as experienced by manywomen in tourism development communities doesnot tend to translate into meaningful a redress ofpower relations beyond a relative improvementin economic conditions. That is, empowermentthrough <strong>the</strong> market remains empowerment in <strong>the</strong>market, to <strong>the</strong> exclusion of more wide-reachingsocietal change. Although tourism developmentmay reconstitute gendered power relations innarrow economic (or market) terms, in reality<strong>the</strong> broader power structures of inequality acrosssociety remain profoundly gender-biased, a patternwhich is in many ways not only reinforced but alsofuelled by processes of tourism development.However, such a critical perspective is notnecessarily <strong>the</strong> most fruitful way of openingchannels of debate and exchange with policymakersand development practitioners. In an attempt to dothis in a constructive manner, I offer some tentativeguidelines or recommendations for channelling<strong>the</strong> potential benefits of tourism more effectivelytowards achieving MDG3. First, <strong>the</strong> promotion oftourism as a macroeconomic development strategyfor poorer countries could be carried out witha more explicit understanding of <strong>the</strong> genderedimplications of this policy. Extensive research existsinto <strong>the</strong> unequal ways in which tourism work isstructured. As such, tourism companies should beheld to account for <strong>the</strong>ir gender policies (whe<strong>the</strong>rexplicit or implicit) in order to provide moreopportunities for promotion and training for womenworkers and to redress <strong>the</strong> historical imbalances intourism work. Second, <strong>the</strong>re could be a more opendebate in tourism policy circles about <strong>the</strong> politics ofwomen’s empowerment and gender equality. Thiswould allow gender and tourism policy to movebeyond narrow, market-based conceptualisationsand to present more creative and innovative waysof achieving MDG3. Third, policy-makers could paymore attention to feminist analyses of tourismdevelopment. We need to move beyond generalisedstatements about <strong>the</strong> contribution of tourism toMDG3 and begin to explore <strong>the</strong> practical ways inwhich this relationship can be operationalised.This would require <strong>the</strong> involvement of feministacademics and practitioners at all stages of <strong>the</strong>tourism policy process – including implementation– to ensure that such policies retain a politicalcommitment to broad notions of gender equalityand women’s empowerment.
As demonstrated in this paper, research into <strong>the</strong>nexus between tourism and MDG3 is currentlylimited. The guidelines above are tentative preciselybecause of <strong>the</strong> lack of detailed, analytical research inthis area. This would benefit from fur<strong>the</strong>r researchin a number of priority areas: <strong>the</strong> outcomes ofWorld Bank gender and tourism projects; genderand tourism policy in bilateral and regional fundingagencies; and UNWTO’s emerging gender agenda.Also, more research into grassroots feministtourism projects across <strong>the</strong> world -such as <strong>the</strong>Zona Franja tourism and women’s empowermentproject in Nicaragua – would offer alternative waysof understanding gender and tourism, and provideinspiration for creative and progressive ways ofharnessing tourism to contribute to gender equalityand <strong>the</strong> empowerment of women.Endnotes:* The paper was published by UniversidadComplutense de Madrid and a later version is nowavailable in Current Issues in <strong>Tourism</strong> (http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a934837855~db=all~jumptype=rss)1. Interviews with women tourism workers in CostaRica, Honduras and Belize carried out betweenSeptember 2005 and April 2006.2. ‘At A Glance: Gender Equality as Smart Economics’,http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTGENDER/0,,contentMDK:21983335~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062 ~<strong>the</strong>SitePK:336868,00.html3. http://www.jica.go.jp/english/operations/<strong>the</strong>matic_issues/gender/4. Interviews with tourism development practitionersin Honduras carried out in May 20085. UNWTO Press Release: Empowering WomenThrough <strong>Tourism</strong>, Madrid, 31st March 2008, availableat http://www.unwto.org/aboutwto/how/en/how.php?op=46. This analysis is based on interviews with staff from<strong>the</strong> World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation, Madrid, June 2009and September 20097. Report of UNWTO’s Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> Forum, 7thMarch 2008, available at http://www.unwto.org/sdt/fields/en/pdf/itb2008_WomenIn<strong>Tourism</strong>_rep.pdf8. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTARD/Resources/agandgenderprojectsfinal.pdf?resourceurlname=agandgender-projectsfinal. pdf9. Interviews with practitioners on <strong>the</strong> World Bankproject, Honduras, December 2005 and May 200810. Interviews with indigenous women who participatedin <strong>the</strong> World Bank project, Honduras, December2005Bibliographical References:Bakker, Isabella (2003) ‘Neo-liberal Governance and<strong>the</strong> Reprivatization of Social Reproduction: SocialProvisioning and Shifting Gender Orders’ in IsabellaBakker and Stephen Gill (eds.) Power, Production andSocial Reproduction, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Bakker, Isabella and Rachel Silvey (2008) ‘Introduction:social reproduction and global transformations – from<strong>the</strong> everyday to <strong>the</strong> global’, in Isabella Bakker and RachelSilvey eds. Beyond States and Markets: The Challengesof Social Reproduction, London: Routledge.Bedford, Kate (2003) ‘How Employment BecameEmancipation: <strong>Tracing</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Bank’s Effort to GetWomen into Work’ in Dorothy Sue Cobble, Amanda B.Chaloupka, and Beth Hutchison (eds.) ReconfiguringClass and Gender, New Brunswick, NJ: Institute forResearch on Women/Institute for Women’s Leadership.Benería, Lourdes and Gita Sen (1981) ‘Accumulation,Reproduction, and Women’s Role in EconomicDevelopment: Boserup Revisited’, Signs 7(2): 279-98.Bergeron, Suzanne (2001) ‘Political Economy Discoursesof Globalization and Feminist Politics’, Signs, 26 (4): 983-1006.Boserup, Ester (1970), Woman’s Role in EconomicDevelopment, London: Allen and UnwinBritton, Stephen G. (1982) ‘The Political Economy of<strong>Tourism</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Third World’, Annals of <strong>Tourism</strong> Research9: 331-358.33
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SECTION 02<strong>Tourism</strong> and Gender Relations41
<strong>Tourism</strong> Processes and Gender RelationsIssues for Exploration and InterventionIndra Munshi, 2006*Abstract<strong>Tourism</strong> processes, as this article argues, like o<strong>the</strong>r processes and relations in societyare gendered. The gender bias is built into <strong>the</strong> discourse of tourism practices, images,and activities, which, by and large, privileges <strong>the</strong> male viewpoint. Researchers,academics and social activists have questioned <strong>the</strong> hegemonic male view of tourismat different levels, although <strong>the</strong>ir voices are still weak. In light of <strong>the</strong> fact that tourismprocesses are expanding rapidly in <strong>the</strong> globalising world, <strong>the</strong>re is a need to streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>the</strong>se voices, both at <strong>the</strong> local and global levels. For a start, <strong>the</strong> agenda of women’smovements everywhere must include <strong>the</strong> demand for greater participation of localpeople in tourism planning and development, especially if rights and interests ofpeople in tourist destinations in <strong>the</strong> third world are to be protected. Only <strong>the</strong>n can<strong>the</strong>y share equitably in <strong>the</strong> benefits that result from tourism.<strong>Tourism</strong> and its multiple dimensions, although arelatively unexplored area of academic interestin India, is by now a well established field ofsocial science research in Europe and America.However, in <strong>the</strong> fast growing literature ontourism, one is struck by <strong>the</strong> paucity of writing onissues related to tourism processes and genderrelations. It is observed that <strong>the</strong>re is a male bias intourism research which subsumes distinct femaleexperience and behaviour of tourism and tourismrelated activity in <strong>the</strong> dominant male experience.Whereas in reality, Wearing and Wearing point out,“ Gendered tourists, gendered hosts, genderedtourism marketing and gendered tourism objectseach reveal power differences between womenand men which privilege male view and whichhave significant impacts on tourism image andpromotion” [quoted from Pritchard and Morgan2000:885].This perspective, although largely neglected, iscrucial to an understanding of tourism processes,according to Kinnaird et al (1994) in <strong>the</strong> light of<strong>the</strong> following. First, that tourism is constructed outof gendered societies and <strong>the</strong>refore all aspects oftourism related development and activity embodygender relations. Second, gender relations bothinform, and are informed, socially, in diverse andcomplex ways. And economic, political, social,cultural and environmental relations are all partof <strong>the</strong> process of tourism development. <strong>Tourism</strong> isnot separate from <strong>the</strong>m but engages all of <strong>the</strong>m.Third, since tourism-related activity has becomean important part of development, <strong>the</strong> social,economic and political relations which result arepart of <strong>the</strong> overall relations of power and control,which can be articulated through race, class andgender [Kinnaird et al, 1994: 5].However, one of <strong>the</strong> issues explored in tourismwritings relates to <strong>the</strong> gendered character ofemployment patterns resulting from tourism. It isclear that <strong>the</strong>re are differences in <strong>the</strong> nature andtype of tourism generated employment that isavailable to men and women. And this, of course,has significant social consequences. Althoughinadequate, attention has also been paid morespecifically to <strong>the</strong> growth of sex tourism whichhas turned certain destinations into “pleasureperipheries”. A much less researched area is<strong>the</strong> gendered nature of tourism images andexperiences. It has been suggested that, <strong>the</strong>re42
is a interrelationship between <strong>the</strong> language ofpatriarchy and heterosexuality and <strong>the</strong> language oftourism promotion.I propose to focus specifically on <strong>the</strong>se issues within<strong>the</strong> context of gender, tourism and development.The paper will highlight <strong>the</strong> gendered nature oftourism processes, production and consumptionof tourism experiences, in <strong>the</strong> context of powerrelations and dominant patriarchal values withinsocieties and between nations, <strong>the</strong> developedand <strong>the</strong> developing. The analysis will throw upissues which are significant to understand genderinequalities in tourism processes, which requirespecial critical attention from academics, plannersand policy-makers, and political organisations,as well as open up hi<strong>the</strong>rto neglected areas forintervention by women’s groups. I will illustrate<strong>the</strong> issues with reference to Goa, a major touristdestination in India.Significance of <strong>Tourism</strong> in Modern Times:To define a highly complex phenomenon simply,tourism is essentially a leisure time activity,involving some movement, a journey and a periodof stay in a new place/places. To be a tourist, asUrry observes, “is one of <strong>the</strong> characteristics of <strong>the</strong>‘modern’ experience. Not to ‘go away’ is like notpossessing a car or a nice house. It is a marker ofstatus in modern societies and is also thought to benecessary to health” [Urry 1990: 4]. The differencebetween pre-modern travel and modern tourism isspelt out by Ning Wang: first, whereas in <strong>the</strong> pasttourism was a luxury, available only to elite group,in modernity and late modernity, tourism is a massconsumption. Second, in today’s society, <strong>the</strong>re is amassive social organisation or a “tourism productionsystem”. Commodification of tourism is part ofoverall capitalist commodification. Third, while premoderntravel was an occasional event, moderntourism is a mass phenomenon, an institution,“an institutionalised leisure and consumer activitycharacterised by pleasure seeking” (2000: 13-14).It is said to be <strong>the</strong> “largest peace time movement ofpeople”. Statistics provided by <strong>the</strong> World <strong>Tourism</strong>Organisation show a remarkable increase in <strong>the</strong>number of international travellers from 25 millionin 1950 to 425 million in 1990. Since <strong>the</strong> secondworld war, <strong>the</strong> growth of tourism industry and itspromotion by international financial organisationsas an agent of economic development andchange has been unprecedented. As <strong>the</strong> largestindustry in <strong>the</strong> world, it obviously holds a veryinfluential position in <strong>the</strong> world economy. In 1994,international tourism produced approximately $3.5 trillion in gross output (6.1 per cent of globalGDP) and employed close to 130 million people, 6.8per cent of workers worldwide. For <strong>the</strong> same year,<strong>the</strong> tourism industry accounted for 12.3 per centof consumer expense, absorbed 75 per cent of <strong>the</strong>total capital investment, and paid almost 6 per centof total tax payments [Apostolopoulous1996: 1-2]. Itrepresents 7 per cent of all world exports [Kinnairdet al, op cit:2]. In addition to developments in <strong>the</strong>international tourism market, domestic/nationaltourism is also increasing rapidly partly due to <strong>the</strong>prevalence of increased leisure time and affluence,as well as <strong>the</strong> encouragement of tourism in regionsseeking to develop <strong>the</strong>ir economies. Overall,tourism has witnessed tremendous growth asa result of increasing affluence in <strong>the</strong> last halfcentury, more leisure time and disposable income,development of better communication system,information technology, and a culture of travel.Modern tourism industry is international incharacter and becoming increasingly so with rapidglobalisation. The system hinges on a group ofnational and transnational corporate actors andgovernmental and inter-governmental agencies,such as hotel chains, airlines, travel companies,travel agencies, tour operators and internationaltravel organisations [Cohen 1996: 59]. In ano<strong>the</strong>rsense, too, tourism is increasingly globalised. “Withtouristic consumerism expanding worldwide andtourists travelling fur<strong>the</strong>r afield” , Wang observes,“various people, nations, and places are becominginvolved in this touristic globalisation and beingexposed to its positive and negative consequences.No longer can a culture or a people remaininsulated” [Wang, op cit: 2]. Almost every culturalobject or site can be turned into a tourist attractionas more and more regions come within <strong>the</strong> orbit oftourism, especially international tourism. There isalready speculation about tourism in space.<strong>Tourism</strong> and Development:During <strong>the</strong> 1960s tourism was, and continues to be,considered “a passport to development”, for <strong>the</strong>43
underdeveloped countries. It was seen as a “soft”development alternative for stimulating economicgrowth. Through foreign exchange earnings andcreation of employment, tourism could providean opportunity for people of poorer countriesto increase <strong>the</strong>ir income and standard of living.The Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) spoke of <strong>the</strong> almost limitlessgrowth potential in tourism. Both <strong>the</strong> World Bankand <strong>the</strong> United Nations promoted tourist industriesin developing countries. The UN declared 1967 tobe <strong>the</strong> International <strong>Tourism</strong> Year. <strong>Tourism</strong> waspresented as an easy option for developmentbecause it relied largely on <strong>the</strong> national resourcesalready present – sand, sun, friendly people – andrequired no vast capital investment. A numberof developing countries embarked upon tourismwithout giving adequate attention to its long-termconsequences. Although since <strong>the</strong> boom of <strong>the</strong>1960s, views about <strong>the</strong> negative social, culturaland environmental effects of tourism have beenexpressed, <strong>the</strong> enthusiasm of <strong>the</strong> developingcountries continues to be high. There exists asubstantial body of literature which highlights <strong>the</strong>adverse socio-cultural consequences of tourism.Even its economic benefits have come underdoubt. Scholars have realised that tourism is nota secure growth industry. It is prone to seasonalfluctuations and is unpredictable precisely becauseit is dependent upon a wide variety of factors, at<strong>the</strong> international level, upon which <strong>the</strong> destinationcountries have little control. Given <strong>the</strong> nature ofinclusive package holidays where payment is madein advance, <strong>the</strong> destination countries do not earnmuch foreign exchange [Crick 1996: 21-23]. It hasproved to be more capital-intensive than predicted,nor has employment been stimulated to <strong>the</strong> degreeexpected. The profits go to <strong>the</strong> elites, <strong>the</strong> wealthyand <strong>the</strong> influential, at <strong>the</strong> local as well as <strong>the</strong> globallevels.A deeper structural criticism of modern tourismcomes from dependency and world system <strong>the</strong>orists.With <strong>the</strong> growth of modern tourism establishmentinto an international complex of airlines, hotels,travel agencies, transport companies and <strong>the</strong> like,<strong>the</strong>re is allegedly an increasing domination by <strong>the</strong>centre (from industrial countries where <strong>the</strong> touristsoriginate), of <strong>the</strong> periphery (<strong>the</strong> less developeddestinations). “Thus, a dependency syndromeemerges. <strong>Tourism</strong> becomes identified as a form ofimperialism or of metropolitan dominance in a neocolonialsetting in which <strong>the</strong> natives particularly <strong>the</strong>third world countries are systematically exploited”[Dann and Cohen 1996: 308]. <strong>Tourism</strong> is thus seenas a mechanism which incorporates <strong>the</strong> poor,developing countries into an essentially exploitativeglobal economic order.Given that tourism processes are constructed,promoted and consumed in <strong>the</strong> hierarchical,unequal, global and national systems, women andmen experience tourism and are affected by it verydifferently. Issues of class, race, gender shape andare shaped by tourism processes very differently atinternational and local levels. An illustration of thisis provided by <strong>the</strong> gendered pattern of employmentgenerated by tourism (both international anddomestic) in <strong>the</strong> developing countries especiallywith respect to sex tourism. I will deal with <strong>the</strong>m in<strong>the</strong> following sections.Employment and <strong>the</strong> Gender Bias:One of <strong>the</strong> major benefits of tourism is believed tobe generation of employment for <strong>the</strong> local peoplein <strong>the</strong> tourist destinations. While this is widelyaccepted as true, <strong>the</strong>re is less awareness, however,of a gender bias in <strong>the</strong> nature of employmentavailable to men and women. Studies have shownthat <strong>the</strong>re are gender differences in <strong>the</strong> type of work,<strong>the</strong> seasonality of employment, wage structure andso on. In most instances tourism reinforces <strong>the</strong> olddivision of labour although in some cases a newdivision of labour is also created.In <strong>the</strong> hotel and catering industry in Britain, forexample, gender stereotyping and sex segregationat different levels of employment activity is evident.“Women work as counter and kitchen staff,domestic and cleaners, while men work as portersand stewards. Over 50 per cent of men employedin <strong>the</strong> industry are in a professional, managerialand supervisory occupation.”[Kinnaird et al opcit: 16]. A distinct gender division is reported byscholars in <strong>the</strong> form and extent of flexibility inworking practices. It is more common for men tohave jobs which involve “functional flexibility”. The“operative positions” of cooks, waiting and barstaff, kitchen hands, domestic staff and cleaners44
are overwhelmingly filled by women, majority of<strong>the</strong>m as part-time employees. They do not have <strong>the</strong>opportunity to develop a wide range of skills andexperience to become functionally flexible as fulltime employees who are more likely to be males[Urry 1990: 80].Case studies from o<strong>the</strong>r regions have also foundwomen to be employed in less stable, lower paidand lower status jobs. Low skilled jobs are seenas good opportunities for women and ethnicminorities. Sexist and racist social ideologies as wellas existing social stratification systems are foundto be reinforced by tourism services [Kinnaird et alop cit:17]. Data from nor<strong>the</strong>rn Cyprus, for example,suggests that pressure from family and husbandmay restrict <strong>the</strong> choice of jobs by women. Forexample, <strong>the</strong>re is a preference for reception work,housekeeping and cleaning ra<strong>the</strong>r than work at <strong>the</strong>bar, as waitress or tour guide. Female participationin business in family run hotels and guest houses isacceptable since “it occurs within <strong>the</strong> protection of<strong>the</strong> family environment [Scott 1995: 395-96].Evidence from Goa, 1 India, also suggests that ingeneral <strong>the</strong> low skilled and wage jobs are occupiedmostly by women particularly in hotels. A number ofmigrant girls from Karnataka and Andhra Pradeshare engaged in <strong>the</strong> sale of small handicraft itemsand as masseurs on <strong>the</strong> beaches. It is an importantsource of income for <strong>the</strong>m. In addition, a number ofGoan men and women run small shacks serving foodand drinks on <strong>the</strong> beach. Women/families are alsoinvolved in keeping “bed and breakfast” touristsin <strong>the</strong>ir private homes, letting out rooms or a partof <strong>the</strong> house to tourists, preferably foreigners. Thetourism department encourages people living incoastal areas to keep tourists as paying guests.In most such instances, however, <strong>the</strong> old genderdivision of labour is not challenged, although clearly,chores like cooking, serving, cleaning, washing,which are unpaid household work of <strong>the</strong> traditionalhousewife, now become commercialised.O<strong>the</strong>r studies also show that <strong>the</strong> “providers ofcommercialised hospitality within <strong>the</strong> private homeare overwhelmingly female…with increasing malerepresentation as establishments become larger,for example, small hotels.” Hosting at home isgenerally perceived as a gendered occupation[Lynch and MacWhannell 2000: 106].An important element of hosting at home is <strong>the</strong>extension of unpaid household work to paid workwithin <strong>the</strong> home. The site of work associated withnurture and care for <strong>the</strong> family is transformedinto one of commercial activity for a stranger,although <strong>the</strong> personal element does not disappearaltoge<strong>the</strong>r. The fact that <strong>the</strong> tourist, <strong>the</strong> stranger,is also looking for a “home” and a “homelyatmosphere” away from home, is significant butoutside <strong>the</strong> scope of this paper. In her new role, <strong>the</strong>woman of <strong>the</strong> house continues to play, to differingdegrees, <strong>the</strong> quintessential mo<strong>the</strong>r, cooking,feeding and looking after <strong>the</strong> “guest”.The income from running a shack on <strong>the</strong> beach orhosting at home does enhance <strong>the</strong> financial andsocial position of <strong>the</strong> family, and <strong>the</strong> woman. I wasinformed that generally <strong>the</strong> income is spent on <strong>the</strong>family. “Even <strong>the</strong> tip given to <strong>the</strong> woman goes to<strong>the</strong> family. The family may invest <strong>the</strong> money in a caror a motor bike but not in a washing machine, whichwould make life easier for her.” At <strong>the</strong> same time,keeping guests at home or running a restaurantdoubles <strong>the</strong> burden on <strong>the</strong> woman. While <strong>the</strong>husband works only in <strong>the</strong> restaurant, <strong>the</strong> wife takescare of <strong>the</strong> family, “cooks at home in <strong>the</strong> morning,and <strong>the</strong>n in <strong>the</strong> restaurant, goes back home to doo<strong>the</strong>r chores, and returns to <strong>the</strong> restaurant to worktill late at night”. Do women acquire control over<strong>the</strong> income from <strong>the</strong>se activities or does it becomea part of <strong>the</strong> family pool, do <strong>the</strong>y experience o<strong>the</strong>rtypes of freedom as well, are questions that requirecloser examination. Different regions will showvery different results, depending upon a variety ofo<strong>the</strong>r factors like <strong>the</strong>ir overall social and economicstanding in <strong>the</strong> family and community.There are instances of enhancement of women’sindependence, resulting from <strong>the</strong>ir incorporationinto tourism generated employment. Evidencefrom Greece, Barabados, Mexico, Ireland and <strong>the</strong>Caribbean seems to support <strong>the</strong> above argument.While <strong>the</strong> traditional division of labour remainsunchallenged and unaltered, <strong>the</strong> new opportunitiesdo enable women’s labour to enter <strong>the</strong> publicdomain [Kinnaird et al op cit: 17]. This, of course,has o<strong>the</strong>r social consequences which must befur<strong>the</strong>r explored in tourism research. For example,tourism has resulted in greater economic autonomyand power for women in Mexico. The incidence45
for female headed households are found to bedominant in areas where tourism employment isavailable. <strong>Tourism</strong> develop ments in a region maywell expand <strong>the</strong> range of choices and freedomsavailable to women, and <strong>the</strong>refore improve <strong>the</strong>quality of <strong>the</strong>ir lives.In Goa, several persons reported that incomefrom tourism has resulted in greater confidenceand freedom for women, for instance “<strong>the</strong>y goto restaurants, go out with friends and feel free”.Unlike Goan men who develop relationships withforeign women tourists just to be able to go abroad,women may develop contact with foreign men tobe in an equal relationship.Pleasure Periphery and Sex <strong>Tourism</strong>:Ano<strong>the</strong>r way in which women are included in <strong>the</strong>tourism related labour force is sex tourism. The four“s” factors, i e, sun, sand, sea and sex have becomeassociated with tourist resorts in general. Countrieswhich utilise tourism as a strategy for developmentcreate a situation in which women’s sexuality is seenas an object of attraction for <strong>the</strong> male gaze, bothdomestic, but more so, foreign tourists. Parts of<strong>the</strong> world, especially <strong>the</strong> developing countries likeThailand, Philippines, Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia,Sri Lanka have acquired <strong>the</strong> reputation of being <strong>the</strong>“pleasure periphery” for <strong>the</strong> developed tourismgenerating metropoles including Europe, <strong>the</strong> US,Japan, and o<strong>the</strong>rs. The power relations betweentourism generating and <strong>the</strong> destination countries,and unequal gender relations in both, is <strong>the</strong> contextin which <strong>the</strong> increase in international sex tourismcan be analysed. The pleasure seeking, adventurousmale tourist from <strong>the</strong> affluent, developed countriesand <strong>the</strong> stereotypical “submissive”, “femi nine”,female from poor underdeveloped countriescharacterise <strong>the</strong> dominant trend in sex tourism ofpresent times. Which is, of course, not to deny <strong>the</strong>existence of sex tourism between <strong>the</strong> developed,affluent countries.Sex tourism, by and large, involves women [Shawand Williams 1994: 90] although men are also a partof <strong>the</strong> business, as for instance <strong>the</strong> “beach boys”in Jamaica. White women are also known to lookfor sex partners when on vacations. This phenomenonexists in Goa as well. Young Goan men areknown to engage in providing sexual service towomen (and men) tourists on a commercial basis.It is suggested that some female tourists are ableto use <strong>the</strong>ir economic power to “indulge <strong>the</strong>irracialised sexual fantasies while away from home,imaging Goa as ero exotic” [Routledge 2002: 206].In some destinations like Kenya, Gambia and severalCaribbean islands, female sex tourists are said to bemore prominent than <strong>the</strong>ir male counterparts. Aswomen improve <strong>the</strong>ir social and economic position,one may expect more and more female touristsseeking sexual services from male prostitutes orcall boys all over <strong>the</strong> world.Significantly, however, Pruitt and La Font point out,<strong>the</strong> term “romance tourism” is used to distinguish<strong>the</strong>se relationships from those of sex tourism. Here,<strong>the</strong> commercial character of sex tourism is hiddenbehind “<strong>the</strong> discourse of romance and long-termrelationship, an emotional involvement usuallynot present in sex tourism”. And nei<strong>the</strong>r partnerconsiders <strong>the</strong>ir interaction to be prostitution,although o<strong>the</strong>rs may label it so. Emphasis is placedon courtship ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> exchange of sex formoney [Pruitt and La Font 1995: 423].Pritchard and Morgan sum up <strong>the</strong> factors on whichsex tourism is founded. First, <strong>the</strong> poverty of <strong>the</strong>people which encourages women to enter <strong>the</strong>sex business. Second, male tourists see women ofcolour as someone more willing and available. Third,<strong>the</strong> industry is supported by political and economicinstitutions and businesses which encourage mento travel to certain countries specifically to purchase<strong>the</strong> sexual services of local women [Pritchard andMorgan 2000: 888]. It is also suggested that menseek sexual service in <strong>the</strong> developing countriesnot only because it is cheaper, but because <strong>the</strong>commercial character of <strong>the</strong> in teraction between<strong>the</strong> prostitute and <strong>the</strong> customer is somewhatdiguised under tenderness, readiness to please,etc, on <strong>the</strong> part of <strong>the</strong> prostitute [Oppermann 1999:255].It must be noted that colonialism and militarismencouraged prostitution in many countries evenbefore <strong>the</strong> modern interna tional tourist appearedon <strong>the</strong> scene. In present times, however, sextourism has become a mechanism through which<strong>the</strong> govern ments of <strong>the</strong>se countries seek to fur<strong>the</strong>r46
<strong>the</strong>ir national economic goals [Hall 1996: 270].Scholars have pointed to <strong>the</strong> post-war developmentof <strong>the</strong> new international division of labour whichradically reconstructed <strong>the</strong> economies of sou<strong>the</strong>astAsia through <strong>the</strong>ir closer integration within<strong>the</strong> global economy. The influx of rural women tourban areas to support <strong>the</strong>ir families, <strong>the</strong> overallmarginalisation of female participation in <strong>the</strong> labourmarket, <strong>the</strong>ir exclusion from <strong>the</strong> industrial sector,have been factors responsible for <strong>the</strong>ir entry intosex business [Shaw and Williams op cit: 91].In Korea <strong>the</strong> ‘kisaeng’ 2 tourism is synonymous withJapanese oriented tourism prostitution. In 1985,<strong>the</strong>re were an estimated 2,60,000 prostitutes inSouth Korea, <strong>the</strong> majority of whom came fromeconomically backward rural areas. The Koreangovern ment even congratulated <strong>the</strong>m for <strong>the</strong>ir“heroic patriotism”, for contributing towards <strong>the</strong>economic development of <strong>the</strong>ir country. Althoughwomen’s groups like <strong>the</strong> South Korea Women’sChurch Alliance has strongly condemned <strong>the</strong>practice, <strong>the</strong> Korean gov ernment has chosen toignore it so as not to spoil its economic relationswith Japan [Hall op cit: 273, 274].It is common knowledge that <strong>the</strong> promotion ofsexual services is an important part of marketingThailand as a tourist destination. It is estimatedthat <strong>the</strong>re were between 5,00,000 and a millionprostitutes in <strong>the</strong> early 1980s. Of course, not allprostitutes cater to sex tourists. Besides, many Thaiwomen become “rented wives”, somewhat like<strong>the</strong> kisaeng of Korea, who accompany <strong>the</strong> tourists,particularly to Holland, Germany and Japan. Anumber of Filipino women are known to travelto Japan and Germany. Most of <strong>the</strong> female andchild prostitutes in Thailand come from <strong>the</strong> poornorth and north-eastern regions. Until <strong>the</strong> end of1980s <strong>the</strong> government promoted sex tourism as ameans to earn foreign exchange to <strong>the</strong> extent thatministers openly advocated tourism prostitutionas a means of employment generation. In 1990salthough prostitution for local customers wasmore prevalent, foreign-oriented prostitution wasextremely important to Thailand’s accumulation offoreign capital.Boonchu Rojanasathien, a former vice premierof Thailand and an internationally known banker,encouraged provincial gover nors of Thailand in 1980to make <strong>the</strong>ir provinces more attractive to touristsand <strong>the</strong>reby create more jobs for <strong>the</strong> people. Hisappeal read as follows, “Within <strong>the</strong> next two yearswe need more money. Therefore I ask all governorsto consider <strong>the</strong> natural scenery in your provinces,toge<strong>the</strong>r with some form of entertainment thatsome of you might consider disgusting and shamefulbecause <strong>the</strong>y are forms of sexual entertainmentthat attract tourists. Such forms of entertainmentshould not be prohibited if only because you aremorally fastidious. Yet explicit obscenities thatmay lead to damaging moral consequences shouldbe avoided within a reasonable limit. We must dothis because we have to consider jobs that willbe created for <strong>the</strong> people” [quoted from Holden,Horlemann and Pfafflin 1983: 13].There has been a weakening of <strong>the</strong> sex market inThailand in recent years and interestingly, bo<strong>the</strong>xternal and internal factors are responsible for it.Growing public awareness of <strong>the</strong> AIDS crisis as wellas <strong>the</strong> work of women’s protests are important.But changes in Japanese society such as <strong>the</strong>improved status of women in Japan, Leheny pointsout, and rapidly increasing number of Japanesewomen travelling abroad has put pressure on <strong>the</strong>government to change Thailand’s sex market image.In fact, given that women constitute an appreciablylucrative tourism market, since <strong>the</strong>ir spendingpatterns result in fewer leakages than men’s do,Japanese women represent <strong>the</strong> greater potentiallyprofitable demand group. <strong>Tourism</strong> Authority ofThailand’s designation of 1992 as “Women’s VisitThailand Year” signals such a development [Leheny2003: 380].In response to a growing phenomenon of sextourism through out Asia, a few students’ andwomen’s groups organised <strong>the</strong>m selves againstit. In 1973 <strong>the</strong> first demonstration took place inSeoul, Korea, where students held banners whichsaid, “Our mo<strong>the</strong>rland should not be turned intoa bro<strong>the</strong>l for Japanese men.” In 1981, through histravel in south-east Asia, <strong>the</strong>n prime minister ZenkoSuzuki of Japan was surprised to be confrontedwith strong protest groups in Manila and Thailand.A protest letter prepared by 68 organisationsin <strong>the</strong> Philippines said, “we would like to forgetJapanese military imperialism. But now instead of47
military uniforms, <strong>the</strong> men come in business suitsdominating Asia through a pernicious form of socioeconomicimperialism which tramples on <strong>the</strong> Asianpeoples’ right to human dignity” [O’Grady 1981: 39].That racist and gender inequalities may bereinforced by tourism experience is shown by Crushand Wellings in <strong>the</strong> case of Lesotho and Swaziland.“Exposure to independent black African through<strong>the</strong> tourism experience, far from diluting raciststereotypes held by white South Africans, tendsonly to reinforce <strong>the</strong>m. Thus blacks are cast in servileposition, throughout <strong>the</strong> industry…black womenare reduced to <strong>the</strong> level of sexual objects meantfor <strong>the</strong> proclivities of white male South Africans…”[Crush and Wellings 1987: 103]. One of <strong>the</strong> mostsignificant social impacts, <strong>the</strong> authors note, hasbeen <strong>the</strong> obvious growth of prostitution in <strong>the</strong> twocountries. An important factor in <strong>the</strong>ir analysis is<strong>the</strong> defining context of a regional political economydominated by South America. Not only women,but children, <strong>the</strong> most vulnerable section, too areinvolved in <strong>the</strong> sex service. In 1994, 61 End ChildProstitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking ofChildren for Sexual Exploitation (ECPAT) provided<strong>the</strong> following esti mates of children in <strong>the</strong> sexindustry – 5,00,000 in Brazil, 4,00,000 in India,2,00,000-8,50,000 in Thailand, 2,00,000 in Nepal. 3Cheap airfares, <strong>the</strong> opening of countries onceclosed because of war or o<strong>the</strong>r political reasons,and <strong>the</strong> advent of <strong>the</strong> internet have providedopportunities for tourist looking for underage sexpartners. In <strong>the</strong> last few years paedophilia appearsto have increased substantially or at least moreinformation seems to be available now. In <strong>the</strong> caseof child sexual abuse, class, and race factors seemto be more important than gender. Young boysare as much victimised as young girls. For example,sexual abuse of young boys is more common in SriLanka, while more young girls are abused in India.Modern gadgets like sophisticated cameras andvideo filming equipment are some of <strong>the</strong> aids usedby <strong>the</strong> offenders, who are generally white men,although women are also involved.It is reported that international networks of childsex abusers is rapidly increasing. They shareinformation on <strong>the</strong> “safest” places for child abusein <strong>the</strong> world. There is also a huge market for childpornography on <strong>the</strong> internet. India and o<strong>the</strong>r southAsian countries are slowly replacing south-east Asiaas <strong>the</strong> venue of choice for sex tourism given that<strong>the</strong>re are fewer legislations against child abuse in<strong>the</strong>se countries. Also, because European touristsbelieve that AIDS is not as rampant among childrenin India. A large number of tourists are seeking outIndia, <strong>the</strong> main destination being Goa preciselybecause of <strong>the</strong> lax legal and security measures<strong>the</strong>re. They know that it is easy to escape <strong>the</strong> localadministration as well as <strong>the</strong> law. Since Bangkok hasbecome “too hot” for European paedophiles, <strong>the</strong>yhave turned to Goa and Kerala [Virani 2000: 88].According to Nishita Desai (2001) of Child Rights Goa(CRG), Goa is in danger of becoming a destinationfor sex tourism. Although Goans <strong>the</strong>mselves like todeny it but it is well known that not only migrantwomen but Goan women too are involved in sexbusiness. Women and girls are supplied through<strong>the</strong> hotels, lodges, restaurants to domestic andforeign tourists. They may also accompany <strong>the</strong> manout of <strong>the</strong> state for short periods. Majority of <strong>the</strong>prostitutes are from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka,few from Nepal, Bangladesh, West Bengal, and evencountries of <strong>the</strong> former Soviet Union. Althoughnot entirely a product of tourism, prostitution hasgot a boost from increased tourism. Studies showthat while sexual exploitation of children may haveexisted prior to tourism in Goa, <strong>the</strong> number hasrisen due to domestic and foreign tourism. Thoughmigrant children are <strong>the</strong> worst victims of sexualabuse, local children are also lured by paedophilesunder <strong>the</strong> guise of providing “better opportunities”[Desai ibid: 14]. The Washington Times in an issuereferred to Goa beaches as particularly favoured bytourists from Europe, America, Australia, Japan andreported that it was set to rival Bangkok in <strong>the</strong> childsex tourism (p 17).The migrants are usually from <strong>the</strong> droughtproneregions of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka andMaharashtra. While <strong>the</strong> adult migrant men areengaged in construction, stone quarrying or scrapcollection work, women and children often workselling trinkets, handicraft items, fruits, nuts, softdrinks to tourists on <strong>the</strong> beaches. Many work asmasseurs, and come into contact with “friendly”tourists who give <strong>the</strong>m money and gifts in returnfor sexual favours. Between 1984 and 1991 Freddie48
Peats ran a children’s home, taking in orphaned boysand those from broken homes and sexually abusing<strong>the</strong>m. Peats also used <strong>the</strong> boys in <strong>the</strong> productionof pornography and prostituted <strong>the</strong>m to foreignpaedophiles. He was convicted, but many like himhave managed to escape <strong>the</strong> law. Thanks, however,to <strong>the</strong> efforts of some organisations like Child RightsGoa and several citizen’s groups <strong>the</strong> governmenthas woken up to <strong>the</strong> prevalence of paedophilia inGoa, and begun to take action against it.An important point has been raised by Davidsonand Taylor with regard to <strong>the</strong> westerner’s desirefor sexual contact with local adults and children.It is structured, according to <strong>the</strong>m, by <strong>the</strong>ir“racist constructions of <strong>the</strong> exotic and <strong>the</strong> erotic“primitive”, while <strong>the</strong>ir racist assumptions aboutcultural “difference” are used to justify and defend<strong>the</strong>ir sexually exploitative acts. At <strong>the</strong> same time,for most Goans <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> prostituted womenand children are primarily migrants, and “so <strong>the</strong>‘O<strong>the</strong>r’, makes <strong>the</strong>ir fate a matter of indifference”[Davidson and Taylor 1996: 29]. Nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> Goanpeople nor <strong>the</strong> government regard <strong>the</strong> problemas serious simply because “outsiders are involvedin it”, who “spoil <strong>the</strong> name of Goa”. The solution,<strong>the</strong>refore, is “to throw <strong>the</strong>m out of <strong>the</strong> state”.Flavia Agnes puts it in <strong>the</strong> wider context ofexploitative global system, when she writes,“In <strong>the</strong> global trade-offs, while India is alreadymarked as a place for <strong>the</strong> supply of cheap labour,lax environmental safety laws and <strong>the</strong> under-<strong>the</strong>tabledealings, will it now have ano<strong>the</strong>r plus – asex tourism attraction? Will <strong>the</strong> poverty ridden,malnourished children, <strong>the</strong> most vulnerablesegment of our population, become its fodder,while <strong>the</strong> state machinery is caught slumbering?”[Agnes 2004: 19]. It is, how ever, also important tonote that not only <strong>the</strong> exploitative world system,but <strong>the</strong> unequal gendered societies of both <strong>the</strong> firstand third worlds, is <strong>the</strong> context in which gendereddifferences and bias in tourism can be understood.It is significant that <strong>the</strong> white male tourists alonedo not demonstrate <strong>the</strong>ir sexual power over <strong>the</strong>stereotypical “passive”, “traditional”, submissivecoloured women, but coloured men also focus <strong>the</strong>irgaze on <strong>the</strong> “bikini clad”, white women. The objectof tourism consumption, in both instances, is <strong>the</strong>female body. It is common knowledge, for example,that Indian men like to visit Goa for voyeuristic purposes,to ogle at <strong>the</strong> scantily dressed women, bothGoan and foreigners, believed to be “free”, “funloving”,“permissive” and “easily available”.For Enloe, tourism is profoundly gendered, basedon <strong>the</strong> ideas of masculinity and femininity in <strong>the</strong>societies of departure and destination. “The verystructure of international tourism needs patriarchyto survive” [Swain 1995: 255]. Crucial to this discussionis <strong>the</strong> gender bias in <strong>the</strong> creation of tourismimages and <strong>the</strong> “interrelationship” between <strong>the</strong>language of patriarchy and (hetro) sexuality andlanguage of tourism” [Pritchard and Morgan op cit:884].<strong>Tourism</strong> Images:Pritchard and Morgan (2000) argue, on <strong>the</strong> basisof analysis of brochures and advertisements, thatlanguage and imagery of tourism promotionalmaterial “privileges <strong>the</strong> male, heterosexual gazeabove all o<strong>the</strong>rs”. Studies, although few on <strong>the</strong>subject, note that tourism brochure representationof men tend to be associated with action, power,ownership, while representations of women tend tobe associated with passivity, availability and beingowned. They point out that tourism advertisingand <strong>the</strong> myths and fantasies promoted by tourismmarketing are dependent upon shared conceptionsof gender, sexuality and gender relations [Pritchardand Morgan op cit: 889).Like advertising images in general, tourismadvertising images also invariably represent <strong>the</strong>male view. The masculine and feminine attributesare defined largely as <strong>the</strong> adventurous, strong,“macho” man, and <strong>the</strong> passive, sensuous,submissive woman. The tourism advertisingmaterial is replete with <strong>the</strong> images of <strong>the</strong> “erotic”and <strong>the</strong> “exotic” woman who lights up <strong>the</strong> fantasyworld of <strong>the</strong> tourist. For example, Caribbeanwomen are presented in tourism literature assexual mulattoes with free time to enjoy <strong>the</strong>beaches and <strong>the</strong> male visitor. The dominant imageof women in <strong>the</strong> tourism generating countriesis that of “scantily clad young women in exoticsurroundings appealing to <strong>the</strong> fantasies of middleaged businessmen who are feeling threatened by<strong>the</strong> improvement of women in <strong>the</strong> North (ibid:891).In China, <strong>the</strong> government promotes ethnic tourism49
using exotic images of women dressed in traditionalethnic dress even though <strong>the</strong>y have gained somemeasure of economic independence throughtourism enterprise, <strong>the</strong>y remain “exoticised femaleimages” [Kinnaird et al op cit: 18]. The dominantimage of women in tourism material in India is thatof young women, traditionally dressed in everyfinery, submissively welcoming <strong>the</strong> tourists withfolded hands. In contrast, <strong>the</strong> rural/tribal womenare shown as both erotic and exotic. In all <strong>the</strong>seinstances women are represented as <strong>the</strong> object ofmen’s desire, of male tourist consumption.In most cases <strong>the</strong> sexual image is quite explicit. Asfor example, “Thailand is a world full of extremes,and <strong>the</strong> possibilities are limitless. Anything goesin this exotic country, especially when it comes togirls” [Shaw and Williams op cit: 90]. Or “Vietnamawaits you”… and “is as alluring as ever”. Or“India awaits you…<strong>the</strong> timeless mystery andbeauty of India has been waiting for you for 5,000years. She is an indescribable and unforgettableland only by visiting <strong>the</strong> country can <strong>the</strong> truth beexperienced… Everything you desire can be foundin India…every whim will be gratified” [cited inPritchard and Morgan op cit: 897]. A Frankfurtadvertisement stated “Asian women are withoutdesire for emancipation, but full of warm sensualityand <strong>the</strong> softness of velvet” [Kinnaird and Hall op cit:28]. South-east Asian airlines such as Thai Airlines,Singapore Airlines and Cathay Pacific have portrayed“submissive” Asian women in <strong>the</strong>ir tourism promotionalmaterial. Singapore Airlines ran a campaignof “Singapore Girl – you are a great way to fly” [Hall1996 op cit: 268]. A recent advertisement whichwas hastily withdrawn said, “Go Goa, everythingincluded”.Not only women, even landscapes, places, areexoticised and sexualised, imbued with feminineattributes, meant to attract and gratify <strong>the</strong> malegaze. The motive of <strong>the</strong> “virgin” beach is <strong>the</strong> mostcommonly used. For example, “Niagra is ‘seductivelyrestless’ and ‘tries to win your heart with herbeauty’”. Jamaica is “tempting” and “innocent”,“sensuous”, “seductive”. Fiji offers “waterfallstumbling through virgin forests”; Seychelles offers“seas that were made for pleasure”; Tahiti is called“The Island of love”. Brochures of important traveland tour agencies in Germany represent India as“exotic”, “enchanting/magical”, “colourful”, of“abundant beauty”, “fairy tale scenes”, “romantic”,“India awaits you as an event of colours”, 4 allare images with gender undertones.In <strong>the</strong> brochures of department of tourism,government of Goa, Goa is imbued with femininequalities. It is described as “irresistible”; with“captivating landscape”; “Goa beckons with itssheer natural beauty”; “<strong>the</strong> land of dreams dressesherself for yet ano<strong>the</strong>r occasion. Life here bloomsand surrenders to <strong>the</strong> reminiscent beauty. Watch<strong>the</strong> tall palm trees sway in <strong>the</strong> cool breeze, while yousubmit your mind to <strong>the</strong> serene hinterland of Goa.Experience <strong>the</strong> magic”; “Experience and explore aworld of infinite possibilities”; “<strong>the</strong> seductive Goancoast is sprinkled with excitement. …All of thisadrenalin rush under <strong>the</strong> same sun”. Goa is soldfor <strong>the</strong> “highly playful spirit on <strong>the</strong> Goan beaches”.The image of a “seductive”, “beautiful”, “magical”,“captivating”, “mesmerising”, “enchanting”,“charming”, place/landscape wait ing for <strong>the</strong> visitorquite clearly represent a masculinist view.Hedonism and Hospitality:In order to understand <strong>the</strong> gendered, sexualised,character of tourism processes, it is useful in myview to examine two important ideas, pleasure, andhospitality, which are central to tourism activity.Despite <strong>the</strong> wide range of tourist motivations itcannot be denied that tourism is about holidays,about unrestrained pleasure. As Urry points out, “itis about consuming goods and services which arein some sense unnecessary. They are consumedbecause <strong>the</strong>y supposedly generate pleasurableexperiences which are different from those typicallyencountered in everyday life…to gaze upon orview a set of different scenes, of landscapes ortownscapes which are out of <strong>the</strong> ordinary” [Urryop cit: 1].The term “hedonism” is often used to describetouristic activity. To be a tourist is to withdraw,temporarily, from everyday social obligations.Instead of duty and structure, one has freedomand carefree fun, including hedonistic regressionto drugs and nude sun bathing [Crick op cit: 327].And sex may be seen as a part of <strong>the</strong> relaxation,conspicuous spending, having fun, letting go andexperiencing <strong>the</strong> “different”. Given that <strong>the</strong> tourist50
ehaviour is relatively freer and unconstrainedby norms at home, sexual liberties may be takenwithout serious consequences. In fact, behaviourwhich may not be acceptable at home, is totallyaccept able and even expected while holidaying.Crick’s suggestion is useful that <strong>the</strong> tourists’ worldis constructed of many inversions – from work toplay, normal morality to sexuality, conspicuousspending ra<strong>the</strong>r than saving, freedom ra<strong>the</strong>r thanstructure and indulgence ra<strong>the</strong>r than responsibility”[Crick op cit: 332].Concepts of “liminal”, liminoid” and “liminoidal”have been developed and used to understand <strong>the</strong>inversionary behaviours of tourists. “Once in aliminoidal state individuals’ behaviours are alteredto a anti-structure…or anti<strong>the</strong>sis of <strong>the</strong>ir home environment.”It allows individuals <strong>the</strong> freedom toexperience that what is not acceptable in <strong>the</strong> homesociety, or to “enact <strong>the</strong> inversionary behavioursof <strong>the</strong> anti-structure” [Currie 1997: 894]. Lett’sinvestigation of sexual behaviour of individuals onholiday led him to conclude that during holidayperiods tourists acquire a sexual licence allowing<strong>the</strong>m to behave contrary to <strong>the</strong>ir normal behaviour[cited in Currie ibid: 89].Relaxation of codes in respect to food, dress,liquor, and even sex during vacations is intrinsicto tourism. Or else what is <strong>the</strong> point of gettingaway? The unequal power relations between <strong>the</strong>tourist generating and destination countries, andbetween <strong>the</strong> sexes, especially <strong>the</strong> white touristsand <strong>the</strong> coloured locals, both men and women, onlyencourage this behaviour. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side, <strong>the</strong>destination countries, in <strong>the</strong>ir attempt to promotetour ism, and development, sell an image of<strong>the</strong>mselves as ready to provide all kinds of services,including sexual service to <strong>the</strong> tourist. A discourseof “hospitality” is constructed to attract tourists,both domestic and foreign but especially <strong>the</strong> latter,with <strong>the</strong> promise to satisfy every whim/need/desire.Goa for example, is projected as “a perfect host”,where “hospitality is an esta blished tradition” andwhere people are “friendly and extremely happygo-lucky”.The image of <strong>the</strong> submissive, smilingIndian woman ready to serve every need of <strong>the</strong>tourist is ubiquitous.Underlying all tourism promotion efforts,everywhere in <strong>the</strong> world, is <strong>the</strong> impression createdthat <strong>the</strong> tourist is more than welcome in <strong>the</strong> place ofdestination. The offer of friendliness and hospitalityis carried to an absurd extent in a Scottish tourismadvertisement, for example, “Come look under ourkilt. We are friendlier than you think.” It is especiallyso in <strong>the</strong> Asian countries where <strong>the</strong>re is said to bea tradition of warmth, friendliness and hospitality.However, <strong>the</strong> use of <strong>the</strong> term hospitality itselfin <strong>the</strong> tourism discourse is open to question. Inanthropology, hospitality denotes caring for astranger in order to establish a relation basedon reciprocity and exchange. In <strong>the</strong> context ofintroduction of financial transaction within <strong>the</strong>hospitality nexus, as Andrews observes, principlesof obligations and reciprocity are no longerexistent. Therefore, <strong>the</strong> financial transaction whichcharacterises <strong>the</strong> nexus between <strong>the</strong> tourist and <strong>the</strong>local people, euphemis tically called “guests” and“hosts”, remove <strong>the</strong> real motives behind hospitality[Andrews 2000: 236, 237].Terms like “hospitality”, “guest” and “host”, createan aura of a personalised relationship betweenequals (with positive connotations) around what isa highly commercialised and im personal interaction.It is also significant that <strong>the</strong> relationship between<strong>the</strong> “guest” and “host” is an unequal one, giventhat <strong>the</strong> latter occupies a higher financial positionin purchasing goods and services (ibid: 236). But adiscussion of <strong>the</strong>se terms in anthropological andsociological literature on tourism is not <strong>the</strong> concernof <strong>the</strong> present paper.Conclusion:I have attempted to show that tourism processeslike o<strong>the</strong>r processes and relations in society aregendered. The gender bias is built into <strong>the</strong> discourseof tourism practices, images, and activities, which,by and large, privileges <strong>the</strong> male viewpoint.Although this viewpoint still dominates, it is nottotally unchallenged. Researchers, academics,social activists have questioned <strong>the</strong> hegemonicmale view of tourism at different levels, although<strong>the</strong>ir voice is still weak. In <strong>the</strong> light of <strong>the</strong> fact thattourism processes are expanding rapidly in <strong>the</strong> fastglobalising world, <strong>the</strong>re is a need to streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>the</strong>se voices.51
Organisations and womens’ groups have taken up<strong>the</strong> issue of prostitution in some countries. In Goa<strong>the</strong>re has been an organised protest. The JagrutGoenkaranchi Fauz (JGF), Children’s Rights inGoa (CRG), Bailancho Saad, Annaya Rahit Zindagi(ARZ), has been protesting against prostitution andpaedophilia since <strong>the</strong> 1980s. The JGF was formed,in <strong>the</strong>ir own words, to protect <strong>the</strong> Goan populationfrom <strong>the</strong> threats posed by “an indiscriminate,immoral tourism policy being promoted by <strong>the</strong>government. In which our coastal niches are beingexpropriated and handed over to luxury tourism”[Mayrhofer 1997: 84].Bailancho Saad has protested against tourismrelated prostitu tion and <strong>the</strong> vulgarised image ofGoan people projected by tourism advertisements.Goa is shown as a land of “wine, women and song”.The tourism department and big hoteliers haveused bikini clad women in <strong>the</strong>ir advertisementsand brochures to woo tourists. With <strong>the</strong> increasingdemand for sun, sea and sex, <strong>the</strong>se sexistadvertisements have seriously distorted <strong>the</strong> imageof women in Goa and conveyed <strong>the</strong> message of <strong>the</strong>ireasy availability. This in turn has led to increasingsexual harassment of women in Goa, both local andforeign [Saad Publication 1994].The church in Goa, as in o<strong>the</strong>r parts of <strong>the</strong> world,has openly criticised tourism-related developments.It points out that <strong>the</strong> self-respecting local people,earlier employed as farmers, toddy tappers,fishermen are being employed in <strong>the</strong> hotel industries“in servile positions”. “Their wives and daughtersbecome prostitutes or masseuses; <strong>the</strong>ir childrenbecome touts, pimps or errand boys” (ibid: 85).Churches from Asia, <strong>the</strong> Pacific and <strong>the</strong> Caribbeanhave expressed concern over tourism from <strong>the</strong>first to <strong>the</strong> third world countries. The World Councilof churches has been extremely critical of <strong>the</strong>“negative effects of rich tourism in poor countries”[O’Grandy op cit: XIII].It must be noted that tourism-related practices havenot received enough critical attention by politicalorganisations including womens’ groups in India andin many o<strong>the</strong>r parts of <strong>the</strong> world. This is so primarilybecause <strong>the</strong> ideology which regards tourism as ameans to development in <strong>the</strong> developing countriescontinues to dominate. Besides, not enoughinformation is available on effects of tourism, given<strong>the</strong> dynamics of power relations between <strong>the</strong>developing and developed countries and within <strong>the</strong>deve loping countries. Much more study, researchand activism is necessary if <strong>the</strong>se processes areto be understood and regulated. The challenge tothis very complex phenomenon must come at <strong>the</strong>local and global levels. For example, struggle tostop sex tourism must be undertaken not only incountries where it occurs, but also in countries fromwhere <strong>the</strong> offenders come. A demand for greaterparticipation of local people in tourism planningand development must appear in <strong>the</strong> agenda ofwomens’ movements everywhere, if <strong>the</strong> rights andinterests of people in tourist destinations especially<strong>the</strong> third world are to be protected in <strong>the</strong> long run;and if <strong>the</strong>y are to share equally in <strong>the</strong> benefits thatresult from tourism. Given that <strong>the</strong> fastest growingdestinations are in <strong>the</strong> third world countries, thatcurrently about 30 per cent of all internationaltourist arrivals are in <strong>the</strong>m, a great deal of cautionin <strong>the</strong> management of tourism has to be exercisedby <strong>the</strong> governments and people of <strong>the</strong>se countries,so that some regions and people do not degrade<strong>the</strong>mselves for <strong>the</strong> pleasure of o<strong>the</strong>rs.[Paper presented at <strong>the</strong> conference on Globalisationand <strong>the</strong> Womens’ Movement in India, organised byCentre for Women’s Development Studies, Delhi,January 20 to 22, 2005.]Endnotes:* The paper was published in ‘Economic and PoliticalWeekly’, Vol. 41, No. 42, October 21 - October 27,2006.1. <strong>Tourism</strong> traffic to Goa has risen phenomenally fromapproximately two lakh tourists in 1975 to 14.07lakh in 2001 of which domestic tourists account for11.47 lakhs and foreign tourists for 2.60 lakhs. Goa’sincome from tourism in foreign exchange has goneup from Rs 32.64 crore in 1986-87 to approximatelyRs 600 crore in 2001 which represents a rise of about25 per cent every year. It is estimated that 20 percent of its population earn <strong>the</strong>ir livelihood, directlyand indirectly, from tourism activities (Statistics2004, Department of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Government of Goa,Panaji).52
2. Kisaeng act as companions to Japanese businessmenand travel with <strong>the</strong>m during <strong>the</strong>ir visit to Korea.Their role is regarded as an integral component of<strong>the</strong> conduct of Japanese business overseas andmay be linked to a contemporary equivalent of <strong>the</strong>“comfort women” role that Korean women wereforced to take during Second World War. Kisaengtourism is still a major factor in attracting Japanesemale tourists to Korea.3. Figures are available at www.arches.uga.edu/?haneydaw/twwh/traf.html4. Collected from brochures of travel and touragencies in Germany, including Gebeco, Studiosus,Meier’s Weltreisen, Thomas Cook, Dertour, for 2003and 2004.ReferencesAgnes, Flavia (2004): ‘Paedophilia: Naming <strong>the</strong> Offence’,The Asian Age, July 13.Andrews, Hazel (2000): ‘Consuming Hospitality onHoliday’ in Conrad Lashley and Alison Morrison (eds), InSearch of Hospitality, Butterworth Heinermann, Oxford.Apostolopoulous, Yiorgos (1996): ‘Introduction’ inYiorgos Apostolopoulous, Stella Leivadi and AndrewYiannakis (eds), The Sociology of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Routledge,London.Crick, Malcolm (1996): ‘Representations ofInternational <strong>Tourism</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Social Sciences’ in YiorgosApostolopoulous, Stella Leivadi and Andrew Yiannakis(eds), The Sociology of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Routledge, London.Cohen, Eric (1996): ‘The Sociology of <strong>Tourism</strong>’ in YiorgosApostolopoulous, Stella Leivadi and Andrew Yiannakis(eds), The Sociology of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Routledge, London.Crush, Jonathan and Paul Welling (1987): ‘ForbiddenFruit and <strong>the</strong> Export of Vice, <strong>Tourism</strong> in Lesotho andSwaziland’ in Stephen Britton and William C Clarke (eds),Ambiguous Alternative <strong>Tourism</strong> in Small DevelopingCountries, University of South Pacific, Fizi.Currie, R R (1997): ‘A Pleasure-<strong>Tourism</strong> BehavioursFramework’, Annals of <strong>Tourism</strong> Research, Vol 24, No 4,October, pp 884-97.Dann Graham and Eric Cohen (1996): ‘Sociology and<strong>Tourism</strong>’ in Yiorgos Apostolopoulous, Stella Leivadiand Andrew Yiannakis (eds), The Sociology of <strong>Tourism</strong>,Routledge, London.Davidson, O’Connell and Sanchez Taylor (1996): ‘<strong>Tourism</strong>and Child Prostitution: Beyond <strong>the</strong> Stereotypes’ in JPilcher and S Wagg (eds), Thatcher’s Children, FalmerPress, London.Desai, Nishita (2001): ‘See <strong>the</strong> Evil <strong>Tourism</strong> RelatedPaedophilia in Goa’, Vikas Adhyan Kendra, Mumbai.Hall, C Michael (1996): ‘Gender and Economic Interestsin <strong>Tourism</strong> Prostitution: The Nature, Development andImplications of Sex <strong>Tourism</strong> in South-East Asia’ in YiorgosApostolopoulous, Stella Leivadi and Andrew Yiannakis(eds), The Sociology of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Routledge, London.Kinnaird, V, U Kothari and D Hall (1994): ‘<strong>Tourism</strong> GenderPerspectives’ in V Kinnaird and D Hall (eds), <strong>Tourism</strong> aGender Analysis, Wiley, Chichester, pp 1-34.Leheny, David (2003): ‘The Rules of Play: NationalIdentity and <strong>the</strong> Shaping of Japanese Leisure’ in Journalof Anthropological Research, Vol 60, No 3, pp 444-46.Lynch, Paul and Sorreen MacWhannell (2000): ‘Home andCommercialised Hospitality’ in Conrad Lashley and AlisonMorrison (eds), In Search of Hospitality, ButterworthHeinermann, Oxford.Mayrhofer, Maria (1997): ‘How They Perceive <strong>Tourism</strong>,Ano<strong>the</strong>r Side of <strong>the</strong> Touristic Coin: An Empirical Study inGoa, India’, Institute for Geography, University of Vienna,Vienna.O’Grady, Ron (1981): ‘Third World Stopover’, The <strong>Tourism</strong>Debate, World Council of Churches, Geneva.Oppermann (1995) : ‘A Model of Travel Itineries’,Journalof Travel Research, 33(4): 55-71Pritchard, Annette and Nigel J Morgan (2000): ‘Privileging<strong>the</strong> Male Gaze’, Annals of <strong>Tourism</strong> Research, Vol 27, No 4,pp 884-905.Pruitt, Deborah and LaFont, Suzanne (1995): For Loveand Money: Romance <strong>Tourism</strong> in Jamaica by Annals of<strong>Tourism</strong> Research, 22(2):422-40.53
Routledge, P (2002): ‘Travelling East as Walter Kurtz:Identity, Performance and Collaboration in Goa’, India,Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 20, 477-98.Scott, J (1995): ‘Sexual and National Boundaries in<strong>Tourism</strong>’, Annals of <strong>Tourism</strong> Research 22(2), 385-403Shaw, Gareth and Allen M Williams (1994): CriticalIssues in <strong>Tourism</strong>: A Geographical Perspective, BlackwellPublishers, UK.Swain, M B (1995): ‘Gender in <strong>Tourism</strong>’, Annals of <strong>Tourism</strong>Research, 22, 247-66.Urry John (1990): The Tourist Gaze Leisure and Travel inContemporary Societies, Sage, London.Virani, Pinki (2000): Bitter Chocolate, Penguin, India.Wang, Ning (2000): <strong>Tourism</strong> and Modernity, A SociologicalAnalysis, Pergamon, NY54
<strong>Tourism</strong> Liberalization, Gender and <strong>the</strong> GATSMariama Williams, 2002*Introduction:<strong>Tourism</strong> is one of <strong>the</strong> oldest areas of economicactivity to be covered under <strong>the</strong> WTO’s GeneralAgreement on Trade in Services (GATS). <strong>Tourism</strong>and travel related services account for about 11% ofWorld GDP and employ about 200 million peopleworldwide. They also represent 34% of world serviceexports (UNESCO Courier, 1997). Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,given that <strong>the</strong>re are about 700 million internationaltravellers per year, tourism and travel relatedsectors have become dynamic sources of incomeand a major strategic sector for development inmany countries, especially those in <strong>the</strong> global South.<strong>Tourism</strong> and travel related services are still stronglydominated by Nor<strong>the</strong>rn countries. The mainsources remain Europe and <strong>the</strong> US, with somenew influx form Asia and Latin America. Almosthalf of world tourists come from six countries inEurope which are also among <strong>the</strong> world’s top tentourism earners/spenders). The US is number onein tourism spending/earning and <strong>the</strong> second mostpopular destination. East Asia and <strong>the</strong> Pacific areexpected to be second in generating tourists in2020. (UNESCO Courier, 1999).The rise in technology, which is critical for successin <strong>the</strong> tourism and travel sectors, advantages <strong>the</strong>North, allowing for fur<strong>the</strong>r consolidating of <strong>the</strong>irstronghold over this sector. The control of core toolsof tourism is found in <strong>the</strong> North: air travel, hotel,Internet and e-commerce. Increasingly electronictechnology is facilitating <strong>the</strong> sale and marketing ofairline tickets and hotel accommodations.This is an important context from which toconsider <strong>the</strong> likely consequences of <strong>the</strong> growingpush for greater and rapid liberalisation in tourismby <strong>the</strong> North. Because <strong>the</strong> central tendency ofliberalization is to reduce <strong>the</strong> role of developingcountry governments in directing tourisminvestment and policies, serious questions exist asto <strong>the</strong> future (and <strong>the</strong> limitations) of tourism as atool for development in <strong>the</strong> South.The Political Economy of <strong>Tourism</strong>:Modern international tourism is rooted in <strong>the</strong>dynamics of colonialism and dependency. AsChachage (1999), Munt (1994) and Naipaul (1978)noted, early nineteenth century tourism focusedon exploration, hunting and trading in colonialterritories. This was a fact of colonial conquest andhence was linked to <strong>the</strong> issues of <strong>the</strong> alienationfrom land and natural resources with underlyingethnic racial, class and gender dynamics. Thisform of tourism and its gains were controlled by<strong>the</strong> colonial power, tour operators and ownersof steamships and domestic railroads within <strong>the</strong>countries. This tourism was also primarily extractiveand depleted natural resources such as skins, ivoryand fauna, in order to sustain <strong>the</strong> wealthy.The development of mass tourism in <strong>the</strong> 1950sand 60’s led to <strong>the</strong> inclusion of <strong>the</strong> middle classin “fun and sun” adventures in <strong>the</strong> developingworld. But even <strong>the</strong> new forms of tourism of <strong>the</strong>1980’s and 1990s still carry echoes of <strong>the</strong> past as itis increasingly returning to <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me of exploiting<strong>the</strong> “exotic” and nature. This is seen for examplein <strong>the</strong> development of modern day ‘adventuretourism’—hiking backpacking, trekking and ‘ecotourism.’These forms of tourisms are no more in<strong>the</strong> sole control of developing countries nor do<strong>the</strong>y deplete or extract fewer natural resourcesthan <strong>the</strong> previous tourism cycle. More visitors meangreater toil on local infrastructure with implicationsfor <strong>the</strong> lives of <strong>the</strong> local people. Golf courses notonly utilise arable land but also divert water fromagriculture and local consumption. Elsewhere,o<strong>the</strong>r forms of tourism such as cruise shipping,which is reportedly one of <strong>the</strong> least beneficialtourism industries in terms of inflow of money and<strong>the</strong> retention of tourist dollars, contribute to avariety of environmental problems (mainly marinepollution) in terms oil waste and <strong>the</strong> production ofsewage, garbage and noxious liquid substances.1Today <strong>the</strong> mechanism and devices of control andaccess to tourist arrivals and <strong>the</strong> struggle between55
sending and host countries over retention oftourist expenditures are different. But developingcountries still have weak bargaining power vis-àvisinternational tour operators and experiencediscrimination. Ultimately, <strong>the</strong>se countries mustsurvive in an increasingly competitive global tourismsector in which natural competitive advantage isbecoming less and less significant.<strong>Tourism</strong> is more than ever an information sensitiveindustry which is greatly impacted by moderntechnological innovations such as <strong>the</strong> Internet,worldwide web and electronic commerce.Unfortunately, <strong>the</strong>se tend to widen <strong>the</strong> dividebetween developed and developing countries with<strong>the</strong> potential for siphoning much of <strong>the</strong> potentialgains from tourism back to <strong>the</strong> developed countries.There is growing consolidation and centralization of<strong>the</strong> tools of <strong>the</strong> tourism trade among a few players.These players, who are primarily based in <strong>the</strong> North,control <strong>the</strong> information and online reservationservices.New information technology and networks such as<strong>the</strong> Internet <strong>the</strong>refore have an important affect on<strong>the</strong> trade competitiveness of developing countries(UNCTAD 2000). The development and interlinkof tourism and e-commerce is resulting in <strong>the</strong>slow demise of travel agents; increasing resort toproprietary web pages; on-line one stop shopping;and a more complex tourism product—whichinvolves <strong>the</strong> consumer being able to customise her/his itinerary. But many travel agents in developingcountries do not have access to <strong>the</strong> investmentcapital to participate effectively with foreigntourism suppliers.<strong>Tourism</strong>, Economic Development and EquityIssues:The biggest myth of tourism and developmentis that ‘tourism is quick, cheap and easy, giventhat <strong>the</strong> basic ingredients are sun, sea, smile andculture’. In its most basic form tourism builds onnature, adventure and culture (New Frontier 2000).<strong>Tourism</strong> is expected to generate revenue in <strong>the</strong> formof foreign exchange earnings, increased income,employment and development of infrastructure—all this is expected to arise from <strong>the</strong> net benefitof tourism receipts. Ultimately, tourism shouldalso generate demand from o<strong>the</strong>r sectors of <strong>the</strong>economy such as agriculture, manufacturing ando<strong>the</strong>r services. Growth in tourism is also argued tofacilitate foreign capital inflows which reduces <strong>the</strong>need for domestic savings and capital accumulation.<strong>Tourism</strong> can be good for development when itengenders a strong inflow of foreign exchange,and positive intersectoral linkages, which promotegrowth of o<strong>the</strong>r sectors. This increases overallincome and employment in <strong>the</strong> economy. <strong>Tourism</strong>can also lead to immiserating growth (<strong>the</strong>re is somegrowth but it is accompanied by rising poverty andunemployment) if <strong>the</strong> output of non-traded goodsand services <strong>the</strong> tourism sector requires doesnot increase. Thus <strong>the</strong> conventional wisdom thattourism is unambiguously good is problematic. First,it does not recognise <strong>the</strong> drain of resources andloss of revenues abroad. Second, it often ignoresdistributional and o<strong>the</strong>r key factors associated with<strong>the</strong> goods and services used by <strong>the</strong> tourists (Grassl,1999). Third, it ignores <strong>the</strong> social, gender equityand environment impacts of <strong>the</strong> welfare effects oftourism.The trend towards more and more privatisationand liberalisation may in fact dissipate <strong>the</strong> benefitsof tourism on development in spite of <strong>the</strong> widelyacknowledged increasing demand for certain typesof leisure activities and <strong>the</strong> availability of abundantfemale labour. Thus tourism development may notbe in line with social, sustainable development forsome of <strong>the</strong>se reasons:• yOwnership of resources, which is skewed to<strong>the</strong> North and Nor<strong>the</strong>rn based foreign directinvestment.• yMost small and medium sized businesses,which are <strong>the</strong> major local players in developingcountries, cannot compete with <strong>the</strong> large wellfinanced and overly capital endowed foreigncompetitors.y • Problems around land (land grabbing andland speculation. The rapid expansion oftourism is encouraged by <strong>the</strong> privatization ofgovernment owned assets including parks, andcommunity lands that have traditionally been<strong>the</strong> homes and sources of livelihood for many56
citizens for generations. Privatization andland speculation to establish game reservesor o<strong>the</strong>r tourist attractions creates greaterinequality in access to common propertyresources and raises <strong>the</strong> price of existing realestate. In <strong>the</strong> worst case it may be associatedwith large-scale removal of entire groupsof people. All of <strong>the</strong>se have <strong>the</strong> impact ofexacerbating poverty and crime and ultimatelydestabilizing <strong>the</strong> society.• yEcological/environmental effects.• yGender bias and inequities: trafficking , sextours: women’s health and morbidity.• yPoverty and inequality.• yDisplacement of o<strong>the</strong>r sectors, such as declinein domestic agricultural sector.<strong>Tourism</strong> and Gender: 2The issue of tourism, tourism development andgender equality is multi-dimensional. It rangesfrom <strong>the</strong> low profile and persistent issue of <strong>the</strong>lopsided responsibility for social reproduction andcommunity resource management between menand women; <strong>the</strong> differential and gender-basednature and consequences of access to social andeconomic resources; <strong>the</strong> pervasive reliance on (andat <strong>the</strong> same time <strong>the</strong> invisibility of) women’s labourin <strong>the</strong> hospitality sector; and <strong>the</strong> high profile issues ofsex tourism and HIV/AIDS. All women from peasantwomen, indigenous women, working women, oldwomen, young women and girls, and women whohead household are affected to different degree bytourism and tourism development. Men of differentsocial classes are also affected negatively andpositively by changes in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector. Andmen in poorer classes may also suffer similarly topoor women from <strong>the</strong> welfare reducing impact ofloss of access to resources. Undeniably, <strong>the</strong>re aresignificant gender biases and inequality in termsof access to employment and physical and socialresources that may predispose women to havegreater vulnerabilities and constraints in enjoying<strong>the</strong> presumed benefits of tourism development.We can demarcate <strong>the</strong>se impacts across fourcategories: 1) Employment in <strong>the</strong> formal labourmarket, 2) Women’s activities in <strong>the</strong> informal sectorsand sustainable livelihood, 3) Women’s socialeconomic empowerment (in terms of consumptionand access to resources including governmentservices and 4) Women’s influence and decisionmakingaround tourism development policy.Formal Sector Employment:Like all o<strong>the</strong>r forms of employment, access totourism-related employment is gender based. Mentend to predominate in <strong>the</strong> formal sector of <strong>the</strong>tourism in some countries in <strong>the</strong> South. In India,women equal a small percentage of <strong>the</strong> employed(2.98%), and in Sri Lanka it is higher (14.9%). In <strong>the</strong>Caribbean and Latin America <strong>the</strong> percentage issignificantly higher at 35% (Badger 1993). Men andwomen, who are seen as cheaper labour than men,are segregated due to gender stereotyping and sexsegregation into different occupations. Even wherewomen are <strong>the</strong> main tourism workers, <strong>the</strong>y tend topredominate in <strong>the</strong> majority of menial, semi-skilled,domestic and service type occupations. For examplein Barbados and Jamaica, women are employed inless stable, lower status work such as housekeeping, reception and o<strong>the</strong>r services. Due to lack ofunionization, <strong>the</strong>se jobs require low skill, are lowpaid and have <strong>the</strong> lowest security of tenure andbenefits (Badger 1993). In some countries men areoften employed as stewards, porters, and tend tobe over-represented in professional managerialand supervisory positions. A recent survey of <strong>the</strong>literature on women and tourism by EQUATIONSpoints out <strong>the</strong> following:In <strong>the</strong> food sector of <strong>the</strong> industry women are at <strong>the</strong>bottom of <strong>the</strong> hierarchy as restaurant helpers, cooks(not Chefs) and waitresses - all <strong>the</strong> lowest paid partsof <strong>the</strong> food sectors. Chefs in fancier restaurantswhere salaries and tips are substantial are more likelyto be males.In <strong>the</strong> travel sector, women have access andemployment to seasonal, part-time or minimum wagejobs. Women tend to dominate small travel agenciesand <strong>the</strong> majority are travel agents but men control<strong>the</strong> major sectors: airlines, railroads, hotel chains, carrental companies, travel magazines. Foreign controlareas are also male dominated. (EQUATIONS, 2000)57
The sexual division of labour operates at all aspectsof tourism and travel related industries. Given <strong>the</strong>condition of work, generally low pay, lack of benefitsand absence of human resource development inthis area, serious concerns arise about women’slonger-term prosperity. Though increased tourismmay mean more jobs for women questions must beraised about <strong>the</strong> nature, quality and type of workactivities available; and <strong>the</strong> differential access ofmen and women to such opportunities. In addition,<strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> larger picture of tourism relation towomen’s longer term interests and its potentialfor <strong>the</strong> transformation of gender inequalities andbiases.Informal Sector Activities and SustainableLivelihoods:In <strong>the</strong> informal sector gender hierarchies alsoexist. Women dominate in <strong>the</strong> informal sectorswhere <strong>the</strong>y provide a wide range of services totourists --washing clo<strong>the</strong>s, petty trading, cookingand childcare. The EQUATIONS survey and Badger1993 report point to <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>re are ‘genderdifferences in <strong>the</strong> selling of memories (post cardsand souvenir)’. Women are often involved in <strong>the</strong>production of ethnic handicrafts and <strong>the</strong> marketingof such items while men provide services andsupport women’s home craft production. In somecases while women produce <strong>the</strong> works and sell<strong>the</strong>m in local markets, men control <strong>the</strong> wholesalingin urban centres.Overall, some women in some countries maygain financial autonomy and some measure ofeconomic independence from <strong>the</strong>ir participationin informal markets linked to <strong>the</strong> tourism trade. In<strong>the</strong> EQUATIONS survey examples of Mexico, Kunaof Panama and Sani of Yunan, China are typicallypresented as examples of such gains. But someof <strong>the</strong> same researchers also noted that womenappear to be invisible and neglected in culturaland historical attractions, though <strong>the</strong>y may figureprominently in advertising, post cards and souvenirs(EQUATIONS 2000).Sex <strong>Tourism</strong>:Women are often exploited in <strong>the</strong> marketing oftourism (given existing gender perceptions andstereotypes that dominates social relations in <strong>the</strong>host and sending countries). As seen above, even in<strong>the</strong> formal labour markets <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> manipulationof <strong>the</strong> sexual division of labour that shunts womento <strong>the</strong> lowest paid jobs. Likewise, as noted byBadger (1993) <strong>the</strong>re is much manipulation of genderdifferences in order to ‘feed <strong>the</strong> fantasy of <strong>the</strong> maletourist’. Very often this occurs at <strong>the</strong> benign levelof women being offered opportunities in frontline(hospitality) positions in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. Suchopportunities are linked to women’s presumedfeminine qualities of being more sociable and morehospitable than men. But increasingly women aredirectly exploited as sexual playthings and earnersof foreign exchange in prostitution (a traditionalactivity) and now <strong>the</strong> new explosion of sex tourism.As noted by Badger (1993) ‘sex tourism is nowbecoming one of <strong>the</strong> ‘steadiest, least seasonal andmost lucrative opportunities for women’. The downside is that it has tremendous health hazards and itcan be dangerous.The issue of sex tourism has been raised as a key issuein <strong>the</strong> appeal of ASEAN (Association of Sou<strong>the</strong>astAsian Nations) destinations. This is particularly <strong>the</strong>case in Thailand and Cambodia where <strong>the</strong>re is aninflux of young girls who are from Burma, Indonesia,Laos and China who are being exported to workin Thai bars and bro<strong>the</strong>ls (New Frontiers 1999). InCambodia, children are often bought and sold likecattle in Bangkok or <strong>the</strong> beach resorts and <strong>the</strong>reis an active slave trade in young sex workers (NewFrontiers 1999). Vulnerable women and childrenare preyed upon and girls 13-17 are forced into sexwork; many start as housekeepers and <strong>the</strong>n go toKaraoke bars or nightclubs. The pervasiveness ofsex tourism in Thailand has led to it being referredas ‘Thighlandia’. This trend does not only apply toSouth Asia. Sex tourism is an enduring feature ofCaribbean tourism. While in some cases such as<strong>the</strong> gay and paedophilia market <strong>the</strong> customers areexclusively male, this is not true for <strong>the</strong> Caribbeanwhere <strong>the</strong>re is high incidence of female customerspatronising male sex suppliers.Women’s Social and Economic Status andEmpowerment:Women’s social and economic status and overalleconomic empowerment are influenced by <strong>the</strong>irstatus and role in <strong>the</strong> family and community; <strong>the</strong>irsocial reproduction responsibilities (as purveyors58
of food and essential services) and <strong>the</strong>ir access,ownership and control over <strong>the</strong>ir resources.<strong>Tourism</strong> impacts greatly on all of <strong>the</strong>se, negativelyor positively. In terms of family and community life,tourism can ei<strong>the</strong>r bring greater access to basicservices (road, water, electricity and sanitation) orit may reduce such access if services are diverted tohotels and resorts or <strong>the</strong>re are restrictions on accessto local resources due to tourism development.For example, it is reported that in Western Samoa,tourism has led to <strong>the</strong> commoditization of traditionalbeliefs and practices and undermines traditionalcustoms that gave specific well-defined rights andresources to men and women. Through its directimpact on local prices (land and food) as well as itsindirect impact via changes in <strong>the</strong> exchange rate,tourism can add to women’s social reproductionburden. It certainly will impact <strong>the</strong>ir access to andownership of economic resources. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, iftourism development is promoted via tax breaks forhotels and <strong>the</strong> construction of tourist attractions,this will divert resources from <strong>the</strong> social budgetwith negative implications for social services. Allof <strong>the</strong>se have negative impacts on women’s dailylives, work activities, food & nutritional status,and access to education and health care. Thus asFillmore (1994) argues, women often pay <strong>the</strong> costof tourism disproportionately while reaping few of<strong>the</strong> benefits.On <strong>the</strong> positive side, increased employmentin tourism can increase women’s financial andeconomic autonomy. Likewise, increased revenuefrom <strong>the</strong> tourist sector into <strong>the</strong> governmentcoffers may be available for <strong>the</strong> promotion ofsocial development. Thus much depends on <strong>the</strong>governments’ ability and willingness to use fiscaland monetary measures to ensure that <strong>the</strong>re issocial development linked to increased tourismdevelopment. Governments would also have totake proactive measure to promote better jobs andworking conditions at all levels of <strong>the</strong> tourism sectoras well as special policies to promote women’sinvolvement at <strong>the</strong> higher and more lucrative levelsof <strong>the</strong> tourism sector. Whe<strong>the</strong>r such actions arepossible and chosen by economic decision- makerswill depend on two main factors: <strong>the</strong> opportunitiesand constraints built into <strong>the</strong> multilateral tradingsystem which now governs tourism and <strong>the</strong>activism of women and o<strong>the</strong>r social activists tocreate governments that work in <strong>the</strong> interest ofgender equity and human development. We willexplore <strong>the</strong> first issue in next section.Influence, Power and Decision Making:In general, <strong>the</strong> political and economic forums thatstructure and drive tourism policy and tourismdevelopment are dominated by male economicagents. Few women get to play an active role inshaping tourism policy and practise at an officiallevel. But increasingly, women in <strong>the</strong>ir many rolesare finding ways to have an active voice in tourism.The struggle over <strong>the</strong> nature, extent and pace offur<strong>the</strong>r liberalization in this sector and o<strong>the</strong>r sectorsis now ongoing over <strong>the</strong> liberalization agenda of<strong>the</strong> World Trade Organization. This arena providesa good space for women’s activism on <strong>the</strong>se issueslocally, nationally, regionally and globally.International Trade in <strong>Tourism</strong> and<strong>the</strong> GATS:Implications for Economic Development andSocial and Gender Equality:Thus defined, international tourism is increasinglybecoming a significant part of global trade. It isone of <strong>the</strong> top five export categories for about 83%of countries in <strong>the</strong> world. International trade intourism is concentrated in developed countries. Theshare of <strong>the</strong> South is about 1/3 of total internationaltourism. But it is a fundamental source of incomeand foreign exchanges for a number of Sou<strong>the</strong>rncountries. <strong>Tourism</strong> is lauded for having a higherpositive multiplier spillover effect than mosteconomic sectors. It is widely claimed that for eachjob created in tourism <strong>the</strong>re are 9 jobs generatedin o<strong>the</strong>r areas. To date it is <strong>the</strong> only sector in <strong>the</strong>service area where developing countries haveconsistent surpluses.East Asia and <strong>the</strong> Pacific are <strong>the</strong> fastest growingtourism areas, but <strong>the</strong>re is a high degree ofconcentration of arrivals and receipts among andwithin <strong>the</strong> South. Singapore, Hong Kong and Chinaeach have a higher sum of tourist arrivals andreceipts than <strong>the</strong> sum of Thailand, Indonesia andSouth Asia.59
60<strong>Tourism</strong> is also linked to o<strong>the</strong>r areas of <strong>the</strong>economy: agriculture, land and labour. It is alsoinextricably intertwined with air transportation, <strong>the</strong>major means used by tourists arriving in <strong>the</strong> South(a U.S. $414 trillion industry), and communication.Given this, <strong>the</strong> liberalisation of tourism has majorimplications for social development and genderequality.Liberalization tends to ‘prioritize global commerceover everything: self-reliance of communities,human rights and health and safety’ (Pera andMcLaren, 1998). Andrea Yoder writes that <strong>the</strong>reis already a problem in enforcing standards in <strong>the</strong>tourism industry such as prior informed consentfor local initiatives, and environmental regulations(Yoder 1998). Many of <strong>the</strong>se pro-social and humandevelopment measures are already in conflict withWTO rules. Wallach and Sforza write that WTOorchestrated uniform global standards [which aredesigned by TNCs] to promote harmonisation ofstandards may ‘facilitate <strong>the</strong> growth of consumerculture, [but <strong>the</strong>y] militate against standardswhich reflect differences in cultural values. Suchdifferences are seen as undesirable because <strong>the</strong>yfragment <strong>the</strong> global market’ (Wallach and Sforza,1999).In this context a great deal of attention andimportance must be focused on <strong>the</strong> currentnegotiations for fur<strong>the</strong>r liberalization of tourismunder <strong>the</strong> GATS. According to EQUATIONS, <strong>the</strong> GATSimpacts tourism via rules and regulations on <strong>the</strong>production, distribution and marketing of tourismservices (mode of supply), tour operators supplyingservices cross-border in o<strong>the</strong>r countries (crossborder supply), international visitors (consumptionabroad), <strong>the</strong> flow of international hotel chains,branches or full ownership of hotel chains andagencies in o<strong>the</strong>r countries (commercial presence);and <strong>the</strong> activities of tour guides and hotel managers(presence of natural persons). It also has impactson air transport and communications.The direct impacts of <strong>the</strong> GATS as it relates totourism would include:• yThe GATS would allow foreign companies tomerge or take over local companies. This isa threat to indigenous-owned and operatedsustainable tourism initiatives.• yThe GATS would allow upward pressure on<strong>the</strong> exchange rates with implications for realwages, price of land and o<strong>the</strong>r resourcesas well as for traditional exports such asagriculture, mining and fishing.• yDomestic regulation rules may impactgovernments’ use of taxation policiesto prevent de-industrialisation and deagriculturalization.• yGovernments will not be able to mitigate orlimit <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> outflow of repatriatedearnings from FDI, which will result in reducedwelfare.• yGATS may also prove detrimental to eco andheritage tourism development.• yThe GATS also has serious implication for propoortourism that attempts to generate netbenefits to <strong>the</strong> poor. The core of this strategyis to ‘unlock opportunities for <strong>the</strong> poor withtourism ra<strong>the</strong>r than to expand <strong>the</strong> overallsize of <strong>the</strong> sectors. But this requires domesticregulation to remove some barriers to entryand to enhance <strong>the</strong>ir ability to participateeffectively in tourism.The economics behind tourism liberalization asdiscussed in section II is based on <strong>the</strong> idea thattourism will yield overwhelmingly positive benefitson growth on development. But this is based on input/ output studies that show that increased tourismimplies across <strong>the</strong> board expansion of economicactivity (Grassl, 1999). This ignores distributionalimpacts and forward and backward linkages thatare endemic problems in developing countries’economies. It also does not take into accountthat tourism growth may come with increasedcompetition with o<strong>the</strong>r sectors such as domesticagriculture and o<strong>the</strong>r export areas. Most of <strong>the</strong>sesectors are <strong>the</strong> ones which provide wages forwomen. And, while tourism may bring employmentit is often seasonal and highly exploitative.This discussion raises some important questionsabout <strong>the</strong> social and welfare impacts of GATS drivenliberalization of tourism. It also points to some
strategic interventions that are important for apromoting more balanced gender and social equityoutcomes of GATS driven liberalization of tourismservices. However, <strong>the</strong> strategic interventionsdedicated to promoting <strong>the</strong> long- term strategicgender interest of women are predicated on acertain amount of latitude in developing countriesability to manipulate and regulate <strong>the</strong> agents,mechanisms and processes of tourism development.The fact that this latitude is constrained not just by<strong>the</strong> traditional conflict between <strong>the</strong> desires andinfluences of national elites and those of <strong>the</strong> poorbut in <strong>the</strong> main is circumscribed by regional andmultilateral trade rules makes it critical that <strong>the</strong>seextra-national policies be fully interrogated for <strong>the</strong>irsocial and gender accountability. Some importantactions include:Possible Actions Women can Take Globally:• yCall for a moratorium on <strong>the</strong> GATS tosystematically assess <strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong>GATS, particularly on women, tourism anddevelopment.• yInvite women to become active in <strong>the</strong> debateon trade in tourism.• yDemand renegotiations of <strong>the</strong> GATS with <strong>the</strong>intent to promote economic and social justice,gender equality and sustainable development.• yEncourage <strong>the</strong> inclusion of genderrepresentatives of civil society at every leveland occasion at which <strong>the</strong> regulation oftrade in tourism services and o<strong>the</strong>r goods isconsidered and negotiated, both nationallyand internationally.• yContinue studying <strong>the</strong> GATS through <strong>the</strong>IGTN Economic Literacy Course (www.genderandtrade.net) and o<strong>the</strong>r resources.Endnotes:*The paper was published in ‘<strong>Tourism</strong> Liberalization,Gender and <strong>the</strong> GATS’, Economic LiteracySeries: General Agreement on Trade in Services,International Gender and Trade Network, 2002.http://web.igtn.org/home/index.php?searchword=<strong>Tourism</strong>%2C+Liberalizat&ordering=&searchphrase=all&option=com_search1. There are numerous requirements about <strong>the</strong>disposal of cruise ships’ debris. For example,sewage should undergo biological treatment andgarbage such as solid waste collection should begiven to trash collection agency at port. Likewise,glass should be crushed and recycled at port.But <strong>the</strong>re is no way to really hold cruise shipsaccountable2. This section relies heavily on <strong>the</strong> set of articlesin Continuing Saga of Marginalisation: A Dossieron Women and <strong>Tourism</strong>, EQUATIONS 2000, inparticular, Women and <strong>Tourism</strong>- Theoretical writingby Vivian Kinnaird and Derek Hall; Exploring <strong>the</strong>political role of gender in tourism research by LindaK. Richter; Invisible host, invisible guests by MaryFillmore; and Badger 1993Bibliography:Badger, Anne, 1993. Why not acknowledge women.EQUATIONS, 2000Caribbean Development Bank, 1996. A study to assess<strong>the</strong> economic impact of tourism selected CBD BorrowingMember Countries. ARA consulting Group Inc/ SystemsCaribbean Ltd/Ione Marshall/KPMG BarbadosCazès, G., 1972. Le rôle du tourisme dans la croissanceèconomique: reflexions à partir de trois examplesantillais. Revue Touristique 27, 93-98 and 144-148Chachage, C.S.L. 1999. Globalization and Transitions in<strong>Tourism</strong> in Tanzania, Nordic Africa Institute 1998/1999Copeland, B.R., 1991. <strong>Tourism</strong>, Welfare and De-Industrialization in a Small Open Economy, Economica58, 515-529.EQUATIONS, 2001 Trade in tourism through <strong>the</strong> GATS:Interests of Developing Countries at Stake.EQUATIONS, 2000 Continuing saga of Marginalisation: ADossier on Women and <strong>Tourism</strong>. www.equitabletourism.org and info@equitabletourism.orgFillmore, Mary. Women and <strong>Tourism</strong>: Invisible Hosts,Invisible Guests. EQUATIONS 200061
Grassl, Wolfgang, 1999. <strong>Tourism</strong> and Economic Growthin <strong>the</strong> Caribbean, Mona School of Business, University of<strong>the</strong> West Indies, JamaicaKinnaird, Vivian. Understanding tourism processes: AGender Aware Framework. EQUATIONS, 2000Kinnaird, Vivian and Hall, Derek, 1996, Women and<strong>Tourism</strong> -Theoretical Writing. <strong>Tourism</strong> Management vol.17, No. 2Naipaul, R., 1978. North of South: An African Journey.Andre Deutch, LondonOrganization of American States (OAS), 1994, EconomicAnalysis of <strong>Tourism</strong> in Jamaica, Wash, D.C: Departmentof Regional Development and Environment.Pattullo, P., 1996. Last Resorts: The cost of tourism in <strong>the</strong>Caribbean. London: Cassell.Pera and Mc Laren, Globalization, <strong>Tourism</strong> &Indigenous Peoples: What you should knowabout <strong>the</strong> World’s Largest “Industry”. Rethinking<strong>Tourism</strong> projectPleumarom, Anita, 1999. The Hidden Costs of <strong>the</strong> New<strong>Tourism</strong>s – A Focus on Biopiracy, Third World Network(TWN) Briefing Paper for CSD7, No 1, 1999Taylor, B.E, Morison, J.B. and Flemming, 1991 TheEconomic Impact of Food Import Substitution in <strong>the</strong>Bahamas. Social and Economic Studies vol. 40, 45-62.Wallach, Lori and Sforza, Michelle, 1999 The WTO: FiveYears of Reasons to Resist Corporate Globalization.Seven Stories PressWorldWide Fund for Nature (World Wildlife Fund) WWW2000 Preliminary Assessment of <strong>the</strong> Environmental &Social Effects of Liberalisation in <strong>Tourism</strong> Services WWFInternational Discussion Paper FebruaryUNCTAD 2000 Electronic Commerce and <strong>Tourism</strong>: NewPerspectives and Challenges for Developing Countries.Trade and Development Board 27 July. TD/D/COM.3/EM.9/2.UNCTAD 1998 International Trade in <strong>Tourism</strong>-RelatedServices: Issues and Option for Developing Countries.TD/B/COM.1/EM.6/2UNESCO Courier 1999 www.unesco.org/courier/1999_08/uk/dossier/txt13.htmYoder, Andrea. 1998. Sustainable Development,Ecotourism, and Globalisation: Are They Compatible?Unpublished paper. Univ. of California, IrvinePleumaron, Anita, 1999. Foreign take-over of Thailand’s<strong>Tourism</strong> Industry: <strong>the</strong> O<strong>the</strong>r Face of Liberalization. TWNBriefing Paper for CSD7, No. 2Rao, Nina. Symbols Victimhood. EQUATIONS 2000Richter, Linda K. Exploring <strong>the</strong> Political Role of Gender in<strong>Tourism</strong> Research. EQUATIONS, 2000Roe, Dilys and Urguhart Khanya, Penny, Pro-poor<strong>Tourism</strong>: Harnessing <strong>the</strong> World’s Largest Industry for<strong>the</strong> World’s Poor Opinion, International Institute forEnvironment and Development and RING.Seifeert-Granzin, Jorg and Jesupatham, D. Samuel, 1999<strong>Tourism</strong> at <strong>the</strong> Cross Roads: Challenges to DevelopingCountries by <strong>the</strong> New World Trade Order . Equations(Bangalore/India), <strong>Tourism</strong> Watch (Leinfelden-Echterdingen/Germany) and epd-Entwicklungs Politik(Frankfurt am Main/Germany62
<strong>Tourism</strong> and its Impact on Gender:A Case Study of GoaAnita Haladi, 2005*Introduction:Goa, a small state on <strong>the</strong> western coast of India, haswitnessed a tremendous growth in tourism since<strong>the</strong> 1970’s. Though tourism began in an informalmanner in <strong>the</strong> early 60’s, <strong>the</strong> real; spurt in touristarrivals began in <strong>the</strong> 70’s. Today, <strong>the</strong> contributionof <strong>the</strong> tourism sector to <strong>the</strong> economy of Goa in SDPterms is second only to mining. Goa crossed <strong>the</strong>one million tourist mark in 1994 and <strong>the</strong> growth in<strong>the</strong> inflow of tourists, both domestic and foreigncontinues. The Government of Goa declaredtourism as an industry in <strong>the</strong> year 2000. <strong>Tourism</strong> islargely perceived as an engine for growth for <strong>the</strong>economy of this state.If tourism growth has to optimize benefits to <strong>the</strong>local population, <strong>the</strong>re is an urgent need to assessits impact on different target groups. Who benefitsand who bears <strong>the</strong> cost of tourism are questionsthat are equally, if not more important than, howmuch has Goa’s economy benefited from tourism.<strong>Tourism</strong> is an industry that has an impact oneconomic, social, environmental and politicalconditions and on gender relations. For anyeconomic activity to be considered as importantand meaningful, an assessment of its impact on<strong>the</strong> lives of people needs to be carried out. Mostoften, we tend to highlight <strong>the</strong> economic benefitsof tourism from a growth-centered perspectiveinstead of a people-centered perspective. As soonas policies for tourism begin to be shaped, <strong>the</strong>emphasis shifts away from people to profits. Today,<strong>the</strong> government in Goa seems mainly concernedwith visualizing new products and new players in <strong>the</strong>sphere of tourism. Given this scenario, <strong>the</strong> impactof tourism on gender receives <strong>the</strong> least priority andis completely ignored by people in general and bypolicy makers in particular.Women constitute a significant proportion of <strong>the</strong>total population of our state (Population of Goa 1.3million according to <strong>the</strong> 2001 Census). In addressing<strong>the</strong> issue of tourism, we cannot simply ignore whatis happening to our people and women because oftourism. It has been amply proved by researchersand activists that economics and politics influencegender relations. The need for gender equality doesnot need over emphasis. If a policy impacts peopleand gender relations, we need to make a seriouseffort to understand how this happens and how wecan create policies that improve gender relationsand <strong>the</strong> status of women.Studies show that women have benefited fromtourism in some ways. <strong>Tourism</strong> being a laborintensiveindustry has created employmentopportunities for all including women and ILOestimates that 46% of <strong>the</strong> total workforce in tourismconsists of women. However, studies also tell usthat in developing countries, women only earn 70%of <strong>the</strong> wages that men earn from tourism. Like in allo<strong>the</strong>r sectors, gender stereotypes and traditionallydefined gender roles are responsible for <strong>the</strong>horizontal and vertical gender-based segregationof <strong>the</strong> labor market. Lesser education, lesseropportunities for skill development and training,lesser access to credit, a lower health status, alower socio-economic status and, <strong>the</strong> invisibilityof women in policy making contribute to womenreceiving lesser benefits from tourism. Internationaltourism that is market-driven necessitates highcapital investment that tends to be controlled bypowerful/vested interests that are characterizedby a lack of concern for <strong>the</strong> well-being of localcommunities and women.<strong>Tourism</strong> today is an integral part of modernconsumerism. As leisure and wealth increase,tourism consumption also increases. Marketing oftourism has become increasingly competitive andhas resulted in enhancing gender stereotypes thatdepict women as passive, dependent and available.63
64<strong>Tourism</strong> brochures, including <strong>the</strong> ones prepared by<strong>the</strong> tourism industry in Goa, have used women assexual and exotic markers. Despite disclaimers from<strong>the</strong> authorities responsible for this distortion in <strong>the</strong>image of women, Goa has been marketed as a landof Sea, Sun, Sand and Sex. Goa like Thailand andSri Lanka, has witnessed an increase in sex-tourismand also an increase in crimes against women andchildren (both local and tourist).The growth of tourism in Goa has also led todestruction of traditional occupations and <strong>the</strong>environment. Resource allocation has becomeskewed in favor of <strong>the</strong> tourism industry and landalienation is a serious concern (See “Fish Curryand Rice”, Goa Foundation, 2002). The impactof a skewed developmental approach thatdisregards implications for <strong>the</strong> people has beenwell documented by many. However, in <strong>the</strong> lightof <strong>the</strong> growing emphasis by <strong>the</strong> Government ontourism as an engine for growth in Goa, one needsto make an effort to research on its impacts on <strong>the</strong>people and on women in particular. Since 1995 (4 thWorld Conference on Women, Beijing), gendermainstreaminghas been adopted as a strategyfor gender equality. The main aim of gender mainstreamingis to incorporate a gender perspectivein all policies at all levels and at all stages by policymakers.Due <strong>the</strong> importance of assessing <strong>the</strong> impact oftourism on women and gender relations, I havebeen conducting a micro-study in Calangute,Candolim and Baga (popular destinations inNorth-Goa) and in Cacra (a village predominantlyinhabited by indigenous people) in <strong>the</strong> state ofGoa. .The purpose of this study is to understand<strong>the</strong> nature and extent of impact of tourism onwomen in Goa. My presentation includes some of<strong>the</strong> primary findings of my ongoing research andattempts to trace <strong>the</strong> growth of tourism in Goa andits socio-economic implications at <strong>the</strong> micro level. Ihave relied on both primary and secondary sourcesof information for my research. This paper would<strong>the</strong>refore focus on <strong>the</strong> following concerns relatedto tourism and gender in Goa:• yThe growth of tourism in Goa• yThe employment potential for women intourism• yThe socio-economic problems related totourism and its impact on gender• yEvolving strategies to combat <strong>the</strong> negativeconsequences of tourismThe Growth of <strong>Tourism</strong> in Goa:Goa which was liberated from 451 years ofPortuguese rule in 1961 became <strong>the</strong> 25 th state of <strong>the</strong>Indian Union when it was conferred statehood on<strong>the</strong> 30 th of May, 1987. A tiny state in India on <strong>the</strong>western coastline, Goa has an area of 3702sq.kms.The State’s population according to <strong>the</strong> 2001 Censusis 1.34 million. Although Goa joined <strong>the</strong> Nationalmainstream 14 years after India’s independence,<strong>the</strong> tourist traffic to this state has registered aphenomenal growth from 0.2 million in 1975 to 1.57million in 2004.Given below are statistics that show <strong>the</strong> growth intourist traffic to Goa from 1985 to 2004:TABLE IYearDomestic ForeignTourists TouristsTotal1985 682575 92667 7752121986 736548 97533 8340811987 766846 94602 8614481988 761859 93076 8549351989 771013 91430 8624431990 776993 104330 8813231991 756786 78281 8350671992 774568 121442 8960101993 798576 170658 9692341994 849404 210191 10595951995 878487 229218 11077051996 888914 237216 11261301997 928925 261673 11905981998 953212 275047 12282591999 960114 284298 12444122000 976804 291709 12685132001 1120242 260071 13803132002 1325296 271645 15969412003 1725140 314357 20394972004(Jan - 1367223 205212 1572435Oct)Source: “Tourist Statistics 2004, Goa, India”, Departmentof <strong>Tourism</strong>, Government of Goa, 2004.
From <strong>the</strong> table given above, it is evident that <strong>the</strong>tourist traffic to Goa (both domestic as well asforeign) has been steadily increasing over <strong>the</strong> years.The average duration of stay for domestic touristsis 5 days as compared to foreign tourists who stayin Goa for 9 days on an average. Out of <strong>the</strong> totalnumber of foreign tourists visiting Goa, 43% comefrom <strong>the</strong> U.K. and <strong>the</strong> rest are from Europe, Russiaand <strong>the</strong> U.S.A. Almost 50% of foreign tourists arriveby charter flights <strong>the</strong> number of which has increasedfrom 24 in 1985 to 532 in 2004. The Governmentand more specifically, <strong>the</strong> Department of <strong>Tourism</strong>has started an aggressive marketing campaign topromote tourism and more specifically, to attract alarger number of foreign tourists to <strong>the</strong> state. TheEconomic Survey 2003-04 of <strong>the</strong> Government ofGoa states that, “Though Goa is a very small stateboth in terms of area and population; it contributessignificantly to <strong>the</strong> national exchequer. Goa receivesover 10% of foreign tourists visiting <strong>the</strong> country and15% of <strong>the</strong> nation’s foreign exchange earnings fromtourism are generated in Goa annually”.Towards tourism promotion, <strong>the</strong> government hasplanned several initiatives including streng<strong>the</strong>ningmarketing strategies, beach development andsafety measures, heritage conservation and <strong>the</strong>regulation of water sports. The master plan fortourism mentions proposals for at least two golfcourses, seven more resorts, four food parks,recreational and amusement parks and offshorecasinos. However, <strong>the</strong> measures as those includedin policy documents have failed to mention anyspecific initiatives for environmental protection/promotion or any specific measures to generateemployment for <strong>the</strong> local population. Genderconcerns are certainly not reflected in any of <strong>the</strong>policy initiatives.for women in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector in Goa. Accordingto government estimates, nearly 20% of <strong>the</strong> totalemployment in <strong>the</strong> State is generated in <strong>the</strong> tourismsector. However, government documents do notcontain any kind of statistics related to how muchemployment has been actually generated in <strong>the</strong>tourism sector. In Goa, people find employmentin travel agencies, as tour operators, <strong>the</strong> transportsector (taxis and motorcycle taxis, tourist buses), inshops and cafes, Bakeries, laundries, beauty salons,boutiques, cybercafés, <strong>the</strong> entertainment businessand event management, as travel guides, rentingrooms and vehicles, in shacks along <strong>the</strong> beach, etc.In <strong>the</strong> coastal belt of Calangute and Candolim alone,<strong>the</strong>re are 790 shops, 35 travel agencies, 72 shacks,849 bars/restaurants, 560 room rentals, 453 largeand small hotels and guest houses, 2 art galleries,3 dental clinics, 8 pharmacies/ drug stores, 14bakeries, 18 supermarkets, 28 camera/photo shops,and 30 beauty parlors.The Hotel industry is perceived as a major source ofemployment by <strong>the</strong> local population. In Goa <strong>the</strong>reare 414 hotels which include 11 (5 star deluxe), 3 (5star), 2 (4 star), 19 (3 Star), 24 (2 star), 19 (1 star), 1(heritage category) and 14 (run by <strong>the</strong> Goa <strong>Tourism</strong>Development Corporation), among o<strong>the</strong>rs.Given below are some of <strong>the</strong> primary findingsthat are an attempt to quantify <strong>the</strong> extent ofemployment for men and women in one of <strong>the</strong>sectors namely, <strong>the</strong> hotel industry in Goa:Employment Potential for Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>:<strong>Tourism</strong> is projected as a labor-intensive industrythat has a multiplier effect on employment andincome. Being a heterogeneous, multi-segmentedindustry it offers employment to people in a varietyof sectors. Employment is created in sectors bothdirectly and indirectly related to tourism.One of <strong>the</strong> objectives of this ongoing research hasbeen to ascertain <strong>the</strong> potential for employment65
Name of <strong>the</strong> Hotel Category LocationTABLE IINumber of MaleEmployeesNumber ofFemale EmployeesTotal Number ofEmployeesRonil Beach Resort 2 Star Calangute 141 09 150Fort Aguada BeachResort5 Star Deluxe Sinquerim 267 35 302Majestic 3 Star Porvorim 94 06 100Angels Resort 3 Star Porvorim 67 11 78Hotel Mandovi 3 Star Panjim 138 08 146Goa MarriottResort5 Star Deluxe Panjim 280 50 330Perola do Mar 1 Star Calangute 10 02 12Carmo Lobo Resort 1 Star Candolim 20 05 25Alor Holiday Resort 2 Star Calangute 55 05 60Mapusa Residency - Mapusa 20 20 40Hotel Delmon 2 Star Panjim 66 06 72Aldeia Santa Rita 3 Star Candolim 47 01 48Falcon Hotel 2 Star Calangute 40 10 50Santiago Resorts 2 Star Calangute 65 02 67Casa Sea Shell 1 Star Candolim 11 00 11Maria Rosa 2 Star Calangute 40 00 40Magnum Resort 2 Star Calangute 43 02 45Dona Alcina 3 Star Candolim 72 08 80Hotel Check in 1 Star Panjim 06 00 06Hotel Neptune 1 Star Panjim 05 03 08Hotel Arcadia 1 Star Panjim 05 01 06Hotel Rajdhani 1 Star Panjim 28 07 35Hotel Virashree 1 Star Panjim 05 01 06Hotel Sohni Inn 1 Star Panjim 01 01 02Hotel PritiInternationalKenilworth BeachResortBogmalo BeachResort2 Star Mapusa 25 02 275 Star Utorda 140 45 1855 Star Bogmalo 298 55 35366Horizon Beach3 Star South Goa 38 12 50ResortNote: These are primary findings and <strong>the</strong> ongoing study proposes to cover 10% of <strong>the</strong> hotels in each category.
From <strong>the</strong> table given above we can see that out of<strong>the</strong> 28 hotels covered so far, <strong>the</strong> total number ofpersons employed is 2328. The number of men whoare employed (2202) far exceeds <strong>the</strong> number ofwomen (306) in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry in Goa. (86.8% ofthose employed in this industry are men comparedto women who are just 13.14% of <strong>the</strong> total).A study conducted in North Goa by “BailanchoSaad”, a women’s organization in 2000, revealed<strong>the</strong> following:• yThe total number of women who findemployment in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector is muchlesser as compared to men.• yThe type of employment that women find isdepends more on <strong>the</strong>ir personal appearanceand conversational skills as compared to <strong>the</strong>ireducational qualifications.• yEmployment in this sector is seasonal,contractual and is characterized by a high laborturnover.• yWorking hours are long and irregular.• yWages during <strong>the</strong> off-season are considerablylower than during <strong>the</strong> peak season.• yMost of <strong>the</strong> women have given up traditionaloccupations in agriculture and fishing tofind jobs in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector. Governmentstatistics reveal that between 1991 and 2001,<strong>the</strong> percentage of cultivators and agriculturallaborers in <strong>the</strong> workforce decreased by 26.2and 19.3 respectively and that <strong>the</strong> percentageof workers in <strong>the</strong> household industry and o<strong>the</strong>rworkers has actually increased by 43.3 and 45.6respectively (Economic Survey, 2003-04, Govt.of Goa).• yThough <strong>the</strong>re is equal pay for equal work,women find employment in lower positionsand thus end up earning much lesser than menfrom tourism.• yMost of <strong>the</strong> respondents did not havespecialized training / education directly relatedto tourism.Women Seeking Employment in Male DominatedAreas of Work: A Case-Study:The following is a case-study of a young womanfrom a tribal community in Goa. Seema comes froma socio-economically deprived community and hasfought her way through most of her life to becomeone of <strong>the</strong> first women to acquire a heavy motorvehicle license. She always dreamt of getting ajob as a bus driver in <strong>the</strong> state –owned transportcorporation. However, her dreams were shatteredas her application was rejected on <strong>the</strong> groundsthat giving a job to a woman would set a trend thatwould reduce job opportunities for men a sectorthat has been traditionally male-dominated!Refusing to give up her dreams, Seema is fightingfor her rights toge<strong>the</strong>r with a women’s organization(Bailancho Saad) in Goa. Today, she drives a jeepthat ferries tourists to a popular tourist site that isonly accessible by road. However, she continues toface ridicule from o<strong>the</strong>r transport operators whocontinue to pressurize her hoping that she will giveup!Observations during <strong>the</strong> course of my researchhave also revealed <strong>the</strong> following:• yThe number of women in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry issignificantly lower than men.• yWomen are mostly employed in semi-skilledor unskilled jobs and have lesser opportunitiesthan men to find employment in <strong>the</strong> tourismsector in Goa.• yWomen are mostly employed in <strong>the</strong> front officeand house keeping departments, are employedon a contractual basis and consequentlyreceive lower wages than men.• yThere are 146 travel agencies and 91 touroperators in Goa. However, even cursoryobservation reveals that most of <strong>the</strong> jobs intravel agencies are occupied by men. Thenumber of women in managerial positions isinsignificant and those who do find jobs hereare employed as front office or secretarialassistants.y • The transport sector is totally dominated bymen.67
68• yEven in tourism related businesses like shops,shacks, cafes, and restaurants etc that aremostly owned and operated by men, womenare employed in lower end jobs where <strong>the</strong>irwages are lower than men.• y<strong>Tourism</strong> continues to attract young girls andboys who often drop out of high school towork in low paid jobs in this sector. (The dropout rate is 42.21 for students from standardI-X).• yToday only a very small percentage of <strong>the</strong>students consider obtaining training/educationin tourism related skills as an option beforeseeking employment. Even if <strong>the</strong>y considertourism as an employment option, <strong>the</strong>y preferto begin in semi-skilled/unskilled jobs.• yGovernment statistics (Economic Survey,2003-04, Govt. of Goa), reveal that from <strong>the</strong>year 1991 to 2001, <strong>the</strong> percentage of womenmarginal workers has increased from 3.8 to 7.5whereas, that of main workers has decreasedfrom 16.8 to 14.8. Thus <strong>the</strong>re has been anactual increase in <strong>the</strong> number of women casualworkers in <strong>the</strong> state.• y<strong>Tourism</strong> does not provide steady employment.The maximum numbers of tourists visit onlyfour out of <strong>the</strong> eleven talukas (administrativedivisions of <strong>the</strong> state) and so <strong>the</strong> benefits areconcentrated in <strong>the</strong>se areas.Even if we are to accept <strong>the</strong> argument that tourismbestows economic benefits by way of generatingemployment, it is evident from <strong>the</strong> data andfindings mentioned above that <strong>the</strong> total numberof job opportunities for women in <strong>the</strong> tourismsector is very low and is characterized by genderstereotyping and discrimination. We can <strong>the</strong>reforesafely conclude that <strong>the</strong> net benefits to womenfrom tourism are extremely low.The Socio-Economic Problems related to<strong>Tourism</strong> and its Impact on Gender:When we try to understand <strong>the</strong> implications oftourism for <strong>the</strong> people living in tourist destinations,it is important to look beyond <strong>the</strong> obviouseconomic benefits like foreign exchange earnings,revenues and employment generation. The socioeconomicproblems generated by tourism haveto be understood and possibly quantified if a trueassessment is to be made. Some of <strong>the</strong> majorconcerns related to tourism development in Goaare as follows:1. Migration and its Implication for <strong>the</strong> People of Goa:Goa has witnessed an increase in migration since<strong>the</strong> early sixties. However, <strong>the</strong> extent of migrationhas definitely increased since <strong>the</strong> mid-eightiesentirely due to tourism. Since attaining statehoodin 1987, Goa embarked upon massive infrastructuraldevelopment for <strong>the</strong> purpose of tourism promotion.Goa has a fairly high literacy rate and <strong>the</strong>re has beena gradual shift in preference for skilled and nonmanualjobs by <strong>the</strong> educated youth. The increaseddemand for manual labor is met by people whomigrate to <strong>the</strong> state from neighboring areas where<strong>the</strong>re is a scarcity of employment opportunities.People from o<strong>the</strong>r states are brought in by laborcontractors who do not take responsibility forproviding <strong>the</strong> workers with decent facilities forhousing and sanitation. Consequently, <strong>the</strong>re hasbeen an increase in urban slums where migrantmen and women lead a vulnerable and marginalizedexistence due to <strong>the</strong> conflict between <strong>the</strong>m and <strong>the</strong>local population.In addition to construction labor, <strong>the</strong> coastal areashave attracted migrants who come to Goa during<strong>the</strong> tourist season to sell handicrafts to tourists.Men, women and even children sell <strong>the</strong>ir wares totourists in order to make a living. These families livein make-shift huts and are constantly harassed by<strong>the</strong> police and by <strong>the</strong> locals who perceive <strong>the</strong>m as athreat to <strong>the</strong>ir own businesses.Besides workers who migrate to <strong>the</strong> state to satisfy<strong>the</strong> demand for manual labor, <strong>the</strong>re are an increasingnumber of wealthy people from o<strong>the</strong>r parts of Indiaand foreign tourists who have migrated to Goa.Wealthy businessmen have invested capital in <strong>the</strong>state and own <strong>the</strong> larger business concerns (Most 5star hotels, casinos, entertainment centers etc, areowned by people who have migrated from outside<strong>the</strong> state), <strong>the</strong>reby taking a larger share in <strong>the</strong> profitsgenerated by tourism. It is <strong>the</strong> latter category ofmigrants who pose a threat to <strong>the</strong> interests of <strong>the</strong>local population in <strong>the</strong> state.
Migration has thus led to a conflict over resourcessuch as land, food, water and, housing. Besides<strong>the</strong> conflict over resources, <strong>the</strong>re has emerged aconstant tussle over employment opportunities(for skilled/semi-skilled and unskilled jobs) between<strong>the</strong> local youth who are grappling with growingunemployment and <strong>the</strong> migrants who vie for jobsboth in <strong>the</strong> tourism and non-tourism sectors.2. <strong>Tourism</strong> and Escalating Prices:With <strong>the</strong> boom in tourism, <strong>the</strong> number of touristssometimes exceeds <strong>the</strong> total population of <strong>the</strong> state.The demand for food, transport, entertainment ando<strong>the</strong>r resources that is generated during <strong>the</strong> peakseason pushes <strong>the</strong> prices for essential commoditiesupwards. The economy of household which ismainly managed and sustained by women facesmanifold problems that are rightly perceived asdetrimental to <strong>the</strong> economic and health status ofpeople, specially women. Though it is argued thatrising prices benefit <strong>the</strong> sellers/producers, <strong>the</strong>actual benefits are shared by many in <strong>the</strong> marketingchain, thus leaving serious questions about <strong>the</strong> netgain when compared to <strong>the</strong> high consumer priceindex (<strong>the</strong> CPI for industrial workers in 2001 for Goawas 555 compared to 458 for <strong>the</strong> rest of India) thatplaces tremendous pressure on <strong>the</strong> economy ofhouseholds in Goa.3. Lack of Sustainable Alternatives to <strong>Tourism</strong>:The economy of Goa today largely depends ontourism and mining for its sustenance. Thoughefforts have been made to work out alternatives,<strong>the</strong>se have not been rigorously pursued and hencecontinue to be largely obscure in <strong>the</strong> developmentalstrategy of <strong>the</strong> state. The emphasis in all policydocuments is on tourism and very little attention ispaid to <strong>the</strong> possibility of developing o<strong>the</strong>r sectorsas alternatives to tourism. Traditional occupationsare constantly under threat ei<strong>the</strong>r due to <strong>the</strong> lackof attention by <strong>the</strong> state or due to tourism itself.Attempts by <strong>the</strong> big hotels to privatize beaches andcutting off access to <strong>the</strong> beach has led to problemsfor traditional fish workers. Even as recently as lastmonth, huts used by fish workers to store fishingboats and nets were demolished by <strong>the</strong> state tomake way for beach expansion plans to supporttourism at Colva (a popular destination in SouthGoa). <strong>Tourism</strong> is <strong>the</strong>refore considered as <strong>the</strong> onlyoption for generating employment by <strong>the</strong> locals.Goa has also witnessed a large scale out migrationby men to o<strong>the</strong>r parts of India and out of India insearch of employment. There are many householdsheaded by women who bear <strong>the</strong> burden of familyrearing and nurturing entirely on <strong>the</strong>ir own.4. <strong>Tourism</strong>, <strong>the</strong> Commercialization of Culture and itsImplications for Women:The culture of Goa has been erroneously representedas that of <strong>the</strong> Catholic upper caste elites. The tourismindustry has fur<strong>the</strong>r appropriated and streng<strong>the</strong>nedthis image to market Goa as a state that symbolizesnostalgia for its colonial past. In almost all tourismrelated literature Goa is characterized as femaleand is sold to potential male consumers (tourists).Advertisements by <strong>the</strong> private hotels, airlines andeven <strong>the</strong> government have depicted women in aderogatory manner seeking to commodify womenas objects waiting to seek gratification from maletourists. In 1993, at <strong>the</strong> Berlin <strong>Tourism</strong> Fair, aGovernment of India audio-visual depicted twobeaches in Goa sandwiched between erect nipplesof a white woman’s breasts. Women’s organizationwho have been protesting such distorted andderogatory advertisements claim that womenin Goa have been subjected to increased sexualharassment, violence and prostitution as a result.Western travel magazines have also reportedlyused this gendered marketing strategy to promoteGoa as a destination where “you can leave yourguilt behind at <strong>the</strong> moment when you travel andindulge in your wildest fantasies”. In addition to <strong>the</strong>growth of violence against women perpetrated bythis form of sexist advertising, it has also promoteda market for sex trade that has resulted in increasedtrafficking of women to <strong>the</strong> state. Prostitutionnetworks have proliferated along <strong>the</strong> coastal beltand with <strong>the</strong> help of sophisticated technology havemade detection and prosecution more difficult forlaw enforcement agencies.The commercialization of culture can also bewitnessed in <strong>the</strong> manner in which local customsand traditional events have been appropriatedby <strong>the</strong> government and <strong>the</strong> tourism lobby. The socalled Goan dances and culture that are on displayat hotels, on boat rides and <strong>the</strong> state sponsoredcarnival are examples of <strong>the</strong> attempt to use womenas baits to attract tourists! Goa has been thuspainted as land of tolerant, peace loving people,69
westernized, easy going and a land of fun, frolic,festivals and feni (locally brewed liquor). Peoplevisiting Goa (both domestic and foreign tourists)when asked about what attracts <strong>the</strong>m to Goa; oftenreply that it is <strong>the</strong> “wine and women”.Goa has also witnessed an increase in domestictourists who come to Goa to ogle at toplesswomen sunbathing on <strong>the</strong> Goan beaches. Thoughnudism on beaches is prohibited by law, one oftenencounters topless or semi-nude men and womenon <strong>the</strong> beaches who become targets of voyeurismthat often translates into sexual harassment.In addition to <strong>the</strong> commercialization and erroneousdepiction of culture, <strong>the</strong> promotion strategies usedby tourism players have contributed to increaseddrug and alcohol abuse by both <strong>the</strong> tourist and<strong>the</strong> local youth. Rave parties are characterized by<strong>the</strong> availability of cheap liquor (due to lower statetaxes), easy availability of drugs and <strong>the</strong> open useof drugs and alcohol by tourists, entice <strong>the</strong> youthwho participate in <strong>the</strong>se events.5. The Environmental Impact of <strong>Tourism</strong>:The government’s plan for tourism promotion hasnot included ei<strong>the</strong>r a Cost-benefit Analysis or anEnvironmental Impact Assessment. The Plans havecontinued to ignore <strong>the</strong> need to assess <strong>the</strong> carryingcapacity of <strong>the</strong> state while promoting tourismexpansion. <strong>Tourism</strong> has generated a variety ofenvironmental problems which include:• yThe diversion of water for <strong>the</strong> use of hotelsand for construction that has left <strong>the</strong> localsto face a severe water crisis that places asevere burden on <strong>the</strong> women in <strong>the</strong>se areas.Water from wells in villages is transportedby water tankers to <strong>the</strong> tourism belt to meet<strong>the</strong> growing need for water. The continuousdraining of water from wells has resultedin wells becoming dry due to <strong>the</strong> loweringof ground water levels. The proposals toconstruct more resorts and golf courses wouldonly heighten <strong>the</strong> problem of water scarcity.• yThe tourist belts of Calangute, Candolim andColva do not have any sewage treatmentfacilities. Studies submitted to <strong>the</strong> governmenthave shown that <strong>the</strong> sewage in <strong>the</strong> areas hascontaminated groundwater aquifers that posea serious health hazard to people who livehere.• yThe garbage generated by hotels and touristswho visit <strong>the</strong> coastal areas is enormous andcreates a severe burden on <strong>the</strong> meagerresources that have been allocated by <strong>the</strong>government for its disposal. The coastal areashave garbage strewn all over (plastic and nonbiodegradablewaste).• yGoa has also become a recognized partycenter and <strong>the</strong> coastal areas are subjected todeafening noise generated by all-night partiesand events that are regularly held on <strong>the</strong>beach.• yRampant construction of hotels andconcrete structures has flouted all norms andregulations. The coastal belt of Calangute,Candolim and Baga has been converted intoa concrete jungle <strong>the</strong>reby destroying <strong>the</strong>natural beauty of <strong>the</strong>se places and creatingimpediments to traditional occupations liketoddy tapping and fishing.6. Goa: The Next Pedophile Destination? Think Again!Since <strong>the</strong> early 90’s, Goa has also witnessed agradual but definite increase in pedophilia. TillFreddy Peats was convicted of child sexual abusein 1996, very few in Goa were even aware of <strong>the</strong>possibility of such acts of violation against children.The Freddy Peats case threw up many questionsamong which was whe<strong>the</strong>r this was an isolated caseor whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> malaise of pedophilia had indeedbecome widespread in Goa.When a small group of child rights activist studied<strong>the</strong> problem, it became evident that pedophilesposing as tourists have been visiting our state andabusing our children by taking advantage of <strong>the</strong>irvulnerability and weak laws that make detectionand prosecution extremely difficult. The continuousand deliberate attempts by <strong>the</strong> government anda majority of Goans to push <strong>the</strong> issue under <strong>the</strong>carpet had contributed to <strong>the</strong> growth of tourismrelated child sexual abuse. The problem has beenwell researched and documented (“See <strong>the</strong> Evil”,Nishtha Desai, 2001).70
Due to <strong>the</strong> prolonged battle waged by child rightsgroups and women’s organizations in <strong>the</strong> State,<strong>the</strong> Government has had to finally acknowledge <strong>the</strong>problem and has enacted <strong>the</strong> Goa Children’s Actthat includes specific provisions to protect childrenand to prosecute <strong>the</strong> violators. Child Rights Activistshave elicited support from <strong>the</strong> local communitiesresiding in <strong>the</strong> tourist belt to protect all childrenfrom pedophiles. The message that now goes outto all visitors is: “Tourists are welcome, Pedophilesare not!”Evolving Strategies to Combat <strong>the</strong> NegativeConsequences of <strong>Tourism</strong>:Ever since <strong>the</strong> Government declared tourism as anindustry and put forward a ‘master plan” to promotetourism, questions have been raised by citizensand NGOs about its implications for <strong>the</strong> people.Protests have been made against <strong>the</strong> environmentaldegradation, destruction of traditional sourcesof livelihood, commercialization of culture, <strong>the</strong>promotion of golf courses and casinos, illegalconstructions, privatization of beaches, againstissuing more licenses to bars, pedophilia, etcThe protests have been led by <strong>the</strong> affected villagersand have been often supported by NGOs like <strong>the</strong>Goa Foundation, Jagrut Goenkaranchi Fauz (Armyof Vigilant Goans), Bailancho Saad, Children’s Rightsin Goa, Jan Ugahi, and Bailancho Ekvott, citizen’scommittees, freedom fighter’s associations ando<strong>the</strong>rs.The following demands were placed before <strong>the</strong>Government by concerned groups and citizens in1997: (See: “Fish Curry and Rice”, Goa Foundation,2002)• y<strong>Tourism</strong> promotion should not distort <strong>the</strong>image of Goa, its people and specially women.• yA ban should be imposed on granting anyfur<strong>the</strong>r licenses for <strong>the</strong> production and saleof alcohol. Bars should be regulated. Drinkingshould not be allowed on buses, in marketplaces and on <strong>the</strong> streets.• yNo permission should be granted to casinosei<strong>the</strong>r on land or sea and gambling should beprohibited.• yThere should be a code of dress and behaviorfor tourists in order to prevent disrespect tolocal traditions and culture.• yThe Government and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Tourism</strong> lobby cannotexpand tourism at <strong>the</strong> expense of <strong>the</strong> localpeople.• yThe Master Plan for <strong>Tourism</strong> should beplaced before <strong>the</strong> people for comments andsuggestions.These groups have successfully thwarted attemptsto violate environmental norms, to privatizebeaches, to commercialize <strong>the</strong> carnival, to promotegolf courses and casinos in <strong>the</strong> state of Goa.Strategies used have included mobilizing affectedpeople and <strong>the</strong> general public, using <strong>the</strong> mediato promote awareness, producing alternativeliterature on tourism related issues, lobbying withsensitive legislators, holding protest marchesand sit-ins, organizing a people’s carnival whereinawareness about <strong>the</strong> dangers of tourism wasgenerated, etc.Villagers Protest <strong>the</strong> Licensing of Bars and TheConstruction of A Water Sports Facility in Cacra:Between 1999 and 2001, <strong>the</strong> villagers of Cacra (atiny fishing village consisting of 45 houses with apopulation of approximately 450 people from <strong>the</strong>tribal community), came out in protest against <strong>the</strong>licensing of a bar which <strong>the</strong>y perceived as a nuisanceto <strong>the</strong> village. The women in Cacra believed that<strong>the</strong> bar was responsible for promoting alcoholismamong male members of <strong>the</strong>ir community andthat it was impacting <strong>the</strong> lives of all women in <strong>the</strong>village. Consequently, <strong>the</strong>y elicited <strong>the</strong> supportof a women’s organization (Bailancho Saad) andapproached <strong>the</strong> authorities with a protest petitionand forced <strong>the</strong> bar to close down. Goa has a liberalalcohol policy to support tourism in <strong>the</strong> state.Licenses are freely issued and lower taxes onalcohol enable even <strong>the</strong> poor to consume it. Similarprotests have been organized by women in o<strong>the</strong>rvillages in Goa.In 2001, <strong>the</strong> owners of a 5 star deluxe hotel in NorthGoa, began constructing a jetty for a proposed watersports facility in Cacra, without even bo<strong>the</strong>ring to71
obtain <strong>the</strong> necessary permission from <strong>the</strong> villagepanchayat (local self-government institution at <strong>the</strong>village level). The construction began at a rapidpace and alarmed <strong>the</strong> villagers, especially <strong>the</strong> fishworkers whose access to <strong>the</strong> sea was restrictedand whose fishing nets were damaged. The hotelowners had also dug a well in <strong>the</strong> area to drawwater for <strong>the</strong> construction without consulting <strong>the</strong>villagers. Constant pumping of water from this wellresulted in <strong>the</strong> lowering of water levels in <strong>the</strong> wellused by <strong>the</strong> village. The villagers approached <strong>the</strong>panchayat and sought an explanation. With <strong>the</strong>support of NGOs <strong>the</strong>y lodged <strong>the</strong>ir protests andfinally approached <strong>the</strong> Chief Minister of Goa whowas forced to ask <strong>the</strong> hotel to stop constructionimmediately!It is important to note that in both <strong>the</strong>se instances,<strong>the</strong> women in <strong>the</strong> village were proactive in <strong>the</strong>irprotests as <strong>the</strong>y perceived <strong>the</strong> developments in<strong>the</strong>ir village as those that impacted and threatened<strong>the</strong>ir lives.Conclusion:From all that has been said above, it is evidentthat tourism has generated many problems in Goa– problems that impact <strong>the</strong> lives of women bothdirectly and indirectly. In order to make developmentequitable and meaningful, it is imperative thatevery plan, proposal or policy be based on a clearunderstanding of <strong>the</strong> possible impact <strong>the</strong>se wouldhave on <strong>the</strong> status of women. Women’s groups inGoa have been continuously partnering with <strong>the</strong>concerned citizens and groups within and outsideGoa, to evolve strategies to combat <strong>the</strong> negativeinfluences of tourism on gender. Researchers andpolicy makers need to develop a gender-sensitiveinsight into <strong>the</strong> developmental models that arecurrently practiced. The above paper is a modestattempt to begin <strong>the</strong> journey towards such anunderstanding.Endnotes:* The paper was presented during <strong>the</strong> session on‘Traveling Women in Asia’ at <strong>the</strong> ‘9th InternationalInterdisciplinary Congress on Women, Women’sWorlds 2005 (WW05)’ on 23.6.2005 organized byKorean Association of Women’s Studies (KAWS) andEwha Womans University at Seoul, Korea.Bibliography:Alvares, Claude, “Fish Curry and Rice”, Goa Foundation,2002Bailancho Saad, “In <strong>the</strong> Name of a Game: The stakes inGolf”, 1993Bailancho Saad, “Culture Vultures: A Critique of <strong>the</strong>Commercialization of Carnival in Goa”, 1993.David Wilson, “Paradoxes of <strong>Tourism</strong> in Goa”, in, “TheTransforming of Goa”, ed. Norman Dantas, The O<strong>the</strong>rIndia Press, 1999.Diocesan Pastoral Council, “<strong>Tourism</strong> in Goa: ItsImplications, 1987.Department of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Govt. of Goa, “TouristStatistics-2004”Hemmati, Minu (Ed), “Gender and <strong>Tourism</strong>: Women’simpact and participation in tourism”, UNED-UK, 2000.Hugh and Colleen Gantzer, “Discovering Goa”, MediaTransasia India Limited, 2001.Mario Cabral e Sa, “Goa <strong>Tourism</strong>: Astride a Tigress”, inGoa Today, Vol. XXXVIII No.8, March, 2004.Martins, Roland, “For a Humane <strong>Tourism</strong>” in Seminar,,543, November, 2004.Martins Sabina, “Cognizance of Non-Cognizance: Reporton Registered Crimes against Women in Goa”, Goa StateCommission for Women, July 2000.Rao, Nina, “Women and <strong>Tourism</strong>”, paper presented ata workshop organized by Institute for Management inGovernment, Thiruvananthpuram, 21-23 rd July, 1997.Thomas Bryn and Douglas Streatfield-James, LonelyPlanet: Goa,”Lonely Planet Publications, London, 2000.Vikas Adhyayan Kendra, “Facts against Myths: Myths on<strong>Tourism</strong>”, Vol. II # 7, October, 1995.Websites:www.earthsummit2002.orgwww.unidadgenero.comwww.goadesc.org72
SECTION 03Women’s Engagement with <strong>Tourism</strong>- Issues and Concerns73
Women in Bangalore’s Hotel IndustryEQUATIONS, 2010*1. Introduction:Women in India, like in almost every nation, makeup <strong>the</strong> poorest of <strong>the</strong> poor, constitute amongst <strong>the</strong>most marginalized, exploited and disempoweredsections of society, and face repeated violationsof <strong>the</strong>ir basic human rights. Gender equality andwomen’s empowerment have been asserted to behuman rights and a pre-condition for social justice.Women’s movements all over <strong>the</strong> world, includingIndia, have fought for it. They have challengedexisting gender relations and patriarchal systemsto reframe <strong>the</strong> development dialogue. They haveargued for including women’s rights and women’sroles as active participants and beneficiaries in <strong>the</strong>development process.The need to address gender discrimination isseen in large global processes and mainstreamdevelopment efforts. Recognising women’scentrality in development processes, <strong>the</strong> UNMillennium Development Goals (MDG) argued thatone of <strong>the</strong> main development challenges faced by<strong>the</strong> world today is that of <strong>the</strong> condition of womenand decided to ‘promote gender equality andempower women’. MDG also addresses “<strong>the</strong> equalrights and opportunities of women and men” andpledges “to combat all forms of violence againstwomen and to implement <strong>the</strong> Convention on <strong>the</strong>Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination againstWomen” (CEDAW). 1 With <strong>the</strong> approach of <strong>the</strong> 30thanniversary of CEDAW, <strong>the</strong> 15th anniversary of <strong>the</strong>Beijing Platform for Action, <strong>the</strong> 10th anniversaryof Security Council Resolution 1325 2 on Women,Peace and Security and <strong>the</strong> 10th anniversary of <strong>the</strong>MDG, <strong>the</strong> question arises: have women been trulyempowered? Has gender equality been achieved ordoes it continue to be a distant goal?The United Nations World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation(UNWTO) launched a new Action Plan for <strong>the</strong>empowerment of women through tourism in March2008 as part of MDG’s aim of gender equality.When UNWTO chose <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me of women andtourism for <strong>the</strong> year 2007 it was for <strong>the</strong> first time,since 1980, that <strong>the</strong> UNWTO focused its attentionon <strong>the</strong> issue of women in tourism. “<strong>Tourism</strong> isa sector of <strong>the</strong> economy that not only employssignificant numbers of women, but providesenormous opportunities for <strong>the</strong>ir advancement,”stated Secretary General Francesco Frangialli, inhis customary message on World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day - 27September 2007. The tourism industry positionsitself as a major employer of women globally andan industry that is women friendly.A strong argument in favour of tourismdevelopment is that it generates employment atdifferent levels due to <strong>the</strong> wide range of servicesand products it requires. Undoubtedly, <strong>the</strong>re ismerit in this argument. However, it is important tounderstand what kind of employment women haveaccess to in tourism. <strong>Tourism</strong> does provide a rangeof activities where women can participate andalso creates opportunities for entrepreneurshipdevelopment. Global data on numbers of womenand men working in tourism-related professionssuggests that <strong>the</strong> organised tourism sector is aparticularly important sector where 46 % of <strong>the</strong>workforce comprises of women (in general, 30-40%of <strong>the</strong> workforce is women) (ILO 2007). Of <strong>the</strong> dataavailable for <strong>the</strong> years between 1988 and 2005, itappears that <strong>the</strong>re has been a broad increase in <strong>the</strong>participation of women in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry at aglobal level.However research and <strong>the</strong> stories of womenengaged in tourism around <strong>the</strong> world has shownthat it is an industry that is far from being genderjust. As in many o<strong>the</strong>r sectors, <strong>the</strong>re is a significanthorizontal and vertical gender segregation of <strong>the</strong>labour market in tourism. Horizontally, women andmen are placed in different occupations - women areemployed as waitresses, chambermaids, cleaners,travel agents, sales persons, flight attendants, etc.,whereas men are employed as barmen, gardeners,construction workers, drivers, pilots, etc. Vertically,75
<strong>the</strong> typical “gender pyramid” is prevalent in <strong>the</strong> The present study aims to investigate <strong>the</strong>tourism sector - lower levels and occupations relationship between tourism and employment ofwith few career development opportunities being women in relation to <strong>the</strong> hotel/ hospitality industrydominated by women and key managerial positions in Bangalore, as a part of <strong>the</strong> formal tourismbeing dominated by men. 3 Early advocates of industry.tourism viewed tourism employment as a positive2. Objectives and Background of <strong>the</strong> Study:way of integrating under-privileged subgroups ofsociety into <strong>the</strong> mainstream economy. However, We decided to interrogate <strong>the</strong> claim “<strong>Tourism</strong> opens<strong>the</strong>se have tended largely to reinforce an existing doors for women” to understand through one casesexist, ethnic and caste-based system of social study what opportunities <strong>the</strong> hotel sector werestratification. In tourism particularly, women’s roles providing to women in terms of employment? Is <strong>the</strong>in economic production cannot be understood tourism industry creating possibilities for womenwithout reference to <strong>the</strong> cultural context of to achieve independence and empowerment inwomen’s structural position in society and <strong>the</strong> economic and personal terms? What role does andhome. 4can tourism play in <strong>the</strong> struggle for equality, equityand empowerment of women?With India’s tourism industry on <strong>the</strong> path ofexpansion, government is encouraging investment The study decided to focus on <strong>the</strong> hospitality sectorin tourism in <strong>the</strong> country. To encourage women’s in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry, as part of <strong>the</strong> organisedparticipation in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry and provide sector in Bangalore. It focussed on understandingtraining opportunities for <strong>the</strong> same, <strong>the</strong> Ministry <strong>the</strong> opportunities available to women in <strong>the</strong> hotelof <strong>Tourism</strong> (MoT), Government of India initiated sector- career options, growth options, incentives<strong>the</strong> scheme like ‘Project Priyadarshini’. The Project given, social securities available, job satisfaction,‘Priyadarshini’ was launched on December 9, 2005 equal opportunities available in <strong>the</strong> work space etc.with <strong>the</strong> aim to bring in women in greater numbers These issues are viewed under <strong>the</strong> general workingin <strong>the</strong> core area of tourism at all levels. It aimed to conditions in <strong>the</strong> hotel sector with a specific focusemploy women in non-stereotypical areas in <strong>the</strong> on gender related conditions, policies, guidelinesIndian travel sector, like driving taxis, becoming and legislations.guides etc. It also provided for training for selfdefence,vehicle repairing and knowledge of o<strong>the</strong>r The study decided to also look at <strong>the</strong> formativerelated domain. While launching <strong>the</strong> project <strong>the</strong> stage: college-level educational facilities available to<strong>the</strong>n Minister of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Ms Renuka Chowdhury female students to attain comprehensive specialisedhad said that, “The whole idea behind Project skills necessary to join <strong>the</strong> hospitality sector inPriyadarshini is to address <strong>the</strong> key issue of gender <strong>the</strong> formal tourism industry. These specialisedbias in our society. The gender ratio in India is courses range from Bachelor of Hotel Managementgetting more skewed by <strong>the</strong> day. In many pockets (BHM), 6 months trade diploma courses to 4 yearsof states like Rajasthan and Punjab, for instance, bachelor’s degree and even masters programs. Infor every 1,000 men, <strong>the</strong>re are only 800 women. <strong>the</strong> last decades, a variety of hospitality coursesIf this isn’t alarming, what is? We shout from <strong>the</strong> have opened all over India. The interaction withrooftops about caring for <strong>the</strong> girl child. But in reality <strong>the</strong> students was intended to understand <strong>the</strong>women in our society are perceived as a `burden’. facilities available and <strong>the</strong> motivation of <strong>the</strong> femaleSo <strong>the</strong> ministry is doing its bit by economically and students: why do <strong>the</strong>y study hotel management,psychologically empowering <strong>the</strong>m through this what do <strong>the</strong>y believe <strong>the</strong>y can and will achieve inscheme.” 5 Talking about <strong>the</strong> Priyadarshini Project, <strong>the</strong> future, etc. Attention was also given to <strong>the</strong> ratioMr. K.L. Das, Regional Director, Delhi, MoT said, of male and female students joining <strong>the</strong>se colleges.“Integrating gender perspectives into tourism isparticularly important as <strong>the</strong> tourism industry is As a first step, <strong>the</strong> female students in hotelone major employer of women and offers various management courses were interviewed andopportunities for independent income-generating <strong>the</strong>ir responses analysed in consideration ofactivities for <strong>the</strong>m.” 6 <strong>the</strong>ir background, motivation, expectations and76
goals. As a second step, <strong>the</strong> study focussed on<strong>the</strong> female employees in <strong>the</strong> hotels. This included<strong>the</strong>ir percentage of representation in this sector,educational background, economic and socialbackground, motivations, aims, achievements andpossible sacrifices for <strong>the</strong>ir career. Both results wereevaluated, with <strong>the</strong> aim to examine if <strong>the</strong> students’expectations matched with that of <strong>the</strong> experiencesof <strong>the</strong> women employees in reality and also to findout what in reality <strong>the</strong> picture currently looks like.3. Methodology:This paper is based on qualitative data collectedthrough interviews with a range of people from <strong>the</strong>hotel sector and colleges of hotel management,data from tourism research papers, and secondarydata collected from media articles.3.1 Research Questions:The main research questions that this study centredon were:• yBackground information about <strong>the</strong> hotels,including interviews with hotel management.This included <strong>the</strong> ratio of male to femaleemployees in general and at different levels ofemployment; women’s career options, growthoptions, salary structure, gender-relatedpolicies and benefits, working conditions,social securities, job satisfaction and equalopportunities in <strong>the</strong> workplace.• yPersonal interviews with female employees.Each employee interviewed was asked to givespecific personal information such as familybackground, place of birth, family status, levelof education, employment status and workexperience. The interview covered questionsabout <strong>the</strong>ir motivations in joining <strong>the</strong> hotelsector and <strong>the</strong>ir personal experiences in <strong>the</strong>workplace. The discussions involved issuesincluding equal opportunities in <strong>the</strong> hotelsector and general working conditions suchas hours of work, employment contracts andpolicies relating to female employees. Matterssuch as employers’ expectations of femaleemployees and discrimination- includingsexual harassment, were also discussed.The researcher also tried to find out <strong>the</strong>irperceptions of <strong>the</strong> societal opinion aboutwomen working in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry, includingthose of <strong>the</strong>ir male colleagues.• yInformation about <strong>the</strong> courses in hotelmanagement colleges, including interviewswith college faculty. The required informationconsisted of availability of <strong>the</strong> course andcareer prospects for <strong>the</strong> hotel managementstudents.• yPersonal interviews with female students. Thestudents were first asked to share personalinformation about <strong>the</strong>mselves such as familybackground and place of origin. The interview<strong>the</strong>n covered topics such as <strong>the</strong>ir motivationto enrol in a professional tourism course,consideration in deciding career options in <strong>the</strong>tourism industry, favourite subjects on <strong>the</strong>course, future hopes and plans with respectto career and personal life, assessment ofcareer opportunities, growth prospects,perceptions about equality in employment, <strong>the</strong>expectations of employers and social attitudestowards women’s employment in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry.3.2 Research Design:Primary Source DataTen hotels were visited in order to collect qualitativeand quantitative data. The hotels ranged frombudget to five star luxury hotels and includedindependent as well as chain hotels. In addition, sixcolleges of hotel management in Bangalore werevisited.127 people were interviewed in total. 63 peoplewere interviewed through personal interaction/conversations and focus groups, and <strong>the</strong> remaining64 participated through questionnaires.The types of people interviewed were as follows:• yHuman Resources (HR) and o<strong>the</strong>r hotelmanagers. Firstly, <strong>the</strong> HR Manager of everyhotel was approached for permission tobe interviewed in order to understand <strong>the</strong>HR policies of <strong>the</strong> respective hotels, and tointerview <strong>the</strong> female employees. Backgroundinformation about <strong>the</strong> hotel, its policies77
and working conditions were discussed.Permission to interview women employeeswas requested. In two cases, interviews witho<strong>the</strong>r male department managers were alsoundertaken.• yHotel employees. 34 female employeesfrom various hotels were interviewed. Only27 agreed to give face-to-face interviews;<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r 7 employees responded via <strong>the</strong>questionnaire. Initially <strong>the</strong> aim was to alsointerview some male employees, however dueto some research challenges, 7 it could not berealised.• yHotel Management College faculty: Theprincipals and department heads of <strong>the</strong>colleges were a important source ofinformation. They supplied all <strong>the</strong> requiredinformation about <strong>the</strong> subject-optionsavailable to students and <strong>the</strong> career scope forhotel management graduates.• yHotel Management College students: 15personal interviews were undertaken and 25students filled in questionnaires in order togauge <strong>the</strong>ir opinions on <strong>the</strong> employment ofwomen in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry.• yKarnataka <strong>Tourism</strong> Office employee. Onlyone interview was possible in order to obtaininformation about government schemes andtraining provisions for women who want tojoin <strong>the</strong> tourism industrySecondary Source Data:• yNewspaper articles. Media articles of <strong>the</strong> lastthree years were reviewed in order to getan overview of <strong>the</strong> expansion, employmentpatterns and trends of <strong>the</strong> hotel sector, as wellas upcoming issues• yO<strong>the</strong>r sources. Several websites and bookswere referred to concerning relevantlegislation, policies, schemes, impending billsand o<strong>the</strong>r documents, for an overview of <strong>the</strong>legal framework with respect to employmentin <strong>the</strong> hotel sector.3.3 Data Collection:The data was collected via:• yQuestionnaires. These were used to collectdata from <strong>the</strong> students. The same methodwas initially planned to be used for obtaininginformation from female hotel employees.However, this could not be realised due toobjections raised by <strong>the</strong> HR managers in mostof <strong>the</strong> hotels. This restriction led to a limitednumber of interviews with women employeesinstead.• yGuided interviews. These were <strong>the</strong> mainsource of information collected. Most of<strong>the</strong> interviews were conducted face-toface.Interviews with hotel managers andfaculty members were conducted inside <strong>the</strong>irworkplaces and <strong>the</strong> students were interviewedon campus. With respect to <strong>the</strong> employees,while some had to be interviewed in frontof <strong>the</strong>ir managers, o<strong>the</strong>rs were interviewedoutside <strong>the</strong> hotel during <strong>the</strong>ir lunch breaks.• yFocus groups. Depending on <strong>the</strong> context andsuitability, a few interviews were conducted ingroups of two to five people.3.4 Research Challenges and Limitations:• yA major challenge of this study was getting<strong>the</strong> participation of <strong>the</strong> hotel sector in termsof finding representatives (HR managers andgeneral managers) who were willing to bepart of <strong>the</strong> research and to be interviewed.In most cases, initial email and telephone callapproaches were not responded to and hotelmanagers were uncooperative or refused togive interviews. Accessing hotel employeeswas particularly difficult, since most HR andgeneral managers refused to grant permissionto <strong>the</strong> researcher to talk to <strong>the</strong>ir staff. In a fewcases, where permissions for interview weregranted, <strong>the</strong> HR manager insisted on attending<strong>the</strong> interview. This possibly came in <strong>the</strong> way ofa more open conversation with <strong>the</strong> employees.y • Language barriers made conversations withsome hotel support staff difficult. 878
• yAs only female employees were interviewed, inthis section <strong>the</strong> term “employees” refers onlyto female employees.• yAll of <strong>the</strong> interviews with hotel employeeswere conducted during <strong>the</strong>ir working hours;<strong>the</strong>refore many of <strong>the</strong>m could spare only alittle time to be interviewed.• yThe availability of data about governmenttraining provisions in <strong>the</strong> hospitality sectorand tourism industry, with a focus on femaleemployment, was nearly non-existent.3.5 Data Analysis:Apart from <strong>the</strong> background information collectedthrough <strong>the</strong> literature review, this study is basedon <strong>the</strong> interpretations of <strong>the</strong> interviews conducted.Broadly, following <strong>the</strong>mes are covered to seekopinions of <strong>the</strong> respondents.1. The perception about women working in hotels2. Being a woman in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry: burden orbenefit?3. Working women in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry4. Working mo<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry5. Measures to ensure physical safety and prevent6. Sexual harassment of employees in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry7. Working conditions of women in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry8. The hotel industry as a career choice for women-How and why?4. Employment of Women in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industryin India:4.1 BackgroundAccording to a recent study, “Gender Equality andWomen’s empowerment in India”, undertaken by <strong>the</strong>Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Governmentof India, in addition to education, employment canalso be an important source of empowerment forwomen. 9 Employment is considered an importantmeans of women empowerment as it providesfinancial independence, alternative sources ofsocial identity, and exposure to power structuresindependent of kin networks (Dixon-Mueller, 1993).None<strong>the</strong>less, early marriage, child bearing andlimited access to education limit women’s ability toparticipate in <strong>the</strong> labour market, particularly in <strong>the</strong>formal sectors. By contrast, male gender roles arecompatible with employment and men are typicallyexpected to be employed and to be bread winnersfor <strong>the</strong>ir families. Not surprisingly, men dominatemost formal labour markets. National FamilyHealth Survey (NFHS)-3 conducted in 2005-6 foundthat, among all women aged 15-49, 43% had beenemployed at any time in <strong>the</strong> past 12 months with<strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong>m being currently employed. Bycontrast, 87% of men in <strong>the</strong> same age group havebeen employed in <strong>the</strong> past 12 months. It was alsoobserved that most employed women work forsomeone else, away from home, and continuouslythroughout <strong>the</strong> year; about one in three women donot receive monetary compensation for <strong>the</strong>ir workor receive at least part of <strong>the</strong>ir payment in kind.Most employed women work in agriculture; only7% work in professional, technical, or managerialoccupations. 10<strong>Tourism</strong> being a labour-intensive activity, it doesprovide a range of activities where womencan participate and also creates opportunitiesfor entrepreneurship development in touristdestinations. The tourism industry represents abig economic sector and its environmental andsocial impacts are obvious and have been welldocumented. Integrating gender perspectives into<strong>the</strong> discussion of tourism is particularly important as<strong>the</strong> tourism industry is a major employer of women,offers various opportunities for independentincome generating activities, and at <strong>the</strong> same timeaffects women’s lives in destination communities.Global data on numbers of women and men workingin tourism-related professions suggests that <strong>the</strong>organised tourism sector is a particularly importantsector where 46 % of <strong>the</strong> workforce is women (ingeneral 30-40% of <strong>the</strong> workforce is women) (ILO2007). Of <strong>the</strong> data available for <strong>the</strong> years between1988 and 2005, it appears that <strong>the</strong>re has been abroad increase in <strong>the</strong> participation of women in <strong>the</strong>tourism industry at a global level. 114.2 Literature Review:Corresponding to <strong>the</strong> growth of <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry, <strong>the</strong> hospitality sector is seen to be on agrowth path in India. Today it is India’s third largestindustry, employing 9.5 million people. 12 During79
<strong>the</strong> year 2006-07, <strong>the</strong> industry’s revenue was Rs.604.32 billion, an increase of 21.27% on <strong>the</strong> previousyear. In 2010, <strong>the</strong> industry is expected to touch Rs.826.76 billion. 13 In <strong>the</strong> context of this growth, it isestimated that “...<strong>the</strong>re is an annual demand fortwo lakh trained human power” 14 to service <strong>the</strong>industry. To meet this demand, <strong>the</strong>re is a greatneed for professional education and training. Tomeet this, many colleges of hotel managementhave opened up all over <strong>the</strong> country in <strong>the</strong> last twodecades. In 2008, India had 175 hotel managementtraining institutes, from which around 18,000students have graduated. 15Despite this great need, <strong>the</strong> number of womenemployed in <strong>the</strong> formal tourism sector in India isnot very high, although <strong>the</strong> number is increasing,according to many of those interviewed.The literature review is now structured in <strong>the</strong> samecategories as <strong>the</strong> questions and <strong>the</strong>mes posed to<strong>the</strong> interviewees.4.2.1. General Employment Scenario in <strong>the</strong> HotelIndustry:Global recession has adversely impacted severalIndian industries, especially hospitality. Witha downswing in revenues, hotel managementcompanies have decided to tighten <strong>the</strong>ir beltsand right size <strong>the</strong>ir workforces as well as <strong>the</strong>remuneration packages drawn by <strong>the</strong>m. Theseare <strong>the</strong> findings indicated by <strong>the</strong> 2010 India SalarySurvey Report. 16 Excerpts from <strong>the</strong> 2010 India SalarySurvey indicate that <strong>the</strong> median salaries of positionsacross <strong>the</strong> hotel hierarchy have seen dramaticmovements. While declines have been observedacross departments, Resident Managers havebeen <strong>the</strong> worst affected with a 46 per cent declinein <strong>the</strong> median salaries. HVS observes that though<strong>the</strong> position is not being rendered redundant, it iscertainly experiencing a strike-off from <strong>the</strong> hierarchyof several hotel companies across India. SeveralResident Managers have known to have beenpromoted with no replacements being proffered.The survey however does show an increase insalaries of Departmental Heads across Front Officeand Food & Beverage, thus indicating a renewedrequirement for quality professionals to guide<strong>the</strong>se revenue producing areas more efficientlythan earlier. The rise in <strong>the</strong> salaries across <strong>the</strong> Foodand Beverage domain may also be attributed to <strong>the</strong>emergence of quality stand-alone restaurants andfood chains that are recruiting hotel professionalsfrom <strong>the</strong> said department at extremely competitivepackages. 17 According to <strong>the</strong> Survey, for o<strong>the</strong>rdepartmental head positions, <strong>the</strong> decline in salarymay be attributed to ei<strong>the</strong>r or a combination of <strong>the</strong>following reasoning:Salary rationalisation across all Department Headpositions, movement of people within <strong>the</strong> companyby means of internal promotion, which has provided<strong>the</strong> promoted employee a larger span of control withnotional hike in overall compensation, recruitmentbeen undertaken at lower compensation levels thanbenchmarks redundancy of positions emergencebudget and economy hotels that have significantlylower compensation trends as compared to firstclass or luxury hotels. 18There is rising discontent amongst <strong>the</strong> employeesin <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. The Bangalore Jilla HotelKarmikara Sangha (<strong>the</strong> Bangalore District HotelEmployees Union), which is affiliated to <strong>the</strong>Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU), urged <strong>the</strong>Karnataka Labour Department to fix <strong>the</strong> minimummonthly wage for workers in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry inBangalore at Rs. 10,000.” 19 According to <strong>the</strong> sangharepresentatives, Bangalore had become a costlycity to live in. Prices of all essential commoditieswere on <strong>the</strong> rise such as house rent, electricity andwater charges and <strong>the</strong> cost of education. The StateGovernment had not revised <strong>the</strong> minimum wage ofhotel employees for eight years. The sangha urged<strong>the</strong> Government to order hotel managements tofix a minimum wage of Rs. 10,000, plus DearnessAllowance. They alleged that lodges, restaurantsand star hotels were recruiting workers on contract,depriving <strong>the</strong>m of <strong>the</strong> notified minimum wage,weekly off, annual leave, bonus, healthcare under<strong>the</strong> ESIS and Provident Fund benefits. The fate ofworkers in <strong>the</strong> many clubs in Bangalore was nobetter. They urged <strong>the</strong> Government to abolish <strong>the</strong>system of contract labour.The general working conditions in hotels affect <strong>the</strong>work of both men and women. However since thisstudy focuses on <strong>the</strong> employment of women in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry, working conditions pertaining only80
to women will be analysed in this section. Workingconditions in this context include remuneration and<strong>the</strong> terms of employees’ contracts, such as workingextra hours.Considering <strong>the</strong>se informally extended workinghours and almost non-existence of overtimepay, are salaries in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry adequatecompensation for <strong>the</strong> given time and effort?Beyond that, does it pay back <strong>the</strong> investment ofthree to four years of expensive studies? An articleby Express Hospitality talks about <strong>the</strong> “High coursefees in comparison to low pay packages” 20 whichsubsequently discourages students to join <strong>the</strong>industry.One article headline put <strong>the</strong> situation as “Five-starcareers (but only) one star salaries”. 21There is certainly a need for a wage increase forhotel workers, especially in Bangalore, where <strong>the</strong>median salary of an employee is among <strong>the</strong> lowestin <strong>the</strong> country, with an average wage of Rs. 25,000a month. 22With respect to equal pay, Article 39(d) of <strong>the</strong>Constitution of India declares, “<strong>the</strong> State, inparticular, shall direct its policy towards securingthat <strong>the</strong>re is equal pay for equal work for bothmen and women”. 23 In order to recognise <strong>the</strong>seprinciples, <strong>the</strong> Equal Remuneration Act, 1976, whichwas already mentioned before, was implemented.The Act guarantees equal pay for equal workirrespective of sex. 24As already discussed, <strong>the</strong> hotel industry falls under<strong>the</strong> Shops and Commercial Establishment Act1961. The Act aims to provide for <strong>the</strong> regulationof working conditions in shops and commercialestablishments in <strong>the</strong> state of Karnataka. 25 Detailedspecifications about conditions, like working hours,overtime, salary as well as safety measures etc., aredefined in <strong>the</strong> individual standing order of everyindividual establishment.4.2.2. Perception about Women Working inHotels:Public opinion has a significant impact on <strong>the</strong>development of a society, and it simultaneouslyreflects all relevant change and progress. Fromthis perspective, it was deemed necessary to get adeeper understanding of <strong>the</strong> current public opinionof <strong>the</strong> study topic.From ongoing media discussions, one gets a sensethat in India women are now beginning to holdsenior managerial positions in <strong>the</strong> workforce.For many of <strong>the</strong>se women, “<strong>the</strong> sky is not <strong>the</strong>limit”. 26 One article says that in <strong>the</strong> past, women“were discouraged to join <strong>the</strong> ‘immoral world ofhotels’” and “parents were unwilling to allow <strong>the</strong>irdaughters to work late hours and night shifts”. Butperceptions are changing.In 2005, approximately 50.16 lakh women were partof <strong>the</strong> active workforce in <strong>the</strong> organised sector, ofwhich 41.77% worked in <strong>the</strong> private sector. 27 Thequestion arose as to how much of this organisedsector women work force working were actuallyemployed in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry, which for manyyears was a male-dominated area.Opportunities for women in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry: Thesky is not <strong>the</strong> limit!As mentioned earlier, <strong>the</strong> hospitality industry isconsidered to be one of <strong>the</strong> largest industriesin terms of employment in India. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,it is one of <strong>the</strong> fastest growing industries andhence <strong>the</strong>re is a constant increase in demand foremployees. 28 According to an article, “…<strong>the</strong>re willbe a 45% increase in <strong>the</strong> number of five-star hotels in<strong>the</strong> [Indian] Capital in <strong>the</strong> next two years. In o<strong>the</strong>rmetropolitan cities such as Bangalore, Mumbaiand Kolkata, <strong>the</strong>re will be a growth of 25% in <strong>the</strong>hospitality industry by 2010.” 29The mass media portrays employment in <strong>the</strong> hotelsector as one where anyone can have a greatcareer. Job prospects for both men and women aregrowing and <strong>the</strong> sector provides limitless growthopportunities. In particular, “women have multipleopportunities, to suit <strong>the</strong>ir skills and temperament, as<strong>the</strong> industry is geared towards personalised service.They can fit into any role in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry (...)81
One cannot generalise <strong>the</strong> prospects and it is solelyup to an individual to reach great heights.” 304.2.3. Being a Woman in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:Burden or Benefit?“A woman is naturally endowed with skills thatare advantageous to <strong>the</strong> hospitality industry suchas relationship building, and good communicationskills. The very concept of being hospitable to a guestis ingrained in a woman and comes naturally to her.Being more skilled at multi-tasking, a woman’s abilityto balance work priorities with family and householdresponsibilities provides her with an edge, especiallyin an industry where work timings may be erratic.” 31This statement is typical of <strong>the</strong> many viewsexpressed in <strong>the</strong> media about <strong>the</strong> employability ofwomen in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. Women are believedto be better hosts and caretakers and hospitalityis considered as <strong>the</strong>ir natural talent, since mostwomen take care of families and home. Also, it isperceived in <strong>the</strong> industry that women are moresoft-spoken, attentive, patient and better withcustomer relations than men. Certainly, someof <strong>the</strong>se perceptions can be true, but do <strong>the</strong>yindicate gender stereotyping, segregation or evendiscrimination? Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, do female employeeshave access to all departments, even those whichrequire less ‘female attributes’? In o<strong>the</strong>r words, do<strong>the</strong>y have equal opportunities?The research took into consideration <strong>the</strong> issue of<strong>the</strong> gender-specific vulnerability of women. Studieshave shown that working women are vulnerable tosexual harassment and are subject to discriminationwith respect to opportunity and remuneration.Women working in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry are widelyperceived to be vulnerable to physical abusebecause <strong>the</strong>ir work involves a lot of interaction withhotel guests and <strong>the</strong>y have to work at night. Theresearch conducted queried <strong>the</strong> welfare policiesand protection measures provided to femaleemployees by <strong>the</strong>ir hotel employers.4.2.4. Working Women in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:According to a study, 32 since <strong>the</strong> number of womenwho choose a career in <strong>the</strong> hospitality industryhas been increasing, women’s status is of moreconcern than ever. It was reported that some 41percent of hospitality managers were women(Diaz & Umbreit, 1995), and by examining hotelshaving over 500 rooms, <strong>the</strong> study found that only2.6 percent of those properties’ managers werewomen. The numbers of women in general managerpositions were even fewer (Wood, 1998). A look at<strong>the</strong> statistics of <strong>the</strong> women in top management(general manager) positions in <strong>the</strong> lodging industryillustrates <strong>the</strong> situation, only 10% of <strong>the</strong> AmericanHotel and Motel Association (AH & MA, 2004) werewomen.Researchers have identified a number of factorsthat function as barriers to women’s careeradvancement. These included glass ceiling,gender discrimination and sexual harassment,organizational culture, and work and family conflict.• y Glass Ceiling: The glass ceiling refers toinvisible, generally artificial, barriers thatprevent qualified individuals, e.g. women,from advancing within <strong>the</strong>ir organizationsand reaching <strong>the</strong>ir full potential (Knutson &Schmidgall, 1999). The term was popularizedin <strong>the</strong> 1980s when it became a significantconcept in <strong>the</strong> workplace in <strong>the</strong> United States. Itdescribes a tendency for women and minoritiesto be over represented in <strong>the</strong> lower levels ofan industry, but underrepresented at seniorlevels. Even though great strides have takenplace in recent years, <strong>the</strong>re remains room forimprovement. 33y • Gender Discrimination and Sexual Harassment:Woods and Kavanaugh (1994) found that morethan 80 percent of men and women perceivegender discrimination and sexual harassmentin <strong>the</strong> workplace as an ongoing problem.According to <strong>the</strong>ir research <strong>the</strong> reasons whymost women graduates left <strong>the</strong> hospitalityindustry was due to gender discriminationor sexual harassment. Sexual harassment issimply not basing employment decisions on anindividual’s acceptance or rejection of sexualadvances. Ano<strong>the</strong>r form of sexual harassmentis <strong>the</strong> creation of an intimidating, hostile, oroffensive work environment. Repeatedly staringprovocatively and making off-colour jokes orremarks also are considered sexual harassment(Woods & Kavanaugh).82
• y Organizational Culture: Recent research hasconcentrated on masculine organizationalculture as an explanation for <strong>the</strong> glass-ceilingphenomenon, that is, organizational cultureforms a barrier for women’s careers. Studiesalso have reported that <strong>the</strong>re are only smalldifferences between <strong>the</strong> management styles ofmale and female managers. These differenceshad decreased to <strong>the</strong> extent that <strong>the</strong>se cultureswere more male-dominated (Eagly & Johnson,1990). Many investigations have concluded thatwomen in senior management positions haveadapted <strong>the</strong>ir behaviour to emulate traditionalmale styles (Brownell, 1994). 34• y Work and Family Conflict: In recent years,research has shown that work-family conflictalso affects women’s career advancement.Mallon & Cassell (1999) found that <strong>the</strong>expectation of long hours was a significantbarrier to seeking promotions for many womenin <strong>the</strong> industry (Mallon & Cassell, 1999). 354.2.5. Working Mo<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:Most women in India, like in many o<strong>the</strong>r parts of<strong>the</strong> world, are expected to maintain a balancebetween work responsibilities and home duties.As a result, <strong>the</strong> pressure endured by <strong>the</strong>m doubles.In addition to this, if <strong>the</strong> woman is a mo<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong>pressure triples. This part will <strong>the</strong>refore focus on<strong>the</strong> multiple responsibilities of a working woman.The legal aspect of family-friendly policies will beclarified. The next part inquires whe<strong>the</strong>r and howhotels offer benefits to <strong>the</strong>ir female employees,such as family-friendly working hours, part-timeemployment, flexi-time, maternity leave andprovisions for child care.The Employees’ State Insurance Act 1948 does“provide for certain benefits to employees in caseof sickness, maternity and employment injury andto make provision for certain o<strong>the</strong>r matters inrelation <strong>the</strong>reto.” 36 It defines maternity leave andcash benefits for pregnant women. The existingwage-limit for coverage under <strong>the</strong> Act, is Rs.10,000per month. Women who earn more than <strong>the</strong>stated maximum wage will not be covered by <strong>the</strong>Employees’ State Insurance Act, but is under <strong>the</strong>provisions of <strong>the</strong> Maternity Benefits Act, 1961. Bothacts regulate employment of women before andafter childbirth and provide for 12 weeks of paidmaternity leave, medical bonuses and certain o<strong>the</strong>rbenefits. While <strong>the</strong> benefits under <strong>the</strong> Employees’State Insurance Act fall under <strong>the</strong> principles ofinsurance and <strong>the</strong>refore require contributions of <strong>the</strong>employer and <strong>the</strong> employee, <strong>the</strong> Maternity BenefitsAct is an employer’s liability scheme. Therefore, <strong>the</strong>employee does not have to pay any contributionstowards <strong>the</strong> maternity benefits. 37 38Unlike women in <strong>the</strong> private sector who have84 days of maternity leave, women employed in<strong>the</strong> government sector have been entitled to 135days since 1972 and in September 2008, this wasincreased to 180 days with pay. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, unpaidleave granted in continuation with maternity leavecan be extended to two years for <strong>the</strong>se women. 39Bringing “corporate sector and private firms under<strong>the</strong> purview of this law” 40 was discussed but thisattempt apparently failed.In 2006, <strong>the</strong> Ministry of Women and ChildDevelopment announced <strong>the</strong> introduction of apolicy that will make it mandatory for private andpublic organisations to provide working mo<strong>the</strong>rswith child care facilities in <strong>the</strong> form of crèches andday-care centres. 41 However information about<strong>the</strong> continuation of this policy is scarce. Around<strong>the</strong> same time <strong>the</strong> Rajiv Ghandi Crèche Scheme forChildren of Working Mo<strong>the</strong>rs was introduced. Thescheme provides assistance to NGOs for runningcrèches for infants and sanctioned 804 new crèchesin <strong>the</strong> state of Karnataka between 2006 and 2007. 42It appears that changes are happening in orderto better support working mo<strong>the</strong>rs and <strong>the</strong>government especially seems to be aware of<strong>the</strong> need for benefits. But has <strong>the</strong> hotel industryadopted any of <strong>the</strong>se changes? What kind ofbenefits for working mo<strong>the</strong>rs do hotels provide?“Workplaces have traditionally been designed keepingmen in mind, with long hours and <strong>the</strong> expectationof total commitment to work” 43 <strong>the</strong> hotel industrybeing no exception. If employers want to build aloyal female workforce, <strong>the</strong>y would have to investin family-friendly policies. Unfortunately, it seemsthat hotels are not family-friendly workplaces.As it often requires a 24/7 commitment, <strong>the</strong> workis impractical with unsociable and long hours,83
84sometimes including a six day week with work onweekends and holidays and a lot of shift work andovertime.It would appear that hotels do not currently havevery family- friendly work policies. This does notonly refer to women, but to men as well. Still, <strong>the</strong>reis a huge difference, as for women, “…<strong>the</strong>ir dutiesas moms still take precedence.” 44 They are not only<strong>the</strong> birth-givers but also <strong>the</strong> expected caretakers,as <strong>the</strong>re is no concept of paternity leave existing inIndian law. 45 The lack of a fa<strong>the</strong>r’s opportunity totake responsibility, <strong>the</strong> lack of childcare provisions,<strong>the</strong> lack of an adequately long maternity leaveand <strong>the</strong> lack of family-friendly working hours areshortcomings that are not only evident in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry. “That coupled with <strong>the</strong> absence of anyencouragement from <strong>the</strong> government agencies toenforce laws that make work places women friendly,has made <strong>the</strong> ride a not-so-smooth one for <strong>the</strong> city’sworking moms.” 464.2.6. Measures to Ensure Physical Safety andPrevent Sexual Harassment:Women are more likely to face different forms ofviolence and discrimination in <strong>the</strong>ir everyday andworking lives than men. The Indian governmentprovides a set of rules and regulations to protectwomen in <strong>the</strong> workplace.Section 66 of <strong>the</strong> Factories Act 1948 effectivelybanned women from working night shifts, by statingthat no woman shall be required or allowed to workin any factory beyond <strong>the</strong> hours of 6 am to 7 pm.This was <strong>the</strong> law until 1999, when <strong>the</strong> Mumbai HighCourt passed an order allowing women to work in<strong>the</strong> Santa Cruz Electronic Processing Zones during<strong>the</strong> night. Following this, <strong>the</strong> High Court of AndhraPradesh withdrew Section 66 of The FactoriesAct 1948, claiming it to be unconstitutional. Thisdeclaration was upheld, because Section 66violated <strong>the</strong> fundamental right to gender equality,discriminated women on <strong>the</strong> grounds of gender andinterfered with <strong>the</strong> fundamental right of petitionersto carry out <strong>the</strong>ir right to practice any professionor to carry on any occupation, trade or business.The Madras High Court in this regard made severalprovisions for <strong>the</strong> safety and security of women and<strong>the</strong> preservation of <strong>the</strong>ir dignity and honour beforedeclaring Section 66 of The Factories Act 1948unconstitutional. The provisions included:“…employers should prevent and deter any sexualharassment and provide procedures to resolve,settle or prosecute any such act; <strong>the</strong> employersshould maintain a complaint mechanism, includinga complaint committee headed by women and half<strong>the</strong> members of <strong>the</strong> committee should be women;women should be employed only in batches, of notless than ten or not less than two thirds of <strong>the</strong> totalnightshifts’ strength; separate work sheds, canteenfacilities, all women transport facility, additional paidholiday for menstruation period, medical facilitiesshould also be provided besides two or more womenwardens to work as special welfare assistants; <strong>the</strong>employer shall provide proper working conditionswith respect to work, leisure, health and hygieneand <strong>the</strong>re should be proper lighting in and around<strong>the</strong> factory where female workers may move, <strong>the</strong>reshould be security at entry and exit points of factoryand at least twelve consecutive hours of rest orgap between shifts; <strong>the</strong> employers should sendfortnightly reports to <strong>the</strong> inspector of factories aboutnight shifts including any unwanted incident and alsoto <strong>the</strong> local police station.” 47Finally, <strong>the</strong> Factories (Amendment) Bill 2005was introduced by <strong>the</strong> Union Government in2005. The amendment allows women to work infactories between 7pm and 6am, but only on <strong>the</strong>condition that <strong>the</strong>ir employer ensures <strong>the</strong>ir safetyand protection through occupational health andequal opportunities policies, dignity and honourprotection, and transportation to <strong>the</strong> nearest pointof residence. 48However <strong>the</strong> hotel industry does not fall under <strong>the</strong>jurisdiction of <strong>the</strong> Factories Act but is under <strong>the</strong>Shops & Commercial Establishments Act 1961. Eventhough <strong>the</strong> government has discussed bringinghotels under <strong>the</strong> jurisdiction of <strong>the</strong> Factories Actand a rising demand from hotel industry employees,<strong>the</strong> Labour Ministry “finally buckled under pressurefrom <strong>the</strong> powerful lobby of hoteliers. This had left <strong>the</strong>industry under <strong>the</strong> Shops and Establishments Act.” 49A change would have meant an improvement in<strong>the</strong> working conditions of hotel employees as<strong>the</strong> industry would have had to fix proper shifts,pay overtime, ensure workers’ health, safety andwelfare facilities. 50 Gender-related safety measuresare an important issue in <strong>the</strong> context of thisstudy; since <strong>the</strong>y are not included in <strong>the</strong> Shops &
Commercial Establishment Act 1961, <strong>the</strong> provisionsof The Factories Act were taken as <strong>the</strong> standardagainst which <strong>the</strong> realities were compared.In light of <strong>the</strong> rising numbers of women workingin <strong>the</strong> business process outsourcing sector (BPO),in 2007 <strong>the</strong> Karnataka Government renewed <strong>the</strong>debate about women working night shifts byplanning to revoke an existing provision of <strong>the</strong>Labour Act 1961. The provision banned womenworking night shifts beyond 8 p.m. in shops andcommercial establishments and hotels. Theseestablishments would, “have to re-schedule <strong>the</strong>working hours of <strong>the</strong>ir women staff to ensure that<strong>the</strong>ir duty hours do not stretch beyond 8 p.m. with<strong>the</strong> State Government deciding to strictly enforce,from July, <strong>the</strong> provision banning night shifts forwomen.” 51 This decision was taken because ofseveral complaints about sexual harassment duringnight shifts. As may be imagined this holdingprovoked “…an outcry among women groups,which called <strong>the</strong> move regressive.” 52 ‘The ExpressIndia’ quotes many women activists calling this“open discrimination” 53 and ‘The Hindu’ quotes anAssociation of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnatakamember saying, “Women are vulnerable to violencebut it does not give <strong>the</strong> government <strong>the</strong> right to ban<strong>the</strong>m from working at night.” 54 Under pressure, <strong>the</strong>government decided to revoke <strong>the</strong> ban in May 2007.A big step towards equal opportunities for femaleemployees in <strong>the</strong> hospitality industry was taken inSeptember 2008, when <strong>the</strong> Karnataka High Courtlifted constraints on <strong>the</strong> employment of womenin bars and restaurants. The court denouncedRule 9 of <strong>the</strong> Excise Rules and Section 20(2) of <strong>the</strong>Karnataka Excise Act 1965, which both prohibitedemployment of women in bars, as violating <strong>the</strong>Constitution. 55Studies find that sexual harassment is stillendemic, often hidden, and present in all kinds oforganisations. Yet it is still not always viewed as aproblem, which has to be systematically tackled.The issue is of concern for both women and <strong>the</strong>employers as studies show that sexual harassmenttouches lives of nearly 40-60% of working women. 56In 1997, sexual harassment was for <strong>the</strong> first timerecognised by <strong>the</strong> Supreme Court in India ashuman rights violation and gender based systemicdiscrimination that affects women’s right to lifeand livelihood in <strong>the</strong> case Vishakha vs. State ofRajasthan. 57 The Court defined sexual harassmentvery clearly as well as provided detailed guidelinesfor employers to redress and prevent sexualharassment at workplace.Vishakha guidelines apply to both organizedand unorganized work sectors and to all womenwhe<strong>the</strong>r working part time, on contract or involuntary/honorary capacity. The guidelines area broad framework which put a lot of emphasison prevention and within which all appropriatepreventive measures can be adapted. One veryimportant preventive measure is to adopt a sexualharassment policy, which expressly prohibits sexualharassment at work place and provides effectivegrievance procedure, which has provisions clearlylaid down for prevention and for training <strong>the</strong>personnel at all levels of employment. However <strong>the</strong>implementation of <strong>the</strong>se guidelines remains poor.Under <strong>the</strong> growing demand for a specific legislation,<strong>the</strong> National Commission for Women (NCW) inassociation with Ministry of Women and ChildDevelopment (MWCD), Government of India in 2006drafted <strong>the</strong> Sexual Harassment of Women at WorkPlace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Bill,2006. NCW taking into consideration <strong>the</strong> feedbackreceived from <strong>the</strong> Ministry of Law and Justice andfrom civil society organisations, revised <strong>the</strong> 2006 Billand proposed “Prohibition of Sexual Harassment ofWomen at Workplace Bill 2010”. According to <strong>the</strong>NCW’s proposed Bill “sexual harassment infringes<strong>the</strong> Fundamental Right of a woman to gender equalityunder Article 14 of <strong>the</strong> Constitution of India and herRight to life and live with dignity under Article 21of <strong>the</strong> Constitution which includes a Right to a safeenvironment free from Sexual Harassment.” 58 It alsoflows from <strong>the</strong> international “Convention on <strong>the</strong>Elimination of all forms of Discrimination AgainstWomen (CEDAW)”ratified by <strong>the</strong> Government ofIndia in July 1993, which recognizes <strong>the</strong> right toprotection from sexual harassment and <strong>the</strong> rightto work with dignity as universal human rights.Salient features of <strong>the</strong> proposed revised Bill inJanuary 2010 are as follows:85
• y The Bill proposes a definition of sexualharassment, which is as laid down by <strong>the</strong>Hon’ble Supreme Court in Vishakha v.State of Rajasthan (1997). Additionally itrecognises <strong>the</strong> promise or threat to a woman’semployment prospects or creation of hostilework environment as ‘sexual harassment’ atworkplace and expressly seeks to prohibit suchacts.• y Section 2 (a) provides protection not only towomen who are employed but also brings anywoman who enters <strong>the</strong> workplace as students,research scholars, patients, client, customer,apprentice, and daily wageworker or in ad-hoccapacity. Section 2 (f) has broadened <strong>the</strong> scopeof <strong>the</strong> definition of employee which includesa person employed at a workplace for anywork on regular, temporary, ad hoc or dailywage basis, ei<strong>the</strong>r directly or by or through anagent, including a contractor, with or without<strong>the</strong> knowledge of <strong>the</strong> principal employer,whe<strong>the</strong>r for remuneration or not, or workingon a voluntary basis or o<strong>the</strong>rwise, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>terms of employment are express or impliedand includes a domestic worker, a co-worker,a contract worker, probationer, trainee,apprentice.• y Section 2 (I) (v) includes “Unorganized Sector”which shall come within <strong>the</strong> meaning of“workplace”, means all private unincorporatedenterprises including own account enterprisesengaged in any agriculture, industry, trade and/or business and includes sectors. This sectionbrings unorganised sector within <strong>the</strong> ambit ofprotection.• y Employers who fail to comply with <strong>the</strong>provisions of <strong>the</strong> proposed Bill will bepunishable with a fine which may extend to Rs50,000. Since <strong>the</strong>re is a possibility that during<strong>the</strong> pendency of <strong>the</strong> enquiry <strong>the</strong> woman maybe subject to threat and aggression, she hasbeen given <strong>the</strong> option to seek interim relief in<strong>the</strong> form of transfer ei<strong>the</strong>r of her own or <strong>the</strong>respondent or seek leave from work.• y The Bill provides for safeguards in case of falseor malicious complaint of sexual harassment.However, mere inability to substantiate <strong>the</strong>complaint or provide adequate proof would notmake <strong>the</strong> complainant liable for punishment.• y Through <strong>the</strong> implementation mechanismproposed, every employer has <strong>the</strong> primaryduty to implement <strong>the</strong> provisions of lawwithin his/her establishment while <strong>the</strong> Stateand Central Governments have been maderesponsible for overseeing and ensuring overallimplementation of <strong>the</strong> law. The Governmentswill also be responsible for maintaining data on<strong>the</strong> implementation of <strong>the</strong> Law. In this manner,<strong>the</strong> proposed Bill aims an elaborate system ofreporting and checks and balances, which willresult in effective implementation of <strong>the</strong> Law.Though <strong>the</strong> NCW had recommended coveringdomestic workers under <strong>the</strong> proposed Bill,however, <strong>the</strong> Government has decided to excludedomestic workers from <strong>the</strong> definition of employee.On 7th December 2010 <strong>the</strong> Government introduced<strong>the</strong> Bill in <strong>the</strong> Lok Sabha. Civil society groups across<strong>the</strong> country raised concern over <strong>the</strong> exclusion ofdomestic workers as <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>the</strong> most vulnerableto sexual harassment and atrocities like verbalinsults, physical assault, less pay and over work. Itis hoped that <strong>the</strong> Bill will come into effect takinginto consideration <strong>the</strong> revised sections and clausesproposed by <strong>the</strong> NCW and <strong>the</strong> National AdvisoryCouncil.4.2.7. The Hotel Industry as A Career Choice forWomen- How and Why?“It’s not just engineering or medical degrees thatyoungsters are chasing <strong>the</strong>se days. With prospectsof self-employment and jobs, many are opting for adiploma in Hotel Management…” 59The hotel and hospitality sector has become apopular choice for those looking for employmentoptions. Currently, <strong>the</strong> younger generationconsiders a degree or diploma in hotel managementto be <strong>the</strong> best way to enter <strong>the</strong> hotel sector.Besides <strong>the</strong> common education loans providedby banks, every student is eligible to apply for86
scholarships or partial or full tuition fee waiverswhich some colleges offer to students fromweaker economic backgrounds. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,some colleges gave financial support to studentsfrom hotelier or defence family backgrounds ando<strong>the</strong>rs gave admission preferences to scheduledcastes, scheduled tribes and fur<strong>the</strong>r backwardcategories. 60 However, <strong>the</strong> financial aid programsoffered are very limited.5. Interview Results: From Hotels5.1 From Managerial Staff5.1.1. Women in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:According to <strong>the</strong> HR managers, 50% of those witha hotel management background join <strong>the</strong> highendhotels, five stars and above. This is primarilybecause of better career prospects, higher paystructures and greater work prestige. On <strong>the</strong>question of profile of <strong>the</strong> women employees,interviews with several HR managers confirmedthat employment of women in <strong>the</strong> hotel industryis still mainly restricted to front-office, back officeand housekeeping. Never<strong>the</strong>less, women seem tohave good opportunities when it comes to a careerin <strong>the</strong>se positions. The managers sounded positivein saying that <strong>the</strong>re is a positive change predictedtowards employing women in male dominateddepartments like food and beverages.Only one of <strong>the</strong> visited hotels gave overtimecompensation through compensatory timeoff. O<strong>the</strong>rs said that <strong>the</strong>re arises no need forcompensation as employees only worked for <strong>the</strong>regular nine hours, including a one-hour lunchbreak.5.1.2. The Perception about Women Working inHotels:Interview responses show that women are still aminority in <strong>the</strong> employment scenario in <strong>the</strong> hotelsector. The male managers, who were interviewed,seemed to hold biases in <strong>the</strong>ir perception ofwomen’s employment in <strong>the</strong> hotel sector. Askedabout <strong>the</strong> possible causes of <strong>the</strong> very low or nonexistentnumber of women working in <strong>the</strong>ir hotels,<strong>the</strong> answers from male senior hotel managersincluded:“Very few women apply as <strong>the</strong>y are discouraged fromjoining <strong>the</strong> hotel sector”“it is not essential to have women employees”“There is simply no need for women in this sector, <strong>the</strong>hotel always ran perfectly without <strong>the</strong>m” 61“Girls are causing problems and <strong>the</strong>refore it’s notgood to have <strong>the</strong>m in <strong>the</strong> workforce. They aremaking friendships with male workers and <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>concentration of <strong>the</strong> work goes down.” 62Some of <strong>the</strong> managers thought that <strong>the</strong> demand forfemale employees was on <strong>the</strong> rise. One HR managereven said that at present, female job applicants arepreferred over male applicants, where <strong>the</strong>y heldequivalent qualifications and experiences. Oneof <strong>the</strong> factors that emerged from <strong>the</strong> interviewsthat <strong>the</strong> growing hospitality sector has a constantdemand for skilled and unskilled workers, whichincludes women.5.1.3. Being a Woman in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:Burden or Benefit?The response to this section in terms of equalopportunities and remuneration was foundarbitrary. As all <strong>the</strong> hotel managers uniformlyand emphatically said that <strong>the</strong> hotel gives equalopportunities to both genders whereas <strong>the</strong>y haveaccepted earlier that women employees are mainlyconcentrated in front office, back office and housekeepingjobs.5.1.4. Working Mo<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:Due to <strong>the</strong> 24/7 nature of <strong>the</strong> sector, most hotelswere not very open to <strong>the</strong> idea of part-timeemployment, as it would not meet <strong>the</strong> work profileneeds of most positions. Nei<strong>the</strong>r was flexi-time anopportunity. Some hotels employed women onbreak shifts 63 which means work during <strong>the</strong> busyhours of breakfast, lunch and dinner. These breakshifts are ra<strong>the</strong>r an extra burden than a relief, as <strong>the</strong>employee is on a kind of standby for <strong>the</strong> whole day.With regard to Maternity Benefit Act 1961, only oneof <strong>the</strong> visited hotels offered an extra month of leavefor women in special or difficult situations as wellas <strong>the</strong> option to extend maternity leave through87
accumulated leave days. In this case, a womanhad <strong>the</strong> chance to stay with and take care of hernewborn child for up to five months.None of <strong>the</strong> hotel provided child care facilities in<strong>the</strong> form of crèches or day care centres.5.1.5. Measures to Ensure Physical Safety andPrevent Sexual Harassment of Employees in <strong>the</strong>Hotel Industry:Many hotels do not allow female employees to donight shifts. While physical protection is given by<strong>the</strong> hotels, policies concerning sexual harassment,gender discrimination etc. is negligible. Only oneout of all <strong>the</strong> visited hotels had an anti-harassmentcommittee. All o<strong>the</strong>rs had no sexual harassmentpolicy. The managers explained this deficiencyby saying that <strong>the</strong>re was never any occasion thatrequired implementation of such policy. They didnot see any need for such policy and saw even lessneed to set up a redress mechanism / complaintscommittees, a mandatory body as per Vishakhaguidelines. The HR managers explained that <strong>the</strong>HR department would look after problems relatedto any harassment. All <strong>the</strong> HR departments wereheaded by men and only one department actuallyemployed a woman. It seemed that most of <strong>the</strong>HR managers did not want to talk about thistopic. When <strong>the</strong> question was raised, many of<strong>the</strong>m reacted defensively and claimed that sexualharassment was not an issue in <strong>the</strong>ir hotel.5.2 From Female Hotel Employees:The number of women employed in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry was observed to be generally much lowerthan that of men. This phenomenon was identifiedduring <strong>the</strong> interviews. We were informed thatfemale employees represented a maximum of 25%of <strong>the</strong> workforce in <strong>the</strong> formal hotel sector. Womencomprised on average 10% to 15% of staff in four tofive star properties, and <strong>the</strong> number dwindled with<strong>the</strong> category of <strong>the</strong> hotels.The researcher felt it was important to understandwhat female employees in <strong>the</strong> hotel industrybelieved was <strong>the</strong> perception of Indian societyabout <strong>the</strong>ir profession, is a female hotel employeeaccepted in society nowadays, does she getsupport from her social environment, at home andat work, and do <strong>the</strong>y approve of and appreciate<strong>the</strong>ir profession?5.2.1. Perception about Women Working inHotels:The responses from <strong>the</strong> employees towards thisquestion turned out to be very diverse.Positive Perceptions: 34% said <strong>the</strong>y believed that<strong>the</strong> reputation of women employed in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry had improved in <strong>the</strong> last decade. In <strong>the</strong>words of an employee with 10 years’ experienceof working in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry (and <strong>the</strong>reforewitness to many changes):“Now it [working in <strong>the</strong> hotel sector] is very wellrespected. When I started, it was not (…). Before,[when it came to women working in <strong>the</strong> hotel] <strong>the</strong>yused to think twice, but now it is a good exposure.Everybody is having a good exposure in this sector.(…) I didn’t like to start myself. When I started evenI thought twice. I had to struggle, fight for yearsagainst many odds and <strong>the</strong>n I’ve come up. But now<strong>the</strong>re is a vast change to what it was ten years back.Now it is good.”According to ano<strong>the</strong>r employee who has beenemployed in hotel for over 20 years: “…Previouslyvery few ladies would come to work in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry. But now, <strong>the</strong> scenario has changed,especially in <strong>the</strong> cities. They [women] are equallyconsidered like men.”Quite a number of newly-employed employeesagreed to <strong>the</strong>se statements.Ano<strong>the</strong>r opinion was that <strong>the</strong> respect and reputationtowards female hotel employees generally differedbetween those living in rural and urban areas. Theimpression amongst <strong>the</strong> employees was that “Inmetros, people are much more open, but restrictionscontinue to exist in rural areas.”Negative Perceptions: Nearly 25% of <strong>the</strong> employeesinterviewed believed that <strong>the</strong> general reputation ofwomen employed in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry is still quitebad. According to a female hotel trainee: “[Women’swork in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry] is not respected and Idescribe it with sugar coated words.”88
An assistant training manager, working for <strong>the</strong> lastfive years said: “According to <strong>the</strong> Indian culture,females shouldn’t work in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. Peoplehere are not very open. Even for that matter, whenI had to start, my parents were actually against medoing <strong>the</strong> hotel management course. The Indianmindset is like that hotel is a sector where womenare not meant to be [employed], in any kind ofjob. Especially when it comes to accommodation,people here think that many things happen.According to a house-keeping executive wi<strong>the</strong>xperience of working in hotels for more <strong>the</strong>n 20years, “In <strong>the</strong> remote areas, people do not think highabout women employed in hotels. They think <strong>the</strong>sewomen are of bad character. However, in urban areas,people <strong>the</strong>se days do not hold such perceptions.”The Age Factor: The acceptance of <strong>the</strong> professionalso differed amongst different age groups. While<strong>the</strong> younger generation looked at <strong>the</strong> hotel sectoras a lucrative and respectable employment avenue,it was not <strong>the</strong> same with <strong>the</strong> older generation.According to a sales manager:“…<strong>the</strong> thought [female should not work in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry] actually is not with <strong>the</strong> youngergeneration. The younger generation do not hold anysuch preconceptions. [It is a prejudice of] mostly <strong>the</strong>people of older generation, those who are abovefifties as <strong>the</strong>y belong to that generation who hadfaced restriction <strong>the</strong>mselves.”Respect vis-à-vis Position of Power: An importantcriterion for respect towards women’s work in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry is <strong>the</strong> position that a woman holds in<strong>the</strong> hotel. In this context, a banquet sales executivesaid: “If you are in a higher level, ok, fine. But if youare in a lower level <strong>the</strong>re is no respect.”Prejudices and Misconceptions: The range ofprejudices and misconceptions are varied:“…<strong>the</strong>y think we girls have to look pretty and haveto speak to <strong>the</strong> guest and that’s it.”“…it [work in <strong>the</strong> hotel] is not really accepted asgraceful.”“…<strong>the</strong>y believe if you are working in a hotel you areselling alcohol or you are involved in loose activities.”“Some of <strong>the</strong>m still think it is a very unsafe workingarea for a girl and not appropriate.”When asked about <strong>the</strong> glamour associated withworking in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry, one employeeresponded it “is not as rosy as it seems.”“I think men get it in <strong>the</strong>ir head that if you wear ashort skirt or you are working in an industry like thisyou would be easily approachable”.Social Support Structure: Most of <strong>the</strong> employeessaid that <strong>the</strong>ir families supported <strong>the</strong>ir careerchoice. A few voiced <strong>the</strong> concerns that <strong>the</strong>ir familieshad and <strong>the</strong> difficulties <strong>the</strong>y had to face. Accordingto <strong>the</strong> experience of an assistant training manager:“…nowadays, <strong>the</strong>y [parents] are supporting me verywell. Before <strong>the</strong>y were like ‘What do you do over<strong>the</strong>re? Why do you work so much?’”Some held <strong>the</strong> view that while studying hotelmanagement is still not appreciated, working for <strong>the</strong>hotels are gradually being accepted in <strong>the</strong> society.Some statements from interviewees - “During myschooling I wanted to do hotel management but<strong>the</strong>n, of course, my parents were not too ok withhotel management, so I had to do something else.But at <strong>the</strong> first chance I got, I joined work in <strong>the</strong> hotel.I wanted a straight road, <strong>the</strong>y didn’t allow me, and soI took a round road.”“In India, when a girl studies hotel management it isnot really accepted as graceful. But, when she enters<strong>the</strong> job, people are more open because it is a job, youget paid for it. …”5.2.2. Educational Background and CareerGrowth Opportunities:What was noteworthy was <strong>the</strong> low number ofemployees who actually held a hotel managementdegree. Most of <strong>the</strong> employees interviewed did nothave a degree or diploma in hotel management orany o<strong>the</strong>r course related to <strong>the</strong> tourism industry.Some said that <strong>the</strong>y could not opt for hotelmanagement course because of <strong>the</strong> high cost89
factor associated with such courses. From all of<strong>the</strong> interviewed women employees, only 26% hadstudied hotel management; 44% had o<strong>the</strong>r degreessuch as Bachelor of Commerce or Arts and 24%had left school after <strong>the</strong> tenth or twelfth grade.19% of <strong>the</strong> interviewees with o<strong>the</strong>r graduationdegrees were in managerial posts. Only 5% of <strong>the</strong>female employees without any degree worked asexecutives. It was interesting to find people withvarious degrees and education level working in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry.63% of <strong>the</strong> employees agreed with <strong>the</strong> claim that <strong>the</strong>tourism industry- including <strong>the</strong> hotel sector- ‘opensdoors for women’. They said that <strong>the</strong> hotel sectorhas immense career growth options because “newjobs are always getting created.”33% stated that growth depended on differentfactors. Educational background is perceived as animportant factor in terms of being able to avail ofopportunities and in determining <strong>the</strong> position inwhich a woman worked:“If you have a proper background of study, <strong>the</strong>n itis easy and nowadays many women are studying and<strong>the</strong>re are a lot of women candidates”“I think <strong>the</strong> only opportunity for growth that awoman has is only if she is really well-educated. Forsomeone who is not so educated, maybe not.”“There are opportunities, but you have to be verysmart.”A few of <strong>the</strong> employees expressed <strong>the</strong>ir desire tocontinue <strong>the</strong>ir studies in order to achieve a betterposition in <strong>the</strong> sector. A telephone operator whohad not taken <strong>the</strong> final exam of a graduate degreein Commerce said:“I am doing my studies again. The subject I havefailed, I want to do again and I want to do MBA. (…)I need more income, <strong>the</strong> salary part, that’s why. If Istudy more, at least I get to do a better job profile.[What I get now is] good but I want better than this.”Like most sectors, in <strong>the</strong> hotel sector, <strong>the</strong> betterand more specialised an education one has, <strong>the</strong>better and higher a position one can get into. 67%of <strong>the</strong> female employees with a hotel managementbackground held management positions. Withrespect to <strong>the</strong> need of educational background,especially for female employees, one industrytrainee explained that:“…you need to put in a lot yourself so that you get<strong>the</strong> experience and <strong>the</strong>n you move up. But I don’tthink that any woman would be working 10 to 15years and <strong>the</strong>n looking for a promotion. I have seen alot of guys do that... women cannot put in that muchtime…”A quality professional educational backgroundwas perceived to always have an added edge over<strong>the</strong> number of years of work experience. On anaverage, <strong>the</strong> employees interviewed did not havemany years of work experience. 66% had workedfor less than five years in <strong>the</strong> sector. Confirmedby <strong>the</strong> HR managers, <strong>the</strong> female workforce in <strong>the</strong>hotel sector is clearly young, mostly below 30 yearsof age.Even though it seems to be easy for women toenter <strong>the</strong> hotel industry, a fur<strong>the</strong>r analysis of <strong>the</strong>issue of career growth opportunities is essential.The interview focused on <strong>the</strong> opportunities forpromotion available to female employees- a criticalcomponent for career growth. As mentionedearlier, <strong>the</strong> industry demands an investment of alarge amount of time and effort from its employeesin order to prove <strong>the</strong>ir efficiency. In this context, anemployee who is a working mo<strong>the</strong>r and had joined<strong>the</strong> industry two years ago said:“The disadvantage of a woman is that you can’t stayback till 12 pm even when your work demands it.Maximum time you can stay back is till 8pm or 9pm.But men can continue staying back at work space forlong hours, sometime as late as 1am - 2am. That is avital limitation for most women employees.”“Being a working mo<strong>the</strong>r is really tough. I do my best,but it is difficult for me sometimes. It’s like a burdenyou can say. We can’t do all <strong>the</strong> things, house andhere [hotel]. Sometimes we feel tired. But we have tobe good in whatever we do, in work or in housework.That’s <strong>the</strong> way it is.” 64“No family time. I have absolutely no family time.” 6590
On <strong>the</strong> question of equal opportunity, <strong>the</strong>employees had different opinions from that of<strong>the</strong> hotel managers. For <strong>the</strong>m, being a woman in<strong>the</strong> hotel industry has its burdens and benefits.According to some of those interviewed, womenare most suited to roles that require interactionwith guests because <strong>the</strong>y are assumed to benaturally welcoming and hospitable. One frontoffice assistant explained:“Because guests will interact with a girl more and<strong>the</strong>y look to a girl for a smile. If a guest is comingin a bad mood, if we smile he feels good.” Ano<strong>the</strong>rsaid, “Women should be presentable to attract <strong>the</strong>guests.”This viewpoint supports <strong>the</strong> perception that womenextend hospitality “from home to hotel.” 665.2.3. Working Mo<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:This section addresses <strong>the</strong> issue of how womenhandle being both mo<strong>the</strong>r and employee. 47% of<strong>the</strong> employees were working mo<strong>the</strong>rs. 18% of <strong>the</strong>mhad children over <strong>the</strong> age of 12 years and only 6%had more than one child. At management level, sixout of nine women had children. Therefore, <strong>the</strong>average number of working mo<strong>the</strong>rs is quite high in<strong>the</strong> hotel industry.Most working mo<strong>the</strong>rs were employed on generalshifts and not expected to work late hours. Therewere mixed opinions of this practice. For example,one working mo<strong>the</strong>r said, “I feel that <strong>the</strong> employersare a little softer on <strong>the</strong> women. Keeping in mind thatwe have family obligations, we have to run a home.So <strong>the</strong>re is a little more leeway.”On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, an industry trainee stated, “Assoon as an employer knows that a woman is marriedand she has a family to look after, I think <strong>the</strong>y wouldnot burden her with so much work…I don’t say thatin a nice way, because he understands that she has afamily to look after. I am not saying that because heis concerned. It is more like, ‘Ok, fine, anyway she isleaving at six”.Only 13% of <strong>the</strong> employees with children workedgeneral shifts. Most women with young childrenrelied on day care help from <strong>the</strong>ir mo<strong>the</strong>r, mo<strong>the</strong>rin-lawor live-in domestic help. The importance offamily support was said by one of <strong>the</strong> employees,“It’s manageable because support system is <strong>the</strong>refrom my in-laws. That’s <strong>the</strong> main advantage how Ican manage everything.” An assistant sales managersaid, “My mo<strong>the</strong>r manages my child. She stays withme. O<strong>the</strong>rwise, it is not possible. I couldn’t have doneit, if I had no support back at home. Then, working in<strong>the</strong> hotel would not have been possible.”Some interviewees talked about women leavingwork after having children. According to <strong>the</strong>m sincepart-time work was not encouraged by <strong>the</strong> hotelmanagements and maternity leave is very short,many women decide to take a longer break in orderto spend more time with <strong>the</strong>ir child, as did a few of<strong>the</strong> working mo<strong>the</strong>rs interviewed.A few respondents said that when taking extendedmaternity leave, a woman cannot be sure about herre-entry into work and it is quite likely that she willhave to take a lower position. In this context, one of<strong>the</strong>m complained about her difficulty in getting backinto work, “I took <strong>the</strong> maternity leave for 7 month,not for 3 month. So somebody else was recruited inmy position. So, when I came back and I could not join<strong>the</strong> same hotel again. Only three month <strong>the</strong>y keepyour position for you. (…) I struggled to get a newjob for nearly two and a half month.”O<strong>the</strong>rs spoke about <strong>the</strong> sacrifices women had tomake when concentrating on a career, They said, “At least more than 50% of <strong>the</strong> managers are withoutchildren. There are very few who will manage abalance. Most of <strong>the</strong>m are still single or at leastwithout children.” One assistant training managerwho did not have children said, “… now, at <strong>the</strong>position I am in, thinking of a child would be mysecondary priority. Because it will cut off my career.”Most of <strong>the</strong> women managers interviewed wereworking mo<strong>the</strong>rs. However, <strong>the</strong> general view wasthat majority of women managers were unmarried.One of <strong>the</strong>m stated, “…in hotel industry most of <strong>the</strong>women in top positions who I have seen, at least 40%,are not married.”Ano<strong>the</strong>r reason for women leaving work is marriage.As we have seen before, female work participationin <strong>the</strong> hotel industry still does not have <strong>the</strong> bestreputation in Indian society. It was reported that91
92often <strong>the</strong> husband did not agree on <strong>the</strong> wife’sprofession and would ask her to leave <strong>the</strong> job in <strong>the</strong>hotel, as had happened to one of <strong>the</strong> interviewees.One employee with a BHM background explained,“…in an Indian arranged marriage scenario, peoplewould like <strong>the</strong>ir daughter in law to have studied a BScor a B Com, but not BHM.”These mentioned reasons for women retiring fromwork early might also explain <strong>the</strong> average youngage of female employees noted earlier. As <strong>the</strong>majority of <strong>the</strong> interviewed female employees wereunder <strong>the</strong> age of 30, <strong>the</strong> assumption can be madethat many women leave <strong>the</strong> hotel industry when<strong>the</strong>y get married and have children.The work/life balance of <strong>the</strong>se employees alsodepends on <strong>the</strong> department <strong>the</strong>y work in and <strong>the</strong>expected hours of work pertaining to <strong>the</strong>ir roles.“It depends on what you have taken up, on <strong>the</strong>departments you are working for. That is how <strong>the</strong>timing goes.” 675.2.4. Measures to Ensure Physical Safety andPrevent Sexual Harassment of Employees in <strong>the</strong>Hotel Industry:As previously mentioned, only a minority of <strong>the</strong>women interviewed worked night shifts. This wasbecause it was not compatible with <strong>the</strong>ir family lifeand because some hotels did not want to provide<strong>the</strong> mandatory physical safety measures for <strong>the</strong>mto work nights. This was generally <strong>the</strong> case in <strong>the</strong>lower categories of hotels. Most four and five starestablishments did have some women workingnight shifts. These women are provided withprovisions such as transportation to <strong>the</strong>ir residence.The conditions of transportation varied, however.Some hotels made sure that female employeestravelled home in an all-female environment witha GPS to keep track of <strong>the</strong>ir whereabouts, whileo<strong>the</strong>rs did not. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> timings of dropoff/pick up provided by <strong>the</strong> hotel differed. Only onehotel would arrange to transport female employeesany time after 8pm, while <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs would notoffer a driver before 10pm or 10:30pm.Most hotels were found to be maintainingreasonably good safety and security measureswithin <strong>the</strong> premises. Even though this provisionwas basically a necessity for <strong>the</strong> accommodatedguests, it was also an advantage for <strong>the</strong> femaleemployees as some of <strong>the</strong>m mentioned that <strong>the</strong>ydid not feel insecure at work, “…we have all <strong>the</strong>facilities over here and all <strong>the</strong> security. Even when I donight shifts, I can go alone at 1 or to 2am downstairsto <strong>the</strong> cafeteria.”Ano<strong>the</strong>r employee said, “…hotel is a very secureplace (…) <strong>the</strong> people outside always think thatsecurity is <strong>the</strong> negative part of <strong>the</strong> industry, but no,it is not. It is a very good industry (…). From eveningshift onwards <strong>the</strong> hotel provides facilities to drop<strong>the</strong> ladies back and pick up those who work in nightshifts”.But when <strong>the</strong>se personal safety measures fail, do<strong>the</strong> employees complain to <strong>the</strong> HR departments orinstead <strong>the</strong>y keep <strong>the</strong> matter to <strong>the</strong>mselves?A conversation with ano<strong>the</strong>r independentresearcher who is working on a survey (separatelyfrom this one) on sexual harassment in hotelshas been very informative in this context. Herobservation during her research to <strong>the</strong> abovequestion showed, “There are many employees whokeep it to <strong>the</strong>mselves. According to <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> HR isnot very keen on seeing <strong>the</strong> fact (…) I found most of<strong>the</strong>m only sharing it to <strong>the</strong>ir colleagues, but not to<strong>the</strong> HR. They feel that <strong>the</strong> HR won’t accept <strong>the</strong> factthat sexual harassment happens in <strong>the</strong>ir hotel. Theywill say, “No, it will be your mistake. It is because ofyou. It’s about how you put yourself across.” so <strong>the</strong>female do not confide to anybody else except <strong>the</strong>ircolleagues.”During interviews conducted by us, half of <strong>the</strong>employees said that <strong>the</strong>y would definitely complainto <strong>the</strong> HR department. Amongst <strong>the</strong> rest, 12% saidthat <strong>the</strong>y would not complain but instead probably“just cry and leave <strong>the</strong> job”, ano<strong>the</strong>r 35% were notsure about how <strong>the</strong>y would react.Interestingly, many employees interviewedbelieved that if harassment should ever happen to<strong>the</strong>m, it would be because of <strong>the</strong> way <strong>the</strong>y carried<strong>the</strong>mselves. As some employees explained-“We feel that in India if a women stands up for herselfand she is confident enough to defend herself <strong>the</strong>nshe is safer”
“…it’s just how you keep yourself away from it. It(happened to me once and it) I did not elevate it to<strong>the</strong> authorities. It’s just on <strong>the</strong> basic level, how youhandle people”“…we should know how to present ourselves in <strong>the</strong>work place. We know <strong>the</strong>re are two different gender,male and female. Female is always <strong>the</strong> weakersection…”One of <strong>the</strong> interviews said that, “…with anymale colleagues, I maintain some distance. I startinteracting with <strong>the</strong>m only after I know <strong>the</strong>m well.I believe, if I try to be too close, <strong>the</strong>y are likely tointerpret it differently. So I always keep some distancewhen I interact with my [male] colleagues.”Most employees we spoke to were not aware ofany sexual harassment policy in <strong>the</strong>ir hotel, and,what <strong>the</strong> policy entailed. While 52% admitted tohaving no information at all, 31% claimed that <strong>the</strong>yknew about it. Only 17% of those interviewed saidthat <strong>the</strong>y knew of gender related policies in <strong>the</strong>irhotel, but were clueless about <strong>the</strong> specificities ofthose policies.5.2.5. Working Conditions of Women in <strong>the</strong>Hotel Industry:Being a service sector that operates 24/7, <strong>the</strong>expectation from <strong>the</strong> workforce in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry is generally high. According to one of <strong>the</strong>interviewees, “12 hours a day is expected from you.The least you can do is eleven hours. If you go belowthat or even leave on time, <strong>the</strong>y think you have notcompleted your work (…) If you need to grow, youhave to be <strong>the</strong>re at least 12 hours. The manager needsto see you all <strong>the</strong> time.”33% of <strong>the</strong> employees interviewed said that <strong>the</strong>yregularly worked extra hours; between one andthree hours extra was said to be normal. An assistantsales manager complained, “Ahh, working hours arebad. I do very long hours...” There are surely manyemployees who follow <strong>the</strong>ir scheduled hours, butprobably not <strong>the</strong> ones who were looking for careeropportunities in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. Those who arefocused on a career in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry will haveto give long working hours, as this is seen as proofof commitment to one’s job, and helps prospectsfor promotion.Almost all of those interviewed felt that <strong>the</strong>re wasno gender discrimination in terms of pay. Onlyone employee felt <strong>the</strong>re was a difference. Fur<strong>the</strong>rinformation could not be obtained from <strong>the</strong> saidemployee, because of <strong>the</strong> presence of <strong>the</strong> HRmanager during <strong>the</strong> interview. When questioned,<strong>the</strong> HR Manager did not show any willingness todiscuss <strong>the</strong> issue.Ano<strong>the</strong>r issue for consideration was <strong>the</strong> kind ofemployment contract <strong>the</strong> employees worked on.As per <strong>the</strong> information obtained during interview,80% were permanently employed, even thoughsome were still on probation, which lasts sixmonths. In contrast to <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> employees,those in higher positions usually went immediatelyinto permanent employment. The o<strong>the</strong>r 20%worked on contract; <strong>the</strong>y were not employed at<strong>the</strong> managerial level and worked on so-called ‘fixedterm’ contracts. According to <strong>the</strong>ir performance,<strong>the</strong>ir contract is <strong>the</strong>n extended, terminated, orturned into permanent employment (which seemedto be <strong>the</strong> most common case). Most employeesand managers saw a fixed term contract as ano<strong>the</strong>rform of probation period. It was considered to be ofdisadvantage for <strong>the</strong> employee and an advantagefor <strong>the</strong> employer as termination is easier, lessbenefits and leave is required to be given.5.2.6. The Hotel Industry as a Career Choice forWomen- How and Why?Most of <strong>the</strong> employees interviewed were not verycritical of <strong>the</strong>ir managers and male colleagues. 6860% said that <strong>the</strong>y were respected and supportedby <strong>the</strong>ir male colleagues and 64% felt that <strong>the</strong>irmanagers treated <strong>the</strong>m equally to <strong>the</strong>ir malecounterparts.Hotels were found to be a melting pot for peoplefrom many educational background and level –open to people with different qualifications andexperiences. Most of <strong>the</strong> employees we spoketo said that <strong>the</strong> decision to join <strong>the</strong> hotel industrywas self made and not because someone elsepersuaded <strong>the</strong>m to join. The spectrum of reasonsand motivations behind <strong>the</strong>se decisions were wideand diverse. 44% were interested in tourism, 37%did not have any special interest of working in <strong>the</strong>tourism industry and <strong>the</strong> remaining 19% developed93
an interest in <strong>the</strong> intercultural aspect of tourismand <strong>the</strong> opportunities of working abroad while <strong>the</strong>yworked in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry.5.3 From Hotel Management Colleges:Hotel management is taught at various institutesin India and Bangalore offers a great choice ofcolleges. Most of <strong>the</strong>m offer a three to four yearbachelor course for which <strong>the</strong> admission fee rangesfrom around Rs. 45.000 to over Rs. 100.000 a year.According to <strong>the</strong> principals, teachers and <strong>the</strong>students, <strong>the</strong> training in <strong>the</strong> hotel managementcolleges puts emphasis on an all-round educationand development of <strong>the</strong> students, and <strong>the</strong>reforeoffers a wide range of potential fields of work.The BHM students are not only trained in kitchenand housekeeping but also in subjects such asaccountancy, sales and marketing, law etc. and<strong>the</strong>reby <strong>the</strong>y can enter all kind of industries. Themost common employers of <strong>the</strong> hotel managementgraduates, besides hotels, are airlines, cruise shipsand <strong>the</strong> colleges <strong>the</strong>mselves, also hospitals, largesoftware companies and o<strong>the</strong>rs.5.3.1. Hotel Management College Students(Only female students were interviewed.So, students refers only to female students.)The ratio of women studying <strong>the</strong> hotel managementcolleges was not much different from <strong>the</strong> ratio ofwomen working in <strong>the</strong> visited hotels. Both had amaximum of 25% participation of women. This canbe one of <strong>the</strong> reasons of relatively low number ofemployees’ working in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry havingdegree in hotel management.All <strong>the</strong> BHM students interviewed felt that <strong>the</strong>yhold better opportunities for employment andcareer prospects in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry than <strong>the</strong> non-BHM degree holders. Aware of <strong>the</strong>ir advantageousposition some of <strong>the</strong>m said, “It is a stepping stoneand with <strong>the</strong> degree you know where you are going.What is possible, you know.” and “I think it dependson <strong>the</strong> degree that we have, we will be promotedmuch faster”5.3.2. Perception about Women Working inHotels – From <strong>the</strong> Eye of <strong>the</strong> Students:81% of <strong>the</strong> students said that <strong>the</strong>y believed thathotel industry has immense employment potentialfor women and <strong>the</strong> sector provides opportunitiesfor women to achieve economic independence.One of <strong>the</strong>m explained, “For <strong>the</strong> employees, <strong>the</strong>hotel industry is [a great employment opportunity]because new jobs are always <strong>the</strong>re.”19% of <strong>the</strong> students were not sure about workopportunities in general, as <strong>the</strong>y believed <strong>the</strong>m tobe dependent on different factors.34% of <strong>the</strong> students interviewed said that <strong>the</strong>reputation of women employed in <strong>the</strong> hotel industryhad changed positively in <strong>the</strong> last century and mostof <strong>the</strong>m had family support in choosing <strong>the</strong>ir fieldof study. One of <strong>the</strong>m said, “I think, nowadays <strong>the</strong>hotel industry is quite good for women.”O<strong>the</strong>rs were less positive. They felt that peoplefrom older generation and those from non-urbanbackground still have reservations about womenworking in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. One of <strong>the</strong>m said,“A large part of our society, at least 70%, have veryconservative opinions... especially, <strong>the</strong> older peopleand those from rural background...” According to afinal year student, “Many of <strong>the</strong> people don’t havea good idea about <strong>the</strong> girls that work in <strong>the</strong> hotel.They think <strong>the</strong>y don’t have a good character andgood background. Most people who do not know<strong>the</strong> industry, <strong>the</strong>y have a general mindset that <strong>the</strong>industry is not good for girls. But this is for <strong>the</strong> peoplethat don’t know about it. They just have a generaloverview so <strong>the</strong>y think <strong>the</strong> girls [employed in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry] need to look pretty and need to speakto <strong>the</strong> guests and that’s it.”On <strong>the</strong> issue of favoured areas of work in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry, 52% of <strong>the</strong> students expressed<strong>the</strong>ir preferences to work in food and beverageproduction or service. They talked about <strong>the</strong>ir planto get into <strong>the</strong> kitchen or bakery and a few intobar and service. However, a ‘reality check’ throughour interviews with <strong>the</strong> employees showed that inpractice <strong>the</strong>se departments were predominantlymale dominated.5.3.3. Being a Woman in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry:Burden or Benefit? – The Views of <strong>the</strong> Student:85% of <strong>the</strong> students clearly expressed that <strong>the</strong>ywere unsure of gender parity in allocation of work94
in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. They felt that while men hadliberty to work in any section/service in <strong>the</strong> hotels,when it came to women, certain specific work inspecific departments are allocated to <strong>the</strong>m. Incertain departments, especially those which arepredominantly male dominated, women have tostruggle hard to be recognised and acknowledged.A student with six months industry training said,“…females are given <strong>the</strong> light jobs and males aregiven <strong>the</strong> heavy load jobs. Since we can’t do heavywork, so all <strong>the</strong> paperwork and stuff are given to <strong>the</strong>female employees to do”.Ano<strong>the</strong>r student with work experience expressed<strong>the</strong> opinion that <strong>the</strong> kitchen is not <strong>the</strong> right workplace for women.” Work in <strong>the</strong> hotel kitchens,according to <strong>the</strong> students involved “physical strainand <strong>the</strong>refore do not match <strong>the</strong> work profile ofwomen”. However, o<strong>the</strong>r students did not look tobe convinced of this argument and considered thispractise to be “discriminatory” and “an insult to<strong>the</strong>ir skills and capabilities”.The students said that according to <strong>the</strong>ir seniorsfrom college, who have already joined work in<strong>the</strong> hotel industry, <strong>the</strong> managers are not veryencouraging about women working in serviceso<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> front desk, housekeeping and guestrelationship.5.3.4. Working Mo<strong>the</strong>rs in <strong>the</strong> Hotel Industry-Perception of Students:The students had various views about work lifebalance.Being worried about managing family and work,one of <strong>the</strong>m said, “You can not keep a family and <strong>the</strong>hotel industry toge<strong>the</strong>r. At least for a female it is notpossible. Hotel asks a lot from you.”Ano<strong>the</strong>r student was of <strong>the</strong> view that, “I don’t thinkboth is possible. I think all <strong>the</strong> females will take timeout after marriage. That’s what I would do because itis not easy.”Few o<strong>the</strong>rs were a bit more optimistic. Theyplanned to achieve a good position in <strong>the</strong>ir careerbefore taking a break to start a family. Few of <strong>the</strong>irobservations were like, “It’s really difficult. I will haveto do it [<strong>the</strong> career] before I decide to get marriedand <strong>the</strong>n, when it is all settled I can come back andjoin a good post. So I built up a career first and <strong>the</strong>n Ijoin back later.”“I think once your career succeeded, you obviouslythink of a family. But that is only after a successfulcareer. I think you can find a balance. Initially out ofcollege you will focus on a career. So you make sureyour career is on high and <strong>the</strong>n think of family.”5.3.5. The Hotel Industry as a Career Choice forWomen- How and Why? – <strong>the</strong> Students Voices onWhy They Decided to Study Hotel Management:The students spoke about various reasons fordeciding to study Bachelor of Hotel Management –a professional course aimed at developing trainedmanpower for hotel industry. Apart from <strong>the</strong> generalmotivation to do hotel management studies wespecifically asked <strong>the</strong>m if <strong>the</strong>y had special interestin <strong>the</strong> tourism industry that had made <strong>the</strong>m take up<strong>the</strong> course. It was asked if <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry is part of <strong>the</strong> growing tourism industry and<strong>the</strong>refore opens opportunities on <strong>the</strong> internationalmarket was an important aspect in <strong>the</strong>ir decisionmaking.Specifically, <strong>the</strong>ir interest in interculturalexchange and <strong>the</strong> opportunity to work abroad weretaken into account. 72% of <strong>the</strong> students consideredthis to be a decisive aspect, since <strong>the</strong>y would like tohave <strong>the</strong> opportunity to work abroad or generallylike <strong>the</strong> idea of interacting with different peoplefrom various cultural backgrounds. In <strong>the</strong> contextof this question <strong>the</strong> students also added that<strong>the</strong> growth which <strong>the</strong> tourism industry in India isundergoing was ano<strong>the</strong>r key factor for <strong>the</strong>ir choice.According to <strong>the</strong>m growth in <strong>the</strong> tourism industryleads to growth in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry and this leadsto greater job opportunities. According to many of<strong>the</strong>m, “The motivation was because this industryis on a hype nowadays and <strong>the</strong>re are employmentopportunities.”Some said <strong>the</strong>y were inspired by <strong>the</strong>ir family. Oneof <strong>the</strong>m said, “My parents are both in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry and <strong>the</strong>y own a restaurant. Because of <strong>the</strong>mI got inspired.” Ano<strong>the</strong>r student said, “My dad did<strong>the</strong> same course. He inspired me to join.” There werealso inspirations from o<strong>the</strong>rs like, “I got inspired bymy cousin bro<strong>the</strong>r, who works for <strong>the</strong> Taj (a IndianHotel chain) in <strong>the</strong> front office.”95
There were also few who said that <strong>the</strong>y took up<strong>the</strong> course as <strong>the</strong>y did not want to do graduationin commerce or science stream of subjects andwanted to do professional degree in somethingdifferent.The responses were <strong>the</strong> following:“There are hundreds and thousands of engineers out<strong>the</strong>re. A normal student only thinks of engineering ormedical, <strong>the</strong>y can’t think of something else. I wantedto do something different. I had not seen anybody,none of my friends or my family in this industry.”“From a very long time I have been very interestedin learning about food and varieties. I always likedcooking and so wanted to join a field where I can cookvarious things.”What was appealing to many students was that <strong>the</strong>courses are very practical, creative and interactive:“In this particular degree course you study manyfields under one roof. You get to study about law,about nutrition and many o<strong>the</strong>r subjects. This helpsyou to build independent perspectives and good foroverall development.”“We do all <strong>the</strong> courses, a bit of everything and a lotof self development, [for example] how to carryyourself.”According to ano<strong>the</strong>r student “[I took up hotelmanagement] because it is more practical than o<strong>the</strong>rsubjects.”“Basically, I wanted to do something that is differentand very interactive, something that’s fun learning.”“I love interacting and dealing with people, so Ithought this might be very interesting for me and sofar I have really enjoyed it.”With <strong>the</strong> multi-disciplinary nature of <strong>the</strong> courses and<strong>the</strong> resulting broad range of work opportunities inmind, many students did not see <strong>the</strong>ir career limitedto jobs only in <strong>the</strong> hotel sector.However, <strong>the</strong> spirit sounded dampened amongsta group of students from final year who had justcompleted a six-month industrial training. Some of<strong>the</strong>ir views were <strong>the</strong> following:“You probably will find some girls that want to joinhotel industry. But, after studying so much no onewants to work in an industry where one needs to giveat least 12 hours every day. The related compensation/pay is also not high”.“…as long as you don’t have a lot of passion aboutworking in a hotel... one cannot work <strong>the</strong>re”.“I also actually don’t want to work in a hotel, becauseI want to specialise in bakery. The problem about<strong>the</strong> hotel industry in India is that <strong>the</strong>y do not carewhat <strong>the</strong> candidate’s specialisation is on. They justdump you wherever <strong>the</strong>y need you. All <strong>the</strong> peoplethat I know in <strong>the</strong> hotels- <strong>the</strong>y have specialised insomething and <strong>the</strong>y are working on something else.”This particular observation of students of final yearcoupled with what some of <strong>the</strong> employees had tosay about <strong>the</strong> pattern of employment in <strong>the</strong> hotelindustry calls for fur<strong>the</strong>r research and probe.6. Conclusions:As <strong>the</strong> majority of data collected was from <strong>the</strong>employees and students, most of <strong>the</strong> importantfindings of <strong>the</strong> research arise from <strong>the</strong>se twogroups. There were several points on which <strong>the</strong>ywere in agreement and o<strong>the</strong>rs in which it was clearthat <strong>the</strong> students’ perceptions of women workingin hotels did not match <strong>the</strong> reality confessed by <strong>the</strong>employees interviewed.The following are <strong>the</strong> main findings of <strong>the</strong> interviews:• y It is a significant finding that both employeesas well as students felt that <strong>the</strong> reputation ofwomen employed in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry hadchanged positively in <strong>the</strong> last decade. Thishas more to do with <strong>the</strong> overall change in<strong>the</strong> society, general broader perspective andacceptance amongst people in urban areas.y • Women with various degrees and educationlevel worked in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry supporting<strong>the</strong> finding that <strong>the</strong> hotel industry providedmultifarious employment opportunity toall, including women. It did not call for any96
homogenous group of people to support itsfunctioning. However, it has impact on <strong>the</strong>ircareer growth.• y The hotel management degree provides<strong>the</strong>m an edge over o<strong>the</strong>rs who do not have<strong>the</strong> degree, however, it seems to mostlyimprove <strong>the</strong>ir accessibility to job opportunities.It has little to do with <strong>the</strong> position ordepartments <strong>the</strong>y will be placed in. Theindustry seems to regard gendered traits likeage, <strong>the</strong>ir presentability more than educationqualifications.• y 33% of <strong>the</strong> female employees interviewedsaid that <strong>the</strong>y regularly worked extra hours;between one to three hours extra was said tobe normal. In contrast, only one of <strong>the</strong> visitedhotels gave overtime compensation throughcompensatory days off. The o<strong>the</strong>rs said that<strong>the</strong>re would not be any need for compensationsas <strong>the</strong> employees would only work for <strong>the</strong>regular nine hours, which included a one-hourlunch break.• y Majority of both employees and studentsbelieved that “<strong>Tourism</strong> open doors forwomen” and <strong>the</strong>re are opportunities forgrowth. However, under this context it wouldbe important to find out why some final yearstudents who had <strong>the</strong> opportunity to intern in<strong>the</strong> industry sounded disgruntled. The same alsoapplies with respect to <strong>the</strong> observations fromemployees who said that women are seen inspecific roles in <strong>the</strong> hotel industry. They are notencouraged to work in departments like food& beverages, and <strong>the</strong> kitchen. To attract moreprofessionals to work for <strong>the</strong> hotel industry, <strong>the</strong>hotel industry needs to seriously brainstorm on<strong>the</strong> issue and stop such discriminatory practices.• y The major motivation to work in hotel industryamongst <strong>the</strong> employees was very similar to<strong>the</strong> motivation of students taking up degreecourse in hotel management. According toboth <strong>the</strong> groups <strong>the</strong> constantly growinghospitality sector has a constant demand forskilled and unskilled workers, which includeswomen, <strong>the</strong>reby increasing <strong>the</strong> employmentopportunity.• y No different from trends in o<strong>the</strong>r areas, mendominate <strong>the</strong> upper employment levels asmanagers, professionals and technical persons.In <strong>the</strong> middle sector, <strong>the</strong>re is considerablenumber of women -primarily in clericalpositions. In <strong>the</strong> lower sector again <strong>the</strong>re arewomen, working as maids and waitresses.Though <strong>the</strong> typical “gender pyramid” isprevalent in <strong>the</strong> hotel sector also, <strong>the</strong>re is a slowshift towards recognising women’s ability tohandle managerial posts.• y While most women are still employed assubordinates, with limited career developmentopportunities, <strong>the</strong> equation seems to bechanging. With more and more women fromcities and towns opting for higher education,in general <strong>the</strong> number of working women isgradually on <strong>the</strong> rise. It is especially evident in<strong>the</strong> service sector, including hotel industry.• y Lack of support for working mo<strong>the</strong>rs in formof crèches or day care facilities are foundto have implication on <strong>the</strong> career growth ofwomen employee as well as students. Theyboth opined that it is difficult to manage bothresponsibilities, <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> career breakis often <strong>the</strong> only option before <strong>the</strong>m. With<strong>the</strong> present system where employees haveto privately arrange for child care, workingon general shifts was <strong>the</strong> only option left towomen. Also, <strong>the</strong>y shared that <strong>the</strong>re is nosurety that <strong>the</strong>y will get <strong>the</strong> same positionafter getting back from leave. Majority of <strong>the</strong>interviewed working mo<strong>the</strong>rs said that childcarecentres and crèches would be of great use to<strong>the</strong>m and <strong>the</strong>ir peers, as most of <strong>the</strong>m hadyoung children. Under <strong>the</strong> condition that allemployees are required to work for long hours,<strong>the</strong> hotels should provide childcare facilities.• y The industry has found to have preventiveapproach when it comes to provide safetymeasure as most of <strong>the</strong> hotels did not allowwomen to work in night shifts. As a result, <strong>the</strong>yare forced to work on general shifts which mayhave implication for <strong>the</strong>ir career growth.y • Non-formation of sexual harassmentcommittee, lack of awareness among staff and97
indifferent attitude of HR manager towards <strong>the</strong>issue of sexual harassment is a major concern.• y There is a need to organize awarenessprogrammes for hotel staff to enable <strong>the</strong>mto look at <strong>the</strong> issue more sensitively. Hotelsand o<strong>the</strong>r organisations in <strong>the</strong> hospitality andtourism need to have sexual harassment policyand implement its mechanisms as per <strong>the</strong>Vishakha Guidelines of <strong>the</strong> Supreme Court. It is amandatory requirement.• y Long working hours result in women findingit very difficult to bring in a work –homebalance. The general work and family spacedivision amongst men and women are graduallyundergoing change but calls for much socialdeconstruction to bring about a social equity.Therefore it can be said that even though many‘doors have been opened’ already, conscioussupport from <strong>the</strong> industry will enable women in <strong>the</strong>hotel industry to ‘walk through’ all of <strong>the</strong>m.Endnotes:* This research was primarily by Kerstin Dahmen whointerned with EQUATIONS (May-July 2009) andsupervised by Ananya Dasgupta. Research supportfrom S Vidya, Surabhi Singh and Rosemary Viswanath1. Resolution adopted by <strong>the</strong> General Assembly, 55/2.United Nations Millennium Declaration; www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm2. Security Council Resolution 1325 was passedunanimously on 31 October 2000. Resolution (S/RES/1325) is <strong>the</strong> first resolution ever passed by<strong>the</strong> Security Council that specifically addresses<strong>the</strong> impact of war on women, and women’scontributions to conflict resolution and sustainablepeace. http://www.peacewomen.org/un/sc/1325.htmlData retrieved in May 20103. Gender and <strong>Tourism</strong> : Women’s Employment andParticipation in <strong>Tourism</strong>, Summary of UNED –UK’sProject report4. Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>, Realities, Dilemmas andOpportunities, EQUATIONS September 2007,http://www.equitabletourism.org/stage/files/fileDocuments379_uid10.pdf5. “May I help you?’ Neeta Lal, Business Line, http://www.<strong>the</strong>hindubusinessline.com/life/2006/01/20/stories/2006012000110200.htm Data retrieved in June20096. Ibid7. See Research Challenges and Limitations.8. The researcher was German and spoke fluentEnglish, but does not know Kannada or any o<strong>the</strong>rIndian language.9. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in India,Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Governmentof India, National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3),India, 2005-06, undertaken by International Institutefor Population Sciences, Deonar, Mumbai – 400 088,www.nfhsindia.org/a_subject_report_gender_for_website.pdf10. Ibid11. “Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>- Realities, Dilemmas andOpportunities”, EQUATIONS, September 2007.http://www.equitabletourism.org/stage/files/fileDocuments379_uid10.pdf12. “A Lucrative Career Option”, Prof. (Dr.) P.K. Dutta,Government Employment News, June 2009. http://www.employmentnews.gov.in/career_details-alucrative-career-option-190.htmlData retrieved inJune 200913. “Hotel industry is poised for a new growth phase”,Financial Express, March 2008. http://www.financialexpress.com/news/hotel-industry-is-poisedfor-a-new-growth-phase/286542/Data retrieved inJune 200914. “Hospitality sector to offer 2 lakh jobs yearly”, DSuresh Kumar, Times of India, April 2008. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2966983.cms Data retrieved in June 200915. “Hospitality sector to offer 2 lakh jobs yearly”,D Suresh Kumar, Times of India, April 2008.Source:http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2966983.cms Data retrieved in June 200998
16. ‘2010 India Salary Survey Reports’ by HVS,May 26, 2010, Hospitality Biz India.Com, http://www.hospitalitybizindia.com/detailNews.aspx?aid=8216&sid=12 Data retrieved in October 2010.17. Ibid18. Ibid19. “Hotel workers demand minimum wage of Rs.10,000” The Hindu, Dec 10, 2008, http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/10/stories/2008121054070400.htm dataretrieved in June 2009.20. “HCE India releases 2008 salary survey”, SiddharthChoudhry, Express Hospitality, August 2008. Source:http://www.expresshospitality.com/20080831/market25.shtml data retrieved in June 2009.21. “Five-star careers, one-star salaries”, Rashmi Bansal,Readiff Get Ahead, July 2006. Source: http://www.rediff.com/getahead/2006/jul/25rashmi.htmdata retrieved in June 200922. Salary Survey for Industry: Hotel and HospitalityManagement (India), Pay Scale, 2008. Source: http://www.payscale.com/research/IN/Industry=Hotel_and_Hospitality_Management/Salary23. Article 39(d) of <strong>the</strong> Constitution of India.24. Handbook of Law, Women and Employment,Surinder Mediratta, Oxford University Press.25. For details view <strong>the</strong> Karnataka Shops and CommercialEstablishment Act, 1961. Source: http://164.100.80.70/acts/ACTS%20E/163e.pdf26. “Salutations and Celebration”, Reema Sisodia,Express Travel World, September 2007 Source:http://www.expresstravelworld.com/200709/india%27sincrediblewomen01.shtml Data retrieved inJune 2009.27. A Handbook of Statistical Indicators on Women2007, Ministry of Women and Child Development.http://wcd.nic.in/stat.pdf28. “Hospitality sector poised for significant growth”,V. Jayanth, The Hindu, January 2008. http://www.hindu.com/2008/01/01/stories/2008010156471500.htmData retrieved in June 2009 and “Hospitality sectorin India expected to grow to $275 bn”, EconomicTimes, April 2008. http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News_By_Industry/Services/Hotels__Restaurants/Hospitality_sector_in_India_expected_to_grow_to_275_bn/articleshow/2921004.cms Dataretrieved in June 2009.29. “Booming industry throws open exciting avenuesfor IHM grads”, Aliyah Shahid, Livemint, The WallStreet Journal, June 2008. Source: http://www.livemint.com/Articles/2008/06/12000007/India8217s-Best-Colleges.html data retrived in June 200930. “Extending hospitality from home to hotel”, RashmiPradhan, Hospitality Biz India, March 2009. Source:http://www.hospitalitybizindia.com/detailNews.aspx?aid=3792&sid=5 data retrieved in June 200931. Ibid32. Factors Affecting Women’s Career Advancement in<strong>the</strong> Hospitality Industry: Perceptions of Students,Educators, and Industry Recruiters, by Yan Zhong,M.S. A Dissertation in Family and Consumer SciencesEducation, Submitted to <strong>the</strong> Graduate Facultyof Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfilment of<strong>the</strong> Requirements for <strong>the</strong> Degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy, December, 2006, http://thinktech.lib.ttu.edu/bitstream/handle/2346/1136/Zhong_Yan_diss.pdf?sequence=133. Ibid, page 1834. Ibid page 2335. Ibid Page 2436. Employees’ State Insurance Cooperation.Source: http://esic.nic.in/37. Handbook of Law, Women and Employment,Surinder Mediratta, Oxford University Press.38. According to Maternity Benefit Act, 1961, it appliesto every establishment being a factory, mine orplantation [including any such establishmentbelonging to Government and to every establishmentwherein persons are employed for <strong>the</strong> exhibition of99
equestrian, acrobatic and o<strong>the</strong>r performances] withmore than 10 employees. The State Government canwith <strong>the</strong> approval of <strong>the</strong> Central Government, aftergiving not less than two months’ notice in <strong>the</strong> officialGazette, declare that all or any of <strong>the</strong> provisions ofthis Act shall apply also to any o<strong>the</strong>r establishmentor class of establishments, industrial, commercial,agricultural or o<strong>the</strong>rwise.According to Section 5 of <strong>the</strong> Maternity BenefitAct, 1961 every woman shall be entitled to, and heremployer shall be liable for, <strong>the</strong> payment of maternitybenefit at <strong>the</strong> rate of <strong>the</strong> average daily wage for <strong>the</strong>six weeks immediately following <strong>the</strong> day of delivery.The maximum period for which any woman shall beentitled to maternity benefit shall be twelve weeks,that is to say, six weeks up to and including <strong>the</strong> dayof her delivery and six weeks immediately followingthat day.39. “Office Memorandum by <strong>the</strong> Government of India”,Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pension,September 2008. Source: http://india.gov.in/govt/studies/estt.(l).pdf40. “New mums to get 6 month off”, Vineeta Pandey,DNA, October 2007. Source: http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_new-mums-to-get-6-monthsoff_1126382data retrieved in June 200941. “Women-friendly policies”, Amrita Nandy Joshi,Times of India, August 2006. Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Editorial/Women-friendly-policy/articleshow/1917285.cms dataretrieved in June 200942. Rajiv Gandhi National Crèche Scheme for <strong>the</strong>Children of Working Mo<strong>the</strong>rs, Ministry of Womenand Child Development. Source: http://wcd.nic.in/RajivGandhiCrecheScheme.pdf43. “Women-friendly policy”, Amrita Nandy Joshi, Timesof India, August 2006. Source: http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Editorial/Women-friendlypolicy/articleshow/1917285.cmsdata retrieved in June200944. “Work environ insensitive to working mo<strong>the</strong>rs”,Rutujawakankar, Express India, May 2008. Source:http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/workenviron-insensitive-to-working-mo<strong>the</strong>rs/307927/dataretrieved in June 200945. “Paternity leaves, a boon for new dads”, DeccanChronicle, February 2009. Source: http://www.deccanchronicle.com/headlines/paternity-leave,-boon-new-dads-140 data retrieved in June 200946. “Work environ insensitive to working mo<strong>the</strong>rs”,Rutujawakankar, Express India, May 2008. Source:http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/workenviron-insensitive-to-working-mo<strong>the</strong>rs/307927/Dataretrieved in June 200947. Nightshifts for Women: Growth and Opportunities.A Research Study, The Associated Chambers ofCommerce & Industry of India, undated Source:http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/NIGHT%20SHIFT%20FOR%20WOMEN.pdf48. The Factories (Amendment) Bill, 2005.49. “Bring hotels under Factories Act”, The Hindu, June2008. Source: http://www.hindu.com/2008/06/03/stories/2008060359360400.htm data retrieved inJune 200950. “Hotel Industry included under Factories Act”,Economic Times, January 2008. Source: http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/News/News_By_Industry/Services/Hotels__Restaurants/Hotel_Industry_included_under_Factories_Act_/articleshow/2696291.cms data retrieved in June 200951. “Ban on night shifts for women will hit hospitalitysector” The Hindu, May 2007. Source: http://www.hindu.com/2007/05/05/stories/2007050512830400.htm data retrieved in June 200952. “Shift in K’taka night shift policy”, DeepaBalakrishnan, IBN Live, May 2007. Source: http://ibnlive.in.com/news/shift-in-ktaka-night-shiftpolicy/40556-3.htmldata retrieved in June 200953. “Night shift ban on women is open discrimination”,Express India, May 2007. Source: http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=86219data retrieved in June 2009100
54. “Withdrawal of night shift ban welcomed”, TheHindu, May 2007. Source: http://www.hindu.com/2007/05/15/stories/2007051518730300.htm dataretrieved in June 200955. “Karnataka HC allows women to work in bars”,Indian Express, September 2008. Source: http://www.indianexpress.com/news/karnataka-hc-allowswomen-to-work-in-bars/365419/data retrieved inJune 200956. “Sexual harassment at work”, Neeta Raymond,Combat Law, Volume 2, Issue 3, August-September2003. Referred from India Toge<strong>the</strong>r, http://www.indiatoge<strong>the</strong>r.org/combatlaw/vol2/issue3/harass.htm57. 1997(7) SCC.32358. The Prohibition of Sexual Harassment of Womenat Workplace Bill, 2010. Source: http://ncw.nic.in/PDFFiles/sexualharassmentatworkplacebill2005_Revised.pdf59. “Hospitality sector to offer 2 lakh jobs yearly”,D Suresh Kumar, Times of India, April 2008.Source:http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2966983.cms data retrieved in June 200960. Scheduled caste and scheduled tribe categories arepopulation groupings that are explicitly recognizedby <strong>the</strong> Constitution of India.61. Male general manager of a budget hotel.62. Male HR manager of a four-star hotel.63. If an employee works break shifts, he/she is onlyrequired during <strong>the</strong> busy hours, for example <strong>the</strong>hours of breakfast, lunch and dinner in a restaurant.Thus, <strong>the</strong> working hours expand throughout <strong>the</strong> dayeven though it is only an eight-hour workday.64. Female executive with a 2 and a half year-old childand six years in <strong>the</strong> industry.65. Female assistant with a 3 and a half year-old childand three years in <strong>the</strong> industry.66. “Extending hospitality from home to hotel”, RashmiPradhan, Hospitality Biz India, March 2009. Source:http://www.hospitalitybizindia.com/detailNews.aspx?aid=3792&sid=5 data retrieved in June 2009.67. Female executive with a 10 year-old child and 10years in <strong>the</strong> industry.68. To gain an understanding of this, it needs to beconsidered that <strong>the</strong> experiences of trainees are notequivalent to <strong>the</strong> experiences of employees. Thefirst reason might be that <strong>the</strong>y joined <strong>the</strong> hotel fora period of only six months, and <strong>the</strong>refore wereunable to get a long-term inside view of workingin hotels. Secondly, <strong>the</strong>y probably always kept <strong>the</strong>status of trainee and thus were not perceived asequal, and finally yet importantly, <strong>the</strong>y visited all <strong>the</strong>departments in <strong>the</strong> hotel, including <strong>the</strong> kitchen. Sincenone of <strong>the</strong> employees interviewed held a kitchenposition, <strong>the</strong> trainees’ statements about <strong>the</strong> workclimate in this department cannot be compared with<strong>the</strong> opinion of any employee. Therefore, we can relyonly on <strong>the</strong> students’ experiences considering <strong>the</strong>kitchen department.References:Reports, Documents, Papers and StudiesUNWTO Message by Francesco Frangialli, Secretary-General, World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day - 27 September 2007, Source:http://www.travel-exhibitions.com/news/World<strong>Tourism</strong>Day-27September2007.pdf“Empowering Women through <strong>Tourism</strong>. News from <strong>the</strong>World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organization UNWTO”, quote of Mrs.Nilofar Bakhtiar, UNWTO Special Advisor on Womenand <strong>Tourism</strong>, World <strong>Tourism</strong> Directory, March 2008.Source: http://www.unwto.org/media/news/en/press_det.php?id=1881Toolkit for Women, Gender and <strong>Tourism</strong> :Women’sEmployment and Participation in <strong>Tourism</strong>, Summary ofUNED –UK’s Project report http://www.earthsummit2002.org/toolkits/women/current/gendertourismrep.html“Travel and <strong>Tourism</strong> Economic Impact, India 2009”,World Travel and <strong>Tourism</strong> Council. Source: http://www.wttc.org/bin/pdf/original_pdf_file/india.pdfWomen’s Empowerment, Gender Equality, and <strong>the</strong>Millennium Development Goals- A WEDO Information andAction Guide www.gedef.org/RESOURCES/Web%20Links/MDGtoolkit_eng.doc101
Resolution adopted by <strong>the</strong> General Assembly, 55/2.United Nations Millennium Declaration; www.un.org/millennium/declaration/ares552e.htm<strong>Tourism</strong>, gender and equitable development,Dr. T T Sreekumar, www.twnside.org.sg/title2/resurgence/207-208/cover5.docWomen in <strong>Tourism</strong>, Realities, Dilemmas and Opportunities,EQUATIONS September 2007, http://www.equitabletourism.org/stage/files/fileDocuments379_uid10.pdfGender Equality and Women’s Empowerment in India,Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government ofIndia, National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), India, 2005-06, undertaken by International Institute for PopulationSciences, Deonar, Mumbai – 400 088, www.nfhsindia.org/a_subject_report_gender_for_website.pdfSalary Survey for Industry: Hotel and HospitalityManagement (India), Pay Scale, 2008. Source: http://www.payscale.com/research/IN/Industry=Hotel_and_Hospitality_Management/SalaryConstitution of India, V.N. Shukla, Revised by MahendraP. Singh, Tenth Edition, Eastern Book Company.Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (Bare Act)The Employees’ State Insurance Act 1948 (Bare Act)Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 (Bare Act)“Factors Affecting Women’s Career Advancementin <strong>the</strong> Hospitality Industry: Perceptions of Students,Educators, and Industry Recruiters”, by Yan Zhong,M.S. A Dissertation in Family and Consumer SciencesEducation, Submitted to <strong>the</strong> Graduate Faculty of TexasTech University in Partial Fulfilment of <strong>the</strong> Requirementsfor <strong>the</strong> Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, December,2006, Source: http://thinktech.lib.ttu.edu/bitstream/handle/2346/1136/Zhong_Yan_diss.pdf?sequence=1“Sexual harassment at work”, Neeta Raymond, CombatLaw, Volume 2, Issue 3, August-September 2003. Referredfrom India Toge<strong>the</strong>r, Source: http://www.indiatoge<strong>the</strong>r.org/combatlaw/vol2/issue3/harass.htmThe Sexual Harassment of Women at WorkPlace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal)Bill, 2006. Source: http://ncw.nic.in/PDFFiles/sexualharassmentatworkplacebill2005.pdfHandbook of Law, Women and Employment, SurinderMediratta, Oxford University Press.“Office Memorandum by <strong>the</strong> Government of India”,Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pension,September 2008. Source: http://india.gov.in/govt/studies/estt.(l).pdfGandhi National Crèche Scheme for <strong>the</strong> Children of WorkingMo<strong>the</strong>rs, Ministry of Women and Child Development.Source: http://wcd.nic.in/RajivGandhiCrecheScheme.pdfNightshifts for Women: Growth and Opportunities. AResearch Study, The Associated Chambers of Commerce& Industry of India, undated, Source: http://ncw.nic.in/pdfreports/NIGHT%20SHIFT%20FOR%20WOMEN.pdfThe Factories (Amendment) Bill, 2005Karnataka Shops and Commercial Establishment Act,1961 (Bare Act)102
Women speak! Women’s Engagement withCommunity Based & Nature Based <strong>Tourism</strong>EQUATIONS, 2009*<strong>Tourism</strong> has always had a link with women. Masstourism claims that it employs more women thanmen and women are often seen as <strong>the</strong> face oftourism, quite literally, as <strong>the</strong>y appear in travelbrochures as <strong>the</strong> ubiquitous image of warmth,welcome and hospitality.When understanding tourism growth in naturalresource rich areas we have been particularlyinterested in understanding how <strong>the</strong> growth oftourism engaged, impacted, helped or hinderedwomen. To what extent did tourism actually provideopportunities for empowerment? To what extentdid it change stereotypes and gender injustices?Were women able to break <strong>the</strong> shackles of religiousor social prescriptions related to <strong>the</strong>ir role andrelative power by engaging in tourism as comparedto more traditional roles and settings? What was<strong>the</strong> nature of women’s participation in tourism? Towhat extent did <strong>the</strong>y influence decision making and<strong>the</strong> nature of tourism? Did <strong>the</strong>y gain – economically,socially, and politically? Have <strong>the</strong>y been able tochallenge patriarchal structures and demand equalparticipation and benefits from tourism? How didtourism impact <strong>the</strong>ir lives? What are <strong>the</strong>ir concerns& dilemmas and in what ways have <strong>the</strong>y engaged orwish to engage with tourism?To explore <strong>the</strong>se questions, we have attempted toga<strong>the</strong>r toge<strong>the</strong>r and amplify <strong>the</strong> voices of womenin different spaces which we heard in <strong>the</strong> course ofour interactions with communities engaging withtourism.To do this we present case studies of nature based(and in most cases community based) tourismand examined it through a gendered lens. Theobservations and insights are derived from moregeneral contexts and were not specific to researchaddressing gender issues.Mountain Shepherds Initiative, Uttarakhand: 1Mountain Shepherds Initiative (MSI) is a communityowned and operated ecotourism initiative basedin Uttarakhand. It attempts to engage with <strong>the</strong>local communities and <strong>the</strong>ir youth to harness <strong>the</strong>potential of tourism in <strong>the</strong> larger interest of <strong>the</strong>local community. The initiative is a result of <strong>the</strong> longstruggle of communities in <strong>the</strong> Nanda Devi BiosphereReserve for control over land, forests and naturalresources. MSI works with vision of developing amodel for tourism that is sustainable and definedby <strong>the</strong> local and indigenous communities residingin <strong>the</strong> Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. The MSI hastrained local youth in mountaineering and trekking,instructions and mountain search and rescue fortaking tourists groups on expedition. Ano<strong>the</strong>rtourism component of MSI is <strong>the</strong> homestays that<strong>the</strong>y provide to tourists in collaboration with localcommunities in areas like Lata and Tolma.“The Mountain Shepherds story begins in Lata, avillage situated in <strong>the</strong> Niti Valley. The people of <strong>the</strong>Niti Valley belong to an Indo-Tibetan ethnic groupknown as <strong>the</strong> Bhotiya. Those in <strong>the</strong> Niti Valleybelong to <strong>the</strong> Marchha and Tolcha groups and havetraditionally gained a livelihood as transhumantshepherds, traders, or farmers. In <strong>the</strong> 1970s, Bhotiyacommunities were at <strong>the</strong> forefront of <strong>the</strong> famousChipko movement 2 that saw village women led byGaura Devi to save <strong>the</strong>ir forests. From 1998 to <strong>the</strong>present, <strong>the</strong>y have persisted in <strong>the</strong>ir efforts to regainaccess rights to <strong>the</strong> Nanda Devi National Park. With<strong>the</strong> creation of Uttarakhand state and its emphasison <strong>the</strong> tourism sector, this movement gave birth to<strong>the</strong> Nanda Devi Campaign in Lata village. Sparkedby <strong>the</strong> urgent need to ensure local control of <strong>the</strong>tourist trade, <strong>the</strong> campaign issued <strong>the</strong> progressive2001 Nanda Devi Biodiversity Conservation and Eco<strong>Tourism</strong> Declaration to guide its future. In 2003,<strong>the</strong> Indian government made a major revision to<strong>the</strong> park rules that had strictly governed <strong>the</strong> Nanda103
Devi protected area for over twenty years. A partialreopening began allowing 500 visitors to enter asmall segment of <strong>the</strong> park’s core zone every year,although <strong>the</strong> peak itself would remain off limits.”MSI was formerly inaugurated in 2006 in <strong>the</strong>vicinity of <strong>the</strong> Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. Itis located both in <strong>the</strong> context of a wider socialand environmental struggle. A 2006 InauguralWomen’s Trek marked <strong>the</strong>ir first foray into <strong>the</strong>tourism business, attempting <strong>the</strong> challenging taskof establishing a community-owned operationin keeping with its aspirations for a futurewithout human exploitation and environmentaldegradation.” 3Women’s participation in <strong>the</strong> tourism initiativeof MSI is largely prescribed by social norms - <strong>the</strong>roles that women are allowed to participate inare decided by <strong>the</strong> community first and <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>irfamily. Therefore women’s participation in tourismis not only gendered but also decided primarilyby <strong>the</strong> family and community and this is acceptedby women. The participation of girls in tourismis at a very nascent stage in Lata village, and itis too early to say if this will enhance women’sparticipation in decision making within <strong>the</strong> familyand <strong>the</strong> community in <strong>the</strong> future. Though girls arebeing trained in mountaineering it has not meantthat families are sending <strong>the</strong>ir daughters on regularexpeditions. The family and community has clearlydifferent norms about what ways <strong>the</strong> daughtersparticipate in tourism as compared to <strong>the</strong> freerhand that sons have to decide if <strong>the</strong>y would like tobe involved in <strong>the</strong> tourism project of <strong>the</strong> MSI.Apart from <strong>the</strong>ir traditional roles of carers within<strong>the</strong> family and thus caring for <strong>the</strong> visitors, thiscommunity based initiative also relies on women’straditional skills in carpet weaving. Thus traditionalknowledge and skills are <strong>the</strong> basis for includingwomen into <strong>the</strong> tourism loop. Most tourisminitiatives often end up employing women in areaswhere <strong>the</strong>y need least additional training andcan leverage on socially prescribed or traditionalknowledge and skills such as care giving. In <strong>the</strong>MSI case, on <strong>the</strong> contrary though women are notprimarily involved in looking after <strong>the</strong> guests since<strong>the</strong> youth trained by <strong>the</strong> MSI cater to <strong>the</strong> tourists,<strong>the</strong> payment for using <strong>the</strong> homestays by tourists ishanded over to <strong>the</strong> landlady (i.e <strong>the</strong> women). Witha range of Rs. 150- 250 per day in Tolma and Latarespectively going to women directly it is a positivemove that acknowledges <strong>the</strong>ir contribution (for <strong>the</strong>use of <strong>the</strong> place as well as <strong>the</strong> labour in keeping itclean and providing bedding for tourists). To someextent it also recognises <strong>the</strong> time intensive natureof women’s work who being involved in agriculturalactivities are less likely to have <strong>the</strong> time to engagewith tourists.Women are also involved in <strong>the</strong> production ofsouvenirs during <strong>the</strong> winter months. They producesmaller hand woven mats for yoga or meditationpurposes. <strong>Tourism</strong> provides a market for <strong>the</strong>irproduce and thus an alternate income particularly tothose households that are not providing homestaysor involved in any o<strong>the</strong>r ways in tourism. It is anattempt to provide tourists with local souvenirs;relying on <strong>the</strong>ir traditional knowledge of weavingand knitting and by enhancing <strong>the</strong>ir skills through<strong>the</strong> introduction of vegetable dyes.The MSI being community based has a strongerelement of community support when compared tomany o<strong>the</strong>r tourism initiatives that are introducedwithout much local participation.The greater participation of men in tourism activitiessuch as trekking and mountaineering whichincludes working as instructors, search and rescuevolunteers, cooks and guide for tourists groupshas also meant a diversion of responsibilities inagriculture work earlier handled by men to women.The women are loaded with <strong>the</strong> usual householdresponsibilities and in addition because <strong>the</strong> menare away, <strong>the</strong> entire load of caring for children,collection of fuel wood, fodder and water take<strong>the</strong>m in <strong>the</strong> hilly terrain.Fur<strong>the</strong>r more, <strong>the</strong> peak harvesting season is also <strong>the</strong>main tourism season and this has resulted in menbeing away for tourism linked activities leaving <strong>the</strong>women to shoulder a greater (physical) workloadat this time. It is interesting that this incursion ofwomen into men’s traditional (gendered) areasis not objected by <strong>the</strong> community, but <strong>the</strong>y aremore unwilling to “allow” <strong>the</strong> women to engage inactivity which is more externally-oriented.104
Sunil Kainthola who coordinates MSI in Dehradunshared a story of one of <strong>the</strong> MSI youth Raju whosemo<strong>the</strong>r told him in a “friendly” manner: “You havetaken my husband with you, you have also takenaway my two sons into tourism. Now it will rain anymoment. Our grain will get spoilt unless we harvestit. Then what will we eat? There is no one to workwith me – so now you come with me to <strong>the</strong> villageand work with me.”Thus women’s additional load directly and indirectlybecause of tourism ends up fetching <strong>the</strong>m verylittle direct economic benefit – in <strong>the</strong> form ofadditional earnings– but loads <strong>the</strong>m with additionalwork – all of which is nei<strong>the</strong>r measured, valued norcompensated for in economic terms.From ano<strong>the</strong>r perspective given <strong>the</strong> exploitativenature of tourism with respect to <strong>the</strong>commodification of women and abuse, <strong>the</strong>community at Lata has taken into account <strong>the</strong> risksthat women are likely to face when tourism makesinroads into <strong>the</strong>ir spaces. The community (bothmen and women) who decide <strong>the</strong> norms <strong>the</strong>nbecome <strong>the</strong> buffer to decide which roles it wouldlike to see its women in, given <strong>the</strong>ir knowledge andskills. The Bhotiya women were at <strong>the</strong> leadershipof <strong>the</strong> Chipko movement in asserting <strong>the</strong>ir rightsto natural resources. Whe<strong>the</strong>r this assertion hastranslated to <strong>the</strong>ir choice of ways of incomegeneration is not very clear or evident yet. Somefamilies have allowed <strong>the</strong> daughters to be trainedin mountaineering and related courses but tourismled business activities is new for <strong>the</strong> communitiesand may also explains <strong>the</strong> absence of women inbusiness activities.With <strong>the</strong> MSI core competence and product beingadventure tourism in <strong>the</strong> Himalayas <strong>the</strong> organisationhas greater involvement of boys and less of girls. Incertain areas like Uttarakashi women like BachendriPal 4 are role models for women taking up training inmountaineering and instructorship. While girls arebeing encouraged to train in becoming instructorsit is a physically demanding role and this aspectseems to draw more boys. Beginning with trainingprovided by <strong>the</strong> forest department in 2004 and thatprovided by MSI in 2006, girls have gone on threetreks since 2006 with exclusive women’s groupsas well as in mixed groups (of boys and girls) withtourists.MSI has also taken a firm stand on guiding <strong>the</strong>community about <strong>the</strong> roles where women mayhave opportunity but increased vulnerability toexploitation by tourists. It has created a spacefor discussing about what roles women would becomfortable in taking up ra<strong>the</strong>r than just going by<strong>the</strong> demand of <strong>the</strong> tourism industry which can beexploitative when unchecked. The opportunity totrain girls in mountaineering was a step forward,but <strong>the</strong> decision was that girls would accompanywomen only groups. This was seen as a via mediabetween <strong>the</strong> complexity of developing spaces forwomen to participate in tourism, recognising <strong>the</strong>risks in terms of sexual harassment <strong>the</strong>y may facefrom male tourists while accompanying <strong>the</strong>m ontreks and balancing this risk, with <strong>the</strong> desire to build<strong>the</strong>ir capacity for leadership and management rolesthat have not been socially encouraged so far. In<strong>the</strong> future MSI foresees <strong>the</strong> participation of womenin souvenirs, exclusive as well as mixed trekkinggroups, as instructors after <strong>the</strong>y complete <strong>the</strong>irMethod of Instruction and in managerial roles.Andamans and Nicobar Islands:The Andaman & Nicobar Islands (A&NI) are a groupof picturesque islands and islets lying along a longand narrow arc in <strong>the</strong> south-eastern part of <strong>the</strong> Bayof Bengal. While relatively isolated until <strong>the</strong> earlytwentieth century, <strong>the</strong>se islands of breathtakingnatural beauty gained slowly in popularity as atourist destination. As in many o<strong>the</strong>r parts of <strong>the</strong>country, tourism has been identified a prioritysector for development in <strong>the</strong> Islands, particularly<strong>the</strong> Andamans. The Andaman and Nicobar Islandsharbour a rich biodiversity with high endemicity,making <strong>the</strong>m an internationally acknowledgedhotspot for biodiversity. Large areas of coral reefs,which hold significance as <strong>the</strong> last pristine reefsin <strong>the</strong> Indian Ocean, lie outside protected areas,with very little protection efforts going into <strong>the</strong>m.The mangroves are also known for <strong>the</strong>ir diversityof various marine organisms. Over <strong>the</strong> years, <strong>the</strong>swampy areas in lowland evergreen forests havebeen almost totally destroyed by conversion toagriculture and open swamps have also beendrained in a number of places, making this anincreasingly rare habitat. It is clear that any fur<strong>the</strong>recological degradation will have an adverse impactnot only on <strong>the</strong> unique biodiversity of its fragilecoastal ecosystems but also on coastal fisheries andtourism.105
The Andaman Islands are home to fourindigenous tribes: The Great Andamanese; <strong>the</strong>Onge, who inhabit <strong>the</strong> Little Andaman Island;<strong>the</strong> Sentinelese, who have long inhabited NorthSentinel Island and <strong>the</strong> Jarawas, in <strong>the</strong> interior andwest coast of South and Middle Andaman. During<strong>the</strong> British colonisation, house sites and agriculturallands were allotted to “convicts” who had beenjailed at <strong>the</strong> Cellular Jail. In 1925, around 45 Karenfamilies from Burma were brought to clear <strong>the</strong>forest. Between 1947 and 1971, as part of a policymove of <strong>the</strong> Indian Government to meet labourrequirements in <strong>the</strong> Islands, people from <strong>the</strong>n EastPakistan, West Bengal, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu and Bihar were settled in <strong>the</strong> Islands.Post 1970s, <strong>the</strong> A&NI have seen an unplanned influxof people from Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh andBihar, whereby <strong>the</strong> annual growth rate of this influxhas far exceeded <strong>the</strong> average decadal growth ofpopulation in <strong>the</strong> Islands (approximately 4.8% p.a).Settlement and thoughtless “civilisation” attemptshave lead to <strong>the</strong> decimation of <strong>the</strong> original tribalpeople and <strong>the</strong>y are confined to reserves withuneasy relationships with <strong>the</strong> settlers. Among thosewho came in, <strong>the</strong> diverse profile and stakeholdinghas led to some tensions raising <strong>the</strong> issue ‘whobelongs to <strong>the</strong> Islands and who does not’.While <strong>the</strong> islands have witnessed a steady growthin tourist numbers along with <strong>the</strong> steady pushof <strong>the</strong> A&NI administration to being <strong>the</strong> touristsback to <strong>the</strong> islands post Tsunami in 2004 has ledto an increase in <strong>the</strong> number of proposals forintensive tourism development particularly in <strong>the</strong>Andaman Islands. This includes huge investmentin infrastructure, improved connectivity andconcessions on LTC for domestic tourists. However,<strong>the</strong>se plans, like earlier ones, are not based on howtourism operates in and impacts <strong>the</strong> Islands, and donot consider whe<strong>the</strong>r ground realities support <strong>the</strong>assumptions that <strong>the</strong>se plans are based on.In 2008 EQUATIONS along with partnerorganisations undertook a comprehensive researchstudy to examine <strong>the</strong> status of tourism, its existingand likely impacts and <strong>the</strong> likely impacts of proposedtourism development plans. 5While <strong>the</strong> level of tourism activity in <strong>the</strong> Andamansis high, women are involved in comparatively lowprofile jobs like running petty shops for selling fishand fruit. Men constitute <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong> workforce in tourism establishments 89.3% are maleand only 10.7% is female. 6 Thus women in generalhave lower employment opportunities even withintourism much like in o<strong>the</strong>r sectors.<strong>Tourism</strong> has affected <strong>the</strong> lives of <strong>the</strong> women in <strong>the</strong>Islands, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>y are associated with it directlyor not. One success story is of three women – RajniIka, Pandiamma and Kanti Tirku – who got toge<strong>the</strong>ras members of a self-help group to start an eateryin Havelock Island in December 2006. They arein contact with <strong>the</strong> guides in Port Blair who refertourists to <strong>the</strong>ir eatery. They make a profit ofRs 12,000 a month which is shared between <strong>the</strong>three of <strong>the</strong>m. The usual problems of <strong>the</strong> island,such as acute shortage of water and rising pricesof vegetables need to be dealt with, but <strong>the</strong>y arehappy with <strong>the</strong> change in <strong>the</strong>ir lives that tourismhas brought in.However, <strong>the</strong> tale is not all good for o<strong>the</strong>r womenon Havelock Island. Nirmala Rao is a widow whoworks as a daily wage worker. For her, tourism isan added burden to her daily problems. Becauseof increased tourism activity she finds <strong>the</strong> prices oftravelling by autorickshaw (a three wheeler) haverisen tremendously. During <strong>the</strong> peak tourist seasonboat tickets to Port Blair are hard to come by.Concerns are voiced by women about risingland prices and <strong>the</strong> disillusionment of <strong>the</strong> youth.Arathi Roy, a housewife of Havelock says, “Thegovernment has brought us here (as settlers).Now <strong>the</strong>y are allowing foreigners to get land here.In <strong>the</strong> future <strong>the</strong> government may sell out on us”.She also fears that children and youth will imitateforeigners in behavior and mode of dress. Thelevel of education of <strong>the</strong> youth tends to be low.While tourism is <strong>the</strong> only sector on <strong>the</strong> Islands thatincreases opportunities, by opening up jobs liketaxi driving and guides, she also raises an alarm bydrawing attention towards <strong>the</strong> increasing habit ofdrinking alcohol, with easy availability in <strong>the</strong> Islands.“Prostitution could be a serious problem in <strong>the</strong>future”, she fears.106
Endogenous <strong>Tourism</strong> Project: 7The Endogenous <strong>Tourism</strong> Project-Rural <strong>Tourism</strong>Scheme (ETP) is a joint project of Governmentof India-Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> and United NationsDevelopment Programme (GoI-UNDP) to support<strong>the</strong> rural tourism initiatives of <strong>the</strong> GoI which wouldserve to create sustainable livelihood opportunitiesamong low income communities living in rural areasthrough <strong>the</strong> setting up of alternative models oftourism. The GoI-UNDP Project Document clearlylocates this project in context of developmentand social justice, ethics, sustainable humandevelopment, elimination of poverty, addressinginequalities and inequities. Thus a unique featureand indeed core principle of <strong>the</strong> ETP is to examineand take fur<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> links between tourism anddevelopment.” 8While <strong>the</strong> ETP project was aimed at <strong>the</strong> economicobjective of making livelihoods sustainable andemployment generation through community basedactions, it also aimed at empowerment of women,marginalised communities and youth, as well asgender equality through a convergence between<strong>the</strong> economic and social issues. EQUATIONS wascommissioned in 2008 to review <strong>the</strong> ETP in anattempt to garner in a participative manner <strong>the</strong>experiences and learning of this large scale andambitious effort. We highlight in <strong>the</strong> section belowaspects that relate to <strong>the</strong> role and impacts onwomen. 9When tourism is introduced into rural communitieswith <strong>the</strong> aim of social and community empowerment,it is often assumed that communities arehomogenous in an economic and social sense. Ourstudy of <strong>the</strong> community based tourism projects inseveral rural sites found that when tourism aimsfor empowerment by involving women in strongpatriarchal societies it creates social tensionsbetween <strong>the</strong> two sexes. When women take ona greater role in tourism activities and begin todemand a greater role in decision making in <strong>the</strong>setraditional and conservative societies, it challenges<strong>the</strong> “superior” role that patriarchy assigned to men.Patriarchal norms, caste and gender are centralto define <strong>the</strong> nature of participation of women intourism. These social norms define whe<strong>the</strong>r womencan actually take up roles of influence and decisionmaking, even if <strong>the</strong>se roles are architectured into<strong>the</strong> project.Hodka, near <strong>the</strong> astoundingly beautiful and starkRann of Kutch (a cold Desert) in Gujarat, is anextremely conservative community where <strong>the</strong>women lived in pardaa 10 in <strong>the</strong> hamlets. When <strong>the</strong>model of tourism that <strong>the</strong> community could engagein was first debated, <strong>the</strong> idea of homestays wasstrongly resisted by <strong>the</strong> communities. They did notwant <strong>the</strong> tourists to come to stay in <strong>the</strong>ir village. Thecommunity decided that <strong>the</strong>ir engagement withtourism would be in <strong>the</strong> form of a resort outside <strong>the</strong>boundaries of <strong>the</strong>ir hamlet – which ensured a kindof containment of <strong>the</strong> dangers of tourism, alongwith a desire to reap its benefits!Their norms were not only about women and clearlywere about preserving strongly held cultural norms– many of which were also deeply patriarchal. Theyalso felt that tourists should not be scantily dressedin shorts. Consuming alcohol was forbidden in<strong>the</strong>ir society and so <strong>the</strong>y didn’t want <strong>the</strong> visitors tocome and have alcohol and expose <strong>the</strong>ir youngergeneration to this habit. 11While Hodka has many elements of a successfulforay into tourism women who were initially apart of <strong>the</strong> Hodka Paryatan Samiti left this Village<strong>Tourism</strong> Committee (VTC) - due to social taboosand pressures resulting in <strong>the</strong> management of <strong>the</strong>Shaam-e-Sarhad resort being completely male.There is an institutional framework within <strong>the</strong> ETPthat seeks to address gender issues by challengingexisting power structures, but <strong>the</strong> social structuresproved too hard to break through. The strongresistance by <strong>the</strong> men towards <strong>the</strong> participationof women in any of <strong>the</strong> decision making forums inHodka was evident. Although a group of womenare involved in <strong>the</strong> plastering and designing on<strong>the</strong> walls of <strong>the</strong> resort, women, largely have beendenied access to any decision making body.In Raghurajpur, near Puri-Orissa, a temple andcrafts village, <strong>the</strong> Raghurajpur Heritage & <strong>Tourism</strong>Committee (RHTC – village tourism committee)is completely devoid of women. When <strong>the</strong> subcommitteeswere formed, women were not evenconsulted. They were conspicuously absent in all107
<strong>the</strong> sub committees except for one, <strong>the</strong> sanitationcommittee! Despite <strong>the</strong> presence of a women’sgroup in <strong>the</strong> village it is not represented in <strong>the</strong> RHTC.Similarly at Lachen in Sikkim <strong>the</strong>re was a lackof participation of women in decision makingstructures and process related to <strong>the</strong> project.This is also due to <strong>the</strong> fact that under <strong>the</strong> Dzumsa(form of local self governing body) structure <strong>the</strong>scope for participation and decision making ofwomen is generally low. In contrast, in Chitrakote,Chhattisgarh, tribal dominated area women havea leadership role to play in <strong>the</strong> implementationof <strong>the</strong> ETP. Here <strong>the</strong>re was a special effort by <strong>the</strong>implementing agency to build capacity, empowerwomen and to mobilise <strong>the</strong>ir participation in <strong>the</strong>functioning of <strong>the</strong> Village <strong>Tourism</strong> Committee.Often women’s contribution to family income isseen as marginal and <strong>the</strong>ir work as unskilled. Thuseven in tourism though women are involved inskilled tasks like craft production, <strong>the</strong>y continueto be seen as unskilled while men’s contributionis considered skilled owing to <strong>the</strong> genderedperception of men as bread winners of <strong>the</strong> family. InRaghurajpur for instance women contribute equallyin <strong>the</strong> production of <strong>the</strong> crafts like Pattachitra(traditional Orissa paintings on palm leaves) whichis <strong>the</strong> main and often only source of livelihood tomany in <strong>the</strong> village. The women do all <strong>the</strong> labourintensive ground work but <strong>the</strong> men are perceivedto have <strong>the</strong> skills to do <strong>the</strong> finer aspects of <strong>the</strong> craft.In reality <strong>the</strong> women are no less creative in <strong>the</strong>irartistic excellence, but this is not acknowledged.Women are not a homogenous group withina community. Access to tourism activities andbenefits is defined also by <strong>the</strong> social hierarchy ofcaste (which is invariably linked to class). Caste andclass act as gatekeepers allowing certain sectionsof women within community to participate whileexcluding o<strong>the</strong>rs. E.g. in Naggar (Himachal Pradesh),<strong>the</strong> VTC’s bias towards upper caste women does notgo unnoticed. When <strong>the</strong> community was asked tochoose three members from each ward, <strong>the</strong>y haveinvariably chosen women from <strong>the</strong> more affluentupper caste families believing <strong>the</strong>y would be in abetter position to represent and understand <strong>the</strong>implementation of <strong>the</strong> project. However decisionsby upper caste women do not necessarily take intoaccount <strong>the</strong> voices or interests of lower caste womenand often caste affiliations play a stronger role than<strong>the</strong> sympathy for common concerns as women. Anexamination of <strong>the</strong> norms for membership in <strong>the</strong>Village <strong>Tourism</strong> Committees that have been evolvedby <strong>the</strong> communities often tilts <strong>the</strong> balance in favourof certain dominant communities over marginalizedsections. Since backward castes <strong>the</strong>mselves are notallowed easy access to decision making positionswithin <strong>the</strong> VTCs by upper castes even within <strong>the</strong>setourism committees <strong>the</strong> situation is similar in <strong>the</strong>case of women from backward castes.In Chitrakote a major conflict emerged on <strong>the</strong> issueof <strong>the</strong> construction of shops near <strong>the</strong> waterfallsite. The objective was to sell handicrafts and foodto <strong>the</strong> tourists and <strong>the</strong>reby promote <strong>the</strong> productsof <strong>the</strong> craftsmen and women trained under <strong>the</strong>project and local cuisine also promoted under it.The Panchayat and <strong>the</strong> local administration jointlydecided to provide 5 acres of government land outof an 11-acre plot where <strong>the</strong> annual local festivaltakes place. It also started building shops near <strong>the</strong>waterfall on <strong>the</strong> government land. Some vestedinterest groups came toge<strong>the</strong>r and demolished <strong>the</strong>nearly completed beautiful structures. To date nolegal or police action has been taken against <strong>the</strong>perpetrators and <strong>the</strong>y have not been brought tobook.The very nature of tourism is that it requiresinfrastructure skills, capital and linkages to engagesuccessfully – and in <strong>the</strong> limited space availablewomen from lower and backward caste have adouble handicap of gender and caste and are usuallyout of <strong>the</strong> reckoning. Unless carefully planned anddesigned it seems very unlikely particularly in ruralsetting in India that social and gender inequitiescan be addressed in any significant way throughtourism projects.Conclusion:These initial case studies point to <strong>the</strong> opportunitiesthat women have in carefully designed tourismprojects to carve out more meaningful roles andwield greater influence. But much depends on <strong>the</strong>context of socio-cultural norms of patriarchy andcaste to determine <strong>the</strong> extent to which <strong>the</strong>y can108
enefit. The need to address <strong>the</strong>se issues throughsystematic awareness building of tourism policymakers, planners and implementers, as well as localcommunities is critical.Endnotes:*The paper was published in Nature, Markets, <strong>Tourism</strong>:Exploring <strong>Tourism</strong>’s claim to Conservation in India,EQUATIONS, 2009. http://www.equitabletourism.org/files/fileDocuments478_uid11.pdf1. EQUATIONS field notes to Uttarakhand – villagesLata and Tolma, September 20082. In <strong>the</strong> 1970s, an organized resistance to <strong>the</strong>destruction of forests spread throughout Indiaand came to be known as <strong>the</strong> Chipko movement.The name of <strong>the</strong> movement comes from <strong>the</strong> word‘embrace’, as <strong>the</strong> villagers hugged <strong>the</strong> trees, andprevented <strong>the</strong> contractors’ from felling <strong>the</strong>m. Thefirst Chipko action took place spontaneously in April1973 in <strong>the</strong> village of Mandal in <strong>the</strong> upper Alakanandavalley and over <strong>the</strong> next five years spread to manydistricts of <strong>the</strong> Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh. It wassparked off by <strong>the</strong> government’s decision to allota plot of forest area in <strong>the</strong> Alaknanda valley to asports goods company. This angered <strong>the</strong> villagersbecause <strong>the</strong>ir similar demand to use wood formaking agricultural tools had been earlier denied.With encouragement from a local NGO, Dasoli GramSwarajya Sangh, under <strong>the</strong> leadership of an activist,Chandi Prasad Bhatt and women of <strong>the</strong> area,went into <strong>the</strong> forest and formed a circle around<strong>the</strong> trees preventing <strong>the</strong> men from cutting <strong>the</strong>mdown. In March 1974, women from Lata, Reni ando<strong>the</strong>r nearby villages led by <strong>the</strong> elderly Gaura Deviprotested against men that had come to clear cutlocal forests. The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradeshachieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year banon green felling in <strong>the</strong> Himalayan forests of thatstate by <strong>the</strong> order of Mrs Indira Gandhi, <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>nPrime Minister of India. Since <strong>the</strong>n, <strong>the</strong> movementhas spread to many states in <strong>the</strong> country. (http://healthy-india.org/saveearth6.asp)4. Bachendri Pal was <strong>the</strong> first Indian woman ontop of Everest in 1984. She was born in 1954, in avillage named Nakuri in Garhwal. She shared withher parents her desire to become a professionalmountaineer. The family was “devastated,” asfor <strong>the</strong>m, her relatives and local people, <strong>the</strong>most suitable job for a woman was teaching, notmountaineering. However, Bachendri did not budgefrom her determination. She joined <strong>the</strong> NehruInstitute of Mountaineering (NIM). She was declared<strong>the</strong> best student and was considered as “Everestmaterial”. She currently runs a training camp at TataSteel Adventure Foundation. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachendri_Pal)5. EQUATIONS, INTACH Andamans & Nicobar IslandsChapter, Society for Andamans & Nicobar Ecology,Kalpavriksh, Jamshedji Tata Centre for DisasterManagement – TISS, Tata Institute of Social Sciences,Action Aid International India (2008) “Rethink<strong>Tourism</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Andamans: Towards Building a Basefor Sustainable <strong>Tourism</strong>”, Bangalore, India.6. Ibid, pg 1267. EQUATIONS (September 2008), Review Report onSustainability In <strong>Tourism</strong>: A Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> Model,UNDP, New Delhi8. Ibid pg 39. Ibid pg 49-6210. Purdah or Pardaa (literally meaning ‘curtain’) is <strong>the</strong>practice of preventing women from being seen bymen. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pardah11. EQUATIONS (September 2008), Review Report onSustainability In <strong>Tourism</strong>: A Rural <strong>Tourism</strong> Model,UNDP, New Delhi, pg 443. Rajiv Rawat (2008). The Mountain ShepherdsInitiative: Evolving a New Model of Community-Owned Ecotourism In Redefining <strong>Tourism</strong> –Experiences and Insights from Rural <strong>Tourism</strong>Projects in India, UNDP, New Delhi109
Silence is Not Spoken Here:Women, HIV and <strong>Tourism</strong>EQUATIONS, 2010*Too many women in too many countriesspeak <strong>the</strong> same language of silence.My grandmo<strong>the</strong>r was always silent -always aggrieved —only her husband had <strong>the</strong> cosmic right(or so it was said) to speak and be heard.They say it is different now(after all, I am always vocaland my grandmo<strong>the</strong>r thinks I talk too much).But sometimes, I wonder.When a woman gives her love,as most women do, generously —it is accepted.When a woman shares her thoughts,as some women do, graciously —it is allowed.When a woman fights for power,as all women would like to,quietly or loudly,it is questioned.And yet, <strong>the</strong>re must be freedom -if we are to speak.And yes, <strong>the</strong>re must be power —if we are to be heard.And when we have both (freedom and power),let us not be misunderstood.We seek only to give wordsto those who cannot speak(too many women in too many countries).I seek only to forget <strong>the</strong> sorrowsof my grandmo<strong>the</strong>r’ssilence.By Anasuya Sengupta, Poet, Feminist and Activist110
1. Introduction:India’s richly diverse cultures, cuisines, andgeography attract thousands of visitors annually,both domestic and foreign. The tourism industry isportrayed as one of <strong>the</strong> catalysts of development.<strong>Tourism</strong> consumes a variety of economic, social andphysical resources, and also has environmental,social and economic impacts on local communitiesmany of <strong>the</strong>m extremely negative. Accompanying<strong>the</strong> growth of tourism has been a concomitantexploitation of natural resources and local peoplefor <strong>the</strong> benefit of <strong>the</strong> industry. This paper examines<strong>the</strong> impact of <strong>the</strong> growth of tourism on Indianwomen, especially with regard to HIV/AIDS, basedon secondary information sources in <strong>the</strong> publicdomain.2. Women and <strong>Tourism</strong> in India:<strong>Tourism</strong> has had a long and contested relationshipwith women. According to <strong>the</strong> UNWTO (UnitedNations World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation) <strong>the</strong> economicsize of <strong>the</strong> tourism industry, its rate of growth,and its innovation and diversity can potentiallyempower women. 1 However, <strong>the</strong> industry is asgendered as any o<strong>the</strong>r.In most states, with increased privatisation,governments and <strong>the</strong> tourism industry are in <strong>the</strong>process of acquiring land, water bodies and foreststo promote new hotels, resorts, adventure andwildlife tourism. Public commons such as beaches,waterfronts and forests are also being acquired, 2often without <strong>the</strong> consent of local communitiesand local self-governing institutions (e.g. <strong>the</strong>Panchayats). The tourism industry privatises <strong>the</strong>secommon resources and <strong>the</strong>n grants access to localsat a price. These developments have displacedlocal communities, alienated <strong>the</strong>m from traditionalways of life and forced <strong>the</strong>m into o<strong>the</strong>r often moreexploitative forms of livelihood.Food production has also been adversely affected;this has increased <strong>the</strong> workload of women, childrenand <strong>the</strong> old in <strong>the</strong> community, who are generallyentrusted with <strong>the</strong> duty of collecting <strong>the</strong> water andfodder required by <strong>the</strong> family. Local women havebeen hit hard by <strong>the</strong>se changes, as <strong>the</strong>y have almostno formal training or education. Hi<strong>the</strong>rto selfreliantagricultural economies have become touristdependentunits. In Kerala, losing <strong>the</strong> land hasmade traditional lifestyles untenable. Many womenwho used to earn <strong>the</strong>ir livelihoods in traditionalagricultural production or fish vending have beenforced to look for alternatives in <strong>the</strong> hospitalityindustry, as a result of <strong>the</strong> industry’s encroachmenton local land and natural resources.<strong>Tourism</strong>’s claims to be a massive employer ofwomen also disputable. Men dominate <strong>the</strong> formaltourism sector, while most of <strong>the</strong> women workingin <strong>the</strong> tourism industry are in <strong>the</strong> informal sector.Work for women in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry is mostlyon a contractual basis and often has no minimumwage protection, legal benefits, social security,or mechanisms to redress grievances. 3 Thereis a significant horizontal and vertical gendersegregation of <strong>the</strong> labour market in tourism. As inmany o<strong>the</strong>r social spheres, women are largely absentfrom positions of decision-making. 4 Consequently,employment opportunities for women tend to bein areas with lower social status in which <strong>the</strong>y maybe objectified, e.g. service provision (home stays,ayurvedic massage centres). In Kumarakom, younggirls who used to work in paddy fields are nowhired as young, beautiful, decorative icons holdingtraditional trays with lamps and flowers to welcomeguests to hotels. Today, <strong>the</strong>y feel that <strong>the</strong>y will losethis opportunity if <strong>the</strong>y go out to work in <strong>the</strong> sun,and are willing to sacrifice <strong>the</strong>ir traditional work forthis seasonal job. 5 Also <strong>the</strong> girls are happy to shiftas it is hard work working in <strong>the</strong> fields for lowerreturns.The tourism sector is also inherently seasonal,with a high labour turnover. 6 Hotels in developingcountries record a high fluctuation in <strong>the</strong>irworkforce. Seasonal tourism entails <strong>the</strong> seasonalarrival of migrants at tourist hubs, where <strong>the</strong>yfrequently end up in unknown environments withnon-existent social networks. Most of <strong>the</strong>m arein ill-paid positions that depend more on howpresentable <strong>the</strong>y are than on skills or training.Turning to commercial sex work in order tosupplement incomes is not uncommon. This hasbeen <strong>the</strong> case in Kerala, where it is observed thatmassage parlours are often a front for commercialsexual establishments. 7111
112Women in tourism are eroticised and discriminatedagainst; one outcome of this has been <strong>the</strong> rise ofsex tourism. Marketing strategies used by touroperators and agencies sexually objectify womenin tourist destinations by portraying <strong>the</strong>m as exotic,erotic and sexually available. These efforts reinforcenotions of male virility, power and dominance, aswell as conceptions of local women as submissiveand passive. 8In India, women’s status depends on a complexinterplay of socio-cultural beliefs (dominantlypatriarchy), access to income and education, andmacro-level government policies. When all of <strong>the</strong>seelements – alienation from traditional livelihoodsand resources, patterns of employment, andsocioeconomic status – come toge<strong>the</strong>r it makes <strong>the</strong>position of women in tourism precarious indeed.2.1 What is Sex <strong>Tourism</strong>?“Sex <strong>Tourism</strong>” is defined by <strong>the</strong> UNWTO as tripsorganised from within <strong>the</strong> tourism sector or fromoutside this sector but using its structures andnetworks, with <strong>the</strong> primary purpose of effectinga commercial sexual relationship by tourists withresidents of that destination. It is travelling forcommercial sexual relationship or to engage ino<strong>the</strong>r sexual activity. 9 Increasingly sex tourisminvolves non- residents particularly those traffickedfor <strong>the</strong> purposes of sex tourism or migrants whoare vulnerable and are exploited for sex tourism<strong>Tourism</strong> offers an environment conducive to <strong>the</strong>commercial sexual exploitation and trafficking ofwomen. A key element is <strong>the</strong> anonymity and securityof <strong>the</strong> perpetrators of sexual acts that <strong>the</strong> role oftourists provides. Stories from Nepal, Thailand orSri Lanka link <strong>the</strong> influx of tourists with <strong>the</strong> demandfor new commodities for entertainment as well as<strong>the</strong> expansion of sex tourism under <strong>the</strong> aegis ofadventure tourism. 10Governments avoid highlighting <strong>the</strong> evils associatedwith sex tourism, such as exploitation of localwomen and <strong>the</strong> spread of HIV/AIDS, as this mightdecrease overall tourist footfall and revenue.Consequently, tourists are virtually free fromrestraint and scrutiny; local governments and lawenforcement agencies are all too willing to overlookillegal activities. The internet contributes to <strong>the</strong>growth of sex tourism by serving as a convenientchannel through which potential sex tourists cangain access to information (e.g. where and howto find prostitutes, including child prostitutes, andat what prices). 11 Today, sex tours can be bookedonline before <strong>the</strong> tourist even visits <strong>the</strong> country inquestion.Rising tourist figures, ineffective/non-existentregulation in destination countries, lenient attitudeson <strong>the</strong> part of law enforcers towards tourists, andgreater connectivity and anonymity spur <strong>the</strong> sextourism trade on. A direct consequence of <strong>the</strong>expansion of sex tourism is <strong>the</strong> increased risk ofcontracting sexually transmitted diseases, includingHIV/AIDS. 122.2 Sex <strong>Tourism</strong> in India:In India, more and more women and childrenare being pushed into <strong>the</strong> sex trade 13 with <strong>the</strong>numbers estimated to be around 3 million. Indiahas “emerged as a source destination and transitcountry for human trafficking”. 14 The flourishingsex trade is by traffickers who bring people in fromo<strong>the</strong>r states and countries. The final destinationfor <strong>the</strong> vast majority of victims is <strong>the</strong> sex trade inits various manifestations, including commercialsexual exploitation, pornography and child sexualabuse. Trafficked women and children come fromeconomically and socially vulnerable groups, andlive in fear of pimps, clients and <strong>the</strong> police. Theylack information, support systems and negotiationskills to protect <strong>the</strong>mselves from AIDS by avoidingunsafe sex. Violence, disease and malnourishmentare common features of <strong>the</strong>ir living conditions. 15Goa, a popular tourist destination, is a case in point.A major trafficking site, commercial sex work inGoa has undergone a sea change with <strong>the</strong> “closingdown” of <strong>the</strong> Baina red-light district in 2004. 16 Withthis, <strong>the</strong> sex trade spilled over into <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong>state, including massage parlours, hotels, lodgesand rented rooms all over Goa. Frequenters of<strong>the</strong>se massage parlours and hotels are significantlytourists, both domestic and foreign. The fallout of<strong>the</strong> demolition of Baina includes a reduction in <strong>the</strong>safety and welfare of sex workers. No longer within<strong>the</strong> confines of <strong>the</strong> bro<strong>the</strong>ls, <strong>the</strong>y are more subjectto rape by clients, and it is harder to reach <strong>the</strong>mwith HIV prevention information.
Sex tourism is present in o<strong>the</strong>r tourist hotspots too.In 2005 a female employee at an ayurvedic massageparlour in Kerala was allegedly set on fire afterrefusing sexual services to clients. 17 Reports ofincreased “sex tourism” is also linked to <strong>the</strong> growthand popularity of houseboat tourism. Houseboatshave worsened <strong>the</strong> situation, because <strong>the</strong>y arerelatively immune from police raids. 18There is a complex interplay between sex tourism,poverty and <strong>the</strong> spread of HIV/AIDS; as <strong>the</strong> mostcommon cause for <strong>the</strong> spread of AIDS in India isunsafe sexual contact. This is a problem that needsto be addressed with <strong>the</strong> utmost urgency.3. HIV/AIDS in India:HIV or Human Immunodeficiency Virus is avirus that causes Acquired Immune DeficiencySyndrome or AIDS. AIDS is a condition thatprogressively weakens <strong>the</strong> immune system, leaving<strong>the</strong> body susceptible to infections and tumours.HIV is transmitted 19 via several routes, includingunprotected penetrative (vaginal/anal) and oral sexwith an infected person. It is estimated that around2.3 million Indians are currently living with HIV withan adult HIV prevalence rate of 0.34%. 20 Womenaccount for around one million people living withHIV/AIDS, or 39% of HIV infections. 21India’s first cases of HIV were diagnosed amongsex workers in Chennai in 1986. Most of <strong>the</strong>se initialcases had occurred through sexual transmission,and it was noted that contact with foreign visitorshad played a role in initial infections among sexworkers.23 Following this, infection rates soaredthroughout <strong>the</strong> 1990s, by which time it was clearthat HIV had spread to <strong>the</strong> general population.Today, despite being originally associated with sexworkers and truck drivers, <strong>the</strong> epidemic affects allsectors of Indian society, including those classifiedas “low-risk” (e.g. housewives, wealthy membersof society). 233.1 Women and AIDS in India:Women as a social group are susceptible to AIDSfor a variety of reasons, both biological and socioeconomic.24 India has a long history of discriminationagainst its women, especially those from poorer,marginalised groups. Women have lower socialstatus than men; accordingly, <strong>the</strong>ir health,education and welfare are not prioritised. Genderdiscrimination means that many girls are pushedinto marriage before <strong>the</strong>y complete <strong>the</strong>ir education.Coupled with poverty and restricted mobility,this curtails access to health services. Traditionalgender roles confer little freedom and few decisionmakingpowers upon women; <strong>the</strong>refore, even if<strong>the</strong>y do have <strong>the</strong> correct information about AIDS,it is difficult if not impossible for <strong>the</strong>m to negotiatebehaviour change (such as condom usage ando<strong>the</strong>r forms of protected sex) with <strong>the</strong>ir husbands/partners. As a result, many married monogamouswomen are infected by <strong>the</strong>ir husbands who havemultiple sexual partners, including sex workers.Additionally, research suggests that an increase inHIV prevalence among women is related to intimatepartner violence. 25 In India, <strong>the</strong>re is a prevailingculture of violence against women as a means ofcontrolling <strong>the</strong>m. Domestic abuse, rape, incest,assault and violence constitute risk factors thatcould expose women to HIV/AIDS. 26 Finally, femalephysiology makes women more susceptible to HIVinfection in any given heterosexual encounter. Allof <strong>the</strong>se factors are compounded in <strong>the</strong> case of sexworkers.3.2 Sex <strong>Tourism</strong> and AIDS:Several factors are involved in <strong>the</strong> interplay betweensex tourism and <strong>the</strong> spread of AIDS.First, <strong>the</strong> atmosphere at most tourist destinations isconducive to carefree, uninhibited tourist behaviour.This can translate into risky sexual behaviour:many tourists are single, unaccompanied travellerswho are temporarily away from home, family andregular sexual partners. 27 Groups of young, singlepeople travelling toge<strong>the</strong>r are also likely to engagein sex while on holiday. 28 An anonymous travelleris free from <strong>the</strong> societal norms that govern <strong>the</strong>irbehaviour back home. Loss of inhibition makestourists more sexually adventurous, and <strong>the</strong>y tendto underestimate <strong>the</strong> risks of engaging in unsafesex. Ano<strong>the</strong>r type of risky holiday behaviour isdrug consumption, including alcohol consumption,which correlates with unsafe sexual behaviour. 29Second, sex workers have little access to healthrelatedinformation and even lesser to healthcare.113
114For instance, because of <strong>the</strong> thrust of AIDSprevention campaigns on vaginal sex, <strong>the</strong> very realdangers of anal and (to a lesser extent) oral sex isignored. Misinformation is rife: some sex workersbelieve that <strong>the</strong>y can tell whe<strong>the</strong>r a client has AIDSpurely on <strong>the</strong> basis of physical appearance. 30 Whatlittle knowledge sex workers do possess is oftendifficult to act on. For instance, many sex workersin Chennai are unable to carry condoms with <strong>the</strong>mwhile soliciting. This is because soliciting is illegal,and being caught with condoms would amountto sufficient evidence for <strong>the</strong> police to charge<strong>the</strong>m. 31 Additionally, clients frequently refuse touse condoms and threaten to take <strong>the</strong>ir businesselsewhere. For all <strong>the</strong>se reasons, condom usage bysex workers and clients is erratic, at best. One studyindicates that in Mysore, a popular tourist hub, only20% of sex workers had always used condoms withcommercial clients one month prior to <strong>the</strong> study. 32Third is <strong>the</strong> manner in which tourist destinationsare advertised. 33 Destinations are often portrayedas having feminine characteristics; tourismpromotional efforts invite (male) visitors to“explore” and “discover” wild, virgin lands.Communications take on sexual undertones; manyimages feature women’s attractive bodies as part of<strong>the</strong> landscape to be enjoyed by visitors. The exoticappeal of <strong>the</strong> land is inextricably linked with <strong>the</strong>sexual appeal of <strong>the</strong> local women. In this context ofsexualised relations between male visitors (mostly)and female locals, sex is more likely, includingunsafe sex.The final crucial factor in <strong>the</strong> connectionbetween AIDS and sex tourism is <strong>the</strong> poverty andmarginalisation of local women. With <strong>the</strong> growthof tourism, local men and women have beendisplaced and alienated from traditional sourcesof income. This has led <strong>the</strong>m to seek employmentelsewhere, often within <strong>the</strong> tourist industry. Alsomen and women from o<strong>the</strong>r parts of <strong>the</strong> countryhave migrated to tourist hubs seeking work. 34 Thenature of <strong>the</strong>ir work means that <strong>the</strong>se women,who have no local social support networks, comeinto contact with strangers on a daily basis. Thesestrangers can include both locals and tourists(Indian and foreign). Social alienation and isolationmakes women vulnerable to sexual advances bylocals and tourists. Low income and general lowstatus drive many into <strong>the</strong> commercial sex trade.All <strong>the</strong>se factors make it easy for <strong>the</strong> HIV/AIDS virusto spread unchecked among sex workers and clientsat tourist destinations. Crucially, transmission is notexclusively from tourists to locals or from locals totourists, but also from tourist regions to o<strong>the</strong>r partsof <strong>the</strong> country. 35 Popular tourist centre Mysore inSouth India illustrates <strong>the</strong> link between sex tourismand AIDS. Sex workers in Mysore are heavilyaffected by <strong>the</strong> AIDS epidemic. Around 26% of<strong>the</strong>m are living with HIV. This is unsurprising, giventhat only 14% (20%) of sex workers in <strong>the</strong> city usecondoms consistently with clients, and 91% neveruse condoms during sex with <strong>the</strong>ir regular partners.In comparison, 80-90% of sex workers in Tamil Nadustate report condom use, which correlates with arelatively low HIV prevalence of 9%. 36“The Social Assessment study commissioned for<strong>the</strong> NACP – III found tribals especially vulnerableto HIV/AIDS because of <strong>the</strong>ir sexual networkingpatterns, migration both into and out of <strong>the</strong>irhabitats, poor penetration of media and low levelof awareness and lack of availability of healthservices in general and HIV/AIDs related services inparticular. The study also found out that tourism,mining, displacement and o<strong>the</strong>r external influencesincreasing lured tribal women/girls into commercialsex work /trafficking.”Trends in media reports also indicate <strong>the</strong> alarmingnexus between <strong>the</strong> growth of current forms oftourism and <strong>the</strong> increase in HIV-AIDS. The annexureis a compilation of media articles making this linkevident. The HIV/AIDS threat is clearly a grave oneat tourist hotspots. Any policy seeking to resolvethis complex situation must take into consideration<strong>the</strong>se various elements.4. Estimates of HIV Burden in India: 37The total number of People Living with HIV/AIDS(PLHA) in India in 2007 is estimated to be 2.31 million(1.8 – 2.9 million). Females constitute around 39%of <strong>the</strong> burden (0.9 million). The highest number ofPLHA is in Andhra Pradesh (AP) and Maharashtra,with nearly half-a-million PLHA each. Besides TamilNadu and Karnataka, West Bengal, Gujarat andUttar Pradesh are estimated to have higher burdenof <strong>the</strong> epidemic with greater than 0.1 million PLHAin each of <strong>the</strong>se states. The four South Indian states
contribute 60% of all PLHA in <strong>the</strong> country and alongwith West Bengal, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, <strong>the</strong>ycontribute 80% of PLHA in India. Though Manipurand Nagaland have <strong>the</strong> highest HIV prevalencein <strong>the</strong> country, due to small population size, <strong>the</strong>estimated number of PLHA in <strong>the</strong>se two statesis less than 25,000. The states of Kerala, Biharand Rajasthan have more than 50,000 PLHA eachthough <strong>the</strong> HIV prevalence in <strong>the</strong>se states is low.The corresponding India <strong>Tourism</strong> Statistics for2007 provides <strong>the</strong> percentage shares and ranks ofvarious States/UTs in domestic and foreign touristvisits during 2007. The top 5 States in domestictourist visits in 2007 were Andhra Pradesh, UttarPradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Rajasthan, with<strong>the</strong>ir respective shares being 24.3%, 22.1%, 13.3%, 7.2%and 4.9%. These 5 States accounted for about 72.0%of <strong>the</strong> total domestic tourist visits in <strong>the</strong> country.In respect of foreign tourist visits in 2007, <strong>the</strong>top 5 States/UTs were Delhi (15.3%), Maharashtra(14.6%), Tamil Nadu (13.3%) Uttar Pradesh (11.3%)and Rajasthan (10.6%), with <strong>the</strong> total share of <strong>the</strong>seStates/UTs being 65.1%. 38 This trend has remainedmore or less unchanged in subsequent years.Juxtaposing <strong>the</strong> HIV/AIDS figures of 2007 with thatof <strong>the</strong> tourism statistics of 2007, many of <strong>the</strong> stateslike Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh with high number ofPLHA are also <strong>the</strong> states that were front runnersin receiving domestic and foreign tourists in <strong>the</strong>country. The only exception is Rajasthan. Thoughit had received quite high share of both domesticand foreign tourists, <strong>the</strong> HIV prevalence in <strong>the</strong>state is relatively low. Fur<strong>the</strong>r study needs to bedone to understand <strong>the</strong> inter-linkage between HIV/AIDS and tourism and to what extent is tourismresponsible for <strong>the</strong> spread of HIV/AIDS. With <strong>the</strong>Ministry of Development of North Eastern Region,Government of India and North Eastern Councilputting emphasis on expanding tourism in <strong>the</strong>North Eastern Region <strong>the</strong>re is cause for concernas <strong>the</strong>se are also regions of high prevalence of HIVspread mostly through drug use and injectibles aswell as sexual intercourse. <strong>Tourism</strong> policies need totake this reality into account.5. Government Policy and Legislation:How has <strong>the</strong> government responded to <strong>the</strong>challenge of HIV? In terms of infrastructure andinstitutional framework, in 1992 <strong>the</strong> government setup NACO (<strong>the</strong> National AIDS Control Organisation),to oversee <strong>the</strong> policy formation, prevention workand control programmes relating to HIV and AIDS.It also created autonomous, decentralised StateAIDS Prevention and Control Societies (SACS) in25 states and 7 union territories. 39 Their functionsinclude <strong>the</strong> provision of medical and public healthservices; provision of communication and socialsector services; and administration, planning,coordination, monitoring and evaluation, financeand procurement.5.1 HIV/AIDS and <strong>the</strong> Law: 40The Fundamental Rights embodied in <strong>the</strong> IndianConstitution act as a guarantee that all Indiancitizens enjoy rights such as equality before <strong>the</strong>law, freedom of speech and expression, freedomof association and peaceful assembly, freedom ofreligion, and <strong>the</strong> right to constitutional remediesfor <strong>the</strong> protection of civil rights. In reality, however,<strong>the</strong> country still staggers under inequality practicedthrough untouchability, discrimination on <strong>the</strong>grounds of religion, race, caste, gender and also forcertain diseases like leprosy and Human ImmunodeficiencyVirus (HIV)/ Acquired Immuno-DeficiencySyndrome epidemic (AIDS).In 2008, <strong>the</strong> Commission on AIDS in Asia released<strong>the</strong> report entitled - “Redefining AIDS in Asia”, aresearch on <strong>the</strong> epidemiological and economicdimensions of <strong>the</strong> HIV epidemic in Asia. 41 Whilerecognizing that discrimination and rightsviolations of marginalised groups are widespread,<strong>the</strong> Commission endorsed <strong>the</strong> rights based modelthat protects rights of people living with and atrisk of HIV. It recommends “focused and scaledup interventions towards unprotected commercialsex, unprotected sex between men and <strong>the</strong> sharingof contaminated needles and syringes”, validatingtargeted interventions with most at risk populationsunder that National AIDS Control Programme inIndia.The website of NACO states that it does not matterif an individual is affected or infected by HIV. “There115
can be no valid or effective response to HIV/AIDSwithout respect for <strong>the</strong> human rights, fundamentalfreedom and <strong>the</strong> dignity of human beings.” 42According to NACO, <strong>the</strong> three of <strong>the</strong> most importantrights in <strong>the</strong> HIV scenario include:• y Right to informed consent• y Right to confidentiality and• y Right against discriminationRight to Informed Consent:The implications of HIV are very different from mosto<strong>the</strong>r illnesses. The fear, stigma and discriminationthat coexists with <strong>the</strong> HIV epidemic has raisedseveral legal and ethical issues; testing for HIV andtreatment for persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLHAs)being a key concern. Testing for HIV requiresspecific and informed consent of <strong>the</strong> person beingtested and any research on data of HIV positivepeople. The principle of consent is based on <strong>the</strong>fundamental principle of autonomy of an individual,which has been recognised within <strong>the</strong> meaning of<strong>the</strong> right to life and personal liberty under Article21 of <strong>the</strong> Constitution of India. Unlike countries likeUnited Kingdom, USA, Canada and Australia, inIndia <strong>the</strong> concept of consent is not fully developedand references may be made to <strong>the</strong> principles laiddown in <strong>the</strong> Indian Contract Act and <strong>the</strong> IndianPenal Code.Right to Confidentiality:A person has <strong>the</strong> right to keep information onHIV status confidential. The maintenance ofconfidentiality of an individual’s health status isone of <strong>the</strong> cornerstones of rights-based legal andpublic health responses to HIV/AIDS universally.The right to confidentiality rests on principles ofautonomy and respect for privacy i.e. every personhas <strong>the</strong> right to a sphere of activity and personalinformation that is exclusive to her/him and that s/he has <strong>the</strong> right to disclose as s/he pleases. This hasbeen viewed as crucial in encouraging those mostat risk to come forward for HIV testing, counsellingand treatment.Policies around <strong>the</strong> world, including India’s NationalAIDS Prevention and Control Policy, have come torecognise <strong>the</strong> protection of confidentiality as vitalin <strong>the</strong>ir response to <strong>the</strong> epidemic. Though IndianConstitution guarantees <strong>the</strong> fundamental rightto life and liberty, which has been interpreted toinclude <strong>the</strong> right to privacy, <strong>the</strong>re has not been aclear statutory enunciation of confidentiality inIndia.Right against Discrimination:The right to be treated equally is a fundamentalright whe<strong>the</strong>r it’s something as simple as using apublic well or something more serious like denial ofhousing. One can seek remedy in a court of law ifone is tested for HIV without informed consent, or<strong>the</strong> person’s confidentiality is breached, or any of<strong>the</strong> rights are violated.5.2 Legislative and Policy Developments: 43According to <strong>the</strong> Lawyers Collective HIV/AIDSUnit (LCHAU) <strong>the</strong> last two decades of HIV/AIDSprogramming has witnessed disruptions in effortsto prevent and control HIV among core groups.There has been discrimination against PLHAs inhealth, employment, education and families. Theexisting legal remedies have been ineffectiveand limited access to life saving drugs for peopleinfected with HIV.There has been growing demand for defined legalrights and duties to address <strong>the</strong> AIDS epidemic and<strong>the</strong> importance of an appropriate legal response.With many policy responses being shaped basedon <strong>the</strong> debate about public health versus individualrights, <strong>the</strong> demand has been for a specific legislationthat defines <strong>the</strong> legal rights and duties of thoseinfected by HIV/AIDS and right of treatment forpersons living with HIV/AIDS.LCHAU was requested by Shri. Kapil Sibal, Memberof Parliament and <strong>the</strong> National AIDS ControlOrganisation (NACO) to prepare a draft legislationon HIV/AIDS to be presented to <strong>the</strong> Parliament inApril 2003. This initiative received commitmentfrom <strong>the</strong> Indian government. The drafting of <strong>the</strong> Billby LCHAU witnessed nationwide consultations byinvolving <strong>the</strong> learning from representatives of <strong>the</strong>various sectors that are impacted by <strong>the</strong> epidemic.The consultation feedback that LCHAU received116
through various processes held at national andstate level was <strong>the</strong>n filtered and incorporated in <strong>the</strong>Draft Legislation. The Draft Bill was submitted toNACO in August 2005.In October 2008, <strong>the</strong> Law Ministry, returned <strong>the</strong>Bill to NACO with changes. In its version, <strong>the</strong>Law Ministry deleted provisions like Access toTreatment and Risk Reduction, which form <strong>the</strong>core of <strong>the</strong> National AIDS Control Programme.Chapters on Discrimination, Confidentiality andSpecial Provisions for Women and Children werechanged, undermining legal protection for peopleinfected and affected by HIV. The Law Ministryhas introduced measures termed as draconian bypeople working on <strong>the</strong> issue. The measures includedmandatory testing, tracing and isolation of peopleinfected or at risk of HIV and AIDS. Such measuresare serious threat to <strong>the</strong> rights based model that<strong>the</strong> original Bill is premised upon. Such measureshave over <strong>the</strong> years failed to prevent <strong>the</strong> spreadof <strong>the</strong> disease. The National Coalition of HIV/AIDS,launched protests across <strong>the</strong> country opposing<strong>the</strong> proposals of <strong>the</strong> Law Ministry. The continuingdemand is to retain <strong>the</strong> bill in its original form.5.3 Important Developments through JudicialPronouncements:After seven long years of wait, in <strong>the</strong> writ petitionchallenging <strong>the</strong> constitutional validity of Section377 of <strong>the</strong> Indian Penal Code, <strong>the</strong> High Court ofDelhi in 2009 held that Section 377 of <strong>the</strong> IndianPenal Code (IPC) violates Articles 21, 14, and 15 of<strong>the</strong> Constitution of India “insofar as it criminalizesconsensual sexual acts between adults in private”.In Naz Foundation (India) Trust v. Governmentof NCT, Delhi and O<strong>the</strong>rs Writ Petition (Civil) No.7455 of 2001 (Naz Foundation), <strong>the</strong> petitionershad argued that Section 377 is violative of <strong>the</strong>constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights ofmen who have sex with men (MSM) including <strong>the</strong>right to life and liberty, health and privacy (Article21), right to equality (Articles 14), <strong>the</strong> right not to bediscriminated on <strong>the</strong> grounds of sex (Article 15), <strong>the</strong>right to freedom of expression (Article 19). Evidentin both <strong>the</strong> petitioner’s argument and <strong>the</strong> Court’sjudgment is Section 377’s deleterious effect onHIV/AIDS intervention and prevention in India. TheUnion of India’s position on this issue was internallyinconsistent. The Minister of Home Affairs arguedthat <strong>the</strong> impugned provision was necessary foreffective treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS,while both <strong>the</strong> Ministry of Health and Family Welfareand <strong>the</strong> National AIDS Control Organization (NACO)submitted affidavits that supported <strong>the</strong> petitioner’scontention to <strong>the</strong> contrary.A landmark anti-discrimination case in <strong>the</strong> BombayHigh Court that affirmed <strong>the</strong> rights of PLHAs in <strong>the</strong>workplace was MX v ZY AIR 1997 Bom 406 whereMX, a casual labourer, was tested for HIV by hisemployer, ZY, a public sector corporation, priorto being regularised into a permanent position.MX tested positive for HIV, and though o<strong>the</strong>rwisefit, was rejected from being regularised, and hiscontract was terminated. MX filed a writ petitionin <strong>the</strong> Bombay High Court, arguing that <strong>the</strong>company’s rules (mandatory HIV testing and denialof employment to positive people) and actionsviolated Articles 14 (Equality before <strong>the</strong> law), 16(Equality of opportunity) and 21 (Right to life andpersonal liberty) of <strong>the</strong> Indian Constitution. Thecourt ruled that:• y A government/ public sector employer cannotdeny employment or terminate <strong>the</strong> serviceof an HIV-positive employee solely becauseof <strong>the</strong>ir HIV-positive status, and any act ofdiscrimination towards an employee on <strong>the</strong>basis of <strong>the</strong>ir HIV-positive status is a violation ofFundamental Rights.• y The services of HIV-positive employees can onlybe terminated if <strong>the</strong>y pose a substantial risk oftransmission to <strong>the</strong>ir co-employees or are unfitor unable to perform <strong>the</strong> essential functionsof <strong>the</strong>ir job. Determining whe<strong>the</strong>r a person isunfit or incapable of performing <strong>the</strong>ir job mustbe made on <strong>the</strong> facts of each specific case byconducting an individual enquiry (beyond amere diagnostic test).y • The court also held that an HIV-positiveperson can suppress <strong>the</strong>ir identity and use apseudonym in <strong>the</strong> course of court proceedingsin order to protect <strong>the</strong>mselves from fur<strong>the</strong>rdiscrimination.117
Again in 2002 in <strong>the</strong> case Mr. Badan Singh v. Unionof India & Anr 44 <strong>the</strong> Delhi High Court held that aperson living with HIV cannot be denied opportunityof employment merely on ground of his HIV+ status.In July 2008, <strong>the</strong> Supreme Court dismissed <strong>the</strong>Special Leave Petition (SLP) filed by <strong>the</strong> State ofAndhra Pradesh (AP), against an order of <strong>the</strong> APHigh Court directing <strong>the</strong> State to appoint an HIVpositive Reserve Police Constable, as a stipendiarycadet Trainee Sub-Inspector. This affirms <strong>the</strong> rightto employment of people living with HIV (PLHA) injobs that require high fitness standards. 45In October 2008 <strong>the</strong> Supreme Court passed interimdirections in <strong>the</strong> matter of Sankalp RehabilitationTrust v. Union of India 46 which brought to <strong>the</strong>attention of <strong>the</strong> court incidents of discrimination inpublic hospitals. On <strong>the</strong> direction of <strong>the</strong> SupremeCourt a ‘19 point recommendation’ was formulatedin conjunction with NACO (for <strong>the</strong> government),PLHA networks and <strong>the</strong> Lawyers Collective HIV/AIDS Unit. The directions seek to broadly ensure<strong>the</strong> right of PLHIV to universal access to healthcare.5.4 The Interdepartmental Agreements inDealing with <strong>the</strong> Epidemic:According to <strong>the</strong> NACO website, 47 <strong>the</strong>re is an actionplan to mainstream HIV/AIDS into a number of linedepartments and ministries. Following are detailsof such plans with regard to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Tourism</strong> ministry:Altoge<strong>the</strong>r 31 Union ministries of <strong>the</strong> Governmentof India have mainstreamed HIV/AIDS preventionin <strong>the</strong>ir day-to-day functioning. Each of <strong>the</strong>m hasone dedicated HIV/AIDS unit with at least one focalperson from staff. All have developed a situationassessment report and five-year HIV/AIDS actionplan covering critical elements, including:• y Internal budgetary allocation for implementingHIV/AIDS action plan.• y Plan for HIV/AIDS unit .• y Identification of comparative advantage to<strong>the</strong> Department/ Ministry in introducing <strong>the</strong>preventive interventions, and entry points forHIV interventions in <strong>the</strong> Ministry/ Department’swork.• y Cost-benefit analysis of measures taken for HIV/AIDS prevention.• y Rights-based workplace policy: training andsensitisation of internal staff as a first step.• y Workplace interventions for care, support andtreatment, including provision of commoditiesand services for HIV/AIDS infected or affected.• y Ongoing monitoring and feedback: reporting ofcore indicators to <strong>the</strong> National Council on AIDS.In <strong>the</strong>se activities and interventions of variousministries, NACO, State AIDS Control Societies andtechnical experts provide all support for settingup <strong>the</strong> HIV unit, developing reporting lines withindepartment, reports, training/sensitising staff anddeveloping workplace policy.NACO maps and identifies priority organisations/government ministries that have direct orindirect relevance to <strong>the</strong> HIV and AIDS response(e.g. direct relevance - Railways, Steel as largeemployers; indirect relevance – Labour Ministry,Police Department for <strong>the</strong> statutory support <strong>the</strong>ycan provide to HIV/AIDS programmes). NACO hasidentified 13 focus government ministries, but <strong>the</strong>secan vary according to <strong>the</strong> mapping in each state. All13 union ministries have to achieve <strong>the</strong> objective ofHIV prevention and control, and contribute to thisby integrating HIV into <strong>the</strong>ir larger mission.5.5 Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>: 48The Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> is <strong>the</strong> nodal agency for <strong>the</strong>formulation of national policies and programmeson tourism. The activities of its HIV cell asrecommended by NACO are:• y Advocacy with representatives of hotelfederations/ 2,141 hotel owners and ancillaryindustry.• y Incorporation of HIV/AIDS in <strong>the</strong> trainingprogrammes conducted by National Council forHotel Management and Catering Technology(NCHMCT) and Institutes of Hotel Management.y • Workplace policies of all major establishmentsin this sector-Directorate General of <strong>Tourism</strong>,118
20 India tourism offices within <strong>the</strong> country,India <strong>Tourism</strong> Development Corporation(ITDC), Indian Institute of <strong>Tourism</strong> and TravelManagement (IITTM).• y HIV messages on hoardings erected at all majorDestination Development Projects (64), 20 ruraltourism circuits.• y IEC 49 stalls at tourist fairs.• y Free space for installation of CVMs and IECmaterial at ITDC hotels and duty-free shops.• y Establishing condom vending machines (CVMs)at suitable wayside amenities, tourist arrivalcentres, reception centres and interpretationcentres in <strong>the</strong> identified tourist circuits. Thesecould be organised by <strong>the</strong> State AIDS ControlSocieties in coordination with <strong>the</strong> State <strong>Tourism</strong>Departments.• y An HIV/AIDS workplace programme forTravel Agents Association of India (TAAI),Indian Association of Tour Operators (IATO),Federation of Hotel and Restaurant Associationsof India (FHRAI) and <strong>the</strong> Hotel Association ofIndia (HAI).• y Encouraging <strong>the</strong> industry bodies to providecondoms, information about HIV in hotel roomsHowever <strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>’s latestannual report and website indicates that <strong>the</strong>seresponsibilities do not seem to be on its radar, andthat its focus seems to be <strong>the</strong> unfettered promotionof tourism. Whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> HIV cell even exists is notclear.5.5.1 Implications of Government Policy:The thrust of <strong>the</strong> programme detailed aboveby NACO is on information provision, as well asincreasing access to condoms. These interventionsare primarily targeted at tourists and relativelyeducated industry employees (e.g. those whocome from accredited hospitality and managementinstitutes) and must be seen as only <strong>the</strong> first step instarting to address this issue.Sex workers, because of <strong>the</strong> stigmatised natureof <strong>the</strong>ir activities, have traditionally had restrictedaccess to information as well as to healthcareservices. 50 As mentioned earlier, pimps sometimesprevent sex workers from carrying condoms so that<strong>the</strong> police may not use that as evidence of bro<strong>the</strong>lkeeping.51 Sex workers cannot rely on clients, whomay refuse to use condoms and threaten to go too<strong>the</strong>rs who will agree to condom-free sex. Takingall <strong>the</strong>se factors into consideration, it is evidentthat simply providing IEC stalls at tourist fairs andcondom vending machines at tourist arrival centresis not going to benefit <strong>the</strong>se women. Also, it isquite rare to see such stalls and machines anyway!The tourism industry attracts many relativelyunqualified workers, including poor migrants anddisplaced people. Migrants, in fact, constitutea large section of <strong>the</strong> workforce. 52 Inadequatemethods of information provision (such as thoseproposed by <strong>the</strong> government) are unlikely to reach<strong>the</strong>se low-status workers; yet it is migrant womenwho are most likely to enter <strong>the</strong> commercial sextrade in order to supplement low incomes.Rupa Chinai, a writer with <strong>the</strong> Women’s InternationalPerspective (a global source for women’sperspectives on news and world developments),suggests that marginalised people from lowsocioeconomic groups suffer disproportionatelyfrom AIDS. 53 Poorer people, once identified as HIVpositive, reach AIDS and premature death muchmore rapidly than do members of o<strong>the</strong>r socialgroups. Chinai highlights <strong>the</strong> plight of commercialsex workers: ignorance coupled with unsanitaryliving conditions and little/no access to healthcareservices makes bro<strong>the</strong>ls a breeding ground forAIDS. Sex workers also have little access toadequate nourishment, which Chinai suggests isvital to better health and longevity for HIV positivepersons.The invisibility of women in policy is endemic. Themainstreaming of gender in policy and funding hasbeen on <strong>the</strong> agenda now for at least two decades,but despite persistent efforts of women’s groupsand o<strong>the</strong>r civil society actors, results have been thinon <strong>the</strong> ground. The government has a duty to reachvulnerable groups, as <strong>the</strong>re is clearly a link betweenpoverty, marginalisation, disempowerment andvulnerability to HIV. It must formulate broadranginginitiatives that reach those who have beendispossessed of land and livelihood, and denied119
asic rights to food and education as a result ofmacro-economic pro-tourism government policies.Equally, <strong>the</strong> government must improve <strong>the</strong>iraccess to incomes, nutrition, water and sanitation,education, and basic health services (<strong>the</strong>rebyimproving <strong>the</strong>ir general health). Unfortunately,<strong>the</strong>se considerations do not figure in national HIVpolicy. The <strong>Tourism</strong> Section of <strong>the</strong> 11 th Five YearPlan makes no mention of <strong>Tourism</strong> and HIV/AIDS 54and EQUATIONS critique of <strong>the</strong> plan points to thislacuna.6. Recommendations:The first step would be <strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>and state tourism departments to acknowledge<strong>the</strong> nexus between tourism and AIDS. With this,<strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> and <strong>the</strong> state tourismdepartments should work toge<strong>the</strong>r to put in placedefined and clear mechanisms to deal with <strong>the</strong>issue- building up <strong>the</strong> necessary support system andpreventive mechanisms.Poverty is <strong>the</strong> primary driver of sex work at touristdestinations. Many women employed by <strong>the</strong> touristindustry are underpaid. The UNWTO has recognisedthat <strong>the</strong> industry offers low pay and poor workingconditions, with little or no job security forpopulations such as women and young people. 55The onus, <strong>the</strong>refore, is on <strong>the</strong> government tocreate what <strong>the</strong> ILO 56 labels “decent work” for all,involving fundamental principles and rights at workand international labour standards; employmentand income opportunities; social protection andsocial security; and social dialogue and tripartism.Macro-level policies need to be formulated thatgive Indian women access to better education,better employment opportunities and better livingconditions. Low social status is inextricably linkedto female poverty in India, <strong>the</strong> tourist industrybeing no exception. Gender discrimination must beweeded out in order to make this a more womenfriendlyspace.Thus policy prescriptions that merely emphasisesafe sex and condom usage is more <strong>the</strong> first stepand even a quick fix. A more systemic approachto policy is critical. Secondly, overemphasisingcondom usage neglects factors such as povertythat drive <strong>the</strong> sex trade. Efforts must be made toimprove living and working conditions for poorwomen at tourist destinations, <strong>the</strong>reby restricting<strong>the</strong> numbers of women who find <strong>the</strong>ir way into <strong>the</strong>sex trade.The tourism industry must improve workingconditions for its employees, especially women.Minimum wage protection for all workers must beintroduced, with remuneration that is enough foremployees to subsist on. Women in <strong>the</strong> workforceshould be encouraged to organise and campaignfor better working conditions. Disadvantagedmembers of <strong>the</strong> workforce (women, indigenouspeople etc) must be given opportunities for trainingand skill development if <strong>the</strong>y are to progress tohigher-status work. All <strong>the</strong>se measures, if properlyimplemented, will give women a sense of securityand control over <strong>the</strong>ir lives, <strong>the</strong>reby curbing <strong>the</strong>numbers who join <strong>the</strong> sex trade.The industry has a responsibility to activelydiscourage sexual contact between guests andemployees/ locals. Establishments such as hotelsand bars need to both protect <strong>the</strong>ir employeesfrom sexual harassment and proposition, as well asprevent <strong>the</strong>m from actively seeking clients.A useful starting point for a more responsibletourism industry might be <strong>the</strong> introduction ofHIV/AIDS programmes for <strong>the</strong> workplace, aswell as sector-specific regulatory mechanisms &codes of conduct. For instance, in <strong>the</strong> 1990s, <strong>the</strong>UNWTO, travel businesses, and <strong>the</strong> children’s rightsorganisation ECPAT developed <strong>the</strong> internationalCode of Conduct 57 for <strong>the</strong> Protection of Childrenfrom Sexual Exploitation in Travel and <strong>Tourism</strong>;today hundreds of businesses and associationsin more than 23 countries have committed to it.Similar concrete standards of behaviour for touristestablishments must be set in consultation on HIV/AIDS and <strong>Tourism</strong>.Both government and <strong>the</strong> tourist industry need tobe responsible regarding destination promotion.The focus must be taken away from a sexualisedimage of women. Concerted efforts must be madeto crack down on websites images and languageused in tourist brochures that promote or appear topromote women as a sexual object. The obligationnot to promote sex tourism is mentioned in <strong>the</strong>UNWTO Global Code of Ethics as well. 58120
Policy level wide-ranging initiatives must reach <strong>the</strong>entire community, instead of superficial schemesthat only provide information to certain segmentsof <strong>the</strong> population. High-risk groups must bereached - this means reaching sex workers, clientsand migrant populations.Public awareness of <strong>the</strong> need to regulate tourismmust increase. Within <strong>the</strong> public domain, <strong>the</strong>reshould be a focus on <strong>the</strong> many negative impactsof tourism. The role of a vigilant press cannot beoveremphasised; <strong>the</strong> alternative media (includingproductions of NGOs and civil society groups) playa particularly important part. Civil society groups,governments and law enforcement officials need totake cognisance of <strong>the</strong> problem of violence againstwomen at tourist destinations. The public and <strong>the</strong>government must be sensitised to <strong>the</strong> need forchange in approach to expansion of tourism at anycost.Annexure:Media Reports on <strong>the</strong> links between <strong>Tourism</strong> andHIV/AIDS in India and neighboring regions.1. Andhra PradeshTirupati-Tirumala hills grapple with rising AIDScases. Shwetal Rai / CNN-IBN / 21 st June 2008http://ibnlive.in.com/news/tirupatitirumala-hills-grapplewith-rising-aids-cases/67487-3.htmlHyderabad: There has been a steep rise in <strong>the</strong>number of HIV/AIDS cases in one of India’s holiestHindu pilgrimage sites, <strong>the</strong> Tirupati-Tirumala hills.Andhra Pradesh AIDS Control Society has found outthat over 200 commercial sex workers operate in<strong>the</strong> area.“We have come across this information throughunofficial sources that <strong>the</strong>re is commercial sexactivity even in Tirumala. There are about 200-300 sex workers <strong>the</strong>re,” Project Director, AP AIDSControl Society, K Chandravadan said. The discoveryreveals that sex workers clandestinely operate inabout 15 secluded spots in <strong>the</strong> hills.Chittoor — ano<strong>the</strong>r district known for its pilgrimagesites — has also been identified as a high-risk zone.Incidentally, smoking, drinking and non-vegetarianfood are banned in <strong>the</strong> Tirupati-Tirumala hills. Thetemple authorities, however, have denied <strong>the</strong>findings.“I disagree with <strong>the</strong> media reports. There arethousands of employees here who are sincere anddedicated. There is no scope for such scandals. Wewould never allow it,” Executive Officer, TirupatiTirumala Devasthanam, KV Ramanachary defended.While <strong>the</strong> temple authorities are now in damagecontrol mode, news of rampant prostitution hasshocked devotees.Mega rally on AIDS awareness organizedhttp://www.hindu.com/2008/12/02stories/2008120252530300.htmTirupati: The United Nations’ AIDS <strong>the</strong>me ‘Lead,empower, deliver’ was conveyed loud and clearto <strong>the</strong> public in <strong>the</strong> form of awareness campaigns,technical sessions and rallies in <strong>the</strong> city on Monday inconnection with ‘World AIDS Day’. The Medical andHealth Department conducted a mega awarenessrally from SV High School. Speaking after flaggingoff <strong>the</strong> rally, SVIMS Director G. Subramanyamrevealed that 14,248 of <strong>the</strong> 1.12 lakh persons testedtill October-end in <strong>the</strong> district were found to beHIV-positive. Similarly, almost 2,000 of <strong>the</strong> 1.14lakh pregnant women tested positive. Some 2,538patients were undergoing Anti-Retroviral Therapyat <strong>the</strong> ART centre in Ruia Hospital and <strong>the</strong> figureincluded 1,368 men, 1,027 women, four transgenderpersons, 73 boys and 66 girls.Additional DM&HO (AIDS and Leprosy) S.Nazeeruddin elaborated <strong>the</strong> activities of <strong>the</strong>care and rehabilitation centres at Yerpedu andArogyavaram and <strong>the</strong> ‘Drop-in centre’ at Chittoor.He lauded <strong>the</strong> progressive thinking HIV+ personsfor identifying fellow PLHAs (People Living withHIV/AIDS) and forming a group called NetworkChittoor Positive People (NCP+).Chittoor correspondent adds: The society should becompassionate towards those suffering from AIDSand not belittle <strong>the</strong>m, Collector M. Ravi Chandrasaid as he flagged off a rally organised in connectionwith <strong>the</strong> World AIDS Day. [H]e cautioned peopleto be careful about AIDS and urged people to besympa<strong>the</strong>tic towards those affected.121
Sex tourism hits tribal womenExpress News Service / 04 Jun 2009http://newsrack.in/browse?issue=Sexual+Exploitation&catID=1&owner=tulir&start=1Hyderabad: The incidence of HIV/AIDS is on <strong>the</strong>rise in tribal areas with an ever increasing numberof women turning into commercial sex workers ––a fallout of <strong>the</strong> expansion or ra<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong> invasion,of tourism and mining industries. According to astudy conducted by <strong>the</strong> Andhra Pradesh State AIDSControl Society (APSACS) in 10 Integrated TribalDevelopment Agency (ITDA) areas in <strong>the</strong> State,about 1,973 of 67,500 tribals tested positive to HIV,as did 167 of 29,500 pregnant women.“These tribals came to government hospitals andprimary health centres (PHCs) voluntarily.We suspect <strong>the</strong>re could be more number ofaffected tribals,” said APSACS project directorRV Chandravadan. The study found that tourism,mining, consequent displacement and migrationare <strong>the</strong> main factors that are forcing tribal womeninto commericial sex. Permissive sexual practices orpolygamy among tribal communities and traffickingof tribal girls apart from unavailability of medicalservices are also being viewed as reasons for <strong>the</strong>spread of AIDS.Officials also say that tribal girls are gettingaccustomed to posh-lifestyle and becoming sexworkers to meet <strong>the</strong>ir needs. “We found that tribalsare ignorant of HIV/AIDS. We are making effortsto educate <strong>the</strong>m through a novel programmecalled ‘Giri Suraksha’. Awareness will be createdamong tribals through ‘kalajathas’ performed bytrained tribals and education in tribal languages likeGondh,” said Chandravadan.The Giri Suraksha project is a two-year action planbeing launched by APSACS in association with<strong>the</strong> Tribal Cultural Research and Training Institute(TCRTI) from June 15. The project will be funded by<strong>the</strong> Central Government and implemented at a costof Rs 2.6 crore. The APSACS will use <strong>the</strong> servicesof traditional healers or unqualified practitionersto spread awareness on HIV/AIDS among tribals.A separate cell will be established in <strong>the</strong> TribalWelfare department to take stock of programmeson a regular basis. The officials are also toying with<strong>the</strong> idea of promotion of use of condoms, especiallyamong women, by distributing <strong>the</strong>m through selfhelpgroups and <strong>the</strong> Girijan Cooperative Corporation(GCC) outlets.2. PondicherryTourist Guards to Spread Awareness ofHIV/AIDS. The Hindu – Online Edition /19 th September 2009http://www.<strong>the</strong>hindu.com/2009/09/19/stories/2009091950280200.htm“Those who have direct interface with people shouldspread <strong>the</strong> message”Puducherry: The Pondicherry AIDS Control Society(PACS) has roped in tourist guards and employees of<strong>the</strong> <strong>Tourism</strong> Department for spreading awarenessof HIV/AIDS prevention.A workshop on HIV/AIDS was conducted for <strong>the</strong>first of three batches of tourist guards, employeesof <strong>the</strong> department and those of hotels run by <strong>the</strong>department on Friday. Forty persons attended it.Alerting peopleInaugurating <strong>the</strong> workshop, Director of <strong>Tourism</strong>Ma<strong>the</strong>w Samuel said that <strong>the</strong> first line of peopleof <strong>the</strong> department had been asked to alert andadvises people on HIV/AIDS prevention. Those whohad direct interface with people should spread <strong>the</strong>message.Project Director of PACS Gilbert Fernandez saidthat information on <strong>the</strong> basic concept of HIV/AIDS, prevention, facilities available for testing andmeasures taken by PACS to control HIV/AIDS wereimparted to <strong>the</strong> participants.“The tourist guards and staff meet many personsfrom various parts of <strong>the</strong> world. They can impartinformation regarding HIV/AIDS prevention in case<strong>the</strong>y find any person with deviant behaviour,” hesaid. PACS had conducted similar workshops forprisoners. Around 700 anganwadi workers werealso trained. Welfare Inspectors and officers of <strong>the</strong>Social Welfare Department, Department of Women122
and Child Development and Adi Dravidar WelfareDepartment will also be trained.3. GoaGoa AIDS body, hotels in pact for awarenessBusiness Standard / Panaji / 23 rd February 2006http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/goa-aidsbody-hotels-in-pact-for-awareness/230556/The hospitality industry in Goa, <strong>the</strong> Goa State AIDSControl Society (GSACS) has joined hands withInternational Labour Organisation (ILO) to spreadawareness about HIV/ AIDS among workers in <strong>the</strong>hospitality sector.“There is a crucial connection between <strong>the</strong> spreadof AIDS and <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. It is necessarythat <strong>the</strong> tourism industry reach out and spreadawareness about it,” said U K Vohra, healthsecretary of <strong>the</strong> state.He said <strong>the</strong> state is recognised as a prime touristdestination worldwide and <strong>the</strong>re is an urgent needto educate people in <strong>the</strong> hospitality sector. Goareceives over 25 lakh tourists, both domestic andinternational, every year. Besides, <strong>the</strong>re are morethan 18,000 small and big hotel establishmentsacross <strong>the</strong> state.Over 15,000 people are working in <strong>the</strong> hospitalityindustry in <strong>the</strong> state, who are vulnerable to <strong>the</strong>dreaded disease, according to HIV/ AIDS expertAfsar Mohd, national project director of ILO.“This is an extraordinary problem and it needsextraordinary attention,” he added.Deputy Chief Minister Wilfred de Souza said <strong>the</strong>reis a need to promote responsible tourism. “Weneed to protect <strong>the</strong> industry from this diseasethrough various HIV/ AIDS prevention programmes.We should also see that Goa remains a touristdestination without <strong>the</strong> threat of HIV/ AIDS,” saidde Souza, who is also <strong>the</strong> tourism minister.According to Charles Bonifacio, president of Traveland <strong>Tourism</strong> Association, all hotels should startorganising HIV/ AIDS prevention programmes toeducate <strong>the</strong>ir staff members.The expanding red light district An openPandora’s box . TNN, Jun 10, 2009, 04.35am ISThttp://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Goa/The-expandingred-light-district/articleshow/4637537.cmsFrom massage parlours to fishing trawlers,highways to starred hotels, migrants to Goan girls,after <strong>the</strong> tearing down of Baina’s red light area,trafficking in Goa has undergone a sea change,reports Preetu Nair:• y In <strong>the</strong> last three raids on massage parlours inPorvorim, Mapusa and Arpora, police rescuedfour Goans. The girls had joined <strong>the</strong> parloursfor “better pay” and “a better future”.• y Sudha, 16, a school dropout from Sanvordemwanted fancy mobiles, money to spend onclo<strong>the</strong>s, food and friends. Traffickers would lureher with <strong>the</strong> promise of a mobile phone every nightfor serveral months. She was later rescued froma hotel in Margao and <strong>the</strong> traffickers arrested.• y Three young girls - Kannadiga, Manipuri andGoanwere recently rescued from a massageparlour in Vagator. They were lured with <strong>the</strong>promise of “good money” and “promotion”after a year. The promotion included training inbeauty treatment and a near doubling of salaryto between Rs 8,000 and Rs 10,000.Five years after bulldozers razed Baina’s red lightarea in <strong>the</strong> state’s port town of Vasco, <strong>the</strong> modeand form of trafficking has changed.Baina’s dingy rooms have given way to fancycubicles in massage parlours and air-conditionedrooms in starred hotels. Taxi drivers and motorcyclepilots as contact points have made way for waiters,chai boys and beach hawkers. The modus operanditoo has adapted to <strong>the</strong> needs of <strong>the</strong> solicitors and<strong>the</strong> solicited.Perhaps <strong>the</strong> biggest change, however, point outpolice and NGO sources, are <strong>the</strong> finding of local girlsamong those rescued.“Goan girls are being lured, often by Goan women,with <strong>the</strong> promise of easy money and <strong>the</strong> beliefthat <strong>the</strong>y can lead a comfortable life with less123
hardwork,” says Auda Viegas, president, BailanchoEkvott and member of <strong>the</strong> State ProtectiveHome that looks after rescued trafficking victims.With <strong>the</strong> contact point shifting from <strong>the</strong> crampedlanes in Baina to just about everywhere: beaches,parlours, hotels, lodges, bars, restaurants,streets, markets, even fishing trawlers, <strong>the</strong> modusoperandi nowadays is to pre-arrange a meetingpoint for <strong>the</strong> customer and <strong>the</strong> girl. Alternatively,women are also sent to certain areas to directlysolicit, finds a study by Baina-based NGO, Arz.The 2007-08 study, whose findings will be releasedsoon, focused on Goa’s prostitution phenomenonafter <strong>the</strong> demolition of Baina and <strong>the</strong> closure ofdance bars in Mumbai. Information was collectedby talking to sex workers, pimps, legislators,government authorities, hoteliers etc. Thestudy reports that nowadays, it is not uncommonto find girls, including foreigners, solicitingon beaches, bars, restaurants, shacks andeven at tourist bazaars.Ano<strong>the</strong>r common meeting point are night clubswhere couple entry is <strong>the</strong> rule. Some girls solicitaround major crossroads, traffic circles, junctions,gardens and bus stands. In Margao, Colva and o<strong>the</strong>rparts of Salcete taluka, women are seen solicitingon <strong>the</strong> roads, municipal garden and bus stands.Most are migrants settled in Goa, reports <strong>the</strong> study.“After <strong>the</strong> demolition in Baina, prostitutionhas spread all over <strong>the</strong> state,” says Dr PramodSalgaonkar, chairperson, Goa State Commissionfor Women. “While middle-budget prostitution isflourishing in <strong>the</strong> tourist belt in <strong>the</strong> form of massageparlours, prostitution along highways, hotelsand houses is also on <strong>the</strong> increase,” she adds.Arun Pandey of Arz, says, “The Baina demolitionhas led to an escalation in highway prostitution,prostitution in isolated places like jungles andprostitution in vehicles (private four wheelers).”“There is an increased vulnerability of womenand children in prostitution to forced sex acts andrapes. Clients would not be able to film prostitutedwomen and children or have group sex in a bro<strong>the</strong>l.Now this is possible,” he adds.Goa police’s public information officer SP AVDeshpande calls it “old wine in a new bottle”.“The business is <strong>the</strong> same. But girls are now bettereducated and pimps are using <strong>the</strong> latest technologyto operate and attract high paying clients.The business has become moresophisticated.” Moreover, new destinationpoints for trafficking in Goa and in neighboringstates have developed, he says.As for local girls entering <strong>the</strong> trade, Dr PramodSalgaonkar shrugs off <strong>the</strong> matter, “There arefew Goan girls who are misguided and pushedinto prostitution. But <strong>the</strong> number is minuscule.”Auda Viegas, emphasizes, “We have to get outof denial mode and accept that in <strong>the</strong> changingscenario our Goan girls are also being lured intocommercial sex work and in most cases by Goanwomen. It’s <strong>the</strong> lure of easy money and a falsebelief that it’s an easy life.”(Names of trafficked victims changed)The supply chainAirUpper class commercial sex workers and <strong>the</strong>irclients prefer to fly into Goa. Prior to meeting,customers choose from photos shown on mobilephones by agents. The agent <strong>the</strong>n makes <strong>the</strong> dealwith <strong>the</strong> girl and <strong>the</strong> amount charged can go upto Rs 1 lakh per night. A part of <strong>the</strong> payment ismade in advance and is immediately verified at<strong>the</strong> nearest ATM. One-way air fare is paid by <strong>the</strong>middle man who can earn as much as Rs 30,000to Rs 40,000 in one deal. Hotels are avoidedand girls are taken to bungalows or flats.TrainGirls brought into Goa by train, mostly alight at Thivimand Vasco stations from where <strong>the</strong>y are picked upand taken to flats. They are supplied as per demand.BusGirls brought into Goa by bus get down at Mapusa,Panaji, Margao, Ponda or Bicholim bus terminii.They are <strong>the</strong>n taken to o<strong>the</strong>r destinations by pimps.124
Private vehiclesWhile trafficking via private vehicles, a “manager”accompanies <strong>the</strong> girls who are <strong>the</strong>n handed overto <strong>the</strong> relevant person in Goa. The manager gets“good luck” moneya cash incentive that can goup to Rs 5,000 per girl. The girls are receivedat specific places, mostly in Mapusa and Panaji.In such deals, <strong>the</strong> girls are taken on a “contract”basis of about Rs 25,000 for 15 days. Eachgirl has to entertain 8 to 12 customers perday. If a customer complains, <strong>the</strong> girl faces afinancial “penalty” of up to Rs 5,000 or more.• y Information from study: Trafficking forCommercial Sexual Exploitation in Goa’ byBaina-based NGO, ARZMassage parloursPlace: Mostly in <strong>the</strong> coastal beltOperate from: Stalls erected behind beach shacks,hotels, lodges and rented houses. While some arehigh-class massage/beauty parlours, o<strong>the</strong>rs operatefrom dingy rooms. There are registered as well asunregistered parlours that traffick. A security guardat most places facilitates entry into <strong>the</strong> parlour.CSWs: From Maharashtra, West Bengal, Delhi,Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalayaand Nepal. Of late, Goan girls have also been foundworking in such parlours.Customers: Domestic, foreign tourists, even localyoungsters have been found visiting those locatedin Bardez taluka.Modus operandi: Customers do not approachmassage/beauty parlours directly. They aresolicited by mostly young boys. After soliciting,<strong>the</strong> customers (ei<strong>the</strong>r alone or in groups of2-4) are brought to <strong>the</strong> parlour via private orcommercial vehicles. In a majority of cases, vansare used to transport <strong>the</strong> solicited customers.Price: Varies from Rs 2,500 to Rs 25,000Hotels & lodgesPlace: Almost everywhere in GoaCSWs: Predominantly from Maharashtra (mainlyMumbai, Pune and Sawantwadi), Madhya Pradesh,Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, West Bengal,Manipur, Meghalaya and Nepal. Young, smart,modern, fashionable and Hindi-speaking girls arepreferred.Modus operandi: The girls are accommodated at <strong>the</strong>hotel or in a nearby rented house. After agents fixa deal with customers, <strong>the</strong> girls are made available.Those put up in rented premises are contacted over<strong>the</strong>ir mobiles and picked up from <strong>the</strong>ir residences.Agents in hotels and lodges also contact girls whoopenly solicit in markets and beaches. On receiving<strong>the</strong> details, <strong>the</strong> girl proceeds to <strong>the</strong> hotel/lodge.In ano<strong>the</strong>r variant, in Bardez taluka rooms arerented to girls on an hourly basis.Some hotel managers also have contacts withCSWs from o<strong>the</strong>r states in order to meet demand.If <strong>the</strong> girl does not have money to travel, she isinstructed to board a particular bus where <strong>the</strong>ticket is paid for directly at <strong>the</strong> travel agency by<strong>the</strong> hotel manager. She diembarks at <strong>the</strong> saiddestination and is taken directly to <strong>the</strong> hotel.Customers: Domestic and foreign touristsRented RoomsPlace: CSWs are kept in rented rooms and housesin villages.CSWs: From Maharashtra, West Bengal, AndhraPradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Manipur andNepal.Modus operandi: The girls are brought to Goa by bus ortrain on contracts that range from a week to a month.In Bardez taluka, <strong>the</strong>y are mostly picked up from<strong>the</strong> Mapusa bus stand or Thivim railway station.They are not allowed to leave <strong>the</strong> rooms/houses.Whenever <strong>the</strong>y are taken out, vehicles with blacktinted glasses are used. After <strong>the</strong> contract period<strong>the</strong>y are paid and sent back.125
Fishing trawlersPlace: Fishing jetties and nearby market areas.Though entry into fishing jetties is restricted, <strong>the</strong>girls are permitted.CSWs: Mostly from Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.Modus operandi: Soliciting is done by <strong>the</strong> CSWherself. The room is often a trawler anchored adistance away from <strong>the</strong> jetty.Though cash is paid, in many cases <strong>the</strong> girl gets fishor prawns which she later sells.Customers: Migrants from Kerala, Orissa, Karnataka,Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, who work oncontract basis with trawler owners.Bro<strong>the</strong>lsPlace: Baina, VascoModus operandi: Customers are solicited bymotorcycle pilots and taxi drivers at bus stands,railway stations, markets, gardens and brought toBaina beach.Here, a deal is made with <strong>the</strong> madam’ (bro<strong>the</strong>lowner) and once finalized <strong>the</strong> girl is sent with<strong>the</strong> customer to a nearby, pre-determined room.The amount paid is shared by <strong>the</strong> pimp, roomowner, madam and <strong>the</strong> CSW. At times, <strong>the</strong> CSW isforced to solicit customers herself.Isolated placesPlace: Prime areas include <strong>the</strong> KTC bus stand,Municipal garden, Railway bridge and railwaystation in Vasco city. Also Sada, Bogda, <strong>the</strong> Japanesegarden, Kharewada, Birla, Zuari Nagar, Vernaindustrial estate, Kelsim and Thane and Cortalim.CSWs: Mostly those displaced after <strong>the</strong> demolitionof <strong>the</strong> red light area in Baina.Modus operandi: CSWs solicit customers on <strong>the</strong>roads and take <strong>the</strong>m to nearby hotels, lodges orthickly forested areas.HighwaysPlace: Highways passing through some of <strong>the</strong>state’s interior talukas. Mostly in highly industrialand mining areas.CSWs: Mostly from migrant populations settled inslums or rented houses.Modus operandi: CSWs solicit at different locationsalong <strong>the</strong> highways. The customer is taken to aroom or <strong>the</strong> girl travels to ano<strong>the</strong>r location in <strong>the</strong>latter’s vehicle.Customers: Mostly truck drivers and helpers.4. Himachal Pradesh<strong>Tourism</strong> Boom makes Himachalis Vulnerable toAIDS. Pratibha Chauhan, Tribune News Service /Shimla / 7 th December 2004http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20041208/himachal.htmA booming tourism industry may be <strong>the</strong> top priorityof <strong>the</strong> state government but with over 88,000 highrisk population in <strong>the</strong> state as per <strong>the</strong> mapping doneto assess <strong>the</strong> vulnerability to AIDS, stringent stepswill have to be undertaken to contain <strong>the</strong> spread of<strong>the</strong> killer disease.Almost 88,036 persons in <strong>the</strong> state have beenfound to be vulnerable to <strong>the</strong> killer disease AIDS ina survey conducted by <strong>the</strong> ORG Centre for SocialResearch. The survey was done to assess <strong>the</strong> highriskpopulation so that effective strategies could beevolved for target intervention projects. The surveycovered all rural and urban areas in all districtsbarring Lahaul Spiti.A recent report had alerted that though Himachalfell in <strong>the</strong> category of low prevalence state but witha spurt in <strong>the</strong> tourist inflow, it was highly vulnerableto <strong>the</strong> disease. One of <strong>the</strong> main reasons beingattributed to such a huge high risk population ina tiny state like Himachal is <strong>the</strong> growing tourismindustry which beckons people from every sectionand part of <strong>the</strong> country.A startling factor, which has come to light in <strong>the</strong>survey, is <strong>the</strong> presence of large number of nonbro<strong>the</strong>lbased commercial sex workers operatingthrough mobile network. The number of such126
female sex workers has been found to be <strong>the</strong>highest in Shimla and Kullu, as <strong>the</strong> two places are<strong>the</strong> most popular tourist centres. These commercialsex workers are not confined to any geographicalboundary as <strong>the</strong>y have high inter-city and interstatemobility.The o<strong>the</strong>r vulnerable group includes truckers(33,303), migrant workers (52,298) and very smallnumbers of intravenous drug users and gays.The largest concentration of high-risk behaviourgroup of truckers has been found in <strong>the</strong> districts ofBilaspur, Solan, Mandi and Kangra. The maximumnumber of migrant work force has been found indistricts of Kullu, Shimla and Solan, mainly becauseof <strong>the</strong> orchards and vegetable farming.5. Neighboring RegionsResurgent tourism growth sparks female HIV/AIDS infections. E Turbo News / 02 nd Feb 2008http://www.eturbonews.com/1115/resurgent-tourismgrowth-sparks-female-hivaidAfter <strong>the</strong> reeling effects of a 11 year old civil conflictwhich nearly saw <strong>the</strong> death of Nepal’s tourismindustry, <strong>the</strong> country in 2008 is quickly surgingback to become <strong>the</strong> world’s number one adventuretourism destination with a robust cumulative 33%growth rate compared to last year, a 24% increasein air arrivals in January 2008, and a multitude ofservices offered to <strong>the</strong> tourists. Along with <strong>the</strong> newtourist figures, <strong>the</strong> rate of Nepalese women luredinto <strong>the</strong> commercial sex trade has also increasedfour fold with a mushrooming of massage parlors,upscale smoking and sex-entertainment bars, hautecuisine restaurants and mushrooming comfortlodges in Thamel, Freak Street and <strong>the</strong> Durbar Margareas which all have one common aim— cash in on<strong>the</strong> sex tourism fueled by <strong>the</strong> easy availability ofsurplus foreign currency due to Nepal’s burgeoningtourism figures.Nepal’s enduring Hindu-Buddhist charm of alluringmyths and mysticisms still exist. However <strong>the</strong>yonly seem to be providing a cover up to <strong>the</strong> hiddenrealities of a rising HIV/AIDS threat involving femalecommercial sex workers who are increasinglyattracted by <strong>the</strong> new tourism boom in Nepal.In <strong>the</strong> past two years, <strong>the</strong> majority of foreign touristscoming to Nepal were from Germany, Spain, UnitedKingdom, US, and neighboring Asian countries suchas India, China, Thailand, South Korea and Japanwhich continue supplying a younger crowd willingto try out new adventure tourism ´experiments´.Foreign tourists pay between US$ 8-10 for a typicalmassage session in Kathmandu, which is relativelycheap compared to Thailand or <strong>the</strong> Philippinesalthough <strong>the</strong> risks of catching HIV/AIDS throughunsafe sexual practice are quite high.Sarala is one of those girls who works in amassage parlor in Thamel, Her name might betypically Nepalese sounding and <strong>the</strong>re might behundreds of Saralas around in Thamel, but her lifeis a bit estranged, one mired in absolute poverty,dejection and with no way out except to work ina forced occupation catering to hundreds of sextourism clients each month. Saral’s parents came toKathmandu around 1999 from Surkhet, about 350kilometers west, displaced by <strong>the</strong> civil conflict, andhaving to resort to staying with different relativesin <strong>the</strong> absence of a proper family, job, and housing,all which are vital to daily subsistence survival inKathmandu.Sarala was lured into <strong>the</strong> lucrative commercial sexbusiness in Thamel by her own aunt, who was alsoworking in a nearby Thamel restaurant as a waitressand was contacted by a middleman who offered topay her US$ 50 for arranging <strong>the</strong> deal. Sarala at firs<strong>the</strong>sitated in knowing what she was getting into, butdue to <strong>the</strong> poverty in <strong>the</strong> family, and <strong>the</strong> sheer needfor sustaining her parents, bro<strong>the</strong>rs and sisterslivelihood, resorted to this lowly form of work.Sarala recently went to an HIV/AIDS VoluntaryCounseling and Testing Center indirectly operatedby an American INGO, and after routine testing,was certified as being HIV/AIDS free. However, sheis not sure how long she will stay that way, since shecomes into contact with four to seven clients daily,most of whom who choose to have unprotectedsex.Nepal makes annually between US$ 450 to US$600 million through adventure and pleasuretourism. The sparring 4 x 4 luxury sports vehiclesdotting Kathmandu’s over congested, honkingtraffic lanes testify to that income generation. The127
tourists who visit Kathmandu on average spendfive and a half days while those going to <strong>the</strong> moreexotic Himalayan trekking routes spend up tothree weeks. Many massage parlor girls have alsorecently graduated on to become trekking escortsthus fur<strong>the</strong>r spiraling <strong>the</strong> HIV/AIDS infection chain.There are also an increasing number of Nepalesefemale trekking guides, well educated professionalwomen with proper trail experience who commandbetween US$ 200-300 a week for <strong>the</strong>ir services in agood season.Many of <strong>the</strong>m come from <strong>the</strong> traditional Sherpa,Rai, Gurung and o<strong>the</strong>r ethnic populations along <strong>the</strong>trails that used to be <strong>the</strong> number one recruitmentsource for various mountaineering expeditions,which <strong>the</strong>se days increasingly recruit Kathmandubased TAAN certified guides. The women trekkingguides do not work <strong>the</strong> same way as <strong>the</strong> femaletrekking escorts, but are equally tempted to caterto <strong>the</strong>ir varying clients needs based on <strong>the</strong> amount<strong>the</strong>y are paid.HIV/AIDS has quickly become an unwanted guestin Nepal’s booming tourist market and <strong>the</strong> NepalGovernment is still studying <strong>the</strong> effects than <strong>the</strong>causal factors. The Nepal Government has not sofar attempted to study <strong>the</strong> hidden implications of<strong>the</strong> increased feminization of <strong>the</strong> HIV/AIDS ratesin Nepal’s booming tourism sector. After all it isunderstaffed and government officials cater onlyto <strong>the</strong> big money spenders which comes by wayof hefty commissions in renewing <strong>the</strong> licenses of<strong>the</strong> 300 or so local and international trekking andadventure tourism companies that have madeNepal <strong>the</strong>ir permanent base, some even operatingunder international tax loopholes and not giving aear to <strong>the</strong> environmental regulations that usuallyregulate <strong>the</strong> existence of such companies in <strong>the</strong> US,<strong>the</strong> UK, Japan or Australia.According to Nepalnews.com, Nepal’s number onee-gateway portal which also hosts <strong>the</strong> majority ofNepal’s top newspapers, e-tourism links, TV andbusiness channels, in 2008 compared to a yearearlier, <strong>the</strong> number of tourists from India declinedby 12.2 percent and from Sri Lanka by 12.5 percent.However, <strong>the</strong>re was an upward surge in tourismfigures from o<strong>the</strong>r countries within South Asia by upto 7 percent. From Europe and <strong>the</strong> US it was 33.1%and 34.3% respectively, from China 96.8 percent,South Korea 5.1 percent, Thailand 23.2%, andMalaysia 12.1%. The Korean market, thanks largelyto <strong>the</strong> introduction of direct flights by Korean Airto Kathmandu contributed to nearly 15. 3 percentof <strong>the</strong> total market. European markets too haveshown positive growth mainly from France 78.5percent, Germany 4.5 percent, Spain 28.5 percent,and Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands 36.5 %. The international touristsare also spending more on average US$ 850 perweek staying longer and enjoying Kathmandu’ssights and sounds more given <strong>the</strong> city’s quickcosmopolitan turn around in <strong>the</strong> past two decades.Western tourism entrepreneurs are also showingincreased consumer confidence towards Nepalas a long term easy profit destination. The o<strong>the</strong>radvantage of course is <strong>the</strong> comforting existence ofChina and India, <strong>the</strong> world’s two largest growingeconomies, straddling <strong>the</strong> Nepalese borders northand south, and offering sponge like economicbooster doses whenever <strong>the</strong> Nepalese governmentfaces budget expenditure shortfalls. The country’spolitical situation is in total chaos with <strong>the</strong> promisesof a Constituent Assembly poll which has alreadybeen deferred thrice and <strong>the</strong> resulting cat and dogfight between <strong>the</strong> seven major parties politicians alltopped up with a lame duck septuagenarian primeminister who is ill and bed ridden most of <strong>the</strong> times.There is hardly any HIV/AIDS mainstreaming thinkingamong Nepal’s politicians let alone understandingof <strong>the</strong> deep rooted social discrimination againstNepalese women which harbors <strong>the</strong> HIV infections.For <strong>the</strong> majority of <strong>the</strong> tourists who cannot afford<strong>the</strong> luxury of staying in Nepal’s exotically famedSoaltee Holiday Crowne Plaza, Yak and Yeti or thatold legendary party venue of yesteryears, <strong>the</strong> Hotelde l´ Annapurna, Thamel is a cheaper alternativeaccommodation way point. Thamel is also describedas <strong>the</strong> craziest and most affordable per squarekilometer adventure fun destination in <strong>the</strong> entireworld, according to <strong>the</strong> Lonely Planet guide.Thamel incidentally, is where young girls like Saralawork and spend <strong>the</strong>ir days and weeks toiling for asimple income for <strong>the</strong>ir family working as massageparlor girls. A varying number of Thamel tourists areprey to <strong>the</strong> commercial sex tourism entrepreneursfrom around <strong>the</strong> world who have made Kathmandu<strong>the</strong>ir new customer baiting spot. Everything128
is affordable in Kathmandu, everything can bearranged, and everything is accessible whe<strong>the</strong>r itis a Kathmandu green hash stick, Korean gin sengtea laced with drugs, or alternatively <strong>the</strong> world’sbest six layered San Francisco pizza containing <strong>the</strong>wildest Himalayan herbs imaginable!.According to Jose, who declines to identify hiscountry of origin, and how long he has been inThamel, <strong>the</strong>re are big bucks to be made in <strong>the</strong> sextourism industry in Nepal. Girls can be procuredfor as little as US$ 60 a month and clients chargedup to US$ 100 per night. Getting a work permit inNepalis a piece of cake, immigration is bribable.He displays a cell phone which reads like a ´who’swho?” off all <strong>the</strong> pimps around Thamel, <strong>the</strong> lowerclass, Freak Street areas, and one can guess, <strong>the</strong>rest of Nepal. Jose usually mixes around with <strong>the</strong>elite tourists in Durbar Marg, offering <strong>the</strong>m freebeers in exchange for a discreet card which has onlya few local cell numbers, but appear all too enticingfor those visiting Nepal, not to ignore for <strong>the</strong> sheerheck of it in having a night out with a local woman.Sarala´s story might be unknown to <strong>the</strong>m, but this iswhere <strong>the</strong> sad connection starts unfurling, evidentin <strong>the</strong> feminization of HIV/AIDS figures for Nepal,<strong>the</strong> innocent tourist out spot where <strong>the</strong> vanquishedNepali commercial sex workers all females, areexploited to <strong>the</strong> full monetarily and physically.Walking through Thamel is like walking througha gizmo of snakes and ladders, dodging <strong>the</strong> drugdealers, <strong>the</strong> crazy bicyclists who might grab your bagif you are not careful, fellow obnoxious travelers,some high on hashish, <strong>the</strong> street magicians andsnake charmers all rolled into one, <strong>the</strong> miracleastrologer forecasting your good Karma behindand your bad days ahead unless you bought offhim a US$ 50 amulet, and <strong>the</strong> road side flute playerenticing you with a Bob Dylan tune. Amidst thisEastern charm mixed with Western adventurism,reminiscent of a temple scene in Seven Years inTibet, Thamel has within its hidden gullies anywherebetween 200-350 massage parlors and sex joints.Thamel area itself is only around two squarekilometers but it could take you at least a week todiscover it properly. Tourists did not deny visiting<strong>the</strong>se hidden massage parlors ten years back, but incoming back to Kathmandu for <strong>the</strong> umpteenth time.They are now alarmed to see Nepali commercialsex traders and <strong>the</strong>ir foreign counterparts openlyboasting <strong>the</strong>ir connections with young petiteNepalese women wearing flashy saris, enticing<strong>the</strong> tourists from second floor windows at everystreet corner, along with o<strong>the</strong>rs working in <strong>the</strong>mushrooming cabin restaurant business meant forNepalis and foreigners alike (akin to a sleazy Patpong joint from Thailand). Thamel also aboundswith nude dance clubs, a wide array of curio shops,drug packers, and exotic restaurants that servesome of <strong>the</strong> world’s most au<strong>the</strong>ntic haute cuisineassortments. The Thamel <strong>Tourism</strong> Board foundedby leading Thamel tourism entrepreneurs KarnaShakya and Yogendra Shakya from <strong>the</strong> famedKathamndu Guest House, and Tejendra Shrestha,a major restaurant chain owner, is now convertedinto <strong>the</strong> Thamel <strong>Tourism</strong> Development Council,which only recently introduced a new ban onvehicular traffic plying along its narrow gully roads.However this has allowed unfettered human trafficto replace it. This is good news for <strong>the</strong> Thamelentrepreneurs because more humans mean morebusiness, more customers too for <strong>the</strong> massageparlor joints, according to Jose.Thamel indeed serves as <strong>the</strong> capital of Nepal’scommercial sex tourism. Every year nearly 6,000Nepalese women are lured into Nepal’s commercialsex industry here, <strong>the</strong>reby slowly entering <strong>the</strong> restof Kathmandu, Nepal and rest of <strong>the</strong> world. If <strong>the</strong>girl’s Karma is good, as Sarala reckons, she mighteven marry a foreign husband and be able toleave <strong>the</strong> Nepalese misery and poverty behind forgood. However, most operating within <strong>the</strong> Nepalicommercial sex trade are part of a global racketthat also includes cross-border human traffickersworking across many Asian borders, often forcing<strong>the</strong> girls into dangerous, dirty and unwanted jobs.Additionally every year 8,000 to 10,000 Nepalesewomen are innocently enticed into <strong>the</strong> Indiancommercial sex market with <strong>the</strong> promise of jobsand later on forced into commercial sex occupationin Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore and New Delhi.These Nepalese women hardly get any income,<strong>the</strong>ir life is one of bondage and servitude to one of<strong>the</strong> numerous Indian havelis (bro<strong>the</strong>l houses), <strong>the</strong>irnames are changed and soon <strong>the</strong>y will lose <strong>the</strong>ircultural identity as well. The families too are left129
ehind in total hopelessness and anxiety, <strong>the</strong> onlyremaining legacy being hope that <strong>the</strong>y will comeback one day soon.And, besides, ano<strong>the</strong>r 40,000 Nepalese women aregoing abroad by air each year mostly filling unskilledlabor quotas in South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong,United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Palestine and Jordanas house maids and female domestic workers.Nepal’s labor market in certain destinations such as<strong>the</strong> UAE, Qatar, Malaysia and South Korea are nowlegalized, thus somewhat helping to stem <strong>the</strong> flowof unskilled, illegal workers, but this does not stop<strong>the</strong> flow of globally trafficked Nepalese womenlured into commercial sex work elsewhere.Many of <strong>the</strong>se Nepalese girls are quickly exploitedon <strong>the</strong> job, and <strong>the</strong> average money <strong>the</strong>y repatriateback home every month is only around US$ 300-350, which is still a large sum of money in Nepal, oneof <strong>the</strong> poorest countries in <strong>the</strong> world. Sarala onlywishes that she could be one of <strong>the</strong>m going abroadto work, on a huge jet airplane, instead of leadingthis abject life in Nepal where she has to toil dayand night selling her body for her family’s survival.A massage parlor girl in Nepal makes through herbonded labor only around one twentieth <strong>the</strong> actualamounts <strong>the</strong> business owner makes in hiring her,which is not enough for her family to survive. Manylike Sarala thus have to take side employment ascabin restaurant attendants, bar singers, dancersand dish washers in o<strong>the</strong>r neighboring tea stalls.The Nepal Government does not seem to havesufficient regulations to control <strong>the</strong> burgeoningcommercial sex tourism in Thamel and o<strong>the</strong>rsprouting locations around Kathmandu. The policeofficers often are in cahoots with <strong>the</strong> commercialsex operators charging hefty commissions to turn<strong>the</strong>ir heads <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r way round. Many media storieshave appeared in Nepal and <strong>the</strong> American media onthis nexus between some corrupt Nepalese policeofficials and <strong>the</strong> commercial sex tourism operators,but at <strong>the</strong> moment, no one is able to do anything in<strong>the</strong> absence of a legitimate national government inNepal.In fact, <strong>the</strong> entire 28 kilometer Ring Road aroundKathmandu is surrounded by sleazy cabinrestaurants and sex joints full of young innocentgirls like Sarala enticed into commercial sex workin <strong>the</strong> promise of better work. There is a knownstrong nexus and interchange in <strong>the</strong> placement of<strong>the</strong> girls working in Thamel and those operatingaround <strong>the</strong> periphery of Kathmandu, since <strong>the</strong>business operators usually happen to be runninghalf a dozen massage parlors within <strong>the</strong> valley atany given time, constantly shifting <strong>the</strong>ir base ofoperations. This, in turn, leads to an uncheckedmigration of HIV/AIDS carriers spreading infectionsfur<strong>the</strong>r among <strong>the</strong> younger, vulnerable populationaged between 19-39 years.In <strong>the</strong> past 15 years, <strong>the</strong> American governmentthrough USAID has been doing notable work,leading an aggressive drive against HIV/AIDSspread in Nepal. America in fact is <strong>the</strong> lead donorcountry trying to stop <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r spread of HIV/AIDS in Nepal and has been seriously investigating<strong>the</strong> plight of sex workers and also trying to educateclients on <strong>the</strong> concept of safer sex and possibleabstinence.Although HIV/AIDS in <strong>the</strong> general population is lowin Nepal, estimated at less than 0.7 percent of <strong>the</strong>general population, it poses a concentric threatin Thamel (as much as 18% among commercialsex workers) making it imperative that strongerbehavior change interventions be introducedrapidly. The Nepal Government, as early as 1992,introduced <strong>the</strong> first medium-term plan for AIDSprevention and control which was implemented withgusto, but lacked <strong>the</strong> built-in multi sector linkagessuch as <strong>the</strong> tourism growth connection. In fact,screening blood samples, surveillance, generationof sentinel information and data, education andcommunication materials development for <strong>the</strong>general public and high risk groups were all initiatedwith American funding in <strong>the</strong> past decade. But thishas not helped blot out a high risk of infection, <strong>the</strong>orderly distribution and promotion of condoms,case treatment of STIs, counseling those at risk andthose already infected with HIV, and spreading <strong>the</strong>gospel of HIV/AIDS prevention among <strong>the</strong> generalyouth population which seems to be a bit carelessin <strong>the</strong> use of condoms.Never<strong>the</strong>less, despite <strong>the</strong>se global obstaclescreated by <strong>the</strong> surge of Nepalese tourism, <strong>the</strong>American government through USAID has been130
working with its European partners and <strong>the</strong> UNtrying to prevent <strong>the</strong> trafficking of Nepalese womento India, fostering local capacity building amongNepalese NGOs, promoting safe condom use, andincreasing <strong>the</strong> capacity of locally run communitybased organizations to tackle <strong>the</strong> problem head-on.However, in Thamel <strong>the</strong>re are increasing numbersof injecting drug users, and seasonal and long termmigrant women who also come for some extramoney which makes it difficult to deny <strong>the</strong> longterm inter linkages between HIV/AIDS and how itaffects now grown-up women such as Sarala whohave seen it all first hand, and would choose to leada different life. Some of Sarala’s best friends havedied due to AIDS related illnesses.According to Nepal’s health experts, this all makesit a difficult and complex task in fur<strong>the</strong>r reducing<strong>the</strong> feminization of HIV/ AIDS in Nepal due to <strong>the</strong>increasing number of sex tourism operators from<strong>the</strong> Asian region who finds Thamel in Kathmanduvalley too attractive to simply ignore for <strong>the</strong>irflourishing business. The big question is: when will<strong>the</strong> Nepal Government wake up to <strong>the</strong> threat ofHIV/AIDS threatening its women population as aresult of <strong>the</strong> tourism boom, before it gets too late.Endnotes:* The research on this paper has had several peoplecontributing to it. Cynthia Stephen, IndependentResearcher, Writer and Policy Analyst wrote <strong>the</strong>initial draft. S Vidya and Ananya Dasgupta ofEQUATIONS and Shirin Bhandari interning withEQUATIONS worked on it subsequently to bring it tothis version.1. UNWTO Forum, Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>, 2008(http://www.unwto.org/sdt/fields/en/pdf/itb2008_WomenIn<strong>Tourism</strong>_rep.pdf)2. EQUATIONS(http://www.equitabletourism.org/stage/campaign.php?AID=347)3. EQUATIONS, Problems of Women Workers in<strong>Tourism</strong> Sector, Paper Presented at <strong>the</strong> StateConsultation on <strong>the</strong> Status of Women Workers in<strong>the</strong> Unorganised Sector, Bangalore, January 20064. Ibid5. Ibid6. 5 th UNWTO International Conference on <strong>Tourism</strong>Statistics, March-April 2009, (http://www.unwto.org/statistics/bali/findings_statement.pdf)7. Asia Water Wire, India: FisherwomenQuestion <strong>Tourism</strong>’s Magic, 2007 (http://www.asiawaterwire.net/node/586)8. Special Meeting of Women Ministers of Culture,Reykjavik 2005, (http://womenministers.government.is/Programme/nr/3269)9. The World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organization (UNWTO), aSpecialised Agency of <strong>the</strong> United NationsWTOStatement On The Prevention Of Organized Sex<strong>Tourism</strong>”. Adopted by <strong>the</strong> General Assembly of<strong>the</strong> World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organization at its eleventhsession - Cairo (Egypt), 17–22 October 1995(Resolution A/RES/338 (XI)). Cairo (Egypt): World<strong>Tourism</strong> Organization. 17–22 October 1995.10. E Turbo News (Global Travel Industry News),Resurgent <strong>Tourism</strong> Growth sparks female HIV/AIDSinfections, 2008, (http://www.eturbonews.com/1115/resurgent-tourism-growth-sparks-female-hivaid)11. US Department of Justice website, ChildExploitation and Obscenity Section (http://www.justice.gov/criminal/ceos/sextour.html)12. <strong>Tourism</strong> and HIV/AIDS commissioned by <strong>the</strong>Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperationand Development (Germany), (www.gtz.de/nochildabuse & www.gtz.de/tourismus)13. CNN.com, Official: More Than 1M ChildProstitutes in India, May 11, 2009, (http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/11/india.prostitution.children/index.html)14. Thaindian News: Sex <strong>Tourism</strong>, Human TraffickingAlarming New Trends (http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/uncategorized/sex-tourism-humantrafficking-alarming-new-trends-cbi_100191008.html)15. NHRC, UNIFEM, ISS Project (http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/ReportonTrafficking.pdf)131
16. The Times of India: The Expanding Red LightDistrict, June 2009 (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Goa/The-expanding-redlight-district/articleshow/4637537.cms)17. Problems of Women Workers in <strong>Tourism</strong> Sector,Paper Presented at <strong>the</strong> State Consultationon <strong>the</strong> Status of Women Workers in <strong>the</strong>Unorganised Sector, Bangalore, January 200618. NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project, A Report onTrafficking in Women & Children in India, 2002-2003 (http://www.ashanet.org/focusgroups/sanctuary/articles/ReportonTrafficking.pdf)19. UNAIDS Fast Facts About HIV Prevention (http://data.unaids.org/pub/BaseDocument/2008/20080501_fastfacts_prevention_en.pdf)20. Ministry of Women & ChildDevelopment & NACO Study, 200821. NACO(http://www.nacoonline.o r g / Q u i c k _ L i n k s / W o m e n / )22. Avert Society - HIV/AIDS in India(http://www.avert.org/aidsindia.htm)23. Ibid24. NACO(http://www.nacoonline.o r g / Q u i c k _ L i n k s / W o m e n / )25. Avert Society website - HIV/AIDS in India(http://www.avert.org/hiv-india.htm)26. Ibid27. AIDS Brief for Sectoral Planners & Managers<strong>Tourism</strong> Sector, funded by USAID (http://www.ispusida.org.mz/por/content/download/586/2965/file/Hiv-aids 4 <strong>Tourism</strong> Sector.pdf)28. Sou<strong>the</strong>rn African Development Community,Factsheet HIV/AIDS & <strong>Tourism</strong>, 2004 (http://www.sadc.int/sadcaidsinfo/docs/Technical%20Documents/HIV%20and%20AIDS%20and%20<strong>Tourism</strong>.pdf)29. AIDS Brief for Sectoral Planners & Managers<strong>Tourism</strong> Sector, funded by USAID (http://www.ispusida.org.mz/por/content/download/586/2965/file/Hiv-aids 4 <strong>Tourism</strong> Sector.pdf)30. Avert Society (http://www.avert.org/hiv-india.html)31. Factors Associated with Condom Use amongFemale Commercial Sex Workers in India: ACase Study presented at <strong>the</strong> InternationalCommunication Association, New York, 2009(http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/1/1/9/3/p11935_index.html)32. Avert Society (http://www.avert.org/hiv-india.htm)33. Special Meeting of Women Ministers ofCulture, Reykjavik 2005 (http://womenministers.government.is/Programme/nr/3269)34. 5 th UNWTO International Conference on <strong>Tourism</strong>Statistics, March-April 2009 (http://www.unwto.org/statistics/bali/findings_statement.pdf)35. Avert Society (http://www.avert.org/hiv-india.htm)36. Ibid37. Refer to HIV Sentinel Surveillance and HIV Estimation2007- A Technical Brief, (http://nacoonline.org/upload/Publication/M&E%20Surveillance,%20Research/HIV%20Sentinel%20Surveillance%20and%20HIV%20Estimation%202007_A%20Technical%20Brief.pdf)38. Table 5.1.3, India <strong>Tourism</strong> Statistics 2007,Government of India, Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>,Market Research Division (http://tourism.gov.in/)39. NACO(http://www.nacoonline.org/UNAIDS/templates/NacoInnerPage.aspx?id=840)40. For this section <strong>the</strong> researcher has depended on<strong>the</strong> research undertaken by National AIDS ControlOrganisation (http://www.nacoonline.org/Quick_Links/Know_Your_Rights/) and HIV/AIDS unit ofLawyers Collective (http://www.lawyerscollective.org/hiv-aids/activities/advocacy/issues-consent)41. Redefining AIDS in Asia, Crafting an EffectiveResponse, Report of <strong>the</strong> Commission on AIDS in Asia(http://data.unaids.org/pub/Report/2008/20080326_report_commission_aids_en.pdf)132
42. National AIDS Control Organisation (http://www.nacoonline.org/Quick_Links/Know_Your_Rights/)43. Ibid57. The Code of Conduct (http://www.<strong>the</strong>code.org/index.php?page=1_1)58. UNWTO (http://www.unwto.org/code_ethics/pdf/languages/Codigo%20Etico%20Ing.pdf)44. 97 (2002) DLT 98645. RR v. Superintendent of Police & o<strong>the</strong>rs (Unreported[2005] Karnataka Administrative Tribunal), (http://www.hivaidsonline.in/index.php/HIV-Human-Rights/legal-issues-that-arise-in-<strong>the</strong>-hiv-context.html)46. [W.P. (C) No. 512 of 1999]47. NACO(http://www.nacoonline.org/Partnerships/Ministries_and_Departments/)48. Ibid49. Information, Education and Communication50. Factors Associated with Condom Use amongFemale Commercial Sex Workers in India: ACase Study presented at <strong>the</strong> InternationalCommunication Association, New York, 2009(http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/1/1/9/3/p11935_index.html)51. Ibid52. 5 th UNWTO International Conference on <strong>Tourism</strong>Statistics, March-April 2009 (http://www.unwto.org/statistics/bali/findings_statement.pdf)53. The WIP, HIV/AIDS in India: New Theoriesversus <strong>the</strong> AIDS Lobby, December 2008(http://www.<strong>the</strong>wip.net/contributors/2008/12/hivaids_in_india_new_<strong>the</strong>ories.html)54. Planning Commission, Government of India (http://planningcommission.gov.in/plans/planrel/11thf.htm)55. 5 th UNWTO International Conference on <strong>Tourism</strong>Statistics, March-April 2009 (http://www.unwto.org/statistics/bali/findings_statement.pdf)56. International Labour Organisation (http://www.ilo.org/global/About_<strong>the</strong>_ILO/Mainpillars/WhatisDecentWork/lang--en/index.htm)133
annexure135
Code of Conduct for Safe & Honourable <strong>Tourism</strong>Adopted on 1 st July 2010Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>, Government of IndiaSafe and Honourable <strong>Tourism</strong>:To leverage <strong>the</strong> burgeoning global travel and tradeand in keeping with <strong>the</strong> Indian tourism industry’sobjective of positioning India as a global tourismbrand, <strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong> has strategicallyoutlined in its policy <strong>the</strong> central principle of, ‘AtithiDevo Bhava’ (Guest is God). In stating this, is evident<strong>the</strong> commitment of Indian tourism to ensure thatevery tourist in India is physically invigorated,mentally rejuvenated, culturally enriched andspiritually elevated.To meet this objective and at <strong>the</strong> core of <strong>the</strong> Nationaltourism policy of 2002 is outlined <strong>the</strong> seven pillars oftourism, Swagat (Welcome), Soochana (Information),Suvidha (Facilitation), Suraksha (Safety), Sahyog(Cooperation), Samrachanam (InfrastructureDevelopment) and Safai ( cleanliness).‘Safe and Honourable <strong>Tourism</strong>’ aims to streng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>the</strong> critical pillar of ‘Suraksha’ (Safety) and ensurethat Indian tourism follows international standardsof safe tourism practices, applicable for both touristsand local residents i.e local people and communitieswho may be impacted by tourism in some way. Itscentral objective is to ensure that tourism activitiesare undertaken, integrating <strong>the</strong> need to protect<strong>the</strong> dignity, safety and <strong>the</strong> right to freedom fromexploitation of all tourists and local residents involvedin or impacted by tourism. In today’s scenario,following safety guidelines is not just about adheringto <strong>the</strong> provisions of <strong>the</strong> seven pillars but also impliesgood business. As <strong>the</strong> demand from travellers forsafe and secure tourism services increases, this codewill assist signatories to build capacities among <strong>the</strong>irservices chains and personnel so as to be able torespond to this demand.Specific Objectives:This code is a guideline of conduct to enable <strong>the</strong>Indian travel and tourism industry to:1. Encourage tourism activities to be undertakenwith respect for basic rights like dignity, safetyand freedom from exploitation of both touristsand local residents i.e people and communitieswho may be impacted by tourism in some way.2. Aid <strong>the</strong> prevention of prostitution, sex tourismand forms of sexual exploitations like assaultsand molestations in tourism to safeguard <strong>the</strong>safety of persons, in particular women andchildren.3. To enhance prevention of activities like forcedor involuntary drug use, manipulated andincorrect information, cultural and socialintolerance which could increase vulnerabilityto crime.Applicability:This code of conduct shall be applicable to all <strong>the</strong>owners, suppliers, contractors, employees of <strong>the</strong>travel and tour sector including hotels, restaurants,lodges, guest houses, tour agents, entertainmentestablishments etc. In addition it shall be applicableto service providers like event managementorganizations, entertainment providers, transportoperators like taxis, buses, tour guides and o<strong>the</strong>rservices or agencies associated with <strong>the</strong> tourismsector. This is not a legally binding instrument buta set of guidelines for <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. Inaddition to <strong>the</strong>se guidelines, included in this codeare key messages that signatories are encouragedto use.Guidelines for <strong>the</strong> <strong>Tourism</strong> Industry:1. Information & Training of Personnel:• y Management will take up measures to buildawareness and train staff on <strong>the</strong> guidelines ofthis code and appropriate legal provisions toenhance vigilance and to ensure that personnel136
act in a manner that promotes <strong>the</strong> safety oftourists, local residents and <strong>the</strong>ir own staff.• y All hotels and tour operators shall train andmaintain two persons as focal points to ensurethat all safety norms and guidelines of thiscode are adhered to. The officers shall providecorrect information to tourists, like informationon Child lines- 1098, Women Help lines- 1091,local police helpline 100 and also act as a liaisonofficer with agencies such as <strong>the</strong> local policestation, immigration authorities, civil societypartners working in this area, child and womenwelfare committees etc.• y In case of an incidence of exploitation,personnel shall be sensitized to report correctinformation to <strong>the</strong> appropriate authorities actin cooperation with law enforcement agencies,o<strong>the</strong>r agencies providing care and support andtake necessary action to protect <strong>the</strong> interests of<strong>the</strong> individual whose rights are violated.• y Organizations will promote awareness on <strong>the</strong>code among service providers affiliated to<strong>the</strong>ir business such as vendors, contractors,taxi drivers, tour guides, event managementcompanies etc.• y In case of misconduct by a staff member orpersonnel of a service provider, signatoriesof <strong>the</strong> code will commit <strong>the</strong>mselves to act inan unbiased manner, reporting <strong>the</strong> incidenceto appropriate authorities and protecting <strong>the</strong>interests of <strong>the</strong> individual whose rights areviolated.• y Identified victims shall not be treated ascriminals. They should be identified as personsin need of care, protection and should beprovided with legal, medical, psycho-social andany o<strong>the</strong>r assistance without delay.2. Public Awareness and Guest Notification:• y Messages of intolerance to any form ofexploitation must be made evident inappropriate places visible to guests/clients,employees and o<strong>the</strong>r visitors. Guests and clientsmust also be provided information through <strong>the</strong>company’s website, brochures, tickets, bills,in-room/in-flight communication etc on issuesrelated to commercial sexual exploitation suchas sex tourism, prostitution, pornography,forms of sexual assaults, molestations and keymessages elaborated in this code.• y In order to enhance tolerance for social andcultural norms, signatories of this code musttake action to provide information available to<strong>the</strong>ir best knowledge on local social and culturalbeliefs and norms. Knowledge and tolerancefor different social and cultural norms will allowtourists to dress, conduct <strong>the</strong>mselves andrespect local beliefs helping <strong>the</strong>m to adjust and<strong>the</strong>reby reducing <strong>the</strong> vulnerabilities <strong>the</strong>y mightface as foreigners to a particular destination.• y Signatories of <strong>the</strong> code are encouraged to assisttourists with guidance on safety tips applicableto <strong>the</strong> specific city/place like places to visit,timings for visits, right dressing and precautionsagainst moving alone, and against acceptingeatables and favors from unknown personsetc. Guests and clients shall be cautionedagainst solicitations from touts, non-regulatedtourism operators and encouraged to consult<strong>the</strong> website of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Tourism</strong> Ministry and o<strong>the</strong>rauthorized websites.• y Signatories will ensure that a clause is includedin registration papers seeking commitmentof <strong>the</strong> tourist to act in a manner that respects<strong>the</strong> dignity and rights of local residents andalso to conduct <strong>the</strong>mselves in a manner thatshall aid <strong>the</strong> tourist’s own protection againstexploitation.3. Regulated use of Premises and OfficialEquipment:• y Management/owners are encouraged toprohibit usage of <strong>the</strong> organization’s premisesfor use or abuse of illicit substances, sexualviolations and of company equipment forviewing, storage, distribution, promotion or useof material which could increase vulnerabilityto exploitations of <strong>the</strong> nature mentioned in thiscode.y • Individuals under <strong>the</strong> permitted age shall notbe allowed permission in to restricted areas likebars and pubs.137
• y <strong>Tourism</strong> service providers shall verify andmaintain a record of details pertaining totourists, personnel and service providers likeaddress, contact details etc and also commit<strong>the</strong>mselves to maintaining confidentiality.• y Internet usage that promotes, seeks anycontacts for sex tourism and o<strong>the</strong>r sexualservices, for search of pornographic materialand/or to solicit <strong>the</strong> sale and purchase of illicitsubstances shall be prohibited.4. Ethical Business Practices and Marketing:• y Management/owners shall ensure that allcontracts with business partners, suppliers andfranchise agreements bear a clause seekingcommitment to provisions of <strong>the</strong> ‘Code ofconduct for Safe and Honorable <strong>Tourism</strong>’ in<strong>the</strong>ir businesses.• y Any tourism enterprise or service providerfound to act in a manner that undermines <strong>the</strong>safety of persons outlined in this code may beblacklisted.• y Sexually explicit images or concepts/imagesthat may compromise <strong>the</strong> safety of individualsshall not be used for marketing purposes. Anunambiguous company policy shall be set up toensure that marketing and advertising does notsupport <strong>the</strong> promotion of sexual exploitation orpromotion of sexually explicit images.• y Signatories are encouraged to patronizevendors and service providers who arecommitted to adhering to <strong>the</strong> provisions of thiscode.5. Implementation and Monitoring:• y All signatories are required to maintain anannual report on ‘Code of conduct for Safeand Honourable <strong>Tourism</strong>’ and submit it to adesignated authority.• y Management/owners shall report on:• y Training and capacity building initiativescarried out for personnel/ staff.• y Means adopted to raise awareness onsafety among guests, personnel andservice providers.KEY MESSAGES FOR AWARENESS BUILDINGAND DISSEMINATION-Enhancing Safety and Security of all Tourists:• y All signatories of <strong>the</strong> code are committedto act in a manner that protects <strong>the</strong> dignityand freedom against exploitation of personsespecially women and children and facilitateprevention of incidences of sexual molestation,harassment of <strong>the</strong>ir guests and provideassistance in case of an untoward incident.• y In case of exploitation please call <strong>the</strong> Child line-1098, Women Help lines- 1091 and/or contactrelevant authorities like <strong>the</strong> police or travel andtour operators.• y Like in many places in <strong>the</strong> rest of <strong>the</strong> worldtourists are encouraged to follow some basicand practical safety tips such as to remain with agroup or meet new people in public places, notto accept items from persons whom <strong>the</strong>y havebefriended recently, be wary of unexpected,unknown persons coming to <strong>the</strong>ir hotel room,never open <strong>the</strong> door to unsolicited room serviceor maintenance people etc.• y Tourists are encouraged to understand localsocial, cultural norms and beliefs and areencouraged to conduct <strong>the</strong>mselves in a mannerthat respects <strong>the</strong>se beliefs.• y Tourists must always take <strong>the</strong> advice of morethan one person when seeking information onplaces to visit, shopping places, local customs,beliefs and norms and remain vigilant onaccepting completed documents. Touristsare encouraged to seek information fromGovernment of India recognized informationcenters and visit <strong>the</strong> Ministry of <strong>Tourism</strong>’swebsites.y • Indecent Representation of Women(Prohibition) Act, 1986, Section 2 (c) - Indecentrepresentation of women means <strong>the</strong> depiction138
in any manner of <strong>the</strong> figure of a woman, herform or body or any part <strong>the</strong>reof in such away as to have <strong>the</strong> effect of being indecent, orderogatory to, or denigrating a woman or islikely to deprave, corrupt or injure <strong>the</strong> publicmorality or morals.• y Kidnapping or abducting in order to subjectperson to grievous hurt, slavery, etc. is anoffence under Section 367 of <strong>the</strong> Indian PenalCode.• y Assault or criminal force to woman with intentto outrage her modesty is an offence underSection 354 of <strong>the</strong> Indian Penal Code.• y Punishment for rape offences shall not be lessthan seven years but which may be for life orfor a term which may extend to ten years as <strong>the</strong>case may be, according to Section 376 of <strong>the</strong>Indian Penal Code.Enhancing Safety of Local People:• y People across <strong>the</strong> world dress, eat and livedifferently and follow different values andnorms. Tourists are encouraged to respect <strong>the</strong>local people and must commit <strong>the</strong>mselves toacting in adherence to local laws.• y Signatories to <strong>the</strong> code maintain zero toleranceto acts of sexual exploitations, includingcommercial sexual exploitation like prostitution,sex tourism and trafficking of persons for it.• y Many tourists believe that <strong>the</strong>y are protectedby anonymity and thus laws are more easilyviolated. Any guest, staff, partner linked to thisagency found to be indulging in exploitationsoutlined in this code or supporting it shall bereported to an appropriate authority.• y A few alarming trends that have emerged inrecent years are sexual exploitation throughsex tourism, paedophilia, prostitution in pilgrimtowns and o<strong>the</strong>r tourist destinations, crossborder trafficking. 1• y According to studies conducted by <strong>the</strong> Ministryof Women and Child Development, <strong>the</strong>re are3 million commercial sex workers in India, ofwhich an estimated 40% are children.• y Human trafficking is a crime against humanity.It involves an act of recruiting, transporting,transferring, harbouring or receiving a personthrough use of force, coercion or o<strong>the</strong>r means,for <strong>the</strong> purpose of exploiting <strong>the</strong>m. The consentof a victim of trafficking in persons to <strong>the</strong>intended exploitation is irrelevant irrespectiveof age. 2• y Sexual relationship with a child amounts torape according to <strong>the</strong> Indian Penal Code andis punishable with imprisonment of minimum7 years which can even be extended to lifeimprisonment.• y Acquiring or inducing any person (irrespectiveof age or sex) for prostitution or causing aperson to be taken for prostitution is an offenceunder Section 5 of Immoral Traffic PreventionAct 1956 and with a punishment of 3- 7 years.• y It is a myth that sexual intercourse with a virginor a minor will cure STI or prevent HIV. It onlyspreads <strong>the</strong> disease fur<strong>the</strong>r.• y Abetment to crime amounts to committing <strong>the</strong>crime itself.• y Victims of exploitation are not criminals. Theyare persons in need of care, protection, legal,medical and psychological assistance.• y Under section 7 of Immoral Traffic PreventionAct, 1956, letting out a hotel or any part <strong>the</strong>reoff for prostitution is an offence for which <strong>the</strong>license of <strong>the</strong> hotel can be suspended.y • Publishing or transmitting or causing to bepublished or transmitted, material in anyelectronic form which depicts children engagedin sexually explicit act or induces children toonline relationship with one or more childrenfor and on sexually explicit act is an offenceunder section 67(b) of <strong>the</strong> InformationTechnology (Amendment) Act 2008.139
• y Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances(NDPS) Act- Engaging in <strong>the</strong> production,manufacture, possession, sale, purchase,transportation, warehousing, concealment, useor consumption, import inter-state, export interstate,import in to India, export from India ortranshipment, of narcotic drugs or psychotropicsubstances is an offence expect for scientificand medical reasons. Punishment for <strong>the</strong>offence may imply imprisonment, fine or both.• y Handling or letting out any premises for <strong>the</strong>carrying on of any of <strong>the</strong> above mentionedactivities in an offence under <strong>the</strong> NDPS act.• y According to <strong>the</strong> National Security Act,1980, <strong>the</strong> Central Government or <strong>the</strong> stateGovernment has <strong>the</strong> power to act against anyperson with a view to prevent him from actingin any manner prejudicial to <strong>the</strong> defence ofIndia, <strong>the</strong> relations of India with foreign powersor <strong>the</strong> security of India.• y The Foreigners (Amendment) Act, 2004 - If aforeigner to <strong>the</strong> country acts in violations of <strong>the</strong>conditions of <strong>the</strong> valid visa issued to him for hisentry and stay in India, shall be punished withimprisonment for a term which may extend tofive years and shall also be liable to fine. If hehas entered in to a bond <strong>the</strong>n his bond shall befortified.Endnotes:1. India Country report- 2008- Ministry ofWomen and Child Development and <strong>the</strong>United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.2. United Nations Protocol to prevent, suppress andpunish trafficking in persons, especially womenand children, supplementing <strong>the</strong> United NationsConvention against Transnational Organized Crime.140
Opening Doors is not EnoughEquality, Equity and Empowerment isWhat Women Seek in <strong>Tourism</strong>This is a joint statement by Alternatives (Goa),Council for Social Justice and Peace (Goa),Sakhi Resource Centre for Women (Kerala) andEQUATIONS, 2007On World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day <strong>the</strong> UNWTO claimed that“<strong>Tourism</strong> Opens Doors for Women”. Challengingthis claim, we call upon governments, policy makers,industry, civil society and <strong>the</strong> World <strong>Tourism</strong>Organization (UNWTO) to engage in more systemicways with <strong>the</strong> challenge of women’s empowermentin tourism. Perhaps it is time for <strong>the</strong> UNWTO todeclare <strong>Tourism</strong>’s Decade for Women’s Rights andEmpowerment as a move towards opening <strong>the</strong> doorsto a more just and equitable world for women andmen. This is a joint statement by Alternatives (Goa),Council for Social Justice and Peace (Goa), SakhiResource Centre for Women (Kerala) and us. Thisgroup is organising on World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day a seriesof round tables in Kerala and Goa on <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me ofWomen and <strong>Tourism</strong>“When I decided to launch my small tourismbusiness – a small guest house in Goa - I wasdeceived by what I saw around me. I saw howhuge concessions were given to <strong>the</strong> 5-star hotelswhe<strong>the</strong>rof Indian or foreign origin and land andcredit at subsidized rates. Access roads, electricity,water supplies, garbage disposal etc were allmade easy for <strong>the</strong>m. The government investedin <strong>the</strong>ir needs and demands. On <strong>the</strong> contrary, we<strong>the</strong> small entrepreneurs had to cope with virtuallyimpossible travails if we started out on a business.My story perhaps illustrates how <strong>the</strong> system worksagainst <strong>the</strong> small entrepreneur and weighs heavilyin favour of big business. Now I ask – “Is smallentrepreneurship welcome or is it not?” - GeraldineFernandes, a local entrepreneur who runs a smallguest house in Benaulim, Goa, India, questioningwhe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>Tourism</strong> has in fact Opened Doors forWomen.The World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organisation, in choosing <strong>the</strong><strong>the</strong>me of women and tourism for <strong>the</strong> year 2007, hasfocused its attention on this issue for <strong>the</strong> first timesince 1980 – a welcome move indeed! “<strong>Tourism</strong>is a sector of <strong>the</strong> economy that not only employssignificant numbers of women, but providesenormous opportunities for <strong>the</strong>ir advancement”states Secretary General Francesco Frangialli, inhis customary message on World <strong>Tourism</strong> Day - 27September 2007.The Secretary General’s statement has focusedon <strong>the</strong> potential for women to gain from tourismthrough employment. <strong>Tourism</strong> does indeed employmany women. But as experiences like those ofGeraldine highlight, <strong>the</strong> odds against womenbenefiting are extremely high. The UNWTO mustgo beyond a position of approbation and look attourism’s record thus far, both in <strong>the</strong> empowermentof women and in <strong>the</strong> exploitation of women. This isessential if <strong>the</strong>re is a serious intent, as we hope <strong>the</strong>reis, in <strong>the</strong> UNWTO and indeed <strong>the</strong> tourism industryworld wide, to go beyond <strong>the</strong> rhetoric of women’sempowerment, towards serious engagement andcommitted action.The UN, Women’s Empowerment and MDGs:The advancement of women and <strong>the</strong> achievementof equality between women and men is a matter ofhuman rights and a condition for social justice. Theseare essential to build a sustainable, just, secureand developed society. For decades now, throughvibrant movements and political struggles, womenhave challenged existing gender relations andpatriarchal systems to reframe <strong>the</strong> developmentdialogue. They have placed issues of violence, race,caste and o<strong>the</strong>r forms of discrimination that hitwomen <strong>the</strong> hardest; and <strong>the</strong> need for equality andhuman rights of women - including social, economic,political, legal, sexual and reproductive rights at <strong>the</strong>center-stage of this struggle.141
Global processes from Rio, Copenhagen, Vienna,Cairo and Beijing to Durban, particularly <strong>the</strong>CEDAW (Convention for Elimination of all formsof Discrimination against Women), <strong>the</strong> UN FourthWorld Conference on Women and its subsequentBeijing Platform for Action, have set out criticalconcerns and strategic action points. Decades later,<strong>the</strong> battle for equality, to challenge <strong>the</strong> status quo,to demand action on women’s key concerns, tomobilize civil society in both <strong>the</strong> global North andSouth, and to push for a global reordering of <strong>the</strong>world’s resources continues with <strong>the</strong> same intensitybut leaving one with little sense of progress onsubstantive issues. There has been enormousfrustration at <strong>the</strong> lack of government commitmentand accountability to both development goalsin general and gender equality commitments inparticular.In one way, <strong>the</strong> emergence of <strong>the</strong> MDGs marks<strong>the</strong> success of global women’s movements andbroader civil society, which had made <strong>the</strong> creationof time-bound targets and indicators a key demandfor measuring progress on development and rightscommitments. However it is accompaniment by aconcern that <strong>the</strong> MDGs have met <strong>the</strong> letter of civilsociety demands for accountability, but not <strong>the</strong>spirit. They seek to solve critical problems withmeasurable targets, without adequately addressing<strong>the</strong> roots of <strong>the</strong>se problems.Many gender advocatesargue that despite being an important tool tomeasure progress, <strong>the</strong> MDGs are a far too narrowset of indicators and targets. Their watering downof a human rights framework is ano<strong>the</strong>r seriousmatter of concern. The UNWTO Secretary General‘sstatement that seems to simplistically equatewomen’s employment to women’s empowermentis a reflection of <strong>the</strong> dangers of such a wateringdown.The Doors that <strong>Tourism</strong> can and should open forWomen:What is <strong>the</strong> role that tourism has played and canplay in this important struggle for equality, equityand empowerment that involves half <strong>the</strong> world?We have argued that international, national andstate level policies on tourism do state a generalcommitment to women’s empowerment but rarelygo beyond that to understand and evolve specificmeasures. Policies and budgets have <strong>the</strong> potentialboth to perpetuate gender bias and blindness,and to transform <strong>the</strong>m. Gender disaggregateddata, gender-sensitive policies and indicators areessential to building up a picture of <strong>the</strong> nature andextent of gender inequality. We need to understand<strong>the</strong> way institutions with <strong>the</strong>ir gendered rules workand we need to develop <strong>the</strong> political will, processesand tools to challenge and change <strong>the</strong>m. Genderaudits and gender budgeting are tools that could beemployed meaningfully - particularly at communitylevels. These in turn will impact women’s politicalparticipation and decision making in <strong>the</strong> forms oftourism, impacts of tourism, models of tourismand pace of tourism in <strong>the</strong>ir communities. It is timetourism recognized women’s agency and heard<strong>the</strong>ir voices in its development.<strong>Tourism</strong> does provide a range of activitieswhere women can participate and also createsopportunities for entrepreneurship developmentin tourist destinations. Global data on numbersof women and men working in tourism relatedprofessions suggests that <strong>the</strong> organised tourismsector is a particularly important sector where 46%of <strong>the</strong> workforce is women (in general 30-40% of<strong>the</strong> workforce is women) (ILO 2007). Of <strong>the</strong> dataavailable for <strong>the</strong> years between 1988 and 2005, itappears that <strong>the</strong>re has been a broad increase in <strong>the</strong>participation of women in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry at aglobal level.However apart from <strong>the</strong> larger overall presence in<strong>the</strong> industry, which has grown exponentially, manyo<strong>the</strong>r factors sadly follow <strong>the</strong> trend of <strong>the</strong> overalllabour market and women do not seem to benefitand be empowered particularly from tourism. As inmany o<strong>the</strong>r sectors, <strong>the</strong>re is a significant horizontaland vertical gender segregation of <strong>the</strong> labour marketin tourism. Vertically, <strong>the</strong> typical “gender pyramid”is prevalent in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector - lower levelsand occupations with few career developmentopportunities being dominated by women and keymanagerial positions being dominated by men.In India women in <strong>the</strong> organised sector in tourismare relegated to relatively low skill and low payingor stereotypical jobs like housekeeping, frontdeskand reception, catering and laundry services.They face very high risks of sexual harassment and142
exploitation and are discouraged from formingunions or associations to consolidate <strong>the</strong>ir strengthand influence. The proportion of women’s to men’swages is less. Women feature significantly morein part time and/or temporary employment andare typically paid less than men for <strong>the</strong> same workdone.In <strong>the</strong> developing world 60% of women who work(in non-agricultural work) are in <strong>the</strong> informalsector. Much of this is linked directly and indirectlyto tourism. The role of women in informal tourismsettings such as running home-stay facilities,restaurants and shacks, crafts and handicrafts,handloom, small shops and street vending issignificant. But <strong>the</strong>se roles and activities thatwomen perform in tourism are treated as invisibleor taken for granted. The need to acknowledge<strong>the</strong> important economic contribution of womenand ensure for <strong>the</strong>m, access to credit, capacitybuilding and enhanced skills, access to <strong>the</strong> market,encouragement to form unions, associations andcooperatives to increase <strong>the</strong>ir bargaining powerand to ensure that <strong>the</strong>ir safety health and socialsecurity needs are met is critical.Community-based tourism initiatives, particularof local women’s groups and co-operatives, arean important way by which women can controland benefit from tourism. There are numerousexamples where women and women’s groupshave started income-generating activities on <strong>the</strong>irown which <strong>the</strong>n feed into or become part of <strong>the</strong>formal tourism sector. These activities help tocreate financial independence for local womenand motivate <strong>the</strong>m to develop necessary skills andimprove <strong>the</strong>ir education.It is also important to note that when tourismdisplaces people from traditional livelihoods orworse still physically displaces <strong>the</strong>m, <strong>the</strong> worstaffected are women who are engaged in <strong>the</strong> bulkof ancillary occupations like tobacco cultivation,coconut harvesting, fish sorting and processingwhich are jeopardized through such displacement.It becomes <strong>the</strong> prerogative of governments and <strong>the</strong>industry to ensure that ra<strong>the</strong>r than displace <strong>the</strong>m,tourism should build and bolster supplementarylivelihood options that women can choose from.Some Doors that Need to Close – Exploitation ofWomen in <strong>Tourism</strong>:There is a direct correlation between <strong>the</strong> depletionof natural resources and increased burden onwomen in daily work in any region of <strong>the</strong> world.When tourism restricts community access to orcontributes to <strong>the</strong> depletion of natural resources,it is <strong>the</strong> women not only as homemakers, but alsoas community members who suffer <strong>the</strong> most.Women’s access to and control over forest produceand water come into sharp conflict when tourismusurps <strong>the</strong>se very resources needed to fulfill <strong>the</strong>ir lifeand livelihood needs. The daily burden on womenof finding water for <strong>the</strong> household or firewoodfor cooking is oftentimes doubled or tripled. Thelinks between tourism and climate change willunfortunately add to <strong>the</strong> burden women alreadybear.When tourism makes products of culture, it tendsto commodify women in particular – although bothmen and women are impacted by <strong>the</strong> insensitiveselling of culture. With sex tourism being <strong>the</strong>most negative and prominent example, <strong>the</strong>re isa significant amount of sexual objectification ofwomen working in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. Womenare expected to dress in an “attractive” manner, tolook beautiful (i.e. slim, young, and pretty) and to“play along” with sexual harassment by customers.Stereotypical and sexist images of women areoften part of tourism promotion in brochures andadvertisements. Friendly, smiling and pliant womenfitting certain standards of attractiveness, attiredin traditional costumes, waiting to submissivelyserve <strong>the</strong> customer’s every wish is <strong>the</strong> typicalportrayal of women in tourism material. We askthat <strong>the</strong> international community and UNWTO drawattention to <strong>the</strong> way women are represented in <strong>the</strong>selling of tourism by addressing this in <strong>the</strong> code ofethics.The tourism industry and stewards of tourismdevelopment face many serious social and humanchallenges in <strong>the</strong> years ahead. The growing linksbetween migration - both voluntary and forced -and tourism needs to take into account <strong>the</strong> genderdimensions of this global phenomenon. HIV/AIDS notonly is driven by gender inequality but entrenchesit. <strong>Tourism</strong> is increasingly seen to have a role in this143
entrenchment in its links to trafficking, prostitutionand sex tourism. Poverty, and in particular urbanpoverty, which threatens to be an issue of growingmagnitude has deep roots in gender injustice.<strong>Tourism</strong> often wipes out <strong>the</strong> existence and meansof livelihood of <strong>the</strong> urban poor in an overt mannerwhile continuing to depend covertly on cheaplabour and exploitative relationships in order toflourish. The trend of development of tourism inconflict zones and <strong>the</strong> consequent impacts it hason women who are already battling for survival isano<strong>the</strong>r matter of serious concern. Disasters andepidemics have an uneasy relationship with tourism– but gender dimensions are rarely integrated intoassistance and reconstruction efforts with <strong>the</strong> focusbeing largely on <strong>the</strong> safety of tourists and revival oftourism infrastructure.We call upon governments, policy makers, industry,civil society and <strong>the</strong> UNWTO to engage in moresystemic ways with <strong>the</strong> challenge of women’sempowerment in tourism. Perhaps it is time for <strong>the</strong>UNWTO to declare <strong>Tourism</strong>’s Decade for Women’sRights and Empowerment as a move towardsopening <strong>the</strong> doors to a more just and equitable worldfor women and men.144
Global Report on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>2010 Preliminary FindingsUNWTO- UN Women*Introduction:<strong>Tourism</strong> is one of <strong>the</strong> world’s largest and fastestgrowing industries. In many countries it acts as anengine for development through foreign exchangeearnings and <strong>the</strong> creation of direct and indirectemployment. <strong>Tourism</strong> contributes 5% of <strong>the</strong> world’sGDP and 7% of jobs worldwide. It accounts for 6%of <strong>the</strong> world’s exports and 30% of <strong>the</strong> world’sexports in services. In developing countries,tourism generates 45% of <strong>the</strong> total exports inservices. 1 Research shows <strong>the</strong> different ways inwhich tourism can contribute to economic growth,poverty reduction and community development.However, less attention has been paid to <strong>the</strong>unequal ways in which <strong>the</strong> benefits of tourism aredistributed between men and women, particularlyin <strong>the</strong> developing world. <strong>Tourism</strong> presents bothopportunities and challenges for gender equalityand women’s empowerment. The Global Report onWomen in <strong>Tourism</strong> 2010 is a first attempt to developa quantitative framework for monitoring <strong>the</strong> statusof women working in tourism across <strong>the</strong> globe. Itsfocus is on tourism in developing regions.The objectives of <strong>the</strong> report were to: i) establisha set of indicators and an indicator frameworkthat could be used to monitor <strong>the</strong> performanceof tourism as a tool for women’s empowerment;and ii) to use <strong>the</strong> indicators to assess <strong>the</strong> extent towhich tourism is advancing <strong>the</strong> needs of women in<strong>the</strong> developing world. The overarching vision for<strong>the</strong> Global Report on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> 2010 isto promote women’s empowerment and protectwomen’s rights through better tourism work.The report is structured around five <strong>the</strong>maticareas: employment, entrepreneurship, education,leadership, and community. The results are derivedprimarily from analysis of ILO’s Laborsta database 2and sorted by developing world regions: <strong>the</strong>Caribbean, Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. 3The report also includes a selection of case studieswhich highlight success stories in tourism across<strong>the</strong> world. This summary presents some of <strong>the</strong>main findings of <strong>the</strong> report by <strong>the</strong>me and by regionand offers some preliminary recommendations forstakeholder consideration.Context:<strong>Tourism</strong> presents a wide range of incomegeneration opportunities for women in both formaland informal employment. <strong>Tourism</strong> jobs are oftenflexible and can be carried out at various differentlocations such as <strong>the</strong> workplace, community, andhousehold. Additionally, tourism creates a widerange of opportunities for women through <strong>the</strong>complex value chains it creates in <strong>the</strong> destinationeconomy.There are also known to be challenges facing womenin tourism. Women are often concentrated in lowstatus, low paid and precarious jobs in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry. Gender stereotyping and discriminationmean that women mainly tend to perform jobssuch as cooking, cleaning and hospitality. Muchtourism employment is seasonal and fluctuatesaccording to <strong>the</strong> volatile nature of <strong>the</strong> industry. Insome destinations links have been found betweentourism and <strong>the</strong> sex industry which could makewomen more vulnerable to sexual exploitation. 4If a strong gender perspective is integrated intoplanning and implementation processes, tourismcan be harnessed as a vehicle for promotinggender equality and women’s empowerment at<strong>the</strong> household, community, national and globallevel. At <strong>the</strong> same time, greater gender equalitywill contribute to <strong>the</strong> overall quality of <strong>the</strong> touristexperience, with a considerable impact onprofitability and quality across all aspects of <strong>the</strong>industry.Key Findings:Although much information is still missing, <strong>the</strong>results of this initial survey suggest that tourism is145
worth investing in; it has <strong>the</strong> potential to be a vehiclefor <strong>the</strong> empowerment of women in developingregions. <strong>Tourism</strong> provides better opportunities forwomen’s participation in <strong>the</strong> workforce, women’sentrepreneurship, and women’s leadership thano<strong>the</strong>r sectors of <strong>the</strong> economy. Women in tourismare still underpaid, under-utilized, under-educated,and underrepresented; but tourism offers pathwaysto success.• y Women make up a large proportion of <strong>the</strong>formal tourism workforce.• y Women are well represented in service andclerical level jobs but poorly represented atprofessional levels.• y Women in tourism are typically earning 10% to15% less than <strong>the</strong>ir male counterparts.• y The tourism sector has almost twice as manywomen employers as o<strong>the</strong>r sectors.• y One in five tourism ministers worldwide arewomen.• y Women make up a much higher proportion ofown-account workers in tourism than in o<strong>the</strong>rsectors.• y A large amount of unpaid work is being carriedout by women in family tourism businesses.Notwithstanding <strong>the</strong>se results, <strong>the</strong>re is still much toexplore and analyze. For example, how do women’spay levels differ between tourism jobs; how dowomen’s hours in tourism compare with men’s; andhow to define and measure women’s unpaid workin family tourism businesses?Employment:In general, women are well represented in formaltourism employment. However, women are morelikely than men to be working at a clerical, levelare less likely than men to reach professional-leveltourism employment, and as a result, <strong>the</strong>ir averagetake-home pay is lower than men’s.Table 1 Hotel/Restaurant Employees who areWomen by Region (%)RegionRegional averageLatin America 58.5Caribbean 55.4Africa 47.0Oceania 46.8Asia 35.4Average 48.62Source: ILO Laborsta Database.Table 1 shows that women make up a largeproportion of formal hospitality and restaurantindustry employees, with an average of 49%. 5Latin America and <strong>the</strong> Caribbean have <strong>the</strong> highestproportion of women in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry,followed by Africa. The low figure for Asia hides awide disparity between Middle Eastern countriessuch as Saudi Arabia with 2% and Thailand with65%. These high levels of participation demonstratetourism’s potential contribution to incomegeneration for women. However, it is important tolook more closely at what kinds of jobs women aredoing in tourism, as set out in Table 2.Table 2 Women Hotel/Restaurant Employees byOccupational Status, By Region (%)Region Professional ClerksServiceworkersAsia 38.9 49.4 35.6LatinAmerica36.6 62.7 65.5Africa 34.9 56.6 34.8Caribbean N/A 67.3 42.9Oceania N/A N/A N/AAverage* 36.8 59.0 44.7* In order to show an average, a region needed to havedata for at least 10% of countries included.Source: ILO Laborsta Database.146
This shows us that women’s employment in <strong>the</strong>tourism industry is concentrated in <strong>the</strong> service andclerical sector. These figures vary by region, with ahigh proportion of women working in <strong>the</strong> clericalsector in Latin America and <strong>the</strong> Caribbean. However,within <strong>the</strong>se categories <strong>the</strong>re is no information onwhat specific jobs women and men are carryingout and whe<strong>the</strong>r or not <strong>the</strong>se conform to genderstereotypes. In terms of <strong>the</strong> professional level, <strong>the</strong>average is similar for all regions for which data isavailable. This phenomenon is particularly evidentin Latin America, where women’s participation in<strong>the</strong> professional level jobs is almost half of that at<strong>the</strong> service and clerical level. However, in general,although women’s participation in this sector isnot high, <strong>the</strong>re does seem to be some potential forwomen to reach management positions within <strong>the</strong>industry.Entrepreneurship:<strong>Tourism</strong> offers significant opportunities for womento run <strong>the</strong>ir own businesses. Women are almosttwice as likely to be employers in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry than in o<strong>the</strong>r sectors.Table 3 Women Employers in <strong>the</strong> Hotel andRestaurant Sector, By Region (%)*RegionIn In hotel andgeneral restaurant sectorLatin America 23.2 51.3Caribbean 26.4 32.8Africa 20.8 30.5Asia 17.4 29.7Oceania N/A N/AAverage 21.95 36.08* For this indicator, data were available for 40 out of 172countries. In order to show an average, a region needed tohave data for at least 10% of <strong>the</strong> countries included.Source: ILO Laborsta Database.Latin America has <strong>the</strong> highest proportion ofwomen employers in tourism, more than double<strong>the</strong> proportion in o<strong>the</strong>r sectors. In Nicaragua andPanama more than 70% of employers are womencompared to just over 20% in o<strong>the</strong>r sectors. Thispattern is followed to a lesser extent in all regionscovered by <strong>the</strong> study. Again, <strong>the</strong> data for Asiavary substantially. While in Indonesia, Malaysia,Philippines, and Thailand more than half of tourismbusinesses are run by women, in Pakistan, Iran,and <strong>the</strong> Maldives <strong>the</strong>re were virtually none. Thisdemonstrates that tourism has a strong potentialfor promoting women’s own businesses.Education:Although <strong>the</strong>re is very little data on <strong>the</strong> levelof education of women working in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry, international data on education suggeststhat <strong>the</strong> proportion of women graduates in all fieldsis increasing. There is still a shortage of womenteaching at tertiary level, however, and <strong>the</strong>re areproportionally fewer women service graduatesthan in o<strong>the</strong>r fields.Table 4 shows <strong>the</strong> ways in which women’sparticipation in higher education varies by region.Within regions some countries have particularlyhigh levels of women services graduates, suchas Philippines (82.1%), Cayman Islands (80%), andHonduras (78%). In contrast in Qatar only 9% ofservices graduates were women.Table 4 Women Graduates in Services, By Region(%)*RegionAll tertiarygraduatesAll servicesgraduatesLatin America 59.6 53.5Caribbean 66.2 50.3Asia 52.2 46.3Africa 36.8 30.8Oceania N/A N/AAverage 53.7 45.3* Data for <strong>the</strong> indicator on graduates in services wereavailable for 88 out of <strong>the</strong> 172 countries included in <strong>the</strong>research. The data are most complete in Latin Americaand Asia. Source: UNESCO Institute for StatisticsDatabase.Leadership:<strong>Tourism</strong> offers women opportunities for globalleadership. Women hold more ministerial positionsin tourism than in any o<strong>the</strong>r field. Never<strong>the</strong>less, only147
one in five tourism board (NTAs) CEOs are women,and only one in four tourism industry associationshave a woman chair.In March 2010, 21% percent of countries had awomen tourism minister compared to 17% ofministerial positions in general. The highestproportion of women tourism ministers is in Africa,where one third of all tourism ministers are women.In African countries, <strong>the</strong> post of tourism ministeris almost twice as likely to be held by a womanthan o<strong>the</strong>r ministerial posts. In contrast, just 6% oftourism ministers in <strong>the</strong> Caribbean and 15% in Asiaare women.Analysis of tourist boards shows just over 20% arerun by women. The Caribbean was <strong>the</strong> region with<strong>the</strong> most women tourist board CEOs (35%). In sevenout of <strong>the</strong> 23 Caribbean countries, <strong>the</strong> chairpersonof <strong>the</strong> tourism board is a woman. <strong>Tourism</strong>associations are slightly more like to have a womenchair. Twenty-three percent of tourism associationshad women chairs.Community:The formal and informal opportunities tourismprovides women can have a significant impacton poverty reduction in rural communities. Theproportion of women “own-account workers” ismuch higher in tourism than in o<strong>the</strong>r sectors acrossall regions. The report also found that women arecontributing a substantial amount of unpaid labourto home-based tourism businesses as “contributingfamily workers”. Unpaid family workers arevulnerable to exploitation. This is one of <strong>the</strong> keyareas to address in promoting gender equality intourism.Table 5 Women as “Own Account Workers” in <strong>the</strong>Hotel and Restaurant Sector, By Region (%)*RegionIn generalIn hotel andrestaurantsectorLatin America 39 73Africa 38 48Caribbean 29 42Asia 27 33Oceania N/A N/AAverage 33.25 49* Data on own-account workers in <strong>the</strong> H&R sector wereonly available for 39 out of 172 countries.Source: ILO Laborsta Database.It also appears that women are contributing alarge amount of unpaid work to family tourismenterprises. As Table 6 shows, <strong>the</strong> proportionof contributing family workers that are womenis considerably higher in tourism than in o<strong>the</strong>rindustries, with <strong>the</strong> exception of Asia. In <strong>the</strong>Caribbean, for example, 84% of contributing familywork is provided by women, compared to 51% ino<strong>the</strong>r sectors. These figures are troubling for agender analysis of <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. Whilewomen’s work in family tourism enterprises clearlycontributes to community development, if thiswork is unpaid it is subsidizing a large proportionof community-based tourism but makes littlecontribution to women’s empowerment.Table 5 shows how women’s own account or selfemployed activity in tourism varies by region. Thehighest proportion is in Latin America, where largecontrasts can be seen between tourism and o<strong>the</strong>rsectors. In Nicaragua, for example, women occupy40% of own-account jobs overall but 92% in tourism.In Bolivia, <strong>the</strong> figures are 44% and 95% respectively.Several African countries have high proportionsof female tourism self-employed workers: 71% inBotswana and 65% in Zimbabwe 65%. The countrywith <strong>the</strong> lowest level is Syria, at 2%.148
Table 6 Women as Contributing Family Workers in<strong>the</strong> H&R Sector, By Region*RegionIngeneralIn hotel andrestaurant sectorCaribbean 51.0 84.0Africa 56.0 73.0Latin America 53.0 70.0Asia 64.0 54.0Oceania N/A N/ATotal Average 56 70.25* Data were available for only 34 out of 172 countries.Data are most complete for Asia.Source: ILO Laborsta Database.Regional Variations:Some key trends by region in terms of women’sparticipation in tourism in <strong>the</strong> five different aspectscovered by <strong>the</strong> report can be highlighted as follows:• y In <strong>the</strong> Caribbean, women make up a highproportion of both employees and own accountworkers. However, <strong>the</strong> number of women intourism ministerial positions is low.• y Similarly in Latin America, <strong>the</strong> participation ofwomen in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry is high, but <strong>the</strong>reare low levels of representation of women intourism leadership.• y There are a high proportion of women intourism ministerial positions in Africa (onethird of <strong>the</strong> total) and a high number of womenemployees and own-account workers. However,<strong>the</strong> proportion of women graduates in servicesis low.• y Asia has <strong>the</strong> highest proportion of women at<strong>the</strong> professional level in tourism. In terms ofoverall participation in employment and ownaccount work, this is high in South East Asiancountries and very low in <strong>the</strong> Middle East.Future Challenges and Recommendations:The report makes a series of recommendationsbased on <strong>the</strong> areas of critical concern for promotingwomen’s empowerment in tourism, which aresummarized as follows:Main Recommendations by Theme:Employment:Increase awareness of <strong>the</strong> important economicrole that women play in <strong>the</strong> tourism industry.Streng<strong>the</strong>n legal protection for women in tourismemployment; such protections include minimumwage regulations and equal pay laws. Improvematernity leave requirements, flexible hours,work-from-home options, and arrangements forchildcare.Entrepreneurship:Facilitate women’s tourism entrepreneurshipby ensuring women’s access to credit, land andproperty as well as providing appropriate trainingand resources to support women’s enterprises.Education:Promote women’s participation in tourismeducation and training and improve <strong>the</strong> educationallevel of women already working in different areasof <strong>the</strong> industry through a targeted and strategicprogram of action.Leadership:Support women’s tourism leadership at all levels:public sector, private sector, and communitymanagement by establishing leadership programsat <strong>the</strong> national level and in large and small-scaletourism enterprises.Community:Ensure that women’s contribution to communitydevelopment is properly recognized and rewardedby taking into account women’s unpaid work andby monitoring tourism activities carried out in <strong>the</strong>household and in <strong>the</strong> community.• y In Oceania, <strong>the</strong>re are no women in tourismministerial positions at <strong>the</strong> current time.149
150Main Recommendations for Stakeholders:Private Sector:Promote gender equality and women’sempowerment as fundamental components ofCorporate Social Responsibility activities, in linewith <strong>the</strong> Global Compact-UN Women’s Women’sEmpowerment Principles. 6Public Sector including <strong>Tourism</strong> Policy-makers:Take proactive steps to mainstream gender intourism policy, planning, and operations.International Organizations and Civil Society:Call on governments, <strong>the</strong> international community,civil society organizations and <strong>the</strong> private sector toprotect women’s rights in tourism and to monitorprogress in <strong>the</strong> empowerment of women throughtourism. Collaborate with UNWTO-UN Womento develop programs and projects dedicatedto promoting gender equality and women’sempowerment through tourism.In order to assess how effective policy actions arein improving <strong>the</strong> situation of women in tourism, itis important to re-evaluate <strong>the</strong>se indicators at leastevery three years. This year’s baseline will provide ayardstick against which to evaluate future results.Case Studies:Women occupy a significant position in <strong>the</strong> tourismindustry worldwide. The capacity of tourismto empower women socially, politically, andeconomically is particularly relevant in developingregions where women may face <strong>the</strong> greatesthardships and inequalities. This report highlights<strong>the</strong> important role that tourism plays in challengingcultural stereotypes, empowering womenpolitically and economically, and providing incomegeneratingopportunities for women. The casestudies below demonstrate <strong>the</strong> potential of tourismto stimulate domestic business opportunities, toprovide opportunities for technical assistance, andto help women recover from times of crisis.Case Study A: Mulala Cultural <strong>Tourism</strong>Enterprise, Arusha, Tanzania ~ By Mary Lwoga(text edited)Eight women in <strong>the</strong> Mulala village of Tanzania haveunited to form <strong>the</strong> Agape Women’s Group, a cooperativeworking within <strong>the</strong> framework of <strong>the</strong>Mulala Cultural <strong>Tourism</strong> Enterprise, an enterpriseestablished with <strong>the</strong> joint support of <strong>the</strong> TanzaniaTourist Board and <strong>the</strong> Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands DevelopmentOrganization (SNV) with <strong>the</strong> aim of creatingtourism activities that benefit local populations,alleviate poverty and offer a tourism experienceto complement conventional safaris. Upon arrival,tourists are warmly welcomed by <strong>the</strong> women ofMulala, led by Mama Anna Pallangyo (Head andCo-ordinator of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Tourism</strong> Enterprise). They areencouraged to visit Mt. Meru Forest Reserve andtake tours designed to showcase local cheesemaking,dairy keeping, gardening and farmingactivities, bread-making, tailoring or coffee growing.Not only does <strong>the</strong> program directly benefit <strong>the</strong>eight families of <strong>the</strong> Women’s Group, but <strong>the</strong> entire2,500 strong Mulala community has gained by it.Every tourist makes a contribution to <strong>the</strong> VillageDevelopment Fund, which is used to improveschool buildings, <strong>the</strong> local dispensary and in o<strong>the</strong>rcommunity development projects. Thanks to <strong>the</strong>irgood contacts in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector, <strong>the</strong> AgapeWomen’s Group has also managed to establishbusiness linkages with tourist lodges in <strong>the</strong> area for<strong>the</strong> supply of homemade cheese. This has becomeano<strong>the</strong>r important income source for <strong>the</strong> membersof <strong>the</strong> women’s group, as well as for o<strong>the</strong>r farmersin <strong>the</strong> village, from which <strong>the</strong> women’s grouppurchases milk to produce cheese.Factors Influencing Success and Lessons Learned:• y Local women entrepreneurs like Mama Annatook <strong>the</strong> initiative and drove this Cultural<strong>Tourism</strong> Program towards success.• y Women were supported and encouraged toparticipate in <strong>the</strong> project from its inception.y • Training in business skills, pricing, linking tomarkets and record keeping was provided toall <strong>the</strong> project participants, ensuring <strong>the</strong>y wereequipped with <strong>the</strong> information necessary tobenefit from tourism.
Case Study B: Three Pioneering Nepali Sisters~ By Kristie Drucza (text edited)In response to <strong>the</strong> demand for women guides in ano<strong>the</strong>rwise male-dominated sector in <strong>the</strong> Himalayas,<strong>the</strong> three Chhetri sisters founded <strong>the</strong> Three SistersAdventure and Trekking Company in 1994 to providea women-only trekking option for tourists. Fiveyears later, <strong>the</strong>y registered Empowering WomenNepal (EWN) as an NGO.The Nepali company trains local women as guidesand porters, while offering <strong>the</strong>m ‘empowermenttraining’ to help <strong>the</strong>m cope with discrimination.In this deeply patriarchal society, restrictionson women’s mobility render most singlewomen housebound and most married womenunemployable. Never<strong>the</strong>less, over <strong>the</strong> last decade,EWN has trained and motivated over 800 Nepaliwomen to enter <strong>the</strong> tourism industry. The sisterscurrently employ one hundred women in <strong>the</strong>irtrekking company, who earn an average of 120,000rupees per year (US$ 1,709) once <strong>the</strong>y becomeexperienced guides.Overcoming local scepticism through sheerdetermination, a clear vision of <strong>the</strong>ir mission,and <strong>the</strong> support of <strong>the</strong>ir family, <strong>the</strong> sisters havemanaged to break down several entrenched genderstereotypes. As one sister, Lucy Chhetri puts it:‘We have demonstrated that women are mentally,physically and emotionally as strong as men’.Due largely to <strong>the</strong>ir efforts, women now make upbetween five and ten percent of guides and portersin Nepal, offering tourists greater choice andadvancing <strong>the</strong> empowerment and economic statusof Nepali women.Factors Influencing Success and Lessons Learned:• y Family support for and between women greatlybolsters <strong>the</strong>ir confidence determination, andability to succeed.• y Women’s potential to succeed in tourismoften goes unrealized, not due to <strong>the</strong> lackof potential, but ra<strong>the</strong>r due to <strong>the</strong> lack ofopportunities.• y Questioning restrictive traditional gender rolesby male community members can supportwomen’s freedom to pursue entrepreneurialinitiatives in <strong>the</strong> tourism sector.Case Study C: Empowering Women throughEntrepreneurship in <strong>the</strong> Galapagos Islands,Ecuador ~ By Aldo Salvador and Ana GarciaPando (text edited)Three years ago, eleven women in Santa Cruz Island,Galapagos, became bakers and business partners in<strong>the</strong> “Pearls of <strong>the</strong> Pacific” when <strong>the</strong> Association ofCruise Operator Companies in Galapagos (ASOGAL)decided increase <strong>the</strong> corporate social responsibilityactivities of <strong>the</strong>ir members by expanding <strong>the</strong>ir localsupply chain.With thousands of tourists to cater for, ASOGALcame to consider a bakery as a good businessconcept, in light of <strong>the</strong> high cost of importingfrozen bread from <strong>the</strong> continent and <strong>the</strong> difficultyof time-consuming baking in cramped on-boardkitchens. With a zero-interest US$ 30,000 fromASOGAL, an initial investment from <strong>the</strong> AndeanFinancial Corporation (CAF), and <strong>the</strong> support of <strong>the</strong>Association, UNWTO ST-EP technicians and a hiredaccounting and entrepreneurial consultant firmfrom Quito, eleven local women embarked on thisproject.In spite of initial misgivings, overwhelmingpressure at home and <strong>the</strong> intense displeasure of<strong>the</strong>ir husbands, three of <strong>the</strong> women continuedwith <strong>the</strong> business venture. Learning how to tailor<strong>the</strong>ir product to satisfy foreign tourists, deal with<strong>the</strong>ir clients, and negotiate with (mostly male)logistics officers in charge of supplies, earning <strong>the</strong>admiration of <strong>the</strong>ir husbands and seen sales risefrom a mere US$ 200 a month to over US$ 6,000.Making financial decisions, solving problems,assuming risks and responsibilities, repaying <strong>the</strong>irloans and discussing refinancing has enabled <strong>the</strong>sewomen to lose <strong>the</strong>ir initial inhibitions and discoverinstead <strong>the</strong>ir enormous capacity for endurance. As<strong>the</strong>y put it, “We now run our business and our ownlives”.151
Factors Influencing Success and Lessons Learned:• y Entrepreneurship empowered <strong>the</strong>se womeneconomically, boosted <strong>the</strong>ir self-esteem andhelped <strong>the</strong>m earn <strong>the</strong> respect and admiration of<strong>the</strong>ir spouses.The global report has been several years in <strong>the</strong>making. At <strong>the</strong> ITB in Berlin in 2008, UNWTOunveiled an action plan to “empower womenthrough tourism”. Actions included in <strong>the</strong> planwere to establish a multi-stakeholder taskforce, toput in place a data collection system, and to initiate<strong>the</strong> UNWTO and UN Women Joint Triennial GlobalReport on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong>.Endnotes:* The Global Report on Women in <strong>Tourism</strong> 2010, onwhich this document is based, was commissionedin 2009 by UNWTO and UNIFEM (now UN Women)and was carried out by Dr. Louise Twining-Ward.This Preliminary Findings document was producedby UNWTO and UN Women in collaboration with Dr.Lucy Ferguson.1. UNWTO statistics2. The majority of <strong>the</strong> data in <strong>the</strong> report is drawnfrom <strong>the</strong> ILO Laborsta Database. <strong>Tourism</strong> in <strong>the</strong>ILO is considered as <strong>the</strong> hotel, catering and tourism(HCT) sector. However, <strong>the</strong> Laborsta Database onlyincludes statistics on <strong>the</strong> ‘Hotel and Restaurant’category, so this is used throughout <strong>the</strong> report. Weacknowledge that this does not cover <strong>the</strong> full rangeof tourism and tourism-related activities and thatmore data is needed. The data consulted for thisreport spans <strong>the</strong> period 1999-2008. Where available<strong>the</strong> most recent data has been used.3. The breakdown primarily reflects <strong>the</strong> UN’sgeoscheme of geographical regions. However, for<strong>the</strong> purposes of this report Nor<strong>the</strong>rn America hasbeen excluded and <strong>the</strong> Caribbean is included asa sub-region due to its status as one of <strong>the</strong> mosttourism-dependent regions in <strong>the</strong> world.http://www.unwto.org/protect_children/campaign/en/campaign. php?op=1&subop=1.5. Data for <strong>the</strong> equal participation of women in <strong>the</strong>workforce were available for 101 out of <strong>the</strong> 172countries included in <strong>the</strong> research (59%). For thisindicator, data were available for 40 out of 172countries (24%). In 2001, <strong>the</strong> ILO reported that 90%of hotel and restaurant employees worldwide werewomen. See: International Labour Office (2001),‘Human resources development, employment andglobalization in <strong>the</strong> hotel, catering and tourismsector’, Report for discussion at <strong>the</strong> TripartiteMeeting on <strong>the</strong> Human Resources Development,Employment and Globalization in <strong>the</strong> Hotel, Cateringand <strong>Tourism</strong> Sector, ILO, Geneva.6. See http://www.unglobalcompact.org/Issues/human_rights/equality_means_business.html.© UNWTO 92844023112011, World <strong>Tourism</strong> Organization (UNWTO) and <strong>the</strong>United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and <strong>the</strong>Employment of Women (UN Women)World <strong>Tourism</strong> OrganizationCalle Capitán Haya, 4228020 Madrid, SpainTel.: (+34) 915 678 100Fax: (+34) 915 713 733www.unwto .orgUN Women304 East 45th Street, 15th FloorNew York, NY 10017, United States of AmericaTel: (+1) 212 906 6400Fax: (+1) 212 906 6705www.unwomen .org4. Although this is a very important issue for <strong>the</strong>analysis of women in tourism, it is beyond <strong>the</strong> remitof <strong>the</strong> current report. For research and analysison <strong>the</strong> link between tourism and sex tourism, see152
About <strong>the</strong> AuthorsAnita HaladiAnita Haladi teaches economics at D.M.’s Collegeand at Marian Institute of Healthcare Management.Her area of interest includes Macro Economics,Gender Studies, Child Rights and Health Policy.Anita has taught at Women Studies Centre, TISS. Sheis a trainer on gender issues at Goa Institute for RuralDevelopment and Administration. She has drafted<strong>the</strong> Goa Children’s Act and has been a member of<strong>the</strong> Goa State Commission for Children. She hasworked widely on policy initiatives and trainingof government and law enforcement agencieson child rights and has drafted protocols andStandard operating Procedures for <strong>the</strong> functioningof Victims’ Assistance Units meant to support childvictims through <strong>the</strong> process of complaints/rescue/legal proceedings and rehabilitation. She has alsofounded and coordinated an NGO Children’s Rightsin Goa (1995-1998) and a community supportedfunctional literacy programme for child workersin Panaji, Goa called “Hamara School’. She can becontacted at a_haladi@rediffmail.comIndra Munshi:Indra Munshi works as Project Director on aUGC- EPW- TISS Project in <strong>the</strong> Economic andPolitical Weekly, Mumbai. Her research interestsinclude forest policy and management and itsimpact on tribal communities in India; growth ofmodern tourism and <strong>the</strong> social and environmentalconsequences of <strong>the</strong> same, especially in <strong>the</strong>developing countries.She retired as a professor from <strong>the</strong> Department ofSociology, University of Mumbai, in 2010. She hastaught courses on tourism in India, Germany andAustria and conducted research in Germany on <strong>the</strong>perception of India among <strong>the</strong> German tourists.Currently, she is working on eco-tourism andmedical tourism. She has published articles and abook on <strong>the</strong> above subjects. She can be contactedat indramunshi@yahoo.co.inLucy FergusonLucy Ferguson is a researcher and consultant ingender and development specialising in genderissues in tourism. She has published widely onthis topic in journals such as International FeministJournal of Politics, Review of International PoliticalEconomy and Current Issues in <strong>Tourism</strong>.Lucy is an Honorary Research Fellow at <strong>the</strong>University of Sheffield and currently worksas a Gender Adviser at <strong>the</strong> UN World <strong>Tourism</strong>Organization in Madrid. She is also working with<strong>the</strong> Fundacion Internacional y para Iberoamericade Administracion y Politicas Publicas (FIIAPP) on agender and tourism project, and recently completedan advocacy paper on gender and smallholderfarming for ActionAid International. She can becontacted at l.j.ferguson@sheffield.ac.ukMariama WilliamsMariama Williams, Ph.D., is a Senior Fellow with <strong>the</strong>South Centre, based in Geneva, Switzerland. Sheis also a Research Associate with <strong>the</strong> InternationalGender and Trade Network (IGTN) and a director of<strong>the</strong> Institute of Law and Economics, Jamaica. Hercurrent research areas are <strong>the</strong> financial crisis and<strong>the</strong> global economy and climate change financing.Mariama is <strong>the</strong> author of Trading Stories: Experienceswith Gender and Trade (co-edited with Marilyn Carr,2010), co-author, Gender and Trade Action Guide: ATraining Resource (2007), author, Gender Issues in<strong>the</strong> Multilateral Trading System (2003) and Genderand Climate Change Financing – An Introduction(forthcoming 2011). Since 2009 she also worked as aconsultant & trainer on gender and climate change(finance) with <strong>the</strong> Global Gender and ClimateAlliance and authored <strong>the</strong> chapter/module onGender and Climate Change Finance for <strong>the</strong> GGCATraining Manual, Gender and Climate Change (2009).Ms Williams is a member of <strong>the</strong> InternationalWorking Group on Gender, Macroeconomics andInternational Trade (IWG-GEM). She has servedon many international committees and Boards ofrepute related to <strong>the</strong> WTO, UNIFEM, AWID, UNDPetc. She is currently a member of <strong>the</strong> Board ofTrustees of <strong>the</strong> Dag Hammarskjold Foundation,Sweden. She can be contacted at williams@southcentre.org153