Week 9 Graphic Design and the Industrial Revolution - A History of ...

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A HISTORY OFGRAPHIC DESIGNJohn Gamble, page 152, was granted a patent in 1801 for “an invention for making paper in single sheets without seamor joining from one to twelve feet and upwards wide, and from one to forty-five feet and upwards in length.” This machinepoured a suspension of fiber and water in a thin stream upon a vibrating wire-mesh conveyor belt on which anunending sheet of paper could be manufactured.Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854–1899), page 152, a German immigrant working in a Baltimore machine shop who achievedthe first patent for a type composing machine in 1825 called the Linotype machine. On July 3, 1886, the thirty-two-yearoldinventor demonstrated his keyboard-operated machine in the office of the New York Tribune. Whitelaw Reid, theeditor of the Tribune, reportedly exclaimed, “Ottmar, you’ve done it! A line o’ type.” The new machine received its namefrom this enthusiastic reaction (Fig. 9-23).Tolbert Lanston (1844–1913), page 153, the American who, in 1887, invented the Monotype machine, which cast singlecharacters from hot metal.Joseph Niépce (1765–1833), page 153, a Frenchman who first produced a photographic image. He began his research byseeking an automatic means of transferring drawings onto printing plates. He invented the heliogravure (sun engraving),and expanded his discovery by putting one of his pewter plates in the back of his camera obscura and pointingit out the window. This allowed him to make a picture directly from nature; the earliest extant photograph is a pewtersheet that he exposed all day (Figs. 9-26 and 9-27).Louis Jacques Daguerre (1799–1851), page 154, worked with Joseph Niépce and perfected the early photographic process,which he presented to the French Academy of Sciences. He called the printed images he created daguerreotypes(Fig. 9-28).William Henry Fox Talbot (1800–1877), page 154, pioneered a process that formed the basis for both photography andphotographic printing plates by working with objects held over paper treated with silver compounds and exposed tolight. He called these images, made without a camera, “photogenic drawings.” He began to use his treated paper in thecamera obscura to create minute photographic images that had light areas rendered dark and dark areas appearinglight. Late in 1840 he managed to increase the light sensitivity of his paper, expose a latent image, then develop it afterit was removed from the camera. He called his new process “calotype” (from the Greek kalos typos, meaning “beautifulimpression”) and also used the name “talbotype” at the suggestion of friends. In 1844 he began publishing his book,The Pencil of Nature, in installments for subscribers, featuring twenty-four photographs mounted into each copy byhand (Figs. 9-29 and 9-32; see also 9-47).Sir John Herschel (1792–1871), page 155, an eminent astronomer and chemist who was the first to use sodium thiosulfateto fix, or make permanent, the photographic image on paper by halting the action of light. He was also the first toname the process of photography (from the Greek photos graphos, meaning “light drawing”); the reversed image of aphotograph a “negative”; and the contact a “positive” (Figs. 9-30 and 9-31).Frederick Archer (1813–1857), page 155, an English sculptor who was the first to announce the wet-plate process in theMarch 1850 issue of Chemist. By candlelight in a darkroom, a clear viscous liquid called collodion was sensitized withiodine compounds, poured over a glass plate, immersed in a silver-nitrate bath, and exposed and developed in thecamera while still wet. It enabled much shorter exposure times than either daguerreotypes or calotypes, and almostcompletely replaced them by the mid-1850s.George Eastman (1854–1932), page 157, an American dry-plate manufacturer who put the power of photography intothe hands of the lay public when he introduced his Kodak camera in 1888 (Fig. 9-33).John Calvin Moss, page 157, pioneered a commercially feasible photoengraving method for translating line artwork intometal letterpress plates in 1871. In a highly secret process, a negative of the original art was contact printed to a metalplate coated with a light-sensitive gelatin emulsion, then etched with acid. The gradual implementation of photoengravingcut the cost and time required to produce printing blocks and achieved greater fidelity to the original (Fig. 9-34).Stephen H. Horgan, page 158, invented the halftone screen (Figs. 9-37 and 9-38).Frederick E. Ives (1856–1937), page 158, developed an early halftone process and worked on the first commercial pro-
A HISTORY OFGRAPHIC DESIGNduction of halftone printing plates in 1881. He joined brothers Max Levy and Louis Levy to produce consistent commercialhalftones using etched glass screens.David Octavius Hill (1802–1870), page 159, a Scottish painter who teamed up with Edinburgh photographer Robert Adamsonto immortalize the 474 ministers who formed the Free Church of Scotland. The resulting calotypes were laudedas superior to Rembrandt’s paintings (Fig. 9-39).Robert Adamson (1821–1848), page 159, Edinburgh photographer who teamed up with Scottish painter David OctaviusHill to immortalize the 474 ministers who formed the Free Church of Scotland. The resulting calotypes were lauded assuperior to Rembrandt’s paintings (Fig. 9-39).Julia Margaret Cameron (1815–1879), page 159, received a camera and the equipment for processing collodion wetplates as a forty-ninth birthday present from her daughter and son-in-law. The accompanying note said, “It may amuseyou, Mother, to photograph.” From 1864 until 1874, this wife of a high British civil servant extended the artistic potentialof photography through portraiture that recorded “faithfully the greatness of the inner man as well as the features ofthe outer man” (Fig. 9-40).F. T. Nadar (1820–1910), page 159, a Frenchman whose portraits of writers, actors, and artists have a direct and dignifiedsimplicity and provide an invaluable historical record. In 1886 the first photographic interview was published in LeJournal Illustré and included a series of twenty-one photographs when he interviewed the eminent hundred-year-oldscientist Michel Eugène Chevreul (Fig. 9-41).Mathew Brady (c. 1823–1896), page 157, a prosperous New York studio photographer who invested a $100,000 fortuneto send a score of his photographic assistants, including Alexander Gardner and Timothy O’Sullivan, to document theAmerican Civil War. This photographic documentation had a profound impact upon the public’s romantic ideal of war(Fig. 9-43).Eadweard Muybridge (1830–1904), page 161, an adventurous photographer commissioned by Leland Sanford to documenthis belief that a trotting horse lifted all four feet off the ground simultaneously; a $25,000-dollar wager rested onthe outcome. A battery of twenty-four cameras aimed at a trotting horse and equipped with rapid drop shutters produceda sequence of photographs arresting the horse’s movement in time and space, and innovating motion-picturephotography in the process (Fig. 9-46).Queen Victoria (1819–1901), page 161, became queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1837. Herreign spanned two-thirds of the nineteenth century and marked the beginning of the Victorian era, a time of strongmoral and religious beliefs, proper social conventions, and optimism.W. N. Pugin (1812–1852), page 161, an English architect who fostered a fondness for the Gothic style and designed theornamental details of the British Houses of Parliament. The first nineteenth-century designer to articulate a philosophy,he defined design as a moral act that achieved the status of art through the designer’s ideals and attitudes; he believedthe integrity and character of a civilization were linked to its design (Fig. 9-48).Owen Jones (1809–1874), page 162, the English designer, author, and authority on color who became a major designinfluence at the middle of the nineteenth-century. During his mid-twenties he traveled to Spain and the Near East andmade a systematic study of Islamic design, introducing Moorish ornament to Western design in his 1842–45 book,Plans, Elevations, Sections, and Details of the Alhambra. His main influence was through his widely studied 1856 bookof large color plates, The Grammar of Ornament. This catalog of design possibilities from Eastern and Western cultures,“savage” tribes, and natural forms became the nineteenth-century designer’s bible of ornament (Fig. 9-49).Richard M. Hoe (1812–1886), page 163, an American inventor and mechanical genius who perfected the rotary lithographicpress, which was nicknamed “the lightning press” because it could print six times as fast as the lithographicflatbed presses then in use (see Fig. 9-51).John H. Bufford (d. 1870), page 163, the major innovator of chromolithography in Boston, whose crayon-style imagesachieved a remarkable realism. Specializing in art prints, posters, covers, and book and magazine illustrations, he oftenused five or more colors, and the meticulous tonal drawing of his black stone always became the master plate. He
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