China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century
China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century
China and Western Technology in the Late Eighteenth Century
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<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong>Author(s): Joanna Waley-CohenSource: The American Historical Review, Vol. 98, No. 5, (Dec., 1993), pp. 1525-1544Published by: American Historical AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2167065Accessed: 17/06/2008 11:34Your use of <strong>the</strong> JSTOR archive <strong>in</strong>dicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms <strong>and</strong> Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/<strong>in</strong>fo/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms <strong>and</strong> Conditions of Use provides, <strong>in</strong> part, that unlessyou have obta<strong>in</strong>ed prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, <strong>and</strong> youmay use content <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.Please contact <strong>the</strong> publisher regard<strong>in</strong>g any fur<strong>the</strong>r use of this work. Publisher contact <strong>in</strong>formation may be obta<strong>in</strong>ed athttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=aha.Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> same copyright notice that appears on <strong>the</strong> screen or pr<strong>in</strong>tedpage of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded <strong>in</strong> 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We enable <strong>the</strong>scholarly community to preserve <strong>the</strong>ir work <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> materials <strong>the</strong>y rely upon, <strong>and</strong> to build a common research platform thatpromotes <strong>the</strong> discovery <strong>and</strong> use of <strong>the</strong>se resources. For more <strong>in</strong>formation about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.http://www.jstor.org
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong>JOANNA WALEY-COHENWe have never valued <strong>in</strong>genious articles, nor do we have <strong>the</strong> slightest need ofyour country's manufactures.'BY THE LATE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, THE BALANCE OF EUROPEAN OPINION had tiltedaga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. <strong>Western</strong>ers, earlier <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> century almost uncritical <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>iradmiration, came to <strong>the</strong> conclusion that <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese seemed unwill<strong>in</strong>g, or unable,to improve on <strong>the</strong>ir earlier <strong>in</strong>ventions, such as gunpowder <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> compass,which formed part of <strong>the</strong> foundation for <strong>Western</strong> development. The famousassertion of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese self-sufficiency quoted above, made <strong>in</strong> 1793 by <strong>the</strong> Qianlongemperor (r. 1736-1795) <strong>in</strong> response to Lord Macartney's embassy from K<strong>in</strong>gGeorge III, seemed to epitomize Ch<strong>in</strong>ese aloofness to <strong>the</strong> potential offered by<strong>Western</strong> knowledge.2Europeans specifically equated this apparent lack of <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> what <strong>the</strong> WestI am most grateful to <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g: Jonathan Spence, Nathan Siv<strong>in</strong>, Paul Kennedy, Geoffrey Parker,Mark Shulman, Daniel Bays, Beatrice Bartlett, Ju Deyuan, Susan Naqu<strong>in</strong>, Peter Perdue, EdwardMalatesta, S.J., John E. Wills, Jr., <strong>and</strong> 'Marilyn Young, as well as participants <strong>in</strong> sem<strong>in</strong>ars, colloquia,<strong>and</strong> panel discussions at (<strong>in</strong> chronological order) <strong>the</strong> University of Kansas, Lawrence; HarvardUniversity; Columbia University; New York University; Yale University; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1992 Associationfor Asian Studies Conference <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C. Thanks also to archivists <strong>and</strong> library staff at <strong>the</strong>Archivum Romanum Societatis Jesu, Rome; at <strong>the</strong> Archives des Jesuites de Paris, Vanves, France; at<strong>the</strong> Biblio<strong>the</strong>que Nationale, <strong>the</strong> Biblio<strong>the</strong>que de L'Institut de France, <strong>and</strong> at Yale University; <strong>and</strong> forf<strong>in</strong>ancial, <strong>in</strong>stitutional, <strong>and</strong> moral support to <strong>the</strong> History of Christianity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> project <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>Henry Luce Foundation; <strong>the</strong> Columbia Society of Fellows <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Humanities; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> John M. Ol<strong>in</strong>Postdoctoral Fellowship <strong>in</strong> Military <strong>and</strong> Strategic History at Yale University.' "Y<strong>in</strong>gshi Maga'erni Laip<strong>in</strong> An" [The Case of <strong>the</strong> English Macartney Embassy <strong>and</strong> Their Gifts],Chang Gu Cong Bian [Collected Historical Records] (Beip<strong>in</strong>g, 1930-43), 3: 16-24, at 19b.2 There is an immense primary <strong>and</strong> secondary literature on this topic. Among <strong>the</strong> most <strong>in</strong>fluentialearly firsth<strong>and</strong> accounts were Jean-Baptiste Du Halde's Description geographique, historique, chronologique,politique et physique de l'empire de la Ch<strong>in</strong>e et de la Tartarie ch<strong>in</strong>oise, 4 vols. (Paris, 1735-39; TheHague, 1736; English trans., London, 1738, 1741; German trans., 1748), based on missionarydescriptions; George Anson, A Voyage round <strong>the</strong> World <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Years MDCCXL, I, II, III, IV (London,1748; Paris, 1749), based on personal experience on <strong>the</strong> South <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> coast; <strong>and</strong> John Barrow, Travels<strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Descriptions, Observations <strong>and</strong> Comparisons Made <strong>and</strong> Collected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Course of a ShortResidence at <strong>the</strong> Imperial Palace of Yuen-m<strong>in</strong>-Yuen, <strong>and</strong> on a Subsequent Journey through <strong>the</strong> Country fromPek<strong>in</strong> to Canton, 2 vols. (London, 1804), based on <strong>the</strong> author's observations while <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> withMacartney's embassy <strong>in</strong> 1792-93. On <strong>the</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Western</strong> views of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> eighteenthcentury, see, for example, Basil Guy, The French Image of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> before <strong>and</strong> after Voltaire (Geneva, 1963);Louis Dermigny, La Ch<strong>in</strong>e et L'Occident: Le commerce a Canton au XVIIIC siecle, 1719-1833, 4 vols. (Paris,1964), esp. "My<strong>the</strong> et realite de la Ch<strong>in</strong>e," 1: 11-80.1525
1526 Joanna Waley-Cohenhad to offer with a lack of <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> science <strong>and</strong> practical technology, because atthat time <strong>the</strong> West had come to def<strong>in</strong>e itself <strong>in</strong> terms of, <strong>and</strong> derive a strong senseof superiority from, its undoubted technological power. From such a perspective,it was an easy step to regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese as <strong>in</strong>ferior <strong>in</strong> an overall sense. Theseviews took firm hold as <strong>the</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century unfolded <strong>and</strong> have rema<strong>in</strong>edtenacious to this day. Although scholars have recently exploded <strong>the</strong> myth of<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>'s "opposition" to <strong>Western</strong> science, it rema<strong>in</strong>s widely believed, <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>case of technology, nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> conviction of <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese lack of <strong>in</strong>terest nor <strong>the</strong>assumptions on which it rested have been subjected to serious <strong>in</strong>quiry.3Yet <strong>the</strong> situation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century was far more complex thanQianlong's public declaration suggests. In <strong>the</strong> preced<strong>in</strong>g decades, he <strong>and</strong> anumber of o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> had displayed considerable <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> all manner ofth<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>Western</strong>, particularly science <strong>and</strong> technology. Although this <strong>in</strong>terest wasduly recorded by a range of <strong>Western</strong> observers <strong>and</strong> made widely available to <strong>the</strong>irEuropean readers, <strong>the</strong> overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g body of op<strong>in</strong>ion disregarded that evidence<strong>in</strong> favor of <strong>the</strong> attitudes outl<strong>in</strong>ed above.This essay draws on both Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> archival <strong>and</strong> published sourcesto argue that, for different reasons, <strong>the</strong> imperial expression of disda<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong><strong>Western</strong> read<strong>in</strong>ess to accept it were primarily prompted by <strong>in</strong>ternal politicalagendas ra<strong>the</strong>r than by actual circumstances <strong>and</strong> that, as a result, <strong>the</strong> whole tenorof early S<strong>in</strong>o-<strong>Western</strong> relations was based on false premises. More accurateevaluation of <strong>the</strong> genesis <strong>and</strong> development of S<strong>in</strong>o-<strong>Western</strong> mutual perceptionswill help correct a misapprehension whose effects are still evident two centuriesafter <strong>the</strong> Macartney mission.4 The essay analyzes Ch<strong>in</strong>ese use of <strong>Western</strong>knowledge <strong>and</strong> technical skill <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late eighteenth century, focus<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>cipallyon <strong>the</strong> sequence of events <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> military sphere. This context was centralto <strong>Western</strong> assumptions of superiority because military culture, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>civil-military relationship, has been <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be of signal importance to aproper underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. Yet <strong>the</strong> extraord<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>in</strong>fluence of Ch<strong>in</strong>esecivilian culture has led to an unfortunate neglect of <strong>the</strong>se issues.The circumstances that gave rise to <strong>the</strong> misunderst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, <strong>the</strong> background to3For <strong>Western</strong> views, see Michael Adas, Mach<strong>in</strong>es as <strong>the</strong> Measure of Men: Science, <strong>Technology</strong>, <strong>and</strong>Ideologies of <strong>Western</strong> Dom<strong>in</strong>ance (Ithaca, N.Y., 1989); Carlo M. Cipolla, European Culture <strong>and</strong> OverseasExpansion (London, 1970); William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: <strong>Technology</strong>, Armed Force, <strong>and</strong>Society s<strong>in</strong>ce A.D. 1000 (Chicago, 1982); Joel Mokyr, The Lever of Riches: Technological Creativity <strong>and</strong>Economic Progress (New York, 1990); Theodore von Laue, The World Revolution of <strong>Western</strong>ization: TheTwentieth <strong>Century</strong> <strong>in</strong> Global Perspective (New York, 1987). On Ch<strong>in</strong>ese attitudes, see Pasquale M. d'Elia,Galileo <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>: Relations through <strong>the</strong> Roman College between Galileo <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jesuit Scientist-Missionaries(1610-1640), Rufus Suter <strong>and</strong> Mat<strong>the</strong>w Sciascia, trans. (Cambridge, Mass., 1960); Huang Yilong,"Tang Ruowang yu Q<strong>in</strong>gchu Xili zhi Zhengtonghua" [Tang Ruowang (Adam Schall) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>Regularization of <strong>Western</strong> Astronomy <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Early Q<strong>in</strong>g], X<strong>in</strong>bian Zhongguo Kezhi Shi [Newly EditedHistory of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>Technology</strong>], vol. 2 (Taibei, 1990); Nathan Siv<strong>in</strong>, "Copernicus <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>," <strong>in</strong>Colloquia Copernicana II: Etudes sur laudience de la Theorie Heliocentrique (Warsaw, 1973); Siv<strong>in</strong>, "On'<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>'s Opposition to <strong>Western</strong> Science dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Late</strong> M<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Early Ch'<strong>in</strong>g,"' Isis, 56 (1965): 201-05;Wang P<strong>in</strong>g, Xifang Lisuanxue zhi Shuru [The Importation of <strong>Western</strong> Astronomical Knowledge](Nangang, Taiwan, 1966); Harriet Zurndorfer, "Comment la science et la technologie se vendaienta la Ch<strong>in</strong>e au XVIIIe siecle," Etudes ch<strong>in</strong>oises, 7 (Autumn 1988): 59-90. See also Nathan Siv<strong>in</strong>, "Science<strong>and</strong> Medic<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Imperial <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>: The State of <strong>the</strong> Field,"Journal of Asian Studies, 47 (February 1988):41-90.4 See, for example, Ala<strong>in</strong> Peyrefitte, L'empire immobile, ou, Le choc des mondes: Recit historique (Paris,1989; English trans., New York, 1992).AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1527which is described <strong>in</strong> detail below, were essentially as follows. In a manner familiarto those who deal today with Ch<strong>in</strong>ese foreign relations, Qianlong's publicdeclaration had a double edge <strong>and</strong> was <strong>in</strong>tended for a multiple audience. For avariety of reasons, he preferred not to admit publicly his <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> awarenessof <strong>the</strong> potential of foreign technology. His motivation becomes clearer when <strong>the</strong>episode is placed with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context of late eighteenth-century Ch<strong>in</strong>ese politics.The Manchu Q<strong>in</strong>g dynasty (1644-1911) imposed <strong>and</strong> ultimately ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed itsrule over <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> by military means while at <strong>the</strong> same time seek<strong>in</strong>g to present to itsCh<strong>in</strong>ese subjects <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> world at large an image that was both thoroughlyConfucian <strong>and</strong> ethnically even-h<strong>and</strong>ed. For <strong>the</strong> Qianlong emperor, <strong>the</strong>se somewhatcontradictory goals meant, among o<strong>the</strong>r th<strong>in</strong>gs, that he made a virtue of hisown civilian accomplishments yet simultaneously leaned toward military cultureby, for example, promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> martial traditions of <strong>the</strong> Manchus; by award<strong>in</strong>ghigh civil office (usually <strong>the</strong> prize of scholars successful <strong>in</strong> a series of competitiveexam<strong>in</strong>ations based on classical Ch<strong>in</strong>ese texts) to successful generals, almost all ofwhom were Manchus; by prohibit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> private possession of any weapon; <strong>and</strong>by jealously guard<strong>in</strong>g access to all <strong>in</strong>formation, especially any that smacked oftechnology, conceivably of use to would-be rebels. No less important, <strong>the</strong>emperor's aspirations to universal authority comb<strong>in</strong>ed with acute political factionalism<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> gradual onset of a crisis of dynastic self-confidence to render anysuggestion of a lack of imperial autonomy wholly out of <strong>the</strong> question.5 Thus <strong>the</strong>famous statement can be understood, on <strong>the</strong> one h<strong>and</strong>, as a piece of propag<strong>and</strong>adirected at a domestic audience with <strong>the</strong> dual objectives of morale boost<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>timidation.On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r h<strong>and</strong>, <strong>the</strong> statement was, of course, directed at <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>g ofEngl<strong>and</strong> through his envoy Macartney <strong>and</strong>, by extension, at any o<strong>the</strong>r foreignerswho might <strong>in</strong>dividually or collectively seek to alter <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>'s foreignrelations to <strong>the</strong> disadvantage of ultimate Ch<strong>in</strong>ese control. In this context, <strong>the</strong>emperor's dis<strong>in</strong>genuousness conformed to a pattern dat<strong>in</strong>g back at least to <strong>the</strong>early seventeenth century <strong>and</strong> still discernible today. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to this pattern,<strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese have consistently sought to absorb <strong>Western</strong> practical technical skillswhile rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>imical to <strong>Western</strong> ideologies. This dichotomy orig<strong>in</strong>ated with<strong>the</strong> attempted use by Christian missionaries of <strong>Western</strong> scientific <strong>and</strong> technicalexpertise as a means of arous<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian religion. ManyCh<strong>in</strong>ese, although <strong>the</strong>y fully grasped <strong>the</strong> utility of <strong>the</strong> practical knowledge, werehesitant to adopt it because it seemed <strong>in</strong>separable from Christianity; accustomedto a political system <strong>in</strong> which ideology specifically ei<strong>the</strong>r served orthodoxauthority or constituted rank heresy, <strong>the</strong>y sensed <strong>the</strong> subversive potential of <strong>the</strong>foreign religion.6 Thus, as we shall see, when rebels threatened <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g dynasty<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late seventeenth century, <strong>the</strong> Kangxi emperor (r. 1661-1722) was happy to5 On Qianlong's view of his own monarchy, see Pamela Kyle Crossley, "The Rulerships of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>,"AHR, 97 (December 1992): 1468-83; Crossley, "Manzhou Yuanliu Kao <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Formalization of <strong>the</strong>Manchu Heritage,"Journal of Asian Studies,46 (November 1987): 761-90; Harold L. Kahn, Monarchy<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Emperor's Eyes: Image <strong>and</strong> Reality <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ch'ien-lung Reign (Cambridge, Mass., 1971); Beatrice S.Bartlett, Monarchs <strong>and</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters: The Gr<strong>and</strong> Council <strong>in</strong> Mid-Ch'<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, 1723-1820 (Berkeley, Calif.,1991); Philip A. Kuhn, Soulstealers: The Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Sorcery Scare of 1768 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).63acques Gernet, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian Impact: A Conflict of Cultures (Cambridge, 1985).AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1528 - Joanna Waley-Cohenimprove his arsenal under Jesuit direction, yet he clearly recognized <strong>the</strong> actual<strong>and</strong> symbolic threat that papal authority over Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Christians would pose <strong>and</strong>rejected it absolutely. In <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century, even as <strong>Western</strong> missionaries'technical advice helped save Q<strong>in</strong>g armies, Christian efforts to proselytize <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>prov<strong>in</strong>ces were met with persecution. Subsequently, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late n<strong>in</strong>eteenthcentury, certa<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese reformers sought to acquire <strong>the</strong> <strong>Western</strong> technology thatwould br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir nation wealth <strong>and</strong> power without ab<strong>and</strong>on<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous<strong>in</strong>tellectual tradition. In a twentieth-century variation on this <strong>the</strong>me, Ch<strong>in</strong>eseleaders of <strong>the</strong> early People's Republic resisted subservience to Soviet control evenat <strong>the</strong> cost of substantial setbacks <strong>in</strong> technical programs, such as build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>atomic bomb, that were <strong>in</strong>tended to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>in</strong>to a position of equality with itspr<strong>in</strong>cipal ideological foe, <strong>the</strong> United States. Most recently, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese rulers havecont<strong>in</strong>ued to be wary of <strong>Western</strong> ideas, <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g campaigns aga<strong>in</strong>st "spiritualpollution," "bourgeois liberalization," <strong>and</strong> "peaceful evolution" (to capitalism),<strong>and</strong> have endeavored to <strong>in</strong>troduce economic reform <strong>in</strong> isolation from politicalreform.In o<strong>the</strong>r words, <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir rulers, have uniformly displayed apowerful reluctance to surrender authority or autonomy to any outsider or evento take a chance of do<strong>in</strong>g so. This attitude must be dist<strong>in</strong>guished from <strong>the</strong>isolationism, <strong>the</strong> hostility to <strong>in</strong>novation, especially when of foreign orig<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>immutable sense of superiority for which it has often been mistaken.Responsibility for <strong>the</strong> late eighteenth-century miscommunication cannot, however,be laid entirely on <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, for <strong>the</strong> shift <strong>in</strong> European views of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, like<strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese denial of <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> West, tended to reflect <strong>in</strong>ternal, subjectiveconditions ra<strong>the</strong>r than a change <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> itself. The eyewitnesses who made noteof Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> West <strong>and</strong> what it had to offer <strong>in</strong>cluded Jesuitmissionaries, whose correspondence was published <strong>and</strong> widely read <strong>in</strong> Europe at<strong>the</strong> time, <strong>and</strong> members of Macartney's mission, who recorded it <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir memoirsof <strong>the</strong> embassy. Unfortunately, <strong>the</strong>se observations came to be superseded <strong>in</strong><strong>Western</strong> m<strong>in</strong>ds by <strong>the</strong> impression, recorded <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r such accounts, of <strong>the</strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>ese as sorely deficient <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>quir<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> progressive spirit that Europeansconsidered one of <strong>the</strong>ir own culture's most enviable characteristics. There were anumber of reasons for this. One was <strong>the</strong> steady decl<strong>in</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> Society of Jesus,whose members had once held a virtual monopoly on <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terpretation of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>to Europe. The triumph of those who opposed <strong>the</strong> Jesuits (<strong>the</strong> Society wasabolished <strong>in</strong> 1773) seemed to confirm <strong>the</strong> unreliability of Jesuit accounts. At leastas important an <strong>in</strong>fluence on chang<strong>in</strong>g European views of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> was a series ofmomentous developments <strong>in</strong> Europe, <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>in</strong>dustrialization <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> newfocus on political liberty, with all <strong>the</strong> profound <strong>in</strong>tellectual shifts that accompanied<strong>the</strong>se metamorphoses.The period of S<strong>in</strong>o-<strong>Western</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction that concerns us began with <strong>the</strong> arrival<strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> of Catholic missionaries <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late sixteenth century. Among <strong>the</strong>se,Jesuits were <strong>the</strong> most conspicuously successful, <strong>in</strong> part because of <strong>the</strong>ir "topdown" strategy, which brought <strong>the</strong>m access to <strong>the</strong> country's elite <strong>and</strong> to <strong>the</strong>imperial court. The cartography <strong>and</strong> more direct military <strong>in</strong>volvement of some of<strong>the</strong> early lum<strong>in</strong>aries of <strong>the</strong> Jesuit mission are well known; <strong>the</strong>se are brieflyAMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1529recapitulated, however, s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong>y created for both <strong>the</strong> missionaries <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>irCh<strong>in</strong>ese hosts significant precedents for <strong>the</strong> events <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century onwhich <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> body of this essay turns.JESUIT MISSION STRATEGY IN CHINA was controversial for its accommodativeapproach <strong>and</strong> for its attempts to arouse <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese literati <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong>scientific <strong>and</strong> technical knowledge.7 Among <strong>the</strong> most impressive achievementsmade <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong>se endeavors were those <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> realms of cartography<strong>and</strong> geography, <strong>the</strong>n advanc<strong>in</strong>g by major strides <strong>in</strong> Europe. Thus Matteo Ricci(1552-1610) produced <strong>in</strong> 1602 a world map that <strong>in</strong>trigued his Ch<strong>in</strong>ese contacts,even attract<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> attention of at least one of <strong>the</strong> late-M<strong>in</strong>g emperors; <strong>in</strong> 1674,Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Verbiest (1623-1688), who built many of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>struments that can stillbe seen today at <strong>the</strong> Jesuit Observatory <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g, brought out an updated versionof <strong>the</strong> world map that syn<strong>the</strong>sized <strong>the</strong> knowledge acquired <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terven<strong>in</strong>gdecades. O<strong>the</strong>r important early work <strong>in</strong> this area <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>the</strong> Novus atlas s<strong>in</strong>emsisof Mart<strong>in</strong>us Mart<strong>in</strong>i (1631-1661), published <strong>in</strong> 1655.8Some Jesuit missionaries who displayed exceptional talent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>se realmssowed <strong>the</strong> seeds of military assistance to <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese. S<strong>in</strong>ce classical antiquity, <strong>the</strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>ese had been well aware of <strong>the</strong> military significance of cartography, for <strong>the</strong>classic Art of War by <strong>the</strong> great strategist Sun Zi (Sun Tzu) had stressed <strong>the</strong>importance of "know<strong>in</strong>g one's terra<strong>in</strong>."9 That lesson was not lost on successiverulers of <strong>the</strong> seventeenth century, <strong>the</strong> first half of which saw almost cont<strong>in</strong>uouswarfare as <strong>the</strong> result of <strong>the</strong> dynastic transition. The seeds began to bear fruitdur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> period of dynastic consolidation under <strong>the</strong> Kangxi emperor.His reign co<strong>in</strong>cided with <strong>the</strong> high tide of Jesuit <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. Kangxihimself greatly valued Jesuit cartography; under his auspices, missionariesundertook a ten-year survey of <strong>the</strong> entire empire that formed <strong>the</strong> foundation forall subsequent geographic study of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>-<strong>in</strong>cidentally offer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> missionaries7 The literature on <strong>the</strong> Jesuit mission to <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> is huge. For bibliographic references, see CarlosSommervogel, Biblio<strong>the</strong>que de la Compagnie de ftsus, 12 vols. (Brussels <strong>and</strong> Paris, 1890-1932); ErikZurcher, Nicolas St<strong>and</strong>aert, <strong>and</strong> Adrianus Dud<strong>in</strong>k, Bibliography of <strong>the</strong> Jesuit Mission <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>: Ca.1580-ca. 1680 (Leiden, 1991); Robert Streit <strong>and</strong> Johannes D<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>ger, Biblio<strong>the</strong>ca missionum (Rome,1951-73), vol. 7: Ch<strong>in</strong>esische Missionsliteratur, 1700-1799. See also Joseph Dehergne, "Les Archivesdes Jesuites de Paris et l'histoire des missions aux XVIIe et XVIIIe sieles," Euntes docete, 21 (1968):191-213; Dehergne, Repertoire des Jesuites de Ch<strong>in</strong>e de 1552 a 1800 (Rome, 1973); Anto<strong>in</strong>e Gaubil,Correspondance de PMk<strong>in</strong>, 1722-1759, Renee Simon, ed. (Geneva, 1970); Louis Pfister, Noticesbiographiques et bibliographiques sur lesJesuites de l'ancienne mission de Ch<strong>in</strong>e, 1552-1773 (Shanghai, 1932).On Jesuit accommodation, see David E. Mungello, Curious L<strong>and</strong>: Jesuit Accommodation <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Orig<strong>in</strong>sof S<strong>in</strong>ology (1985; rpt. edn., Honolulu, 1989).8 Jonathan D. Spence, The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci (New York, 1984), 64-65, 149. The 1602map was a revised version of one Ricci had made <strong>in</strong> 1584. On Verbiest, see M<strong>in</strong>ako Debergh, "Unecarte oubliee du P. Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Verbiest," Journal asiatique, 277 (1989): 159-219; I am <strong>in</strong>debted toFranciscus Verellen for draw<strong>in</strong>g my attention to this article. On Mart<strong>in</strong>i, see Mungello, Curious L<strong>and</strong>,116-24.9 Sun Zi's dates are uncerta<strong>in</strong>; he probably lived sometime between <strong>the</strong> fifth <strong>and</strong> first centuries B.C.In 221 B.C., <strong>the</strong> conquer<strong>in</strong>g first emperor had assembled all available maps, presumably with a viewto keep<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation to himself. A chapter of <strong>the</strong> ancient text Guanzi concerns military maps;it is unclear whe<strong>the</strong>r this <strong>in</strong> fact predates <strong>the</strong> Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.). Joseph Needham,Science <strong>and</strong> Civilization, Vol. 3, Ma<strong>the</strong>matics <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sciences of <strong>the</strong> Heavens <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Earth (Cambridge,1959), 535-36.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1530 Joanna Waley-Cohen<strong>the</strong> opportunity to proselytize <strong>in</strong> areas <strong>the</strong>y o<strong>the</strong>rwise might never have been ableto visit. This survey was later engraved for <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese on forty-four copperplates by Abbe Matteo Ripa (1682-1745).10 O<strong>the</strong>r Ch<strong>in</strong>ese-sponsored Jesuitcartography focused on outly<strong>in</strong>g regions, extend<strong>in</strong>g far beyond <strong>the</strong> imperialfrontiers toward <strong>the</strong> borders of Russia <strong>and</strong> Persia. One of <strong>the</strong> most notableexponents was A-nto<strong>in</strong>e Gaubil (1689-1759), who <strong>in</strong> addition to draw<strong>in</strong>g mapsrecorded his observations about <strong>the</strong> areas <strong>in</strong> which he traveled, very much <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>ese tradition of descriptive geography.1" Although Ch<strong>in</strong>ese expertise <strong>in</strong>cartography was already considerable, <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese particularly admired <strong>the</strong>greater precision of <strong>Western</strong> techniques for draw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> reproduc<strong>in</strong>g maps.Recogniz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>Western</strong>ers' evident superiority <strong>in</strong> astronomy, which <strong>in</strong>volvedtechniques similar to those required for l<strong>and</strong> surveys, <strong>the</strong>y appo<strong>in</strong>ted a Jesuitmissionary <strong>in</strong> 1644 to direct <strong>the</strong> Imperial Board of Astronomy, <strong>and</strong> Jesuits filledthis position for over a century. 12The Kangxi emperor was profoundly <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> all manner of <strong>Western</strong>practical knowledge, employ<strong>in</strong>g missionaries to <strong>in</strong>struct him <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong> technology,science, <strong>and</strong> music. Notably, he sought to advance <strong>the</strong> dissem<strong>in</strong>ation of<strong>Western</strong> scientific <strong>and</strong> technical knowledge by his patronage of a number ofma<strong>the</strong>maticians <strong>and</strong> astronomers <strong>and</strong> by <strong>the</strong> promotion of relevant publications,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g, for example, a compendium of ma<strong>the</strong>matics (Shu Lij<strong>in</strong>g Yun [CollectedEssentials on Numbers <strong>and</strong> Their Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples]) that <strong>in</strong>cluded a portion of Euclidtranslated by Ricci.13One area of <strong>Western</strong> knowledge that especially <strong>in</strong>terested Kangxi was artillery.Gunpowder, <strong>in</strong>vented by <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> tenth century, had found its way toEurope three centuries later with <strong>the</strong> Mongols. Spurred on by <strong>the</strong> constantwarfare between <strong>the</strong> European states, <strong>the</strong> use of artillery had developed to a moreadvanced stage <strong>in</strong> Europe than <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. <strong>Western</strong> cannon were relatively light<strong>and</strong> mobile, although <strong>the</strong> evidence suggests that <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese still reta<strong>in</strong>ed, anadvantage <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> technology of gunpowder, as dist<strong>in</strong>ct from that of weaponsconstruction.14 In <strong>the</strong> early sixteenth century, European traders brought <strong>the</strong>irarmaments <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir iron <strong>and</strong> bronze cast<strong>in</strong>g techniques back across <strong>the</strong> world to<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> through Japan, India, <strong>and</strong> Sou<strong>the</strong>ast Asia; by no later than <strong>the</strong> 1620s,Ch<strong>in</strong>ese workers were cast<strong>in</strong>g cannon <strong>in</strong> Macao under <strong>the</strong> direction of Portuguese10 Pfister, Notices biographiques et bibliographiques, 608 (biography of Fridelli, one of those whoworked on <strong>the</strong> Kangxi survey): "dans ses immenses voyages ... il ... ne manqua jamais l'occasiond'annoncer l'Evangile et de prkher aux Paiens."11 Gaubil, Correspondance de Pek<strong>in</strong>, esp. 235-37, letter of October 13, 1729; Henri Bernard, "Lesetapes de la cartographie scientifique pour la Ch<strong>in</strong>e et les pays vois<strong>in</strong>s depuis le seiziRmejusqu'a la f<strong>in</strong>du dix-huitieme siecle," Monumenta serica, 1 (1935): 428-76, at 466-70; Pfister, Notices biographiques etbibliographiques, 666-93.12 On <strong>the</strong> association of astronomy <strong>and</strong> cartography s<strong>in</strong>ce antiquity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, see Needham, Science<strong>and</strong> Civilization, 3: 542; on Europe, see Josef W. Konvitz, Cartography <strong>in</strong> France, 1660-1848: Science,Eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> Statecraft (Chicago, 1987), 4. On <strong>the</strong> significance of astronomy to <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, seeGernet, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian Impact, 61-62.13 See Wang, Xifang Lisuanxue zhi Shuru, esp. 69-74.14 See McNeill, Pursuit of Power, 81-89; Needham, Science <strong>and</strong> Civilization, Vol. 5, Chemistry <strong>and</strong>Chemical <strong>Technology</strong>, part 7, "The Gunpowder Epic" (Cambridge, 1986), 139-41, <strong>and</strong> 398-407, whereNeedham argues persuasively for <strong>the</strong> achievements of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>digenous artillery <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> earlyseventeenth century.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1531gun founders, whose work was already <strong>in</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> throughout colonial Asia.15 At<strong>the</strong> suggestion of high-rank<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong>ese converts, <strong>the</strong>se Portuguese artillerytechnicians more than once were <strong>in</strong>vited north from Macao to help <strong>the</strong> M<strong>in</strong>gaga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> Manchus.Meanwhile, at court, <strong>the</strong> lucidity of <strong>the</strong> first <strong>in</strong>cumbent at <strong>the</strong> Imperial Board ofAstronomy, Adam Schall (1592-1666), on <strong>the</strong> usefulness of artillery for <strong>the</strong>defense of Beij<strong>in</strong>g led to an order that he direct <strong>the</strong> cast<strong>in</strong>g of cannon for <strong>the</strong>fail<strong>in</strong>g dynasty. His pr<strong>in</strong>cipal contribution was <strong>the</strong> production of smaller <strong>and</strong> lessunwieldy siege guns. He reduced <strong>the</strong>ir size from 75-pounders to 40-pounders,eventually produc<strong>in</strong>g over five hundred pieces.16 Schall also collaborated with aCh<strong>in</strong>ese colleague on a work about gunnery titled Ze Ke Lu (Record of ImmediateConquest), also known as Huo Gong Jie Yao (Essentials of Gunnery). Orig<strong>in</strong>allypublished <strong>in</strong> 1643, it was repr<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> 1841 at <strong>the</strong> height of <strong>the</strong> Opium War.17Schall was succeeded as director of <strong>the</strong> Board of Astronomy by Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong>Verbiest, whom Kangxi, beset by rebellion, soon pressed <strong>in</strong>to cannon found<strong>in</strong>g aswell.18 Verbiest's task, much as Schall's had been, was to cast lighter <strong>and</strong> moremobile artillery than <strong>the</strong> Manchus already possessed, capable of be<strong>in</strong>g carriedover mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> rivers. Ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g imported <strong>Western</strong> types, heimproved on Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cannon, leng<strong>the</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> barrels <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> some cases us<strong>in</strong>gdifferent materials. 19 Over a fifteen-year period, his cannon foundry producedalmost five hundred artillery pieces, made of cast iron <strong>and</strong> bronze, which wereused both <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> suppression of <strong>the</strong> Rebellion of <strong>the</strong> Three Feudatories (1673-1681) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Russian campaigns of 1685-1686. The foundry cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong>operation after his death <strong>in</strong> 1688, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese were still us<strong>in</strong>g his designs at<strong>the</strong> time of <strong>the</strong> Opium War <strong>in</strong> 1839.20 Indeed, <strong>the</strong> cannon made by Schall <strong>and</strong>Verbiest rema<strong>in</strong>ed an important part of <strong>the</strong> imperial arsenal until <strong>the</strong> end of <strong>the</strong>15 Charles R. Boxer, "Asian Potentates <strong>and</strong> European Artillery <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> + 16th to + 18th Centuries:A Footnote to Gibson-Hill," Journal of <strong>the</strong> Malayan Branch of <strong>the</strong> Royal Asiatic Society, 38, part 2(December 1965): 156-72, at 169; see also Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Rise of <strong>the</strong> West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge, 1988), 136-40.16 Whereas earlier Ch<strong>in</strong>ese cannon had been comparable to <strong>the</strong> largest of contemporary Europeanartillery, <strong>the</strong> size of Schall's cannon corresponded to some of <strong>the</strong> smallest <strong>in</strong> Europe, at <strong>the</strong> same timeprobably reduc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> range from approximately 750 to approximately 400 yards. See R. ErnestDupuy <strong>and</strong> Trevor N. Dupuy, Encyclopedia of Military History from 3500 B.C. to <strong>the</strong> Present, 2d rev. edn.(New York, 1986), 453.17Jiao Xu, Ze Ke Lu, also known as Huo GongJie Yao (n.p., 1841); Needham, Science <strong>and</strong> Civilization,vol. 5, part 7, 394; Pfister, Notices biographiques et bibliographiques, 165; Jonathan D. Spence, To Change<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>: <strong>Western</strong> Advisers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, 1620-1960 (1969; rpt. edn., New York, 1980), 15.18 For Kangxi's order, see Daq<strong>in</strong>g Shengzu Shilu [Veritable Records of <strong>the</strong> Kangxi Emperor], juan49, 6b, 13/8/11 (September 10, 1674). Initially reluctant to comply, as Schall had been before him,Verbiest yielded only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> face of <strong>the</strong> emperor's threat to execute him <strong>and</strong> expel all Christians from<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. Yet his <strong>in</strong>sistence that priests were men of peace who knew noth<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> techniques of warwas dis<strong>in</strong>genuous. Jesuits were notorious for <strong>the</strong>ir predilection for "unpriestly," that is, political,activity. Ignatius Loyola, <strong>the</strong> founder of <strong>the</strong> Jesuit order, was a soldier who embarked on a religiouscareer only after be<strong>in</strong>g wounded. He orig<strong>in</strong>ally called <strong>the</strong> Society a "company" so as to express <strong>the</strong>soldierly spirit of loyalty to <strong>the</strong> capta<strong>in</strong>, Jesus.19 Louis Le Comte, Nouveaux memoiresur l'etat prgsent de la Ch<strong>in</strong>e (Paris, 1696), 2: 246, 248. On LeComte as an early critic of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese science <strong>and</strong> technology, <strong>and</strong> his <strong>in</strong>fluence, see Adas, Mach<strong>in</strong>es as<strong>the</strong> Measure of Men, 81-83.20 See Shu Liguang, HuJianzhong, <strong>and</strong> Zhou Cheng, "Nan Huairen yu Zhongguo Q<strong>in</strong>gdai Zhuzaode Dabao" [Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Verbiest <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cast<strong>in</strong>g of Cannon <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g], GugongBowuyuan Yuankan (1989): 28, cit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Imperial Household Archives, Beij<strong>in</strong>g.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1532 Joanna Waley-Cohendynasty.21 In a curious quirk of history, a number of <strong>the</strong>se weapons are now <strong>in</strong>European museums, hav<strong>in</strong>g been captured dur<strong>in</strong>g foreign wars of <strong>the</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenthcentury.22Verbiest titled his treatise on artillery <strong>and</strong> ballistics, published around 1681 butnow lost, Shenwei Tushuo (Explanations <strong>and</strong> Illustrations of [<strong>the</strong> Cannon Named]Wonderful <strong>and</strong> Terrible). In this work, he wrote on <strong>the</strong> importance of uniformity<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> weight of cannonballs <strong>and</strong> on <strong>the</strong> critical difference a cannon's angle ofelevation could make to its accuracy. If soldiers knew <strong>the</strong> exact distance between<strong>the</strong> target <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> gun, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> weight of <strong>the</strong> cannonball, <strong>the</strong>y could accurately hit<strong>the</strong>ir targets. The unmistakable implication, <strong>and</strong> one with important reverberationsalmost a century later, was that accurate l<strong>and</strong> surveys were just as critical forthis purpose as for merely "know<strong>in</strong>g one's terra<strong>in</strong>."23Jesuit <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> gave rise to tremendous hostility on <strong>the</strong> part ofcompetitors <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission field <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> highly factionalized European Catholicestablishment. Thus it was hardly surpris<strong>in</strong>g that Verbiest's "unpriestly" activitiesas a cannon founder should have prompted virulent condemnation, such as thatpublished by <strong>the</strong> Dom<strong>in</strong>ican priest, Dom<strong>in</strong>go Navarrete (d. 1689) <strong>in</strong> Madrid <strong>in</strong>1676. Yet Verbiest had powerful support. In 1681, Pope Innocent XI praised himpublicly for "hav<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>the</strong> profane sciences for <strong>the</strong> safety of <strong>the</strong> people <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>advancement of <strong>the</strong> Faith."24 Jesuit cartography was harder to criticize than <strong>the</strong>irgun found<strong>in</strong>g because it helped to dissem<strong>in</strong>ate accurate <strong>in</strong>formation about <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong><strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> West as well as to serve Ch<strong>in</strong>ese purposes. For example, <strong>the</strong> missionarysurvey of <strong>the</strong> empire undertaken for <strong>the</strong> Kangxi emperor was reproduced <strong>in</strong>Europe, with revisions: <strong>in</strong> France by <strong>the</strong> celebrated geographer Jean-BaptisteBourguignon d'Anville (1697-1782) <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early 1730s <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Holl<strong>and</strong> a few yearslater.25 Appear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1735 as a supplement to <strong>the</strong> first comprehensive Europeanaccount of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>-Du Halde's Description geographique ... de la Ch<strong>in</strong>e-it <strong>in</strong>trigueda Europe still enthusiastic about <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> hungry for direct <strong>in</strong>formation.Jesuit <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g decl<strong>in</strong>ed sharply after a papal mission <strong>in</strong> 1705-1706attempted to extend Rome's authority over Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Christians. This move servedonly to confirm <strong>the</strong> worst Ch<strong>in</strong>ese suspicions about <strong>the</strong> <strong>Western</strong> religion <strong>and</strong>resulted <strong>in</strong> failure. Missionary <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> succession dispute that embittered<strong>the</strong> first decades of <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r eroded Jesuit21 Q<strong>in</strong>gdai Chouban Yiwu Shimo [Annals of <strong>the</strong> Management of Barbarian Affairs dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>gDynasty, Tongzhi Reign (1862-1874)] (Beip<strong>in</strong>g, 1930), 100 juan, 1863: 35a-b, which <strong>in</strong>dicates thatSchall's pieces were still <strong>in</strong> use at least <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century. Thus <strong>the</strong> suggestion of Arnold H.Rowbotham, Missionary <strong>and</strong> M<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong>: The Jesuits at <strong>the</strong> Court of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> (Berkeley, Calif., 1942), 97, thatVerbiest was pressed <strong>in</strong>to service as a cannon founder because Schall's cannon were "ei<strong>the</strong>r too heavyfor field purposes or had fallen <strong>in</strong>to disrepair," was mistaken.22 For a table show<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> location of Verbiest's cannon <strong>in</strong> European museums, see Giovanni Stary,"The 'Manchu Cannons' Cast by Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Verbiest <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Hi<strong>the</strong>rto Unknown Title of HisInstructions" (forthcom<strong>in</strong>g), 6. I am <strong>in</strong>debted to Professor Stary for mak<strong>in</strong>g this work available to me.For specifications of cannon cast at this time, at least some of which were almost certa<strong>in</strong>ly underVerbiest's direction, see also Daq<strong>in</strong>g Huidian Shili [Institutes <strong>and</strong> Precedents of <strong>the</strong> Great Q<strong>in</strong>g] (1899;rpt. edn., Taibei, 1976), juan 894, la-5a.23 Du Halde, A Description of <strong>the</strong> Empire of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> ... (English edition), vol. 2, 82; Stary, "ManchuCannons"; Shu, Hu, <strong>and</strong> Zhou, "Nan Huairen yu Zhongguo Q<strong>in</strong>gdai Zhuzao de Dabao," 30.24 See Rowbotham, Missionary <strong>and</strong> M<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong>, 98, 247. The laudatory papal brief appeared <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>same year as Verbiest's own defense aga<strong>in</strong>st Navarrete's attack, ibid., 314.25 Bernard, "Les etapes de la cartographie scientifique," 462; Konvitz, Cartography <strong>in</strong> France, 33-35.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1533prestige; both <strong>the</strong> Yongzheng emperor (1723-1735) <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Qianlong emperorbanned missionaries altoge<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>ces, although few if any specificsteps were taken to eradicate Christianity <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. In Europe, <strong>the</strong> failure of <strong>the</strong>papal mission also hastened <strong>the</strong> Jesuits' decl<strong>in</strong>e because many Catholics, feel<strong>in</strong>gmuch <strong>the</strong> same as did <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, feared <strong>the</strong> consequences of surrender<strong>in</strong>gchurch control over Ch<strong>in</strong>ese converts.By <strong>the</strong> 1770s, profound disagreement among Jesuits <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>appropriate response to <strong>the</strong> papal brief that suppressed <strong>the</strong>ir order around <strong>the</strong>world weakened <strong>the</strong> mission's already unpopular cause <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eyes of <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese,who none<strong>the</strong>less ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>the</strong>ir strong <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> missionaries' scientific knowledge<strong>and</strong> technical skills.26 Under Ch<strong>in</strong>ese auspices <strong>and</strong> at <strong>the</strong>ir behest, Europeanmissionaries at <strong>the</strong> Qianlong court carried out a range of technical activities<strong>the</strong>mselves <strong>and</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>ed Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong> many of <strong>the</strong> necessary skills. They designed animperial palace near Beij<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>stalled European-style founta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>the</strong>re; <strong>the</strong>ymade elaborate clocks <strong>and</strong> mechanical toys; <strong>the</strong>y provided technical advice onglassmak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> supervised its production, construct<strong>in</strong>g furnaces of <strong>the</strong>ir owndesign; <strong>the</strong>y built complicated hydraulic <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r mach<strong>in</strong>ery, for <strong>the</strong> operation<strong>and</strong> function of which <strong>the</strong>y provided detailed explanations <strong>in</strong> response to Ch<strong>in</strong>eserequests; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y assembled devices for apply<strong>in</strong>g electroconvulsive shock treatmentfor nervous illness, adm<strong>in</strong>ister<strong>in</strong>g it with some success. These activities metwith an enthusiastic response from <strong>the</strong> emperor, imperial family members, <strong>and</strong>government officials. Missionaries also helped fur<strong>the</strong>r Qianlong's military ambitionsby offer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struction on <strong>the</strong> use <strong>and</strong> construction of firearms <strong>and</strong> bymapp<strong>in</strong>g newly conquered areas; <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>y made copper engrav<strong>in</strong>gs of maps <strong>and</strong>pictures of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese military victories or arranged to have such engrav<strong>in</strong>gs madefor <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong> France until <strong>the</strong>y could tra<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese to do <strong>the</strong> job.27 With oneexception-advice on artillery-none of <strong>the</strong>se activities was <strong>in</strong> any sense covert.26 See Joseph Krahl, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> Missions <strong>in</strong> Crisis: Bishop Laimbeckhoven <strong>and</strong> His Times, 1738-1787 (Rome,1964), 223 <strong>and</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g; see also Bernward Willeke, Imperial Government <strong>and</strong> Catholic Missions <strong>in</strong><strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Years 1784-1785 (St. Bonaventure, N.Y., 1948), 14-15.27 In <strong>Western</strong> sources, a large part of <strong>the</strong> evidence for Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong> science <strong>and</strong>technology can be found <strong>in</strong> Jesuit correspondence from Beij<strong>in</strong>g, circulated at <strong>the</strong> time <strong>and</strong> nowlocated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Biblio<strong>the</strong>que de l'Institut de France, Paris (hereafter, Bib. Inst.), ms. vols. 1515-24;Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu, Rome (hereafter, ARSI), Fondo Gesuitico <strong>and</strong> Jap. S<strong>in</strong>.collections; Henri Cordier, "Les correspondants de Bert<strong>in</strong>, secretaire d'etat au XVIIIe siecle," T'oungPao, 2e serie, 14 (1913): 227-57, 465-72, 497-536; T'oungPao, 2e serie, 18 (1917): 295-379; Lettresidifiantes et curieuses ecrites des missions etrangeres, 14 vols. (Lyon, 1819, orig. pub. <strong>in</strong> Paris, 1702-76, <strong>and</strong>subsequently rearranged) (hereafter, LEC), vol. 13. For some of <strong>the</strong> extensive secondary literature,see, <strong>in</strong> addition to <strong>the</strong> works by d'Elia, Siv<strong>in</strong>, Wang, <strong>and</strong> Zurndorfer cited <strong>in</strong> note 3, <strong>and</strong> specificreferences cited <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g notes below, P. Huard <strong>and</strong> M. Wong, "Les enquetes franSaises surla science et la technologie ch<strong>in</strong>oises au XVIIIe siecle," Bullet<strong>in</strong> de l'Ecole Franpaise d'Extreme-orient, 53(1966): 137-226; Cetcile Beurdeley <strong>and</strong> Michel Beurdeley, Giuseppe Castiglione: A Jesuit Pa<strong>in</strong>ter at <strong>the</strong>Court of <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Emperor, Michael Bullock, trans. (London, 1972); Cheryl Ann Semans, "Mapp<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> Unknown: Jesuit Cartography <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, 1583-1773" (Ph.D. dissertation, Geography, Universityof California, Berkeley, 1987); Nathan Siv<strong>in</strong>, "Wang Hsi-shan," Dictionary of Scientiflc Biography, 15vols. (New York, 1970-78), 14: 159-68; Yang Boda, "A Brief Account of Q<strong>in</strong>g Dynasty Glass," <strong>in</strong>Claudia Brown <strong>and</strong> Donald Rab<strong>in</strong>er, The Robert H. Clague Collection: Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Glass of <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g Dynasty,1644-1911 (Phoenix, Ariz., 1987), 71-86.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1534 Joanna Waley-CohenBOTH EUROPEAN AND CHINESE SOURCES <strong>in</strong>dicate that Qianlong personally demonstrateda clear <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong> science <strong>and</strong> technology only a few yearsbefore <strong>the</strong> rebuff to K<strong>in</strong>g George. In a series of conversations held <strong>in</strong> 1773,Qianlong quizzed <strong>the</strong> missionary Michel Benoist (1715-1774) about <strong>Western</strong>science, philosophy, warfare, cartography, shipp<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> navigational practices.28Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1770s <strong>and</strong> early 1780s, as <strong>the</strong> suppression of <strong>the</strong> order caused <strong>the</strong> flowof Jesuit missionaries to dw<strong>in</strong>dle, <strong>the</strong> emperor on several occasions reiterated hisdesire that more missionaries be sent to serve at <strong>the</strong> imperial court.29 Even <strong>in</strong>1793, <strong>the</strong> emperor's response to his British visitors belied <strong>the</strong> assumption of his<strong>in</strong>difference, for he had <strong>the</strong>m demonstrate several of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>struments with which<strong>the</strong>y presented him; <strong>the</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle gift that most <strong>in</strong>trigued him was a model of <strong>the</strong>110-gun warship Royal Sovereign, about which he asked an impressive number oftechnical questions. His response echoed <strong>the</strong> preoccupation with artillery that <strong>the</strong>emperor displayed <strong>in</strong> correspondence with his generals.30The West <strong>and</strong> its scientific knowledge did not excite <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest of <strong>the</strong> Qianlongemperor alone. It also <strong>in</strong>terested a number of lead<strong>in</strong>g scholars of <strong>the</strong> day,particularly those associated with <strong>the</strong> evidential research (kaozheng) movement,<strong>the</strong>n a major force <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellectual life. Influential scholars such as Dai Zhen(1724-1777), Qian Dax<strong>in</strong> (1728-1804), <strong>and</strong> Ruan Yuan (1764-1849) recognized<strong>the</strong> relevance of <strong>Western</strong> scientific methods to <strong>the</strong> kaozheng quest for precision<strong>and</strong> accuracy <strong>in</strong> all aspects of scholarly endeavor. These <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r scholars soughtto <strong>in</strong>corporate <strong>Western</strong> knowledge on ma<strong>the</strong>matics <strong>and</strong> astronomy <strong>and</strong> renewed<strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous Ch<strong>in</strong>ese scientific <strong>and</strong> technical tradition. Oneexample of this trend was a 1799 publication, Chouren Zhuan (Biographies ofAstronomers <strong>and</strong> Ma<strong>the</strong>maticians), compiled by Ruan <strong>in</strong> collaboration with Qian<strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, which among o<strong>the</strong>r th<strong>in</strong>gs summarized <strong>the</strong> works of almost threehundred ma<strong>the</strong>maticians <strong>and</strong> astronomers, thirty-seven of whom were <strong>Western</strong>ers.31The attitudes of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese scholars toward foreign scholarship varied. Some werereluctant to acknowledge <strong>the</strong> source of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Western</strong> scientific <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>the</strong>yfound so compell<strong>in</strong>g, but <strong>the</strong>y did not on that account reject it. Instead, <strong>the</strong>ysought legitimation for <strong>the</strong>ir studies by assert<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>Western</strong> knowledge had28 See, for <strong>in</strong>stance, undated letter of Michel Benoist, <strong>in</strong> LEC, 13: 427-45. It was <strong>in</strong> thisconversation that <strong>the</strong> emperor asked Benoist whe<strong>the</strong>r "your <strong>Western</strong> philosophers have solved aproblem that has much exercised our philosophers here: which came first, <strong>the</strong> chicken or <strong>the</strong> egg?"ibid., 441. On Qianlong's curiosity about <strong>the</strong> West, see also Benoist's letter of November 16, 1773,reproduced <strong>in</strong> T'oung Pao, 2e serie, 18 (1917): 341-49; George Staunton, An Au<strong>the</strong>ntic Account of anEmbassy from <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>g of Great Brita<strong>in</strong> to <strong>the</strong> Emperor of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, 3 vols. (London, 1797), 3: 141.29 See, for example, Daq<strong>in</strong>g Gaozong Shilu [Veritable Records of <strong>the</strong> Qianlong Emperor of <strong>the</strong> GreatQ<strong>in</strong>g] (Tokyo, 1937-38), juan 1066, 21a-b, 43/9/8; juan 1130, 9b-1Oa, 46/5/3. (Ch<strong>in</strong>ese dates are citedas follows: year of reign, lunar month, day; a juan is comparable to a chapter.) The emperor calleda halt to <strong>the</strong> visits of missionaries <strong>in</strong> 1785 because he had enough <strong>Western</strong>ers work<strong>in</strong>g for him. Seejuan 1240, 14a-b, 50/10/8.30 Staunton, Au<strong>the</strong>ntic Account, 3: 140-41. See also John Cranmer-Byng <strong>and</strong> Trevor Levere, "ACase Study <strong>in</strong> Cultural Collisions: Scientific Apparatus <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Macartney Embassy to <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>," Annalsof Science, 38 (1981): 503-25. On Qianlong's preoccupation with artillery, see, for example,Nayancheng, A Wencheng Gong Nianpu [Chronological Biography of Master A Wencheng (Agui)], 8vols. (n.p., 1813), juan 15-16.31 Ruan Yuan, L<strong>in</strong>g T<strong>in</strong>gkan, Qian Dax<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> Jiao Xun, eds., Chouren Zhuan [Biographies ofMa<strong>the</strong>maticians <strong>and</strong> Astronomers] (n.p., 1799). On this text, see Zurndorfer, "Comment la science etla technologie se vendaient a la Ch<strong>in</strong>e au XVIIIe siecle," 75-76; Yoshio Mikami, "The Ch'ou-jenChuan of Yuan Yuan," Isis, 11 (January 1928): 123-26.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1535been transmitted from <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, or <strong>the</strong>y criticized <strong>the</strong> Confucian tradition forpreferr<strong>in</strong>g metaphysics to ma<strong>the</strong>matics. Some of <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation emanat<strong>in</strong>g from<strong>the</strong> West seemed suspect to Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>tellectuals because of its <strong>in</strong>consistencies.Earlier church restrictions on <strong>the</strong> missionaries had prevented <strong>the</strong>m from reveal<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong> full extent <strong>and</strong> import of <strong>the</strong> discoveries by men such as Copernicus <strong>and</strong>Galileo. When, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-eighteenth century, <strong>the</strong> uncensored version of Copernican<strong>the</strong>ory f<strong>in</strong>ally reached <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>tellectuals were cautious aboutembrac<strong>in</strong>g it precisely because it seemed to contradict <strong>the</strong> earlier version. The<strong>Western</strong> attribution of this skepticism to an <strong>in</strong>gra<strong>in</strong>ed Ch<strong>in</strong>ese hostility to foreignideas thus failed to reflect <strong>the</strong> true sequence of events. Indeed, one may questionwhe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>complete way <strong>in</strong> which some of <strong>the</strong> new knowledge was transmittedto <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> may not actually have <strong>in</strong>terfered with scientific progress <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>.32Members of <strong>the</strong> eighteenth-century elite were also cautious about show<strong>in</strong>g toomuch <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong> military technology but for different reasons relat<strong>in</strong>g to<strong>the</strong> complicated quagmire of Manchu-Ch<strong>in</strong>ese relations. Some senior Manchus,notably those <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g a series of conta<strong>in</strong>ed military campaigns,were underst<strong>and</strong>ably <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> any technology that might br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m victory.For many such men, military success was a surer path to political power than <strong>the</strong>civil service exam<strong>in</strong>ations <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y would have faced fierce competition fromCh<strong>in</strong>ese scholars.33 This situation was complicated by <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g policy of be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong>appear<strong>in</strong>g to be legitimately Confucian rulers, which <strong>in</strong>cluded downplay<strong>in</strong>gmilitary achievement despite <strong>the</strong> access to political power it often provided.For o<strong>the</strong>rs curious about <strong>Western</strong> military technology, <strong>the</strong> issues were somewhatdifferent, because Manchu sensitivities to slurs aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong>ir alien orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong>hence <strong>the</strong>ir legitimacy <strong>in</strong>hibited <strong>the</strong> open expression by scholars, most of whomwere Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, of any such <strong>in</strong>terest. Thus <strong>the</strong> private dissem<strong>in</strong>ation of military<strong>in</strong>formation, such as <strong>the</strong> technology detailed <strong>in</strong> earlier military compendia <strong>and</strong>anyth<strong>in</strong>g susceptible of <strong>in</strong>terpretation as anti-dynastic or <strong>in</strong> general "prejudicial tonational security," was banned; any breach was subject to severe punishment.Although this prohibition undoubtedly exercised a constra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluence, ascatter<strong>in</strong>g of relevant literary material <strong>in</strong>dicates it failed to suppress such <strong>in</strong>terestaltoge<strong>the</strong>r. Most such literature dates from <strong>the</strong> last decade of <strong>the</strong> eighteenthcentury (after <strong>the</strong> Macartney mission) or <strong>the</strong> early n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century; by thistime, censorship had relaxed somewhat, <strong>and</strong> unstable conditions with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>were beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to br<strong>in</strong>g military <strong>in</strong>formation to <strong>the</strong> forefront of scholarlyattention. For example, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1790s, <strong>the</strong> well-connected scholar Sun X<strong>in</strong>gyan(1753-1818) produced a new annotated edition of Sun Zi (Sun Zi Shijia Zhu [SunZi with Commentaries]), <strong>and</strong> an official who had been besieged by rebels <strong>in</strong>Guizhou prov<strong>in</strong>ce produced a detailed manual on urban defense based onpersonal experience (Wu Pei Ji Yao [Collected Essentials of Military Prepared-32 See Siv<strong>in</strong>, "Copernicus <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>"; Wang, Xifang Lisuanxue zhi Shuru, 80-88; Benjam<strong>in</strong> A. Elman,From Philosophy to Philology: Intellectual <strong>and</strong> Social Aspects of Change <strong>in</strong> <strong>Late</strong> Imperial <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> (Cambridge,Mass., 1984), 62-64, 80-83; Annp<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Mansfield Freeman, Tai Chen on Mencius: Explorations<strong>in</strong> Words <strong>and</strong> Mean<strong>in</strong>g; A Translation of <strong>the</strong> Meng Tzu tzu-i shu-cheng (New Haven, Conn., 1990), 8, 179n. 36; Zurndorfer, "Comment la science et la technologie se vendaient 'a la Ch<strong>in</strong>e au XVIIIe siecle,"esp. 75-76.33 See Bartlett, Monarchs <strong>and</strong> M<strong>in</strong>isters.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1536 Joanna Waley-Cohenness]). In 1833, Zhao Xuem<strong>in</strong>'s work on fireworks (Huo Xi Liie [Treatise onFireworks]), written <strong>and</strong> probably privately circulated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mid-eighteenthcentury, was published; it <strong>in</strong>cluded detailed <strong>in</strong>formation on <strong>the</strong> composition ofgunpowder that could <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory have been adapted for subversive purposes byenemies of <strong>the</strong> state.34Military matters played a salient role <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong>, especially Jesuit, <strong>in</strong>terpretationsof <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> second half of <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> missionaryactivities on behalf of <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g. In this respect, one important figure wasJean-Joseph Marie Amiot, who lived <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g from 1751 to 1793. Amiotma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed a volum<strong>in</strong>ous correspondence with <strong>the</strong> French m<strong>in</strong>ister <strong>and</strong> sometimecomptroller-general, Henri Bert<strong>in</strong> (1720-1792), <strong>the</strong>n one of <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> mission'spr<strong>in</strong>cipal supporters <strong>in</strong> France <strong>and</strong> a man whose own fasc<strong>in</strong>ation with militaryaffairs encouraged Amiot to develop a strong <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> knowledge ofCh<strong>in</strong>ese military affairs. Amiot's letters to Bert<strong>in</strong> repeatedly addressed such topicsas <strong>the</strong> structure of <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese army; <strong>the</strong> vary<strong>in</strong>g composition of gunpowderwhen used for different purposes-on more than one occasion, he sent Bert<strong>in</strong>samples for chemical analysis; <strong>the</strong> metalwork<strong>in</strong>g techniques for construct<strong>in</strong>g atype of gong used for military communications <strong>and</strong> to keep troops <strong>in</strong> order; <strong>and</strong><strong>the</strong> nature of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese military strategy, several classical texts on which hetranslated <strong>in</strong>to French.35 Amiot also described <strong>in</strong> considerable detail <strong>the</strong> course ofvarious Ch<strong>in</strong>ese military campaigns. Although his accounts may be <strong>in</strong>accurate <strong>in</strong>certa<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ts of detail, overall <strong>the</strong>y are corroborated by Ch<strong>in</strong>ese sources; <strong>the</strong>yprobably reflect <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>the</strong>n current at court, obta<strong>in</strong>ed from persons <strong>in</strong>whose access to knowledge <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> corridors of power he expressed greatconfidence.36 These accounts seem to have been <strong>in</strong>tended to show <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>garmies <strong>in</strong> a favorable light, but on at least one occasion Amiot <strong>in</strong>furiated ananonymous European friend of Bert<strong>in</strong>'s, by justify<strong>in</strong>g what <strong>the</strong> friend consideredto be <strong>the</strong> completely dishonorable <strong>and</strong> barbaric Q<strong>in</strong>g treatment of captured rebels.3734 Sun X<strong>in</strong>gyan, Sun Zi Shijia Zhu (n.p., 1855, orig. date of publication not given); Xu Xuefan, "WuBei ji Yao," <strong>in</strong> Xu Naizhao, comp., M<strong>in</strong> Guo Zhai Qi Zhong (Guangzhou, 1832). On Zhao Xuem<strong>in</strong>, seeNeedham, Science <strong>and</strong> Civilization, vol. 5, part 7, 139-41. On scholarly communication dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> lateeighteenth century, see Elman, From Philosophy to Philology, esp. 172-229.35 For Amiot's partial description of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese military organization, which he took from "a militaryalmanac published four times a year," see Amiot to Bert<strong>in</strong>,July 28, 1777, Bib. Inst. 1515, 119; for hisdiscussions of <strong>the</strong> composition of gunpowder (which suggest he grasped <strong>the</strong> greater sophistication ofCh<strong>in</strong>ese knowledge), see his letters to Bert<strong>in</strong> of July 15 <strong>and</strong> November 5, 1778, Bib. Inst. 1515, 214,220. For his translation of classical texts on strategy, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Sun Zi's Art of War, see his "Artmilitaire de la Ch<strong>in</strong>e," <strong>in</strong> Me1moires concernant l'histoire, les sciences, les arts, les moeurs, les usages, &c. desCh<strong>in</strong>ois: Par les missionaires de Pek<strong>in</strong> (Paris, 1777-1814), vol. 7; "Supplement," vol. 8. Amiot's "Artmilitaire" had already been published separately <strong>in</strong> Paris by Didot <strong>in</strong> 1772; it was accompanied bydozens of sketches of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese crossbows <strong>and</strong> cannon, siege weapons, armor, <strong>and</strong> warships. Despiteits flaws, <strong>the</strong> translation of Art of War became a classic <strong>in</strong> its own right <strong>in</strong> France. For an assessmentof Amiot's translation <strong>and</strong> its reception, see Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Samuel B. Griffith, trans.(Oxford, 1971), 179-82.36 See October 5, 1771 (on <strong>the</strong> Burma campaign), Bib. Inst. 1515, 10; September 12, 1776 (on <strong>the</strong>Second J<strong>in</strong>chuan War), Bib. Inst. 1515, 73 <strong>and</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g; August 17, 1781 (on <strong>the</strong> Hezhou Muslimupris<strong>in</strong>g), Bib. Inst. 1516, 276-77; July 1, 1788 (on <strong>the</strong> Taiwan campaign), Bib. Inst. 1517, 35. Someof <strong>the</strong>se accounts were published <strong>in</strong> various editions of <strong>the</strong> LEC or <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 17-volume Memoires cited<strong>in</strong> note 35.37 Bert<strong>in</strong> to Amiot, November 30, 1777, Bib. Inst. 1522, 154: "le general est un perfide et son maitreun cannibale" (emphasis <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>al).AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1537Amiot also attempted to give <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese helpful h<strong>in</strong>ts of a military nature.Recogniz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> military potential of hot air balloons, <strong>the</strong>n caus<strong>in</strong>g a sensation <strong>in</strong>Europe, he struggled to arouse Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>m but failed (despite somepr<strong>in</strong>cely <strong>in</strong>terest) because of <strong>the</strong> great expense <strong>in</strong>volved.38 A pr<strong>in</strong>ce's assurancethat "only <strong>in</strong> war do we have no regard for expense, difficulty or danger; we areready to try anyth<strong>in</strong>g" was borne out by o<strong>the</strong>r late eighteenth-century Jesuitcorrespondence.39 For example, <strong>in</strong> 1772, not<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> emperor believed that<strong>the</strong> missionaries <strong>in</strong> his service knew "someth<strong>in</strong>g of everyth<strong>in</strong>g," one of <strong>the</strong>irnumber reported that <strong>the</strong> emperor sometimes ordered him <strong>and</strong> his colleagues toassist at artillery practice or to expla<strong>in</strong> how to use <strong>the</strong> European arms sent northby Ch<strong>in</strong>ese officials based <strong>in</strong> Canton. Recently chastised by his superiors <strong>in</strong> Romefor "teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fidel <strong>the</strong> art of war" by develop<strong>in</strong>g a plan for <strong>the</strong> fortificationof Beij<strong>in</strong>g, this correspondent also asserted that he <strong>and</strong> his colleagues hadresponded to imperial <strong>in</strong>quiries by deny<strong>in</strong>g all knowledge of <strong>the</strong> techniquesrequired for cast<strong>in</strong>g artillery.40The latter assertion was, however, less than forthright, for soon afterward aJesuit missionary went to <strong>the</strong> battlefront of a tenacious rebellion specifically toadvise on cast<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g artillery. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Second J<strong>in</strong>chuan War (1771-1776), native tribespeople <strong>in</strong> western Sichuan ensconced <strong>in</strong> a mounta<strong>in</strong>ous areahad taken refuge <strong>in</strong> high stone fortresses (diao) that <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g were unable todestroy without bombardment.4' The precipitous terra<strong>in</strong> forced soldiers to move<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle file <strong>and</strong> on foot; <strong>the</strong>re was no question of transport<strong>in</strong>g heavy artillery. Tosome extent, this problem was resolved by <strong>the</strong> expedient of carry<strong>in</strong>g thous<strong>and</strong>s ofmetal <strong>in</strong>gots that could be forged <strong>in</strong>to cannon when <strong>and</strong> where needed by artisansattached to <strong>the</strong> army, a solution adopted elsewhere <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> earlier times by Turks38 On Amiot's enthusiasm for <strong>the</strong> "globe aerostatique," see his letter of October 20, 1784 addressedto supercargo Roze at Canton; clearly, Roze had sent Amiot details that whetted <strong>the</strong> latter's appetitefor this new mode of transportation. Archives des Jesuites de Paris, Fonds Vivier, vol. 1, 5. "The firstuse that I will make of it is to go to Canton to see more Frenchmen than I have seen <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong>thirty-three years that I have been here." On his failure to <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, see Amiot to Bert<strong>in</strong>,October 10, 1789, Bib. Inst. 1517, 85; see also Bert<strong>in</strong> to Amiot, December 20, 1787, Bib. Inst. 1524.There was some disagreement at court over <strong>the</strong> advisability of <strong>in</strong>form<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> emperor about hot airballoons: Cordier, "Les correspondants de Bert<strong>in</strong>," 245-56, letter from <strong>the</strong> Lazarist Fa<strong>the</strong>r NicolasRaux, November 27, 1786. A few years later, a member of Macartney's embassy actually went up <strong>in</strong>a balloon while <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g, but even this seemed not to <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese. J. L. Cranmer-Byng, ed.,An Embassy to <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>: Be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Journal Kept by Lord Macartney dur<strong>in</strong>g His Embassy to <strong>the</strong> EmperorCh'ien-lung, 1793-1794 (London, 1962), 54.- 39Letter to Bert<strong>in</strong>, July 1, 1788, Bib. Inst. 1517, 52. The pr<strong>in</strong>ce was "a gr<strong>and</strong>son of Kangxi" butcannot at present be identified with any certa<strong>in</strong>ty.40 ARSI, Jap. S<strong>in</strong>., vol. 184, fols. 261-62; Jean-Mathieu de Ventavon [1735-87] to Fa<strong>the</strong>r Imbert,SJ., Rome, November 4, 1772. See also Pfister, Notices biographiques et bibliographiques, 914, cit<strong>in</strong>g anunpublished letter of Francois Bourgeois [1723-92], October 30, 1769, located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Xujiaweilibrary near Shanghai. On papal prohibitions on transmitt<strong>in</strong>g "<strong>the</strong> art of war" to Muslims <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r"<strong>in</strong>fidels," see Boxer, "Asian Potentates <strong>and</strong> European Artillery," esp. 160-61.41 The ma<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese accounts of <strong>the</strong> war are Q<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g P<strong>in</strong>gd<strong>in</strong>g LiangJ<strong>in</strong>chuan Fangliie [ImperiallyAuthorized Account of <strong>the</strong> Suppression of <strong>the</strong> Two J<strong>in</strong>chuan], Wang Chang, et al., comp., 7 vols.(1800; rpt. edn., Beij<strong>in</strong>g, 1985); Nayancheng; A Wencheng Gong Nianpu, juan 6-17; Wei Yuan, ShengWuji [Record of Sacred Military (Achievements)] (1842; rpt. edn., Beij<strong>in</strong>g, 1984), juan 4; Zhao Yi,Huangchao WugongJisheng [Record of <strong>the</strong> Military Achievements of This August Dynasty] (n.p., n.d.;rpt. edn., 1877); see also Erich Haenisch, "Die Eroberung des Goldstroml<strong>and</strong>es <strong>in</strong> Ost-Tibet," AsiaMajor, 10 (1935): 262-313.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1538 Joanna Waley-Cohen<strong>and</strong> Persians confront<strong>in</strong>g similar logistical difficulties.42 But <strong>the</strong>se cannon tendedto explode after two or three days of heavy fir<strong>in</strong>g, which, obviously, limited <strong>the</strong>irusefulness as well as often kill<strong>in</strong>g or wound<strong>in</strong>g artillerymen. Moreover, it wasvirtually impossible to keep <strong>the</strong> army at <strong>the</strong> front provided with sufficient rawmetal, despite efforts to melt down <strong>and</strong> reuse exploded cannon barrels.43 Fur<strong>the</strong>rproblems were caused by <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g forces' unfamiliarity with <strong>the</strong> siege methodsneeded. The Ch<strong>in</strong>ese had for centuries been fortify<strong>in</strong>g entire towns with massivewalls <strong>and</strong> were quite familiar with <strong>the</strong> concept of siege warfare, but <strong>the</strong> traditionalmeans of end<strong>in</strong>g a siege were m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, mass assault, or blockade, none of whichwas feasible <strong>in</strong> this case because of <strong>the</strong> mounta<strong>in</strong>ous terra<strong>in</strong>.44 Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore,Ch<strong>in</strong>ese city walls generally were made of tamped earth ra<strong>the</strong>r than of <strong>the</strong> stonethat confronted <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g armies <strong>in</strong> western Sichuan.In 1774, <strong>in</strong> response to <strong>the</strong>se difficulties, <strong>the</strong> emperor ordered <strong>the</strong> PortugueseJesuit Felix da Rocha (1731-1781) to proceed to <strong>the</strong> front, bear<strong>in</strong>g with himdesigns for mortars (chongtianpao), or "guns for attack<strong>in</strong>g heaven" (popularlyknown as "watermelon guns" [xiguapao] because of <strong>the</strong>ir bulbous shape). Theemperor made no pretense: <strong>the</strong> purpose was to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>the</strong> accuracy of his army'sartillery.45 Most likely, <strong>the</strong> designs <strong>in</strong> question were those made by Verbiest acentury earlier, for <strong>the</strong>se had been republished only a few years before, withillustrations of <strong>in</strong>dividual weapons accompanied by specifications <strong>and</strong> by reproductionsof <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>scriptions, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> names of artisans <strong>and</strong> supervisors<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> actual work of cannon found<strong>in</strong>g.46Although <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese sources state unambiguously <strong>the</strong> purpose for whichda Rocha was sent to <strong>the</strong> front <strong>in</strong> 1774, <strong>the</strong> same cannot be said for <strong>the</strong> Jesuitdescriptions of <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan campaign, written for European consumption. If42 Amiot to Bert<strong>in</strong>, September 12, 1776, Bib. Inst. 1515, 73. See also Mgmoires ... des Ch<strong>in</strong>ois, 3:387-412. See Cipolla, European Expansion, on <strong>the</strong> construction of cannon outside <strong>the</strong> walls of Constant<strong>in</strong>ople;<strong>and</strong> Robert D. McChesney, "An Untitled History of <strong>the</strong> War for Khurasan, 1587-1598"(New York, n.d.), 38, on similar activities outside Herat <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late sixteenth century.43On <strong>the</strong> difficulty of ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> supply of raw materials <strong>and</strong> artisans for artillery productionat this time, see <strong>the</strong> secret reports submitted to <strong>the</strong> emperor by <strong>the</strong> governor-general of Sichuan <strong>in</strong>Gongzhongdang Qianlongchao Zouzhe [Secret Palace Memorials of <strong>the</strong> Qianlong Reign] (Taibei,1982-92), vol. 36, 69, 39/7/13 (August 19, 1774); vol. 36, 651, 39/9/12 (October 16, 1774); vol. 37,21-22, 39/9/26 (October 30, 1774).44 See Parker, Military Revolution, 143-44.45 More than one edict expressed <strong>the</strong> emperor's <strong>in</strong>tention; see Nayancheng, A Wencheng GongNianpu, 12, 22b-24a, n.d. This document does not refer specifically to <strong>Western</strong>ers or to any <strong>in</strong>dividualmissionary, <strong>and</strong> it may be that <strong>the</strong> decision to send a <strong>Western</strong> "surveyor" was made only later; Daq<strong>in</strong>gGaozong Shilu, juan 962, 16a-b, 39/7/9; also <strong>in</strong> Fu Lo-shu, trans., A Documentary Chronicle ofS<strong>in</strong>o-<strong>Western</strong> Relations, 2 vols. (Tucson, Ariz., 1966), 273-74. For an illustration of a chongtianpao, seeHuangchao Liqi Tushi [Illustrations <strong>and</strong> Plans of Ceremonial Instruments of Our August Dynasty](n.p., n.d., preface, 1766), 16, 14a; see also Needham, Science <strong>and</strong> Civilization, vol. 5, part 7, 475. Thistype of mortar apparently was among <strong>the</strong> gifts made by <strong>the</strong> British to <strong>the</strong> emperor <strong>in</strong> 1793; Fu,Documentary Chronicle, 561, n. 468.46 For examples of Verbiest's designs, see Huangchao Liqi Tushi, 9a-b, 16a-b. This text was compiledunder <strong>the</strong> auspices of Fulong'an (1743-84), <strong>the</strong> senior official at court who had particularresponsibility for <strong>the</strong> Jesuits. Among those who had worked on <strong>the</strong> project were He Guozong(d. 1766), a senior ma<strong>the</strong>matician closely associated with a number of Jesuits at court, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>gda Rocha, who had participated <strong>in</strong> He's survey of X<strong>in</strong>jiang <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1750s (see below), <strong>and</strong> a Manchunamed Debao, who may have been <strong>the</strong> same man who accompanied da Rocha to <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan frontor may have been an eponymous <strong>and</strong> much more dist<strong>in</strong>guished civil official who lived from 1719 to1789. On <strong>the</strong> cannon designs, see Shu, Hu, <strong>and</strong> Zhou, "Nan Huairen yu Zhongguo Q<strong>in</strong>gdai zhuzaode dabao," 28, cit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Imperial Household Archives.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1539<strong>the</strong>y mention da Rocha at all, <strong>the</strong>y say only that <strong>the</strong> emperor sent him to <strong>the</strong> frontthat year "pour lever la carte"-to take measurements for a general survey of <strong>the</strong>area. This claim was plausible s<strong>in</strong>ce da Rocha had, with a colleague, earliersurveyed <strong>the</strong>; newly conquered region of X<strong>in</strong>jiang for <strong>the</strong> emperor, travel<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>re even before that war was over.47 The maps <strong>the</strong>y had produced were kept <strong>in</strong><strong>the</strong> palace; so far as can be ascerta<strong>in</strong>ed from Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>and</strong> European sources,nei<strong>the</strong>r missionary played any o<strong>the</strong>r role <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> conquest of X<strong>in</strong>jiang.48The Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>and</strong> Jesuit sources also differ <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir versions of what happenedwhen da Rocha reached <strong>the</strong> front <strong>in</strong> October 1774. The Jesuits claimed thatda Rocha was so exhausted <strong>and</strong> unwell that he returned to Beij<strong>in</strong>g withoutaccomplish<strong>in</strong>g his mission.49 The correspondence between <strong>the</strong> emperor <strong>and</strong>comm<strong>and</strong>er-<strong>in</strong>-chief Agui tells a different story. Agui was one of <strong>the</strong> mostpowerful men of his time, a Manchu of sufficient scholarly atta<strong>in</strong>ment to passthrough at least some levels of <strong>the</strong> civil service exam<strong>in</strong>ations. By 1773, he hadalready held senior military <strong>and</strong> civilian positions all over <strong>the</strong> empire; firstappo<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> 1763 to <strong>the</strong> Gr<strong>and</strong> Council, <strong>the</strong> emperor's closest advisory group, hewas its senior member from 1780 until his death <strong>in</strong> 1797 <strong>and</strong> hence was for almosttwo decades <strong>the</strong> rank<strong>in</strong>g offi-cial <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire empire. In his 1774 reports toQianlong, Agui noted that da Rocha <strong>and</strong> his escort, a capta<strong>in</strong> of <strong>the</strong> imperialbodyguard named Debao, had announced that <strong>the</strong> emperor had sent <strong>the</strong>mbecause earlier calculations concern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> mortars had been <strong>in</strong>exact. After daRocha made various measurements, relat<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly to <strong>the</strong> angle of fir<strong>in</strong>g (just asVerbiest had discussed <strong>in</strong> his treatise), <strong>the</strong> marg<strong>in</strong> of error was sharply narrowed,<strong>and</strong> bombardment of <strong>the</strong> rebel fortresses became considerably more effective; itwas a decisive factor <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> eventual Q<strong>in</strong>g victory. Moreover, shortly after daRocha's arrival, new artillery began to be cast, based presumably on <strong>the</strong> designs hebrought with him <strong>and</strong> possibly produced under his actual supervision.50 In short,<strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese sources reveal that da Rocha was <strong>in</strong>deed directly <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong>"teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fidel <strong>the</strong> art of war."47 On Qianlong's personal <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> selection of da Rocha for this assignment, see ARSI,Fondo Gesuitico, 722, 3d folder, item 7 (littera annua 1756).48 ARSI, Jap. S<strong>in</strong>., 98, pp. 46 (n.d. [1756-57]); 56 (n.d. [1758]); 62b-63a (November 28, 1758).Some missionaries criticized da Rocha <strong>in</strong> this context: see Jap. S<strong>in</strong>., 98, p. 52, February 7, 1758; seealso Jap. S<strong>in</strong>., 181, 252-53, December 2, 1752, cited by Krahl, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> Missions <strong>in</strong> Crisis, 68. Forda Rocha's survey work <strong>in</strong> Manchuria, see LEC, 13: 439 (1773). See also Bernard, "Les etapes de lacartographie scientifique," 472, cit<strong>in</strong>g J. Brucker, "Positions geographiques determ<strong>in</strong>ees par lesmissionairesjesuites dans le Turkestan oriental et la Dzoungarie en 1756 d'apres deux lettres <strong>in</strong>editesdes PP. Amiot et Gaubil," Bullet<strong>in</strong> de la Socigte' de Geographie de Lyon (November 1880), publishedseparately, 7-8; Semans, "Mapp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Unknown." On <strong>the</strong> X<strong>in</strong>jiang campaigns, see Q<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g P<strong>in</strong>gd<strong>in</strong>gZhunke'er Fangliie [Imperially Authorized Account of <strong>the</strong> Suppression of <strong>the</strong> Zunghars], Fuheng,comp. (n.p., 1772).49LEC, 13: 491-504, at 497, letter, n.d. [1777]; this document seems to be much <strong>the</strong> same asBourgeois' account of <strong>the</strong> campaign, "Relation de la Revolte du Pays des Miao-tse," Memoires ... desCh<strong>in</strong>ois, 3: 412-22, <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> same <strong>in</strong>formation about da Rocha appears at 415-16. See alsoAmiot's long letter to Bert<strong>in</strong> about <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan campaign, September 12, 1776, Bib. Inst. 1515, 73<strong>and</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g, also <strong>in</strong> Memoires . .. des Ch<strong>in</strong>ois, 3: 387-412, <strong>and</strong> its unattributed supplement,Memoires ... des Ch<strong>in</strong>ois, 3: 412-22.50 Nayancheng, A Wencheng Gong Nianpu 12, 18a. The dates of <strong>the</strong>se documents are somewhatconfused. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to an undated memorial, Debao <strong>and</strong> da Rocha arrived on <strong>the</strong> 18th day of <strong>the</strong>9th month (October 22, 1774) <strong>and</strong> proceeded to a test fir<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>the</strong> old cannon on <strong>the</strong> same day. Thedocument report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> cast<strong>in</strong>g of a new cannon follows this account <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> text but is dated <strong>the</strong> 15th.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1540 Joanna Waley-CohenThe Jesuit authors of <strong>the</strong> accounts of <strong>the</strong> war must have known of da Rocha'sdirect <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g artillery effectiveness; we can only speculateabout <strong>the</strong>ir motives <strong>in</strong> gloss<strong>in</strong>g over it. Doubtless aware of <strong>the</strong> criticisms leveledaga<strong>in</strong>st Verbiest for his cannon foundry a century earlier, <strong>and</strong> of <strong>the</strong> more recentstrictures aga<strong>in</strong>st offer<strong>in</strong>g military advice, <strong>the</strong>y may well have tacitly agreed toavoid jeopardiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir already precarious position by reveal<strong>in</strong>g what da Rochahad done. Perhaps <strong>the</strong> need for solidarity <strong>in</strong> adversity outweighed <strong>the</strong> antagonismsamong <strong>the</strong> missionaries. This lack of c<strong>and</strong>or, however, <strong>in</strong>evitably raisesquestions about <strong>the</strong> reliability of all Jesuit sources transmitted from <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>gthis period.Da Rocha visited <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan region aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1777 to survey <strong>the</strong> newly pacifiedarea for his Ch<strong>in</strong>ese masters. This time, it seems that he accomplished <strong>the</strong> task <strong>and</strong>also took advantage of <strong>the</strong> prestige with which he was <strong>in</strong>vested by <strong>the</strong> imperialcommission to secure <strong>the</strong> release of a colleague who for years had languished <strong>in</strong>a Sichuan prison.5' His map of <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan region, said at <strong>the</strong> time to have beenmade for <strong>the</strong> official campaign history (Q<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g P<strong>in</strong>gd<strong>in</strong>g Liangj<strong>in</strong>chuan Fangliie),was not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> that official text; archivists at <strong>the</strong> First Historical Archives <strong>in</strong>Beij<strong>in</strong>g now report that it is located <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir collection.52The sequester<strong>in</strong>g of this <strong>and</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r maps such as <strong>the</strong> X<strong>in</strong>jiang surveys br<strong>in</strong>gs up<strong>the</strong> issue- of how widely acknowledged da Rocha's military work was <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>.Although it may not have been actually concealed, it is also unlikely to have beenactively broadcast; as Q<strong>in</strong>g confidence ebbed dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> last quarter of <strong>the</strong>eighteenth century, <strong>in</strong> considerable part as <strong>the</strong> result of a dawn<strong>in</strong>g recognition ofsome of <strong>the</strong> consequences of extraord<strong>in</strong>ary population growth, <strong>the</strong> reluctance toacknowledge any degree of dependence on foreign advice <strong>and</strong> assistance undoubtedly<strong>in</strong>tensified. We have only one source, Agui's report, for da Rocha'sassistance with artillery; <strong>the</strong> emperor's expressions of <strong>in</strong>tent to obta<strong>in</strong> such aid donot establish that da Rocha provided it. Quite apart from Jesuit discretion on <strong>the</strong>subject <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir published correspondence, none of <strong>the</strong> official Ch<strong>in</strong>ese accountsof <strong>the</strong> war, such as <strong>the</strong> campaign history, mentions da Rocha's presence at <strong>the</strong>front, nor do privately published descriptions of <strong>the</strong> war, written by suchwell-known scholars as Zhao Yi (1727-1814) <strong>and</strong> Wei Yuan (1794-1856), conta<strong>in</strong>any reference to <strong>Western</strong> aid.53 Given <strong>the</strong> relatively primitive state of unofficialcommunications <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> at this time, it is probably safe to assume that <strong>the</strong> Jesuit'sadvice <strong>and</strong> assistance was not general knowledge, although <strong>the</strong> pervasiveness ofgossip <strong>and</strong> rumor should not be underestimated.51 LEC, 13: 521-25.52 See Gongzhongdang Qianlongchao Zouzhe, vol. 38, 188, QL 42/3/24, a memorial not<strong>in</strong>g that daRocha ("Fu Zuol<strong>in</strong>") had gone to <strong>the</strong> front to survey <strong>the</strong> area for <strong>the</strong> official history (fangliie).Information on <strong>the</strong> probable present whereabouts <strong>and</strong> possible non-Ch<strong>in</strong>ese orig<strong>in</strong>s of da Rocha'sJ<strong>in</strong>chuan map was communicated to <strong>the</strong> author <strong>in</strong> person by Ju Deyuan, formerly head of researchat <strong>the</strong> First National Archives <strong>in</strong> Beij<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> a specialist on Jesuits <strong>in</strong> eighteenth-century <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>; mapsof sensitive areas, such as <strong>the</strong> Tibetan borderl<strong>and</strong>s here <strong>in</strong> question, are frequently unavailable toforeign researchers <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. An undated <strong>and</strong> unattributed map of part of <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan region thatis now <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Biblio<strong>the</strong>que Nationale is thought by some scholars to relate to <strong>the</strong> campaign that ended<strong>in</strong> 1776. The authorship appears Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, although possibly <strong>the</strong> map represents a copy or outgrowthof da Rocha's work. This map was purchased by <strong>the</strong> Biblio<strong>the</strong>que Nationale from <strong>the</strong> Klaproth collection.53 See references to Ch<strong>in</strong>ese sources cited <strong>in</strong> note 41.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1541THIS CONTROL OVER THE FLOW OF INFORMATION made it possible for <strong>the</strong> emperorto issue his famous statement. Both domestically <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternationally, <strong>the</strong>re wasconsiderable propag<strong>and</strong>a value to be ga<strong>in</strong>ed from declar<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>'s self-sufficiencyto a foreign state whose potential menace aga<strong>in</strong>st Ch<strong>in</strong>ese national securityprompted <strong>the</strong> Qianlong emperor to warn his officials <strong>in</strong> Canton about Engl<strong>and</strong>'snaval <strong>and</strong> mercantile strength. This emperor, with his pretensions to universalmonarchy, was hardly likely to admit openly to <strong>the</strong> representative of a foreignruler an <strong>in</strong>terest that, <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese m<strong>in</strong>ds, could be unfavorably <strong>in</strong>terpreted asan <strong>in</strong>timation of <strong>in</strong>feriority. The imperial declaration may well also have beensubtly <strong>in</strong>tended to rem<strong>in</strong>d Qianlong's Ch<strong>in</strong>ese subjects that <strong>the</strong>ir Manchu rulersrema<strong>in</strong>ed faithful to <strong>the</strong> traditional public Ch<strong>in</strong>ese attitude of superiority towardforeigners. Although members of <strong>the</strong> Macartney embassy disparaged whatseemed to <strong>the</strong>m to be Ch<strong>in</strong>ese disda<strong>in</strong> for <strong>the</strong> gifts <strong>the</strong>y brought, those whom <strong>the</strong>yencountered may well have simply been tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir lead from <strong>the</strong> emperor.54There were o<strong>the</strong>r reasons for <strong>the</strong> ostensible Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>difference to <strong>the</strong> officialgifts of <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>Western</strong> visitors, an attitude <strong>in</strong> apparent conflict with <strong>the</strong>ir enthusiasmfor what missionaries could provide. First, while it was clear to <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>esethat <strong>the</strong> missionaries, men of different nationalities divided by <strong>in</strong>ternal disputes,were not act<strong>in</strong>g as representatives of <strong>the</strong>ir countries (despite efforts on <strong>the</strong> part ofAmiot <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> French to assert <strong>the</strong>ir close relationship to <strong>the</strong> French throne), <strong>the</strong>Macartney embassy unmistakably represented a s<strong>in</strong>gle foreign ruler. The emperor<strong>and</strong> his officials understood this dist<strong>in</strong>ction, even though <strong>the</strong>ir unfamiliaritywith <strong>Western</strong> diplomatic practices probably prevented <strong>the</strong>ir grasp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> fullimplications of <strong>the</strong> embassy.55 Second, it was obvious that <strong>the</strong> effective controlexercised over Europeans serv<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> Q<strong>in</strong>g court could not be duplicated <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>case of <strong>the</strong> Macartney embassy. Thus, whatever <strong>the</strong>ir true beliefs, an appearanceof condescension was preferable to a display of curiosity.Third, <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>volvement of Agui <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1774 episode drew <strong>the</strong> entire issue <strong>in</strong>to<strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensely factionalized world of late eighteenth-century Ch<strong>in</strong>ese politics. Aguiparticipated <strong>in</strong> a number of <strong>the</strong> major military campaigns of <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>and</strong> latereighteenth century, but it was <strong>the</strong> J<strong>in</strong>chuan war, <strong>in</strong> which da Rocha's advice hadrescued Agui's falter<strong>in</strong>g campaign, that made his reputation; Agui soon becamea central figure <strong>in</strong> one major political faction. Much admired by <strong>the</strong> Jesuits, he wassaid to be deeply <strong>in</strong>trigued by <strong>Western</strong> knowledge, <strong>and</strong> it is reasonable to attributehis <strong>in</strong>terest at least partly to his wartime experience. The o<strong>the</strong>r ma<strong>in</strong> faction atcourt clustered around Heshen (1750-1795), <strong>the</strong> imperial favorite <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> man <strong>in</strong>charge of embassy liaison <strong>in</strong> 1793. Heshen had little experience <strong>and</strong> absolutely noaptitude for military affairs: on Heshen's only, disastrous, military venture, Agui,arriv<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> crucial moment, saved his life <strong>and</strong> subsequently put <strong>in</strong> a good wordfor him with <strong>the</strong> emperor. Heshen offset <strong>the</strong> potential political disadvantage of54See Cranmer-Byng, Embassy to <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, 54.55 See James Hevia, "A Multitude of Lords: Q<strong>in</strong>g Court Ritual <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Macartney Embassy of1793," <strong>Late</strong> Imperial <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, 10 (December 1990): 72-105. The fact that, nearly half a century later, <strong>the</strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, almost fatally, failed to realize <strong>the</strong> importance of such a dist<strong>in</strong>ction after <strong>the</strong> abolition of <strong>the</strong>East India Company monopoly <strong>in</strong> 1834 cannot be taken as evidence of a similar failure <strong>in</strong> 1793. OnQianlong's <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> different European states <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir rulers, see LEC, 13: 425-45, n.d.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1542 Joanna Waley-Cohenlack<strong>in</strong>g military qualifications, however, by his close association with one of <strong>the</strong>most successful of late eighteenth-century generals, Fukang'an (d. 1796). In 1793,Fukang'an had recently returned from Tibet to take up <strong>the</strong> governor-generalshipof Guangdong <strong>and</strong> Guangxi prov<strong>in</strong>ces. That is, he was <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> probably uniqueposition of hav<strong>in</strong>g encountered <strong>the</strong> British <strong>in</strong> both places-as unruly traders on<strong>the</strong> sou<strong>the</strong>ast coast <strong>and</strong>, as he mistakenly suspected, allies of his enemies, <strong>the</strong>Gurkhas, <strong>in</strong> Tibet. Thus Fukang'an's experience led him to regard <strong>the</strong> British astroublemakers. As a result, he was not only extremely <strong>and</strong> overtly hostile toward<strong>the</strong>m but also actively sought to dissuade Heshen from help<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m or promot<strong>in</strong>g<strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> any way.56 One can speculate that Heshen <strong>and</strong> his associates,hav<strong>in</strong>g been persuaded of <strong>the</strong> undesirability of <strong>the</strong> British by Fukang'an, soughtto conv<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> emperor to reject <strong>the</strong> embassy, hop<strong>in</strong>g at <strong>the</strong> same time tounderm<strong>in</strong>e any advantage that might have accrued to Agui <strong>and</strong> his adherents as<strong>the</strong> result of Agui's contacts with <strong>the</strong> missionaries. Although Macartney himselfnoted how vigorous <strong>the</strong> eighty-two-year-old emperor was, Heshen's <strong>in</strong>fluencemay well have played a part <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> entire episode.Europeans were probably aware of Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong> technical skills<strong>in</strong> yet ano<strong>the</strong>r military context. The Qianlong emperor regarded <strong>the</strong> militaryachievements of his reign as one of its crown<strong>in</strong>g glories, <strong>and</strong>, after <strong>the</strong> annexationof X<strong>in</strong>jiang, he rebuilt a hall for <strong>the</strong> specific purpose of commemorat<strong>in</strong>g militaryexploits.57 On its walls hung <strong>the</strong> portraits of generals <strong>and</strong> statesmen who hadtaken part <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> campaign, <strong>and</strong> Qianlong commissioned missionary artists toproduce sixteen scenes depict<strong>in</strong>g important battles <strong>and</strong> memorable events of <strong>the</strong>war.58 After <strong>the</strong> emperor saw some engrav<strong>in</strong>gs of orig<strong>in</strong>al battle pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs done by<strong>the</strong> German pa<strong>in</strong>ter Rugendas (1666-1742), he decided to have his sixteenpa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs engraved <strong>in</strong> copper.59 This art had been forgotten <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, <strong>and</strong>missionaries cooperated with French merchants <strong>in</strong> Canton to send <strong>the</strong> pictures toParis for engrav<strong>in</strong>g, where <strong>the</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ophile Bert<strong>in</strong> helped arrange for <strong>the</strong> work to bedone by <strong>the</strong> best craftsmen of <strong>the</strong> day <strong>and</strong> for extra copies to be made for <strong>the</strong>French k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> his senior m<strong>in</strong>isters, despite a stipulation of exclusivity for <strong>the</strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>ese. After <strong>the</strong> engrav<strong>in</strong>gs were returned to <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>, <strong>the</strong>y were copied,56 Staunton, Au<strong>the</strong>ntic Account, 3: 11, 53, 143; see also Daq<strong>in</strong>g Gaozong Shilu, juan 1493, 16b- 18b,60/12/25.57 Qianlong personally commemorated his armies' victories <strong>in</strong> a 1792 essay titled Shi Quan Ji[Record of Ten Complete (Victories)]. From this work, he also took as a literary name <strong>the</strong> appellation"Old Man of <strong>the</strong> Ten Complete [Victories]"(Shi Quan Lao Ren). Arthur W. Hummel, ed., Em<strong>in</strong>entCh<strong>in</strong>ese of <strong>the</strong> Ch'<strong>in</strong>g Period (1644-1912), 2 vols. (Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C., 1943), 369. See also ZhuangJifa,Q<strong>in</strong>g Gaozong Shi Quan Wugong Yanjiu [An Investigation <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> Ten Great Victories of <strong>the</strong> QianlongEmperor] (Taibei, 1982).58 The saga of <strong>the</strong> victory pictures has been exhaustively studied by <strong>Western</strong> scholars: see PaulPelliot, "Les conquetes de l'empereur de Ch<strong>in</strong>e," T'oung Pao, 20 (1921): 180-274; Michele Pirazzolit'Serstevens, Gravures des conque^tes de 1'empereur de Ch<strong>in</strong>e K'ien-long au musee Guimet (Paris, 1969); <strong>and</strong>Hartmut Walravens, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> illustrata: Das europaische <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>versta<strong>in</strong>dnis im Spiegel des 16. bis 18.Jahrhunderts (We<strong>in</strong>heim, 1987), 40-56. See also Hao Zhenhua, "Lang Sh<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Zhongguo Xiyu Zhantude Shishiji Yiyi" [The Historical Circumstances <strong>and</strong> Significance of Castiglione's War Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs of <strong>the</strong>Qianlong Emperor's Campaign aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> Zunghars <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Northwestern Border Region], S<strong>in</strong>o-<strong>Western</strong> Cultural Relations Journal, 13 (1991): 18-32.59Qianlong expressed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> European battle pictures more than once. In conversation withFa<strong>the</strong>r Benoist <strong>in</strong> 1773, he said, "There are a number of European pr<strong>in</strong>ts that represent [military]victories won by your sovereigns. Who are- <strong>the</strong>y defeat<strong>in</strong>g, what enemies have <strong>the</strong>y had to fight?" LEC,13: 427.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
<strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>Technology</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> <strong>Eighteenth</strong> <strong>Century</strong> 1543somewhat less elegantly, by Ch<strong>in</strong>ese craftsmen tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> meantime <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>technique of copper engrav<strong>in</strong>g by one of <strong>the</strong> Jesuits.60 That this exchange playedno part <strong>in</strong> subsequent European judgments of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> can probably be expla<strong>in</strong>edby <strong>the</strong> likelihood that <strong>the</strong> details of this exchange were buried <strong>in</strong> Paris along with<strong>the</strong> ancien regime <strong>and</strong> that Frenchmen <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> who had helped expedite it hadlittle <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> recall<strong>in</strong>g it as a counterweight to o<strong>the</strong>r views.Political events <strong>in</strong> Europe were <strong>in</strong>deed <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> reason for <strong>the</strong> shift <strong>in</strong>European attitudes toward <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>. In <strong>the</strong> earliest phases of S<strong>in</strong>o-<strong>Western</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction,Jesuit missionaries were virtually <strong>the</strong> sole <strong>in</strong>terpreters of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> to Europe.Because <strong>the</strong>y generally wished to ga<strong>in</strong> credit by convey<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> civilized nature of<strong>the</strong> millions <strong>the</strong>y expected to convert to Christianity, <strong>the</strong>ir accounts tended to bestrongly approbatory. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> course of <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century, however, <strong>the</strong>steady decl<strong>in</strong>e of <strong>the</strong> once-powerful Society of Jesus, culm<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> order'sformal abolition <strong>in</strong> 1773, radically underm<strong>in</strong>ed Jesuit credibility <strong>and</strong> prompted anew war<strong>in</strong>ess among missionaries regard<strong>in</strong>g what <strong>the</strong>y chose to report. At <strong>the</strong>same time, <strong>the</strong> trend toward secularization <strong>in</strong> Europe was matched by <strong>the</strong> eclipseof <strong>the</strong> Jesuit monopoly on <strong>in</strong>formation. Various embassies, merchants, <strong>and</strong>travelers began to visit <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> <strong>and</strong> to broadcast op<strong>in</strong>ions that were often quiteunfavorable, <strong>in</strong> part because of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>'s cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g unwill<strong>in</strong>gness to welcomeforeigners except on its own terms.But Ch<strong>in</strong>ese restrictions were not <strong>the</strong> only or even <strong>the</strong> primary reason that<strong>Western</strong> descriptions of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> grew <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly adverse. The far-reach<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>tellectual <strong>and</strong> political developments of <strong>the</strong> eighteenth century comb<strong>in</strong>ed withadvances <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> quest for technological supremacy to exercise a pervasive<strong>in</strong>fluence on <strong>the</strong> European <strong>in</strong>terpretation of o<strong>the</strong>r cultures. For example, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>'sgreat agrarian accomplishments that <strong>the</strong> French Physiocrats once vaunted seemedless admirable <strong>in</strong> a budd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustrial age; <strong>the</strong> restrictive Canton system of tradewent directly aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> free world market advocated by Adam Smith <strong>in</strong> 1776,<strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> absence of political liberty or consensus <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> did not sit well with <strong>the</strong>revolutionaries who dom<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>the</strong> latter part of <strong>the</strong> century.61 F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>the</strong><strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g predom<strong>in</strong>ance of negative <strong>Western</strong> attitudes toward o<strong>the</strong>r cultures atthis time also partly reflected <strong>the</strong> disda<strong>in</strong> <strong>Western</strong>ers felt when <strong>the</strong>y compared <strong>the</strong>relatively class-bound societies of traditional Asia <strong>and</strong> Africa with <strong>the</strong> dynamicsocial changes of <strong>the</strong>ir own postrevolutionary, <strong>in</strong>dustrializ<strong>in</strong>g societies.62In <strong>the</strong> late eighteenth century, well before <strong>the</strong> <strong>Western</strong> <strong>in</strong>cursion brought a newimmediacy to <strong>the</strong> need for military reform, <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese were extremely <strong>in</strong>terested60 Subsequent wars were commemorated <strong>in</strong> victory pictures drawn or engraved <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> byCh<strong>in</strong>ese artists <strong>and</strong> craftsmen. These <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>the</strong> Muslim upris<strong>in</strong>g at Ush <strong>in</strong> 1765, <strong>the</strong> SecondJ<strong>in</strong>chuan War of 1771-76, <strong>the</strong> Vietnam (Annam) campaign of 1788-89, <strong>the</strong> Taiwan rebellion of1787-88, <strong>the</strong> 1792 war <strong>in</strong> Nepal, <strong>the</strong> campaigns to suppress <strong>the</strong> Miao m<strong>in</strong>ority <strong>in</strong> Yunnan <strong>and</strong> Hun<strong>and</strong>ur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> 1790s, <strong>the</strong> war aga<strong>in</strong>stJahangir <strong>in</strong> X<strong>in</strong>jiang <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> 1820s, <strong>and</strong> <strong>the</strong> Muslim wars of <strong>the</strong> laten<strong>in</strong>eteenth century. For <strong>the</strong> identity of <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese artists, see Walravens, <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> illustrata, 42;Pirazzoli t'Serstevens, Gravures des conquetes de l'empereur de Ch<strong>in</strong>e, 43. On <strong>the</strong> history of some of <strong>the</strong><strong>in</strong>digenous victory pictures, see also Pelliot, "Les conquetes," 243-44.61 See Jonathan D. Spence, "<strong>Western</strong> Perceptions of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong> from <strong>the</strong> <strong>Late</strong> Sixteenth <strong>Century</strong> to <strong>the</strong>Present," <strong>in</strong> Paul S. Ropp, ed., Heritage of <strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>a</strong>: Contemporary Perspectives on Ch<strong>in</strong>ese Civilization(Berkeley, Calif., 1990), 1-14.62 Adas, Mach<strong>in</strong>es as <strong>the</strong> Measure of Men, esp. 166-67, 178-79, 195-98. See also McNeill, Pursuit ofPower, esp. 185-222.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993
1544 Joanna Waley-Cohen<strong>in</strong> technological advances <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> what <strong>the</strong> West had to offer. The evidence wasreadily available to Europeans who chose to grasp it. Yet when <strong>in</strong> public <strong>the</strong>Ch<strong>in</strong>ese denied such an <strong>in</strong>terest, primarily for reasons of domestic politics,Europeans, similarly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by developments at home, took that denial asevidence of an entire mental attitude: <strong>in</strong>gra<strong>in</strong>ed xenophobia <strong>and</strong> a concomitantresistance to progress. In <strong>the</strong> Age of Progress, such an attitude led automaticallyto <strong>the</strong> assumption that <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese were <strong>in</strong>ferior be<strong>in</strong>gs.AMERICAN HISTORICAL REVIEW DECEMBER 1993