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Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009university community, especially the lecturers perceive the library’s roles. There will be new roles for thelibrary staff, new approaches to information access, but the library will always be there, even if it is just a bighall with a bank of a computer terminal, the ultimate electronic library. Whether its roles and whatever itsphysical attributes, the library has to be managed to enable it meet expected obligations to the university’scommunity of teachers, scholars, students and administrators. Hence, university libraries’ roles in any academicsetup can never be over-emphasized as the roles of lecturers are also vital to the academic development of anation. As pointed out, academic libraries exist to support the vision and mission of their educationalinstitutions. The academic library has a responsibility to encourage both lecturers and students to exploreinformation resources in a variety of formats as part of the research process.The topic of collegiality is not a big one in the library literature, only a small number of articles are directlylinked to this topic but this is not to say that there are not other articles which deal with issues relating tocollegiality especially in reference services. When one talks about collegiality in academic library, it can berelated to the librarians and other administrative staff, librarians and faculty lecturers and students. A moresubstantive treatment of collegiality and reference services were done by Jones in 1997. She wrote that forcollegiality to occur, the staff must be “aware of one another’s strength to capitalize on them, be willing to learnfrom one another, trust one another, treat one another with respect and courtesy, and behave ethically”especially between the faculty lecturers and the academic librarians. Lister (2003) placed more emphasis oncollaborative tasks which include monthly practicum and reference newsletter, peer collaboration in a doublestaffing of the reference desk, and departmental participation in new staff orientation.It is the objective of this paper to discuss how collegiality can be applied in libraries which include anexamination of how faculty in a library and faculty on the other parts of campus work differently which makescollegiality more important in the library. The paper further takes a critical look at the reasons why collegialityis important in academic libraries where librarians work hand-in-hand with support staff and students andemployees. In addition, the paper will examine the importance of collegiality in an academic library and looksat some ways it can be applied especially between the librarians and faculty lecturers and more importantlywithin the university library itself.What is collegiality?Colleagues are those explicitly united in a common purpose and respecting each other's abilities to work towardthat purpose. A colleague is an associate in a profession or in a civil or ecclesiastical office. Thus, the wordcollegiality can connote respect for another's commitment to the common purpose and ability to work toward it.In a narrower sense, members of the faculty of a university or college are each other's colleagues; very often theword is taken to mean that. Sometimes colleague is taken to mean a fellow member of the same profession,(Wikipedia, 2009). The word college is sometimes construed broadly to mean a group of colleagues united in acommon purpose, According to the tenth edition of the Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (1993);collegiality is defined as “the relationship of colleagues”. In the real sense of it, collegiality can be interpretedas the state where co-workers in an organization treat each other equally and fairly like between faculty lecturersand academic librarians on one hand, and between the librarians and other support staff in the library. But itmust be realized that not all co-workers have the same power and authority as it is indicated in the dictionarydefinition. It would appear that, in many cases, individuals use the word collegiality to mean that all employeesshould be treated fairly as human beings regardless of their role in an organization. Different individuals mayhave different levels of power but everyone is entitled to being treated in a decent and fair manner.Collegiality can also be interpreted under the stricter definition as provided by the dictionary. In this case,collegiality only applies to individuals holding the same rank or point. In this case, collegiality for universityprofessors would only be applicable when dealing with other university professors. Similarly, collegiality for asecretary would only apply when dealing with secretaries. But this paper treats the concept of collegiality asone applicable to all individuals in the library and it will relate the concept to academic library staff toencompass the relationships between librarians, support staff, and student employees, and amongst members ofthe same group and later digress to collegiality between academic librarians vis-à-vis the faculty lecturers. King(2003) wrote about a method that fostered collegiality at Oregon State University’s Valley library. In thisinstance, the reference department decided to implement a cooperative reference desk scheduling routine. Inmost libraries, a single individual makes the reference desk schedule. But the ideal thing is for all members ofthe reference team to contribute to making the schedule each week. Although this could be time consuming, theinteraction generated by action in reaching a consensus on the schedule helped to bring people together. Thereis a library literature dealing with collegiality that does not only deal with the reference desk. Myers (1991)wrote about how strikes and labour unrest can destroy collegiality in a library. Even though the libraryadministration is rarely responsible for strikes on a campus (there are usually larger umbrella issues that get130

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009faculty or support staff to strike having nothing to do with the library). When eventually the strike ends, thefaculty librarians or support staff may hold grudges against each other and with management of the librarywhich is usually made up of the academic librarians. This makes it hard to be collegial. Myers (1991) alsowrote that “there is no winning in striking or being struck. There is anger and cessation of friendships. Someresume later, although altered. Some do not resume. Vitae are updated and mailed in random fashion. Weeach have lost something: knowledge, money, respect, etc.”It must be noted that most of the people who work in the libraries are not librarians. An academic library staff isgoing to include librarians (split between administrators and “frontline” librarians), support staff and studentemployees. At the Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria for instance,support staff alone outnumber the professional librarians not to mention the hoards of student employees,National Youth Service Corps members and students from library schools doing their industrial attachmentworks. However, it must be realized that collegiality must include all employees like academic librarians,library officers, library assistants and student employees if collegiality is going to exist in a library. There isalso a lot of overlap between the tasks that all the groups perform in a library, not surprisingly though; the moreprofessionally oriented duties are performed by librarians. However, support staffs also perform someprofessional tasks sometimes especially the library officers who are regarded as para-professional staff withtheir ordinary diploma in librarianship. The student employees perform most of the less desirable work such asbook shelving, but they are also forming the most viable and the first library employees that patrons see. Allthese groups of employees work at public service desk and to many patrons; all employees in a library arelibrarians. All these groups regularly interact with one another in many of the duties they perform daily.Resentment is probably most often felt by support staff towards librarians. Many may not feel they are treatedprofessionally by librarians, though this may be with some justifications. The support staff members may notpossess a master of library Science degree or a faculty rank, but they are investing forty (40) hours a week into ajob which is probably their career. They do many of the same tasks that librarians perform, yet they are paid lessand granted fewer opportunities to make decisions. Even they also feel being looked down upon or mistreatedby librarians, resentment and non-collegial behavior is probably going to follow. Student employees are lesslikely to feel this form of resentment. Their employment is transitory and most of them have no expectation ofmaking a career of working in libraries. They do not expect to be given significant decision makingopportunities and are content to perform the tasks assigned to them. Lorenzen (2006) pointed out that thestudent employees can be very sensitive to how they are treated if they believe that they are not appreciated.Hence their performance may suffer, and this can have a negative impact on the whole library. Ironically, it isoften the support staff employees who resent being taken for granted by librarians, who take their own studentemployees for granted. Without any shadow of doubt, it is crucial for a library staff to work together in aharmonious way. Collegiality must be extended to employees of all types not just the professional librariansalone. Support staffs, both in the academic library and faculties have just as much right to be treated collegiallyand they also should be expected to treat others collegially as well. This does not mean that roles of the threegroups need to be confused or merged. There are differences in jobs and expectations; hence there should beline of demarcation between the librarians and the support staff. However, all the groups can work togetherbetter if there is a common expectation of how to treat one another.Differences in collegiality between lecturers and librarians: Whither the university librarians?As earlier indicated, this paper digresses a little to have a cursory look at the differences that exist between thefaculty lecturers, that is, academic staff and the university librarians. In Nigeria, there are two schools ofthought between the academic staff and the professional librarians in the university setting. One school ofthought believes that university librarians should not be grouped as hundred percent (100%) university academicstaff while the other school believes that by the roles they perform in the university set-up, they are qualified tobe classified as academic staff and not a supporting staff as believed by the first group. In the introductory partof this paper, the academic roles and the importance of university librarians are well spelt out. At this juncture,one pertinent question that comes to mind is that, whither the university librarians? Can one really say thatuniversity librarians are academic staff? And is there any form of collegiality between the university librariansand faculty lecturers? To answer these questions, it is pertinent to realize that there exist areas of convergenceand to some extent areas of divergence in terms of roles specialization and performance. Although both may beranked together based on the same faculty models of titles for example, readers, professors, etc, and pay,collegiality impacts each group differently. This may be due to several factors including the expectations of thepublic and colleagues and in the differences in how their duties are carried out. To put it simply, everyoneexpects librarians to play well with others as Jones (1997) phrased it. According to Cohen, (2007) a collegiallibrarian is helpful, willing to pitch in, and cooperative. Such a person is skilled at collaboration and is a reliablemember of the team. If you're looking for a volunteer, a collegial librarian will step forward. A collegial131

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009librarian preserves the comfort level of colleagues. But this is not always the case with classroom based facultylecturers. Most people like a university professor who is easy to talk to and get along with. However, everyoneis equally familiar with the stereotypical professor who is knowledgeable, teaches well, is scholarly renown, andalso has an ego, the size of a small planet. And there is a level of acceptance for that kind of behavior inprofessors. Students, administrators are used to deal with this type of individual. This is not the case withlibrarians. No matter how well a librarian performs a job, how many degrees or awards he or she may have, orhow many publications are on his or her resume, the librarian is expected to have a humble attitude and to befree of any touch of arrogance. Being even the slightest bit egoistical is unacceptable for librarians who are seenin service roles on campus. Patrons, other professionals on campus and colleagues in the library will not acceptit. A classroom faculty member (particularly one with tenure) can be difficult and show an attitude and still beseen as making an effort at collegiality. This is not true with a librarian. Any indication of arrogance or selfservingbehavior by a librarian will lead to that person being labeled as not being collegial and marked as beinga problem by most people on campus.The second difference is the vastly different ways that most faculty members carry out their daily duties incontrast to how librarians work each day. The faculty members teaches three or four sections of courses, holdsoffice hours or tutorials with students, advises graduate students on theses and dissertations, conducts researchand writes papers, and attends meetings. With the exception of the meetings, the faculty member has the controlof the situation when teaching, advising and writing. Literally, the only contact that some faculty members havewith faculty in their own departments is at departmental meetings and in the hallway. This explains why manyfaculty members can exhibit non-collegial behaviours and the department is still able to function and carry outmost of its duties. This is simply not true in most academic libraries. The consequences resulting from a lack ofcollegiality are more severe due to how most libraries are structured and the way that librarians work in them.No matter what role a librarian performs in the library, the work is rarely entirely self-directed as pointed out byLorenzen (2006). All aspect of library work (reference assistance, collection development, circulation,cataloguing of materials, etc) is geared towards serving the public. The different aspects of this work all interrelateand this requires librarians to exhibit collegial behaviours such as consensus building, cooperation, andplaying well together. A single librarian acting in a non-collegial manner can derail the work of everydepartment in a library and bring himself to the attention of patrons and other library employees in a negativelight fairly quickly. By this it should be realized that collegiality is important in all places on campus.However, it is required much more in the library if libraries are going to perform their roles successfully.From the above analysis, and as far as collegiality is concerned, there are lines of demarcation betweenlibrarians and faculty members, hence, the university librarians cannot be 100% grouped as academic staff.There is no doubt that they perform different academic roles in carrying out their jobs and these roles requiredifferent levels of collegiality.Collegiality: an essential ingredient in academic librariesIt is not surprising that a lot of the literature on collegiality in libraries deal with reference services. Thereference desk and related services is a time and staff intensive endeavour. But it must be known that mostacademic libraries make use of librarians who work in other parts of the library. In addition to regular referencelibrarians, a variety of subject bibliographers, administrators and librarians with other duties often assist. Add tothis support staff and student employees, and the potential for conflict and misunderstanding become significant.As pointed out earlier, it must be realized that each section cannot exist in isolation, there should be some levelsof interconnectivity among each group or department. By this, collegiality in academic library becomesinevitable; hence, it is a reality which every university librarian must practice for the smooth running of thelibrary. Collegiality must be introduced by decentralizing tasks, rotating in new employees and working oncooperative project such as book weeding. With this analysis, one can conclude that collegiality in academiclibrary is not a myth but a reality for the academic development of the library and the university as a whole. Forcollegiality to work successfully in academic library, the library manager should create an environmentconducive for effectively working together which can be regarded as first step for collegiality. This can includepromoting trust, increasing job satisfaction, making sure that everyone is included and helping librarians withunique strengths, using them when appropriate. Most importantly, the supervisor or librarian must promote thegolden rule and this is why the title of this paper, “Collegiality in Academic Library” is very appropriate. But itmust be realized that there are several pitfalls that should be avoided if we want collegiality to be verysuccessful in academic library. One of this is lack of communication which precludes maximum performance ina team; others include competitiveness, emotional conflict versus non-emotional conflict which is okay,dictatorial supervision, envy and burnout. Finally, a lack of rewards for contributing to a collegial atmospherecan also be problematic as librarians often need positive reinforcement to work collegially if they are not used toworking in that way.132

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009together can be arranged for staff as this will afford them to come together and interact and discuss variousissues that may enhance efficiency and effectiveness in the library services. Being an authoritative leader: An authoritative leader leads by example and explains every actiontaken, therefore library managers should endeavour not to be authoritarian in the leadership. Whenpunishment is necessary, justice should be tempered with mercy. It is not every time that the big stick iswielded by the leader, so library managers should show a little bit of kindness as this will surely engendercollegiality among staff and consequently good job performance among the workers.CONCLUSIONA popular proverb says, “united we stand, divided we fall”. This proverb is very appropriate to the subjectmatter of this paper which is collegiality in academic library. It must be realized that no group or department inan academic library can exist in isolation. Collegiality is important due to the interconnected work library staffperforms and the complications varying levels of staff create. At this juncture, one can ask how then shouldlibrary leaders promote collegiality in the academic library? It is possible to suggest several ways thatcollegiality could be encouraged in the library. These include the decentralizing tasks, rotating of newemployees and working on cooperative projects such as book weeding. This method can help introducecollegiality in a reference department. There is no reason why these ideas could not be translated library-wide.For instance, it would be possible for a library to involve all departments in the training of new staff. While theemploying unit would provide most of the training, the new staff could then rotate to other departments wherethey could be instructed in the basics of what the unit does and how they rely on people in others parts of libraryto get the job done. Although, this could be easiest to conduct with librarians and support staff as they are hiredless frequently, it could also be done with student employees. Another idea which can encourage collegiality inthe library is the possibility of involving a large portion of the library staff in cooperative tasks as well. Thereare many areas of library work like catalogue maintenance, customer service and collection development thatdraw on the expertise of library staff in different departments and of different levels. For example, the entirestaff could be involved in planning and conducting university library week activities. In this scenario, a largegroup could be brought together representing different parts of the library. As the tasks are broken down, manyof the significant and visible roles could be given to support staff and student employees as well as librarians.Each group and individuals will see themselves contributing to the total development of the library and this willcertainly promote collegiality among the staffs of various departments in the library.It is the duty of the university librarian and library management which is made up by professional librarians toencourage several ideas to promote collegiality. These include promoting trust, increasing job satisfaction,making sure that everyone is included, and helping librarians with unique strengths to use them whenappropriate. It must be realized that promoting trust in a library is a difficult task, it is not something that anyone administrator can decide to fix one day, have a staff-wide project and expect that trust has been gained bythe library staff. It is something that will have to be worked on. The university librarian will have to model itby proving to the staff that he/she is trustworthy. The university librarian will also have to insist that all libraryadministrators will act in a trustworthy manner which will inspire faith and confidence in them from the librarystaff. The management must realize that library staffs unsatisfied with their jobs can cause problems. They aremore apt to lash out at others and behave in ways that decrease collegiality. This problem can be solved bychanging jobs of staff members so that it is more meaningful to the person.Finally, it is very important for library manager to encourage the idea of acting professionally to all library staff.It must be realized that not everyone who works in a library is a professional librarian. However, all librarystaff can act professionally. In addition, all library staffs are expected to be treated professionally.134

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009REFERENCESAguolu, I.E., (1996) Nigerian university libraries: What future? International Information and LibraryReview. 28(3).Anafulu, Joseph C. (1996) The university library and the university administration. Library Bulletin:Nigerian University Library System. Vol. 1, No. 1, pp.10.Cohen, Laura (2007) What Price Collegiality? Accessed 12/03/09 from:http://liblogs.albany.edu/library20/2007/03/what_price_collegiality.htmlJones, D. (1997) Play well with others, or the importance of collegiality in a reference unit. ReferenceLibrarian, 59, 163-175.King, V., (2003) Cooperative reference desk scheduling and its effects on professional collegiality.Reference Librarian, 83/84, 97-118.Lister, L. (2003) Reference services in the context of library culture and collegiality: tools for keepinglibraries on the same page. Reference Librarian, 83/84, 33-39.Lorenzen, Michael (2006) Collegiality and academic library.Special Librarianship. Vol. 7, No. 2.Electronic Journal of Academic andMish, F. (1993) Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary, tenth edition. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.Myers, J. (1991) There are no winners in a library strike. American Libraries, 22. 170.Ogunsola, L.A. (1999) Obstacles to library development in Nigerian Universities.Curriculum Studies and Development, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 29-39.Ife Journal ofStone, G. (2004) Censoring voices too critical of critical thinking courses, collegiality, civility, and thegeneral was against negativity. Journal of Information Ethics. 13(1), 9-13.Wikipedia (2009) Definition of collegiality Accessed 12/03/09 from:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collegiality135

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationWORKING ENVIRONMENT OF CATALOGUERS: AN INVESTIGATIVE RESEARCHOF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES IN SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA*Christiana Olufunmilayo Aderinto (Mrs.) and **Sunday Olurotimi Obadare*The Chief Cataloguer**The Circulation LibrarianHezekiah Oluwasanmi LibraryObafemi Awolowo UniversityIle-Ife, Osun State*E-mail address for correspondence : aderinto2@yahoo.com________________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : The paper highlights the importance of cataloguing department as the hub of the library despite the advent ofinformation technology. It becomes imperative therefore for the environment where cataloguing services are beingrendered to be conducive not only for personal comfort but also for intellectual development of the professionallibrarians to enable them churn out learned research papers that will uplift them in terms of promotion in order to avertdeclining productivity or a total dissatisfaction with their job. To that effect, some motivational factors or variables oncataloguers’ academic publishing were investigated.The paper concludes that separate offices should be provided for professional librarians and that they should not bestationary but rotated among all the departments in the library so that they can be empowered in their chosen profession.________________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONCataloguing refers to the process of preparing catalogue entries for all materials that are available in the library. Theseinformation materials include books, manuscripts, journals, floppy disk, DVD, CD ROMS, audio visual materials suchas micro forms (i.e. microfilms, microfiches and micro cards), digitals materials, motion pictures, sound recording,graphic materials, and cartographic materials etc.Cataloguing environment is regarded as the department where organization, processing, subject analyses and intellectualactivities of all the library materials mentioned above are implemented. Through the process of cataloguing,cataloguers are able to individualize each material acquired by the library, by giving them a unique number for properidentification and thus, provide an access point for each. These materials are large in numbers and are of differentnature on various disciplines. According to Aina (2004) “if there were no prior organization of objects, it would bedifficult to retrieve a particular object from among the various objects in the collection when needed”. Organization,cataloguing and classification are therefore seen as the major activities of cataloguers in cataloguing workingenvironment.Information Communication Technology relates significantly with cataloguing process. For this reason, cataloguingdepartment environment is very relevant in this technological age as it is responsible for creation and maintenance of137

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009The assessed needs and aspirations are also dependent on individual objective, social and economic attributes if theexisting situations of the cataloguers’ environment are incongruence with (a reasonable portion of the referenceconditions, an effective state of satisfaction is manifested). There is also the possibility that, the current environmentalvariable when evaluated is discovered to have fallen short of the reference situation to a degree of deficiency. In otherword, there is a gap between the aspirations construct and what the environmental attributes offer (Afon 2004)If, and when this happens, two reactions are possible. On the first hand, Cataloguers may attempt to reconcileincongruence by adaptation. This implies that needs have to be defined and modified resulting in the generation to loworder aspiration. McShare Steven L. and Mary Ann von Glinow (2000) are of the opinion that job satisfactionrepresents a person’s evaluation of his or her job, work environment and context. It is an appraisal of the perceived jobcharacteristics and emotional experiences at work. Satisfied employees have a favorable evaluation of their job, basedon their observations and emotional experiences. Job satisfaction is really a collection of attitudes about specific facetsof the job elements that employees can be satisfied with, while simultaneously dissatisfied with others. Differenttypes of satisfaction will lead to different types of intentions and behavior. Overall job satisfaction is a combination ofthe persons feeling towards the different facets of their job. It is a fact that employees with higher level of jobsatisfaction, particularly satisfaction with work itself, are less likely to quit their jobs, absent from work and experiencemental or physical health problem. Joining a labour union and going on strike often result from dissatisfaction with payand condition of service. This is synonymous with a dictum “Happy workers are productive workers”. People haveunique values and experiences, so they react while looking for employment elsewhere. Moreover, task performancedepends on a person’s ability and resources not just work effort. Task performance for cataloguers is mandatory as dailystatistics is compulsory and required. Provision for self development and research is currently encouraged. Jobsatisfaction would have little short term effort in jobs where employers are responsible for automated processes such asa bottling plant or petrochemical process which is similar to the nature of cataloguing processes. Whereas, in academiclibrary that is service oriented, job satisfaction is a necessary factor for productivity, that is, library clientele are to enjoymaximum satisfaction in terms of accessibility to materials and personal services, more importantly, availability ofcurrent and relevant materials on various disciplines in the card catalogue and on the shelves which is the end result ofcataloguers’ work.Employee satisfaction in cataloguing environment is associated with users’ satisfaction for two reasons. First, jobsatisfaction affects a person’s general mood. Employees who are in a good mood are more likely to communicatefriendliness and positive feelings towards other staff, and library clientele. This will go a long way to enhancecataloguers work flow or process and also strengthens their academic research work. For this reasons, Gonipati (2003)opined that satisfaction of the personnel which is the key to good library administration is also a factor in efficientadministration. Therefore good job satisfaction will affect cataloguers’ morale and job performance. Secondly,satisfied employees are less likely to quit their jobs. This allows libraries to provide more consistent service. Therebybacklog in cataloguing is reduced to barest minimum. Job satisfaction is “sine qua non” for productivity and as suchevery effort should be made to make workers happy so that they perform very well in there job. Inversely ifmanagement of any institution fails to make workers comfortable on their jobs such organization may not experienceprogress and stability. This assertion is corroborated by Olusemore (2006) while commenting on the indicators ofcustomer dissatisfaction in banks in Nigeria. He posited that when customers begin to experience delays in attending tocustomers in the various departments such as corporate banking, international operation and funds transfer; this could bea source of dissatisfaction to customer. It is apt to state that such scenario can equally be experienced in an environmentthat is not conducive to the librarians. Delay in book processing could be as a result of uncondusive workingenvironment.Furthermore the humanistic school of administration which emerged in the 1950s and pioneered by such people as ChrisArgyris, Douglas McGregor, and Rensis Likert took a more humanitarian approach to the whole administrative problemby stipulating that people work best and utilize their abilities when meeting goal of the individual is acknowledged.They assert that this will only make the organization itself more productive (Berkley 1981). Cataloguing environmentshould reflect this so that productivity as a goal is achieved for the employee as well as library as an organization.Cataloguers are carrying out the main mission of a library as an organization in all the tertiary institutions in Nigeria andworld at large. The technical system environment in library maintains, supports, and keeps the organization functioningand helps it adjust to the new factors and forces.As the nature of the cataloguing environment is activity oriented that require immediate result; only a cataloguer whobelieves in what he is doing and feels highly committed will substantially perform and at the same time expect rewardfor his professional involvement and conduct scholastic research, leading to satisfaction and self actualization. Inapplying Abraham M. Maslow hierarchy of needs to cataloguing environment in Libraries, Berkley (1981) and Lewis(2006) explained that certain needs; such as physical needs, social and emotional needs, safety or security needs must be139

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009met before an employee performs well on the job. In this manner, satisfaction is achieved by an employee when he firstgratifies physical needs. Once that one is met, then safety or security needs followed and so on up the ladder. Fulfillingthese primary needs a cataloguer could then settle on the job and concentrate on research work. When the basics ofcataloguing and classification are mastered then the higher needs of research could be met. However, the observation isthat no amount of material processed without research work can earn a cataloguer promotion. While promotion forother colleagues in different environment outside cataloguing is rapid, because they are not encumbered withcataloguing routine. This study is concerned with the extent to which working environment of cataloguers in academiclibraries in South Western Nigeria motivates cataloguers’ performance, enhance their professional development andpromote scholastic publication.METHODOLOGYThe sample population for the study consists of 50 cataloguers who are professional librarians randomly selected fromsome university libraries in Southwestern Nigeria. A 38 item questionnaire titled “Cataloguers Working EnvironmentQuestionnaire (CWEQ)” on problems faced by Cataloguers in their working environment in academic library wasdistributed to selected librarians in eleven universities in Southwestern Nigeria for data collection. Different types ofinstitutions such as state university libraries, university of technology libraries, university of agriculture libraries andfederal university libraries were represented in the data collections. The 38 items on CWEQ consisted of two parts; thefirst part contained the respondent’s socio-demographic data while part two consisted of thirty three structuredquestions. These were rated by the respondents as often, occasionally, never, none, large extent, minimal, very lowextent, high, very high, satisfactory, not satisfactory and simple yes or no. They were personally administered at eachof the institutions and were collected back on the spots. Hence, a 100% of the questionnaire were duly completed andreturned for data analysis.Data collated were edited coded and transferred into computer readable format and the statistical package for SocialScience (SPSS) version 11.0 was used to edit the data and to run the analysis with descriptive statistics140

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Data AnalysisTable 1: Distribution of Respondents by Some Selected Socio-demographic Characteristics.Socio-demographic characteristicsFrequencyN = 50 %Level of EducationDoctoral DegreeMaster’s DegreeBachelor Degree834816.068.016.0SexMaleFemale302060.040.0DesignationLibrarian IILibrarian ISenior LibrarianPrincipal Librarian161291332.024.018.026.0Schedule of Duties and ResponsibilitiesCataloguingCataloguing and acquisitionManagement of material and reporting system374974.08.018.0Years of experience in the duties/responsibilities2 years5 years7 years9 years10 years and above129442124.018.08.08.042.0The percentage distribution of respondents by some selected socio-demographic characteristics is presented in Table1.The pattern of distribution of respondents by levels of education showed that the level of education among sampledcataloguer was quite high. A small proportion of the respondents had Bachelor Degree (16.0%) and Doctorate Degree(16. 0%). While 68.0% had Master’s Degree. On the whole, respondents with Master’s and Doctoral Degreeconstituted 84 percent of the sampled population. The distribution by gender revealed that 60.0% of the respondentswere male while 40.0% were female. On the issue of designation, the table revealed respondents’ designation asfollows: Librarian II (32.0%), Librarian I (24.0%), Principal Librarian (26.0%) and Senior Librarian (18.0 %). Themajority of the cataloguer in the sampled population was among the Librarian II and Principal Librarian.With regard to respondents’ schedule of duties and responsibilities, the table showed that almost three out of fourcataloguers engaged purely in cataloguing (74.0%). While (8.0%) combined cataloguing with acquisition. In addition,18.0% of them claimed to be involved in management of material and reporting system. An examination of the years ofexperience on the job shows 18.0% had five years of experience on the job, 8.0% had seven years, and nine years while42.0% had more than ten years experience.141

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Table 2: Distribution of Respondents by Research Activities they performed as Cataloguer.Academic/Research activities Frequency N = 50 PercentageAdministrative/ManagementYesNoTeaching/LecturingYesNoWriting research activitiesYesNoStudying and researchingYesNoConsultancy servicesYesNoAttending WorkshopYesNoMonitoring institutions’ and departments’ performanceYesNoCoordinating research/group activitiesYesNoPresenting papers at conferences/seminarsYesNoDeveloping research projects/curriculaYesNoWriting proposalsYesNoPeer ReviewingYesNoTable 2 showed percentage distribution of respondents by academic/research activities they performed as cataloguer. Asshown above, 60.0 percent of respondents claimed to engage in administrative/management activities, 68.0% in14230203416500.038125028500.08428423020842222894160406832100.00.076244456100.00.016.084.016.084.0604016.084.044.056.018.082.0

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009teaching/lecturing, 76.0% in studying/researching, 44.0% in consulted services, 60.0% in paper presentation atconferences/seminars and 44.0% in proposals writing. All the respondents claimed to emerge in research work andregular workshop attendance. Less than 20.0% of the respondents claimed to engage in each of all other activities, mostespecially in matters concerning research activities.Table 3: Distribution of Respondents according to some selected characteristics.Distribution of Item Frequency (N = 50) (100) PercentageResearch Activities carried out5429178.058.034.0How often do you publishOftenOccasionallyNeverNumber of PublicationsNone10Books/articles co-authored/publishedNone51234417169824.068.08.034.032.018.016.01329826.058.016.0Kind of research activities in progress in journal papers 50 100.0Frequency of writing/publishingEvery year2 years interval3-5 yearsHelp indigenous form in publishingLarge extentMinimalVery low extentNot satisfactory251788294950.034.016.016.058.08.018.0Categories/audience of publicationsLocalContinentalLocal and continentalLocal and globalGlobal, continental and local1241391224.08.026.018.024.0Rotation of section as aid to publication 50 100.0According to Table 3, all respondents had participated in research activities. However, 58.0% claimed to have carriedout at least two research activities. While 34.0% indicated that they had carried out at least five research activities.Distribution of respondents by frequency of publication showed that 68.0% published occasionally, 24.0% often and8.0% had not taken part in publication. On the kind of research activities in progress, all the respondents indicated thatthey were preparing papers for publication in the journal. Half of the respondents (50.0%) published every year, 34.0%published every two years. On whether they received help from indigenous firm as regarding publishing, almost 60.0%claimed to receive minimal support. In respect of rotation of section as aid to publication all respondents agreed to alarge extent.143

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Table 4: Distribution of Respondents according to the extent of selected motivational factors on scholarlypublishing around cataloguing environments.Motivational Factors Frequency (N = 50) (100) PercentageAvailability of necessary informationVery lowLowHighVery High39201316.018.040.026.0Publishing as a must provisionVery lowLowHighVery HighSabbatical leaveNot sureVery lowLowHighChallenges of colleaguesNot sureVery lowLowHighVery HighDemand for paper presentation in workshop, seminars and conferencesVery lowLowHighVery HighPersonal challenge and dense to publishVery lowHighVery HighEnvironmental conditions in cataloguing sectionVery lowLowHighNature of cataloguing processesNot sureVery lowHighStaffing in cataloguing sectionVery lowLowHighNeeds for international recognitionsVery lowLowHighDesire to sell discoveries/findings to otherVery lowLowHighVery HighDesire to make profit via publicationsVery lowLowHighDesire to contribute to knowledge and developmentVery lowHighVery HighQuestions were asked on motivational factors that encourage scholarly publishing and cataloguing process. Theresponses to the questions were presented in Table 4. The distribution revealed that 40.0% of the sampled populationwas highly encouraged by the availability of necessary information while 26.0% claimed to be very highly encouragedby the same factor. A little more than one third of the respondents indicated that they were very highly encouraged dueto compulsion attached to publishing. Sabbatical leave was an important factor in scholarly publication and cataloguing14441613178492945421164168228212113251249371226128375129245171320428188.032.026.034.016.08.018.058.08.010.08.042.032.08.032.016.044.016.042.042.02650248.018.064.024.052.024.016.074.010.024.018.048.010.08.056.036.08.056.036.0

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009process. Majority of the respondents (58.0%) claimed to be highly influenced by sabbatical leave. Moreover, 50.0%indicated that the environmental condition in cataloguing section gave them low motivation towards scholarlypublishing and cataloguing process. Similar claimed were made as regards staffing the cataloguing section (52.0%).However, the need for international recognition had highly encouraged scholarly publishing and cataloguing process.The respondents who claimed to be motivated by this factor were almost one third of t he sampled population (74.0%).DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONThe study revealed that those factors the cataloguers struggled with in their working environments affected performancein research activity in all areas such as in number of publications, how often the research activities were carried out, etc.Publishing as a must provision for academic promotion was seeing as a very great challenge. Challenges of rapidpromotion of colleagues in other departments in the library serve as motivating factors for publishing. But forCataloguing environment, there is no privacy and flexibility for publishing. It was revealed that cataloguers’environmental condition rated low as motivational factors on scholarly publishing. Therefore cataloguing environmentmust promote satisfaction through the infrastructure and standards of the workplace. The structural and hierarchicalorientation of the working environment requires flexibility for publication. Boredom and rigidity as seen in the natureof the daily activities must give way to flexibility, hence achievable and realistic statistics should be set for cataloguers.The need for international recognition is another motivational factor for foreign publication. In an environment whereacademic staff rated low in all libraries consulted it is recommended that cataloguing staff need to be increased toreduce backlog of books and work load; as cataloguers workloads were very distressing. The workloads disturbpublishing both at working hour and after due to fatigue and stress experienced on job. The individual sense ofperformance, well-being and identity as professional librarian and academic staff need be restored through rotationalmethod. The research shows all respondent favour rotation of staff from one section to another. This is revealed asrespondents are all satisfied with monitoring activities and departments’ performance activities, consultancy services asin circulation and references or reader services and other diversity of job responsibilities. Rotational method should beintroduced to aid both research work and cataloguing work; so that professional librarians would be fully equipped andversatile with all areas of library routines. In addition to this, professional librarians could be asked to spend at leasttwo hours every morning for cataloguing work since they are all taught the rudiments of cataloguing in the university.This is the practice in some university library in the southern part of the country. This idea would reduce backlog ofbooks and make materials available for users very fast.Information age mandates cataloguers to process materials urgently, adequately and qualitatively. Cataloguers are inthe position of making meaningful decision for its immediate community and the world at large. The online Cataloguingand cataloguing on the web has improved cataloguers’ work. Books and other materials are processed faster usingappropriate software. Therefore, computerization of cataloguing process is necessary for all cataloguing department inall libraries.RECOMMENDATIONThe library management may desire to partition the cataloguing section for every cataloguer, in a situation whereseparate office is not possible. This will at least provide some privacy and motivate them to work. However thisapproach should be viewed as an interim measure. The permanent solution is to assign some of the carrels in the libraryto them as office. Under this arrangement the cataloguing section will be used as a laboratory while research will bedone in the offices. In a modern library building offices are embedded within the cataloguing department to promoteprivacy and scholarly publication. In addition to this, staff publication can be increased through joint authorship andmentorship. Cataloguers should be able to collaborate on topical issues relevant to their area of research and tolibrarianship in general. Also, senior colleagues should be consulted for possible assistance and mentoring in order tobe well tutored on the nitty-gritty of academic. This becomes imperative because of the pivotal role of research in anacademic setting. Cataloguers have major roles to play in the library and their working environment must be conducivefor research. Research has been defined as a studious inquiry or examination, especially involving investigation or145

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009experimentation aimed at discovering and interpreting facts, revising accepted theories or laws (Akingbohungbe, 2008).This definition presupposes that for any serious enquiry or investigation to take place, the environment should be devoidof any distraction such as noise making, lack of privacy, hot environment and the likes. Provision of generating plantfor regular electricity supply is mandatory for cataloguing environment for fast processing of all materials on-line or onthe internet.REFRENCESAfon, A. O. (2004) Residents’ satisfaction index in selective rehabilitation of an urban core residential area inOgbomoso, Oyo State, Journal of the NIPT, VOL. XVII, NO.1.Afon, A. O. (1998) Master plan preparation: a theoretical framework on the factor of resident Perception data. Masterplanning approach to physical development: the Nigerian experience. Edited by Ilesanmi, F. A. Yola:Paraclete Publishers, Pp. 66-75.Aina, L. O. (2004) Library and information science text for Africa.- Ibadan: Third WorldBerkley, George E. (1981) The Craft of Public Administration.- 3 rd ed.- Boston, Allyn and Bacon. Pp. 59.Danskin, A. (2007) “Tomorrow never knows”: the end of cataloguing? Journal of the International Federation ofAssociation and Institutions (IFLA) vol. 33, No. 3.Eyitayo, S. A. (1996) “Micro CDS/ISIS: an automation option for developing country’s libraries and informationcenters”. Paper presented at the Workshop on Automated Cataloguing and the New Technology inLibraries and Information Centers. Kano: Nigeria Library Association: Cataloguing and ClassificationSection. Pp. 1.Gonipati, B. R. (2003). Human resources development in libraries. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications. Pp. 313.Lewis, G. (2006) Organizational crisis management: the human Factor. Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach Publications. Pp 1-22.Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2005) 4 th ed.- Edinburgh Gate, England: Pearson Education. Pp. 523.Mcshane, S. L. and Glinow, M. A. V. (2000) Organizational behaviour. Boston, Irwin McGraw – Hill. Pp. 200-223.Olusemore, (2006) Customer satisfaction in banks: concept and measurement. Union Digest. vol.10, nos. 1&2. JunePp 23-25.Van Reenen, Johann (2009) Librarians at work: are we as satisfied as other American workers? http: //hdl.handle.net/1928/1738. Pp 1-6.Akingbohungbe, A. E. (2008) “Academic publication in learned journal: the essence and the involvement”. A keynoteAddress presented at the First University Research Committee Workshop to Aid Publications in LearnedJournals, Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University, Pp. 1. (UNPUBLISHED ARTICLE)146

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationA STUDY OF DICIPLINE FACILITIES PATRONAGE AMONG LIBRARY USERSAT THE HEZEKIAH OLUWASANMI LIBRARY, OBAFEMI AWOLOWOUNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, NIGERIAJagboro, K. O. (Mrs.)Principal LibrarianHezekiah Oluwasanmi Library,Obafemi Awolowo University,Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.Mobile phone: 08034747878E-mail address for correspondence: kojagboro@yahoo.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract:Objective: The Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library uses the Library of Congress Classification Scheme to organizeits collection. The Scheme provides for subject-based classification facilitating subject-based shelving andhence subject/discipline-based reading rooms. It is expected that users will read/study in the reading roomswhere the books for their disciplines are shelved. This study was aimed at discovering the degree of compliancewith this concept and the level of migratory behavior if it exists. In this regard, the objective of this study was todetermine the levels of utilization of reading space by patrons.Method: In this study, multiple choice questionnaires were used for capturing relevant information from therespondents. 400 questionnaires were distributed, out of which 325 were returned and 321 questionnaires werefound useful for the analysis; which was 80.25% success rate of total questionnaire distributed. Additionally,this number also accounted for 12.84% of sitting capacity available in the Library.Result: The result of the study established an average of 30.32% Core discipline patronage and 29.28%migratory discipline patronage of reading rooms among library patrons. It also showed 65% total patronage ofreading rooms and 35% patronage of research/special collections. An overall core discipline patronage of65.32% in HOL was also established.Conclusion: In conclusion, the philosophy of discipline facilities provision and patronage was found suitableand workable in Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library.Key Words: Core discipline patronage, Migratory discipline patronage, Discipline facility provision__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) is a comprehensive public institution established in 1962 as TheUniversity of Ife. The University is situated on a vast expanse of land totaling 11,861 hectares in Ile-Ife, OsunState, Southwest of Nigeria (OAU website, 2008). OAU which started with a student population of 244 now hasover 30,000 students. The Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library (HOL), serving the information needs of theUniversity, began operation in 1962 at the inception of the university. It consists of two five-story buildings, theSouth and North wings. The South wing was designed to house 250,000 volumes and sit 800 readers while theNorth wing extension had a capacity for 500,000 volumes and sit 1,700 readers. The Library has a total sittingcapacity of 2,500 readers. (HOL Website, 2008).The HOL is equipped with six reading rooms listed as B to G where books that could be borrowed are shelvedby subject following the Library of Congress classification scheme. Reading room B is stocked with books withclass marks A-F; Reading room C contains books with class marks G-J; Reading room D which used to houseClass K (Law; though in HOL the Moys scheme is used) is currently housing the Documents collection. Books149

with class marks L-P are shelved in Reading room E; Reading room F houses classes Q-Z while Reading roomG is now home to the Law collection. Aside the reading rooms, there are special collections which also containreading spaces. The special collections in HOL include Reference/Bibliography collection, Africana collection,Documents collection, Serials and Day Reserve collection (HOL, 1989). Fig. 1 shows the layout of a typicalreading room.Fig. 1: One side of a typical reading room at HOL [Usually consist of two sides with shelves in-between]As Crawford (1999) asserts “Space use within libraries has always been fairly complex and will become moreso in the future.” He identified the following space needs and uses by libraries: Meeting spaces, Study spaces,Reading spaces, Research spaces, Coherent spaces and Flexible spaces. While not discussing Stack or Shelvingspace, he acknowledged “it isn’t going away” and constitute one of the reasons why Libraries will continue toneed more physical space in future. This study is concerned with reading/study space which encompasses study,reading and research spaces as identified above.It is generally believed in library circles that users will undertake their study activities in the reading roomswhere the books for their relevant disciplines are shelved. This will facilitate access to and use of the books inthe reading rooms by the core disciplines users. In the context of this study, core discipline users are users whopatronize their Faculty-based reading rooms while migrant users are users who do not patronize their Facultybasedreading rooms. Migrant users tend to deprive the core discipline users of access to reading/study spaceand relevant resource materials.This study was hinged on the philosophy of libraries providing facilities for stratified users in which Sciencestudents are expected to patronize Science-based Reading Rooms, while Art-based students patronize Art-basedReading Rooms. The focus of this paper was to examine the suitability and workability of this concept amongHOL users. The objective of this study was to evaluate the degree of compliance with this postulate and thelevel of migratory behavior.LITERATURE REVIEWFew works have been undertaken in the area of space utilization in Libraries especially in the area ofreading/study spaces. In developing countries, little or no research work has been documented to act as a basisfor policy formulation in stocking of books. Klein (1977) examined shelving space utilization in Hospitallibraries with space shortages. He examined shelving spaces extensively and also touched on sitting spacesgiving several alternative solutions. As regards sitting space shortages, the introduction of carrels in everyusable and available space was suggested. Hall (1979) in his research on Library Space Utilization measuredactivity or spatial relationships between functional divisions within the library using a computerized technique.His methodology demonstrated that significant information about functional requirements of a library can bemeasured and displayed in quantitative and graphic forms. He concluded that such an output could provide abehavioral analysis of the library environment based on actual observation.Crawford (1999) identified a natural connection between libraries and study, even if library materials were notinvolved. Libraries, for generations, have provided safe havens for those who cannot study effectively at homeor in their dormitories. Provision of spaces for study, reading and quiet contemplations, and research remained a150

major service offered by the library. Settings for group study and individual research would continue to beessential especially in Academic libraries. Librarians and library supporters were enjoined to make the case foreffective use of library spaces and this is what this study is attempting to do.McMaster University Libraries (2004) conducted a research into the use of public space in Mills, Innis andThode libraries. The findings showed that most users in Mills and Innis typically spent 2-5 hours in the librarywhile most users in Thodes spent over 10 hours. Furthermore there was high level of preference forindividualized study in Mills and Innis libraries. The reverse was the case at the Thodes library with preferencefor group study. Among the issues raised by respondents on space and preferences were lack of sitting areas atMills, the need for more comfortable chairs at Innis and a desire for more group work facility /replacement ofworn–out chairs in carrels in Thode library.The Library of Congress (2008) moved its European Reading Room to a new home described as “A SunnySpace” all in the quest to improve its services to the users of the collection and provide a more conduciveenvironment to its patrons. A prior study into reader usage enabled the Library determine which reference booksto house on the shelves in the new reading room. While this study tried to establish the current patron usage ofHezekiah Oluwasanmi Library reading rooms, future research into the causal factors and re-positioning of thereadings room for more effective usage would be necessary.METHODOLOGYIn this study, multiple choice questionnaires were used for capturing relevant information from the respondents.400 questionnaires were distributed, out of which 325 were returned. After careful selection, based on thecompleteness of responses, 321 questionnaires were found useful for the analysis; which was 80.25% successrate of total questionnaire distributed. Additionally, this number also accounted for 12.84% of sitting capacityavailable in the Library. The target was to capture responses from Undergraduate and Postgraduate students ofall disciplines. Academic staff and other users were excluded in this study.A typical study/reading table contains two rows of seats and for the purpose of this study; questionnaire wasadministered to the first person on each row of a table in each reading room at the same period of time. Allrooms with reading/studying spaces were covered.Biographical InformationDATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONOut of the 321 questionnaires analyzed, 192 (59.8%) respondents were male while 129 (40.2%) were female.This percentage distribution of male to female respondents when compared with the overall goal of genderbalance in admission requirement showed that there was no gender bias in patron usage of library facilities.Another biographical factor considered was the age range of respondents. The age range showed that most ofthe respondents (56.4%) were within 20 -24 years age bracket. Others were 25-29 years (29.9%), 15-19 years(8.4%) and 30 years and above (5.3%). This is also in line with new age trends among universityundergraduates.Classification of respondents by their level of study was shown in Table 1. The highest no of respondents werein their third year of study in a four or five year degree program. It showed that most of the respondents werewell acquainted with the library configuration and facilities.151

Table 1: Classification of respondents by level of study Level of studyFrequency Percent Valid PercentCumulativePercentValid Part 1 64 19.9 19.9 19.9Part 2 72 22.4 22.4 42.4Part 3 98 30.5 30.5 72.9Part 4 53 16.5 16.5 89.4Part 5 & Extra 17 5.3 5.3 94.7PG 17 5.3 5.3 100.0Total 321 100.0 100.0Table 2 described the respondents by their Faculties. The University has eleven Faculties and respondents werespread across all the Faculties with Social Sciences having the highest percentage (19.3%).Table 2: Classification of Respondents by Faculties Faculty of studiesFrequency Percent Valid PercentCumulativePercentValid Admin. 59 18.4 18.4 18.4Agric 13 4.0 4.0 22.4Art 28 8.7 8.7 31.2Edm 11 3.4 3.4 34.6Educ 12 3.7 3.7 38.3H/Sciences 15 4.7 4.7 43.0Law 31 9.7 9.7 52.6Pharm. 10 3.1 3.1 55.8Science 38 11.8 11.8 67.6Soc. Sci. 62 19.3 19.3 86.9Tech 42 13.1 13.1 100.0Total 321 100.0 100.0In order to give a picture of respondents by their faculties in conformity with subject based classification in theReading Room setting in the library, respondents faculties were recoded into five broad groups as shown inTable 3.Table 3: Classification of Respondents by their reading room-based Faculty recode Faculty recodeFrequency Percent Valid PercentCumulativePercentValid Arts 28 8.7 8.7 8.7Social Sciences 132 41.1 41.1 49.8Education & Languages 12 3.7 3.7 53.6Science-based faculties 118 36.8 36.8 90.3Law 31 9.7 9.7 100.0Total 321 100.0 100.0152

Evaluating Core Discipline and Migratory patronage:A key question in this study was designed to test the respondents knowledge of their presently location in theLibrary. The outcome of this question is as shown in Table 4. Cross matching this result with the discipline andits appropriate reading room, it was possible to compute the percentage values of core discipline patronage andmigratory patronage as indicated in Figure 2. It should be noted that the main focus of this research was toevaluate the compliance level of core discipline patronage and determine level of migratory patronage. Table 4revealed 65.1% total patronage of all reading rooms and 34.9% patronage of research/special collection areas. Itcould be gathered from Figure 2 that inflow of users into a particular reading room spread across all otherreading rooms. There was therefore a cross fertilization of one reading room from patrons of other readingrooms.Table 4: Level of Migration from Book Location Faculty recode * In which room are you currentlyreading? Cross tabulationFacultyrecodeIn which room are you currently reading?Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading Reading Reference Dayroom B room C room D room E room F room G room Reserve Africana Serials TotalArts Count 4 5 0 5 1 1 4 5 2 1 28SocialSciences%withinFacultyrecode14.3% 17.9% .0% 17.9% 3.6% 3.6% 14.3% 17.9% 7.1% 3.6% 100.0%Count 16 36 2 7 15 7 7 14 10 18 132%withinFacultyrecode12.1% 27.3% 1.5% 5.3% 11.4% 5.3% 5.3% 10.6% 7.6% 13.6% 100.0%Education Count 2 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 1 3 12Sciencebasedfaculties%withinFacultyrecode16.7% .0% .0% 8.3% 8.3% 8.3% 8.3% 16.7% 8.3% 25.0% 100.0%Count 8 16 9 12 22 13 14 12 5 7 118%withinFacultyrecode6.8% 13.6% 7.6% 10.2% 18.6% 11.0% 11.9% 10.2% 4.2% 5.9% 100.0%Law Count 4 2 1 0 2 16 2 2 0 2 31%withinFacultyrecode12.9% 6.5% 3.2% .0% 6.5% 51.6% 6.5% 6.5% .0% 6.5% 100.0%Total Count 34 59 12 25 41 38 28 35 18 31 321%withinFacultyrecodeColour codeNo / % No/% of users reading where their books areshelved10.6% 18.4% 3.7% 7.8% 12.8% 11.8% 8.7% 10.9% 5.6% 9.7% 100.0%No/%% of users who migrated to other reading/researchrooms153

READING ROOM BFaculty of Arts(General, Philosophy,Psychology, Religion,History)(LC: Classes A-F) 14.3%,C-12.1%, E-16.7%,F-6.8%, G-12.9%READING ROOM GFaculty of Law(Moys: Class K) 51.6%,B-3.6%, C-5.3%, E-8.3%,F-11.0%READING ROOM CFaculty of SocialSciences(LC: Classes G-J)40.9%,B-17.9%, E-0%, G-6.5%READING ROOM FFaculties of Science / HealthSciences / EDM /Technology / Agric etc.(LC: Classes Q – Z) 18.6%,B-3.6%, C-11.4%, E-8.3%,G-6.5%READING ROOM DGeneral (Not occupied attime of research)B-0%, C-1.5%, E-0%,F-7.6%, G-3.2%READING ROOM EFaculties of Education / Arts(Music, Fine Arts, Language& Literature)(LC: classes L – P) 26.2%,C-5.3%, F-10.2%, G-0%Color code:%, % Core discipline patronage % % Migratory discipline patronageFig. 2: Outflow and Inflow of Users from Reading RoomsAn examination of figure 2 showed that Reading Room G (the Law library) recorded the highest core disciplinepatronage with a score of 51.6%. This may be due to the fact that the Law library operates a reference-basedservice. Books are not allowed for borrowing in this reading room. More importantly, the law library was justmoved to this new and more spacious reading room equipped with split air-conditioners and Internet facilities,though the Internet facility was not yet operational at the time of this study. The conducive climatic environmentmight have contributed significantly to the high core discipline patronage.Reading Room C has a core discipline patronage of 40.9% and an inflow or migratory discipline patronage of24.4%. It is noteworthy that some science-based faculties such as Environmental Design and Management(EDM) have their non technical, economic–based books shelved in reading room C; therefore this room couldhave been patronized by some students who otherwise would have been in reading room F. Reading Room Dwas not occupied as at the time of this study and was therefore free for use by patrons from all faculties who just154

want reading space. Reading rooms B, E and F had core discipline patronage of 14.3%, 26.2% and 18.6%respectively.With respect to migratory discipline patronage, Reading Room B had the highest patronage (48.5%). ExcludingReading Room D which was not assigned to any Faculty, Reading Room E had the lowest migratory disciplinepatronage (15.5%) while the Reading Rooms C, F, and G recorded 24.4%, 29.8% and 28.2% respectively. Onthe average core discipline patronage accounted for 30.32% while migratory discipline patronage was 29.28%as shown in Table 5. The closeness of the figures revealed an almost equal core and migratory disciplinepatronage of Hezekiah Oluwasanmi library reading rooms.Table 5: A comparison of core discipline and migratory discipline patronage in reading roomsReading room Core discipline patronage Migratory discipline patronageB 14.3 48.5C 40.9 24.4E 26.2 15.5F 18.6 29.8G 51.6 28.2Total 151.6 146.4Average 30.32 29.28It could be said that reading room patronage accounted for about 65% while the remaining 35% of HOL userspatronize research/special collections of the library. Additionally, the 60% reading room patronage were almostan equal mixture of core discipline and migratory discipline patronage. However, considering the fact that theresearch/special collections of the library consist of materials relevant to all disciplines, we could assume thatthe users of these facilities are also core discipline patrons. In this wise, core discipline patronage of HOL risesfrom 30.32% to 65.32%. This could be considered a good degree of compliance with the Faculty-based facilityprovision of HOL and would enhance purposeful learning and research for which the library is set up.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONThis study revealed dynamism of reading room patronage among Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library patrons. Therewas an almost equal patronage of reading rooms from both core discipline (30.32%) and migratory discipline(29.28%) users. The study also showed that about 65% of the patrons use the reading rooms while the remaining35% utilize the library’s research/special collections. Considering the research/special collection users as corediscipline users, HOL has an overall core discipline patronage of 65.32%. The philosophy of discipline facilitiesprovision and patronage was found suitable and workable in Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library. The causal factorsbehind the observed migratory behavioral pattern remain the subject of another study. It is recommended thatfurther studies be carried out on the possible factors affecting migratory patronage and its effect on collectionusage.REFERENCESCrawford, W. (Mar/Apr 1999) “Library Space” Online 23 (2), pp 61-66.http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=6&hid=113&sid=b41cc935-b6be-4899-abdbef8884b79bf2%40sessionmgr103Accessed March 2009Hall, R. B. (1978) “The Library space utilization methodology” Library Journal, December 1, 2379 – 2382.Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, Obafemi Awolowo University (1986) “Guide to the Library”, rev. ed., Ile-Ife,Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, 1986 amended 1989, 20p.Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library Website (2008) “History” http://www.library.oauife.edu.ng/history.htmlAccessed March 2008Klein, M. S. (1977) “Space utilization in Hospital Libraries with space shortages” Bulletin of medical LibraryAssociation, 65 (1):63 – 65.155

Library of Congress (October 2008) “A Sunny Space: European Reading Room get a new home” Library ofCongress Information bulletin 67 (10). http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/0810/european.html AccessedMarch 2009McMaster University Libraries (2004) “Public space utilization survey (2004)” McMaster University Libraries,Hamilton, Ontario. http://library.mcmaster.ca/mission/public-space Accessed 11 th May, 2008.Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria (2008) “About OAU”http://www.oauife.edu.ng/about_oau/index.php Accessed March 2008.156

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationTeaching of Tactile Perception Skills to Children with AutismIn Early ChildhoodDr. S.Sunay YILDIRIM DOĞRUSelçuk Üniversitesi Mesleki Eğitim FakültesiE mail address for correspondence : ydogru@selcuk.edu.tr___________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : The aim of this study is to research the effectiveness of teaching tactile perceptional skill tochildren with autism by the direct instruction method. In the study, three autistic children, aged 4 or 6years. Who do not have tactile perceptional skills formed the survey group. They are taking integratededucation in a pre-school institute and also taking personal educational services in a private educationalinstitute. One of the single subject designs multiple probe design with probe sessions across subjectmodel, has been used. In the study. The direct instruction method was used in teaching smooth and roughsurfaces, an important tactile perception skill. By the end of the study all of the children had learned thedifference between smooth and rough surfaces.Key Words: Children with autism, Tactile Perception, Direct instruction method__________________________________________________________________________________Autism is a developmental disability that affects 2-10 out of every 10,000 people and, it is observed fourtimes more in males when it is compared with females. The causes of autism are unknown. However,there are various studies and hypotheses suggesting that several genes as well as environmental factorsmay be responsible for it. There is no known cure. However there are therapies and interventions thathelp people with autism have a life as productive as possible. Additionally, there are educational,behavioral and medical interventions that can lead to substantial improvements. There are three types ofsymptoms in classic autism that usually appear in the first three years of life. According to DSM-IIV(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) there are three main categories, which are alsocalled as „triad of impairment‟ (source). All of them have to be present for diagnosing autism. These areas follows:Qualitative impairment in social interactionQualitative impairment in communication Restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interest and activities (LekotekCenter, 2005; American Psychological Association, 1994).The education of autistic children also involves the education of parents. There are many differentstrategies for educating individuals who have autistic children. Early intervention provides the mostopportunity to a child with autism to succeed because most of the children learn more effectively at ayounger age. Children with autism may have difficulties in processing auditory input. However, in manycases, they process visual and sensory input well. Therefore, it has been argued that children with autismlearn better by using all sensory stimuli together (e.g.; visual, auditory, tactile.etc.), (Bogdashina, 2003;Ayres, 1989; Dimatties & Sammons, 2003).157

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009The most common characteristic of autistic children is their inability to process sensory input. Childrenmust integrate information they receive through all of their senses and from movement and gravity.Many autistic children do not know how to cope with the different sensory input they receive. If thetransmission of sensory input to the brain is disorganized, a child often exhibits sensory defensivenessor inability to tolerate various types of sensory stimuli. Some sensory defensive behavior might includedifficulty in tolerating tactile sensation. Children with sensory defensiveness tend to have a nervoussystem that is on overdrive; such that any variety of sensory stimuli might readily be interpreted asthreatening or anxiety provoking. It can be difficult to live with a child with sensory defensiveness (e.g.an autistic child). For example; if a child hears loud sounds or noise, he or she might cry and fuss, if hisor her hair is combed or washed, he or she might become upset or he or she may not like his or herhands to be dirty. They might avoid touching unexpected objects. They might dislike a specific food,texture or temperature (Rasmussen, 2005; Bogdashina, 2003; Wilbarger & Wilbarger, 1991).Many autistic children have tactile defensiveness. It is widely reported that autistic people haveunusual (from a non–autistic point of view) sensory-perceptual experiences. These experiences mayinvolve hyper- or hypo-sensitivity, fluctuation between different volumes of perception, difficulty ininterpreting a sense, etc. All these experiences are based on real experiences, yet these experiences maybe interpreted differently. Therefore, in order to design treatment programmes in accordance withhis/her perceptual abilities, it is of great importance to understand how the children with autismexperience the world through each of the channels, and how he/she interprets what he/she sees, hears,and feels. etc. Understanding how these experiences may affect the autistic person‟s functioning is vitalin order to adopt methods and strategies to help the person function in the community. As Williams(1996) explains, they seem to have no sieve in their brain to select the information that is worth beingnoted. It can be described as „gestald perception‟ , for instance., perception of the whole scene as asingle entity with all the details perceived (not processed!) simultaneously. They may be aware of theinformation but the processing of „holistic situations‟ can be overwhelming. Autistic children may havedifficulty in filtering background and foreground information caused by gestald perception. This leadsto rigidity of thinking and lack of generalization (Ayres & Tickle, 1980; Chu, 1999; Kranowitz, 1998).There is some scientific evidence that deficits in information processing, that is both perspective andexecutive, are found in all persons on the autistic spectrum , though the role of sensory-perceptualproblems is still very controversial. According to Grandin (1996) there is continium of sensoryprocessing problems for most autistic people, which goes from fractured disjointed images at one endto a slight abnormality the other.Kootz and others studied about sensory receptor sensitivity in autistic children, response times toproximal and distal stimuli; on the basis of behavioral observation. It was postulated that autisticchildren prefer proximal (touch, taste) to distal (sight, hearing) sensory modalities. For assessing thissystematically, autistic children‟s simple response times were measured with auditory, visual, andtactile stimulation. Children were studied up to 25 sessions consisted of 40 trials with each modality.Response times were significantly related to mental age. Autistic children‟s responses weresignificantly slower than the answers of those without autism. However, autistic children and childrenwithout autism had the same pattern, faster responses to auditory stimuli and slower responding totactile stimulation. Autistic children‟s preference for proximal stimuli probably reflects a continuationof immature behavior rather than a basic disturbance in sensory receptor sensitivity (Kootz, Marinelli& Chohen, 1981). Kientz and Dunn‟s study intended to determine whether the sensory profilediscriminates between children with and without autism, and which items on the profile bestdiscriminate between these groups. In result found that Eight-four of 99 items (%85) on the sensoryprofile differentiated the sensory processing skills of subjects with autism from those without autism.There were no group differences between subjects with mild or moderate autism and subjects withsevere autism (Kientz & Dunn, 1997).In Larson‟s study on the sensory history of developmentally delayed children with and without tactiledefensiveness, Larson investigated whether sensory history questionnaires differentiated betweendevelopmentally delayed children with and without tactile defensiveness, and also which individualitems were discriminative. Interviews were conducted with 20 mothers of developmentally delayedchildren regarding their children‟s past and present behavioral responses to tactile and other sensorystimuli. The group of mothers with tactually defensive children reported a significantly greater numberof positive responses to the item previously determined to be indicative of tactile defensiveness than158

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009did the mothers of children without tactile defensiveness. An individual item analysis identified 11items as discriminating most clearly between a group of children with tactile defensiveness and a groupwithout tactile defensiveness. Some preliminary behavioral trends and implications for the use ofsensory history questionnaires in parent counseling and in planning appropriate treatment programs arepresented (Larson, 1982). The tactile system is the first system through which we first receiveinformation about the world. The ability to process tactile information effectively allows us to feel safeand form bonding with those who love us. Tactile perception contributes to social and emotionaldevelopment. Many autistic children have tactile defensiveness. Therefore, they can not protectthemselves from the dangerous conditions and they cannot communicate suitably with other people.Present study was planned for this reason.This study was conducted to determine the efficiency of teaching materials which have been presentedby using the direct instruction method to teach tactile perception skills to children with autism. In thestudy, the responses of the questions below were tried to be found. Is the teaching material presented to autistic children by the direct instruction method efficient inteaching the concept of smooth? Is the teaching material presented to autistic children by the direct instruction method efficient inteaching the concept of rough? Is it possible to maintain these concepts 6 weeks after teaching by using the direct instruction method? Can autistic children generalize these concepts?METHODResearch DesignThe study was conducted as a multiple probe design with probe session across subject models which area single subject design. In this study, the direct instruction method was used to teach children torecognize smooth and rough surfaces which are among the tactile perception skills.In the study of the three children, the data were first collected from all subjects simultaneously. After thebaseline level showed stability, the maintenance was started with the first subject. When the maintenancemet the criteria in the first subject, data were collected in all three steps by considering the probe sessionsin all subjects. It was expected that the probe data would be able to meet the criteria in the first subjectand would have similar characteristics with the baseline level in the others. After the probe sessions, theapplication was directed to the second subject. It was expected that the probe data would be able to meetthe criteria in the second subject and would be at the same level with the baseline level observed in othercases. This application was revised for all subjects (Kırcaali-Ġftar & Tekin, 1997).In the study, the baseline level data of these three subjects were first collected in the multiple probedesign through multiple probe sessions. After the baseline level data became stable, the first subject wastaught the smooth and rough concepts from the tactile perception skills. When the criteria were met inthe first subject, the initial data were collected in the three subjects by considering the probe sessions. Itwas expected that the inspection data were able to meet the criteria in the first subject and had similarcharacteristics with the baseline level in the others. This maintenance was presented to all the subjectsone-to-one. In the last probe sessions, the data of the three subjects were expected to meet the criteria.The data were collected by the application tool prepared by the instructor to teach smooth and roughsurfaces.Experimental Control. In the study, experimental control was conducted by showing that there was nochange in the independent variant at the beginning, but the value of dependent variant has increasedduring the application stages, while the direct instruction teaching method was being used.159

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Dependent and Independent Variant. The dependent variant of the study is the concept of rough andsmooth acquisition levels of the subjects. Independent Variant of the study is usage of teaching materialof smooth and rough concept presented by the direct instruction.SampleParticipants. Three autistic children (two boys and one girl) aged between 4 and 6 participated in thestudy. All the participants were receiving support from a private teaching institute for language andcommunication skills. All of them were also receiving integrated education. They had not been educatedsystematically by the direct instruction before. They could understand and carry out the verbalinstructions such as look, hold, touch, show, give, sit down.Trainers. The study was conducted by one researcher. The maintenance period was conducted by one ofthem. Conducting this period, the instructor had a ten-year experience in teaching children with mentalretardation.Research InstrumentsSetting. The study was conducted in the personal training class of a rehabilitation centre. In the class,there were no stimulants to disturb the child. A desk and a chair suitable for the physical development ofthe child and a VCR to record data were provided.Data Collection Tools. Tools used in this study were rough and smooth concept measuring tools, datacollecting tools for reliability among observers, data collecting tools for application reliability, and avideo camera. Resources to teach and evaluate smooth and rough concepts by using direct instructionconsisted of wood, fabric, marble, floor-covering, and leather material. Glass, paste-board, Formica,faience, and emery have been used in the assessment period.The Prepared Sets. Two objects of different texture (rough-smooth) but same type (color, shape andsize.)Two objects of different texture (rough-smooth), different size (small-big), same kind (materialshape).Two objects of different texture (rough-smooth), different type (color, shape, material, size).The Preparation of the Data Collecting Tool to Be Used ın the Study. A measuring instrument wasdesigned to collect the data of baseline of the instruction, and follow-up of the students for instructingsmooth and rough surfaces depicted in the study. This measuring instrument was composed of three partssuch as notification, criteria, and measure tool directions. In addition, the information about the reasonswhy the target behavior was chosen; the area in which the measure tool would be used; the duration ofthe students‟ reactions; the determination of measure tool, and the preparation of data collecting table arethe other parts of measuring instrument.Validity and ReliabilityReliability. In the study, all data were recorded to make it possible to analyze the inter-observerreliability and independent variable reliability.Inter-Observer Reliability. The data of the inter-observer reliability and independent variable reliabilitywere collected in the least 20% of the instruction and independent variable sessions. Reliability wasimproved by having two researchers not participating to the maintenance period of the study and theinter-observer reliability was processed on The Data Collecting Form by watching the video recordsseparately. The coefficient of inter-observer reliability was calculated by “Agreement/ (Agreement+Disagreement) x 100” formula. While the acceptable coefficient of inter-observer reliability was 80%in single subject studies, the coefficient of ideal inter-observer reliability was 90% or more (Kırcaali-Ġftar& Tekin, 1997). In this study, a 100% coefficient was obtained in the inter-reliability analysis.Independent Variable Reliability. Independent variable reliability analysis was improved to evaluatewhether independent variable was applied as planned or not. All the sessions of this study were recordedto collect the data of independent variable reliability. 50% of these records depicted by independentappointment were studied by the researchers inspecting the reliability of this study.160

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Before beginning to study maintenance reliability, instructors were told how the instruction would beconducted by the researcher to do the independent variable reliability. While the researcher wasfollowing up the data obtained after the maintenance, he/she put (+) and (-) signs on the IndependentVariable Reliability Form by deciding if the instructors conducted the articles on this form where everystep of the maintenance was divided into articles. The calculation of independent variable reliability wasconducted by “Observed Instructor Behaviors/ Planned Instructor Behavior x 100” formula for 50%instruction sessions for each subject determined by Independent Appointment Table. As a result of thestudy conducted by the researcher, the independent variable reliability was found 90%.PROCEDUREBaseline and Instruction Sessions. Baseline, probe, follow-up, and generalizing data were collected byprepared data collecting tools. In the determination of performance levels by data collecting tools, theprocess below was pursued.1. The subject was made to pay attention.2. After the first step, the verbal response was strengthened (great, very good)3. The subject was provided stimulant suitable for the concept. “Sara, touch the objects in front of youand show me the rough one.”4. We waited for the subject to react for 5 seconds after the instruction.5. If the subject had managed the first step in the concept analysis, the sign “+” was placed on the datacollecting table. If he had not been able to manage, the sign “-“ was placed.6. Each step in the concept analysis was evaluated as above.7. The data on beginning, inspecting, and follow-up were collected until obtaining stability.8. The number of steps which have been carried out accurately by the subject was recorded in the graph.Using direct instruction method. The teaching session was conducted by utilizing direct teachingmethod. In these sessions, five teaching sets were used in each teaching session. These sets werecomposed of two tools which were rough and smooth. An individual instruction programme wasdesigned to teach the detected opposite concept. In the programme, the direct instruction method wasused.1. The subject paid attention to the tool sets.2. If the attention had been paid, it was reinforced verbally (great, very good).3. The subject was made to touch each object in the tool sets.4. While teaching the object, the subject was told “Look, this square is rough-smooth.”5. The same training was done in each one of the five teaching sets.In the instruction sessions, the subject was made to pay attention to the study as it was ensured in thebaseline level and probe sessions. When the subject concentrated, he or she was appreciated orally. Thenthe directive relating to the concept was presented by saying “Look, this square is rough.” and the subjectwas made to touch it. The reactions of the subject were appreciated orally (such as well done, great).After touching, the subject was directed by saying “Look, this square is smooth.” after waiting for 5seconds. After 5 more seconds, the subject was directed by saying “Now, touch the squares in front ofyou and show me the smooth/rough one”. We waited him/her for 5 sec. to respond to the direction. If thesubject had responded correctly, he/she was appreciated by saying “Well done, great.” and his or herhead was patted. If not, the maintenance was continued by giving clues until the subject gave the correctresponse. This maintenance was given to all subjects. Until they met the established criteria, the161

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009maintenance was continued. While the right responses were supported by verbal and social appreciation,nothing was done for the wrong ones.Follow-Up and Generalization Sessions. Follow-up data and generalization data were collected 6 weeksafter the completion of application. Generalization data between people and materials were collected 6weeks after the completion of the application sessions. The inter-personal generalization data werecollected by two private teaching teachers and a lecturer from the department of private teaching.The instruction was started by teaching the depicted skill to the first subject and continued until thecriteria depicted for the skill were met. While teaching the concept to the students, advanced chainingmethod was used.FİNDİNGS AND RESULTSThis part summarizes the findings related to the levels of learning smooth and rough surface concepts bythe subjects.Baseline: B Instruction: I Probe: P Maintain: MFigure 1. Smooth surfaces162

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009As it can be seen in the first graph in figure 1, the baseline level data is 10% in the first subject but it is 0in the others. As stability was gained in three sessions in the baseline level data, the instruction wasstarted with the first subject. The established criteria were met by conducting the instruction of smoothsurface as 100%. After the subject maintenance sessions, the maintenance phase was ended when thedesired behavior was gained, and the second maintenance phase was started. It was observed that thefirst subject showed the desired behavior as 100% in three probe sessions.As it can be seen in the second graph in figure 1, the baseline level data is 0 in the second subject. As thestability was gained for the baseline level data in three sessions, the instruction was started with thesecond subject. The established criteria were met by conducting the instruction of smooth surface as100%. After the subject maintenance sessions, the maintenance phase was ended when the desiredbehavior was gained, and the second maintenance phase was started. It was observed that the first subjectshowed the desired behavior as 100% in three probe sessions.As it can be seen in the third graph in figure 1, the baseline level data is 0 in the third subject. As thestability was gained for the baseline level data in three sessions, the instruction was started with the thirdsubject. The established criteria were met by conducting the instruction of smooth surface as 90%. Afterthe subject maintenance sessions, the maintenance phase was ended when the desired behavior wasgained, and the second maintenance phase was started. It was observed that the first subject showed thedesired behavior as 90% in three probe sessions.Baseline: B Instruction: I Probe: P Maintain: MFigure 2. Rough surfaces163

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009As it can be seen in the first graph in figure 2, the baseline level data is 10% in the first subject but it is 0in the others. As stability was gained in three sessions in the baseline level data, the instruction wasstarted with the first subject. The established criteria were met by conducting the instruction of roughsurface as 100%. After the subject maintenance sessions, the maintenance phase was ended when thedesired behavior was gained, and the second maintenance phase was started. It was observed that thefirst subject showed the desired behavior as 100% in three probe sessions.As it can be seen in the second graph in figure 2, the baseline level data is 0 in the second subject. Asthe stability was gained for the baseline level data in three sessions, the instruction was started with thesecond subject. The established criteria were met by conducting the instruction of rough surface as100%. After the subject maintenance sessions, the maintenance phase was ended when the desiredbehavior was gained and the second maintenance phase was started. It was observed that the first subjectshowed the desired behavior as 100% in three probe sessions.As it can be seen in the third graph in figure 2, the baseline level data is 0 in the third subject. As thestability was gained for the baseline level data in three sessions, the instruction was started with the thirdsubject. The established criteria were met by conducting the instruction of rough surface as 90%. Afterthe subject maintenance sessions, the maintenance phase was ended when the desired behavior wasgained, and the second maintenance phase was started. It was observed that the first subject showed thedesired behavior as 90% in three probe sessions.CONCLUSİONS AND RECOMMENDATİONSThe study concluded that the material provided by direct instruction method for smooth and roughconcept instruction is efficient in teaching smooth and rough concept to autistic children. This is seen ininstruction, total probe, follow-up, and generalization data.The study is limited to tactile perception skill (smooth and rough) from perceptional language skills. Inthe study, it was observed that these three subjects were successful in learning that smooth and rough areopposite concepts. The fact that two of the subjects (two male subjects) who were autistic with Aspergersyndrome may have accelerated learning. But the other (female) needed more time and moremaintenance sessions. The reason of this may be because of the fact that she is an autistic child havingdifferent characteristics.The fact that the children with tactile perception problem were not able to distinguish the stimuli comingfrom the sense of touch was determined by various research findings. Otherwise, it is suggested thatthese children should be taught to use the sense of touch skill. The study by Ayres and Tickle supportsour research. In the study of Ayres and Tickle, sensory processing disturbance in autistic children as apredictor of response to sensory integrative procedures was investigated. Ten autistic children, agedbetween 3-1/2 and 13 , were initially evaluated in regard to their hypo-hyper-or normal responsivity tovisual, auditory, tactile, vestibular, proprioceptive, olfactory, and gustatory stimuli. After evaluation,each child received therapy that provided somatosensory and vestibular stimulation, and elicited adaptiveresponses to these stimuli. At the end of one year of therapy, each child‟s progress was judged inrelationship to that of others, and the group was divided into the six best and the four poorestrespondents. Stepwise discriminant analysis identified with initial test variables predicted good or poorresponses to therapy. The good respondents showed tactile defensiveness, avoidance of movement,gravitational insecurity, and an orienting response to an air puff. Results suggest that children whoregistered sensory input but failed to modulate it responded better to therapy than those who were hyporesponsiveor failed to orient to sensory input (Ayres & Tickle, 1980). Palkovitz and Wiesenfeld (1980)studied the automatic responses of autistic and normal children. In that study the automatic responses of10 autistic and 10 normal children were compared via using auditory stimuli varying in social relevance.Consistent differences in heart rate response and skin conductance level were found between these twogroups. The result suggests that the autistic subjects exhibited deficits in physiological reactivity to arange of environmental stimuli. The findings are discussed in terms of the information-processing164

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009capabilities of autistic children, and probable physiological correlation. Implications for treatment areconsidered.The following recommendations can be put forward to increase the generalization and maintenance ofthe study. According to the studies of Shabani; Katz; Wilder; Beauchamp; Taylor & Fisher(2002) aboutIncreasing social initiation with autism: effects of a tactile prompt, an ABAB design was used to assessthe effects of tactile prompting device as a prompt for the social initiations of 3 children with autismduring free-play activities with typical developing peers. The results indicated that the tactile prompt waseffective in increasing verbal initiations for all three children, and responses to peers‟ initiations werehigher for two participants when the tactile prompt was used. Efforts to reduce the frequency of promptwhile still maintaining rates of initiations were partially successful for one participant(Shabani, Katz,Wilder, Beauchamp, Taylor & Fishe, 2002).In the other study about teaching a student with autism to make verbal initiations: effect of tactileprompt, Taylor and Levin (1998) found that the effects of tactile prompting device as a prompt for astudent with autism to make verbal initiations about his play activities. A multiphase multielementdesign was used to assess the effects of the device in prompting initiations toward an adult three differentplay contexts. Follow- up probes were conducted during cooperative learning activities with typicallydeveloping peers in the student‟s regular education class. The results suggest that the device serves as aneffective, unobtrusive prompt for verbal initiations during play contexts and during cooperative learningactivities (Taylor & Levin; 1998).The studies of Case-Smith and Bryan about using single subject design, the effects of an occupationaltherapy intervention emphasizing sensory integration with five preschool children with autism wereexamined. When baseline and intervention phases were compared, four children demonstrated decreasedfrequency of no engaged behavior, and three demonstrated increased frequency of mastery (goaldirected)play. Improvements in frequency of interaction were minimal. The results support descriptionsin the literature regarding the behavioral changes that children with autism can make when participatingin intervention using a sensory integration approach (Case-Smith & Brayn, 1999).The other study carriedout by Linderman and Stewart; This single-subject study explored the effects of sensory integrativebasedoccupational therapy provided in an outpatient clinic on the functional behavior of two childrenwith pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) at home. In this result both participants displayedsignificant improvements in the areas of social interaction, approaching new activities, responding toactivities and conversation. On one hand decreases were noted in the frequency and duration ofdisruptive behavior (e.g., high activity, aggressive behaviors), and on the other hand an increase infunctional behaviors was observed, such as spontaneous speech, purposeful play, and attention toactivities and conversation. These findings support the application of sensory integrative-basedoccupational therapy as a part of the services provided to some children with PDD (Linderman &Stewart, 1999). These findings are similar to our study results.Various instruction methods can be used to teach tactile perception skills to autistic children. In addition,tools facilitating the instructions of these concepts can be developed, and they can be presented to theinstructors working with autistic children. In order to increase the generalization of the study, the samestudy can be redesigned with various subjects, in a different atmosphere, and by utilizing differentinstruction methods.REFERENCESAmerican Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders.4th ed.Washington, DC: AuthorAyres, A. J. & Tickle, L. S (1980). Hyper-responsivity to touch and vestibular stimuli as a predictor ofpositive response to sensory integration procedures by autistic children. American JournalOccupational Therapy 34(6), 375-81.Ayres, A. J. (1989) Sensory integration and praxis tests. Los Angles: Western Psychological Services.165

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Bogdashina ,O. (2003). Sensory perceptional issues in autism: Different sensory experiences-differentsensory worlds... London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.Case-Smith, J. & Brayn, T (1999). The effects of occupational therapy with sensory integration emphasison preschool-age children with autism. American Journal Occupational Therapy. 53(5), 489-97.Chu,. S (1999).Information parent and professionals. Dyspraxia Foundation.DiMatties, EM. & Sammons , JH (2003).Understanding Sensory Integration. The Council forExceptional Children.Grandin ,G. (1996). Thinking in pictures and other reports from my life with autism. Vintage Books. ADivision of Random House (p. 144-74). New York.National Lekotek Center (2005). Autism Spectrum Disorder (p.1-2).ChicagoKranowitz, C (1998). The out-of sync child: Recognizing and coping with sensory integrationdysfunction. New York.Kırcaail-Ġftar, G & Tekin, E. (1997). Tek denekli araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Türk PsikologlarDerneği Yayınları.Kientz, M. A.& Dunn, W. (1997). Comparison of the performance of children with and without autismon the sensory profile. American Journal Occupational Therapy 51 (7), 530-7.Kootz, J. P., Marinelli B & Cohen, DJ. (1981). Sensory receptor sensitivity in autistic children: responsetimes to proximal and stimulation. Arch Gen Psychiatry 38 (3), 271-3.Larson, K. A. (1982). The sensory history of developmentally delayed children with and without tactiledefensiveness. American Journal Occupational Therapy 36(9), 590-6.Linderman, T. M.& Stewart, K.B (1999). Sensory integrative-based occupational therapy and functionaloutcomes in young children with pervasive developmental disorders: a single-subject study.American Journal Occupational Therapy 53 (2), 207-13.Palkovitz, RJ.& Wiesenfeld, A.R (1980). Differential automatic responses of autistic and normalchildren. Journal Autism Developmental Disorder 10 (3), 347-60.Rasmussen , CH. (2005).Sensory Integration. Therapy Northwest,PC. Sensory Integration International,P.O. Box 9013, Torrance, CA 90508, USA BEAVERTON.Shabani, D. B., Katz, R. C., Wilder, D. A., Beauchamp, K., Taylor, C. R. & Fisher, K. J. (2002).Increasing social initiations in children with autism: Effect of tactile prompt. Journal of AppliedBehavior Analysis. 35 (1), 79-83.Taylor, B. A. & Levin, L. (1998). Teaching a student with autism to make verbal initiations: effects oftactile prompt. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 31(4), 651-4.Wilbarger P. & Wilbarger, J. (1991). Sensory defensiveness in children aged 2-12: An intervention guidefor parents and other caregivers. Denver, CO: Avanti Educational Programs.Williams, D (1999). Nobody nowhere. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.166

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationA REVIEW OF THE PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENTOF HUMAN ORGANISMSJolly Okoza, Ph.D. ,Oyaziwo Aluede, Ph.D. and Austin I. Ojugo, Ph.D.Dept. of Educational Foundations and Management,Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, NigeriaE-mail address for correspondence :oyaziwoaluede@yahoo.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : This article explains the formation of human being from a single cell that comes from two biologicalparents as a result of sexual intercourse. The essence of gene in human biological make-up was x-rayed. Growthand development processes from conception to adulthood were discussed. The characteristics that are manifested atthe different stages of physical development and the problems associated with it that are hazardous werehighlighted. The paper recommends that human beings must adopt a good pattern of lifestyle to stay healthy.___________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONWe began life as a single cell, a fertilized human egg and developed into a human being made of trillions of cells.The nucleus of each human cell contains 46 chromosomes, which are thread like structures that come in 23 pairs,one member of each coming from each parent (Santrock, 2000). Chromosomes contain the remarkable geneticsubstance known as DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid), a complex molecule that contains genetic information. DNA isfound in the chromosomes in association with protein, from which it may be separated by chemical methods. It hasmolecular weight of 5 to 10 million and is made up of long chains of nucleotides (Sinnott, Dunn & Dobzhansky,1958).Chromosomes contain thousands of genes. Genes are DNA segments that form templates for the production ofproteins. By directing the manufacture of proteins, the genes determine our individual biological development(Myers, 2004). Our genes, working in complex combinations and together with forces in the environment,ultimately determine many aspects of our biological make up (Baron, 2008). Collectively, some 3.1 billion pairednucleotides define the genes that determine our individual biological development. The sequence of the fournucleotide letters A,T,C and G (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine and Guanine) – is virtually the same in all humans.Genetically speaking, every human being is close to being your identical twin (Plomin & Crabbe, 2000).Each gene is a self-replicating unit capable of synthesizing proteins the building blocks of our physical development(Myers, 2004). When we speak of development, we mean a pattern of movement or change that begins atconception and continues throughout the life span. This process is attained through heredity. Biological heredity isrealized through a dynamic process of organic development. The union of sex cells at fertilization is followed bytransformation of fertilized egg into an embryo, a fetus an infant, a child, an adolescent, an adult, a senescent andfinally a dead body (Baron, 2008). Consequently, this paper is presented under the following headings:167

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009i. Physical and sexual development from conception to birth and its associated problemsii. Physical and sexual development from infancy to childhood and its associated problemsiii. Physical and sexual development at adolescence and its associated problemsiv. Physical and sexual development at Adulthood and its associated problems.PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH AND ITSASSOCIATED PROBLEMSConception occurs when a single sperm cell from the male penetrates the female’s ovum (egg). This process is alsocalled fertilization. After fertilization, the ovum moves through the mother’s reproductive tract until it reaches thewomb or uterus. This takes several days and during this time the ovum divides frequently. Ten to fourteen daysafter fertilization, it becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus. This fertilized egg is called a zygote. For the nextsix weeks it is known as an embryo and develops rapidly. If, instead, the ovum becomes implanted into the oviduct– the tube connecting the ovary with the uterus – an ectopic pregnancy results. This can be very serious for themother and can cause even death if the condition is undetected; the oviduct can burst as the developing embryogrows larger (Baron, 2008). By the end of the eighth week the embryo is about one inch long, a face as well as armsand legs are present. By this time, too, all major internal organs have begun to form, and some, such as the sexglands, are already active.During the next seven months the developing child now called a fetus shows an increasingly human form. Differentparts of the body grow at different rates during this period. At first, the head grows rapidly compared to the trunkand legs later the lower parts of the body grow more rapidly. The external genitals take shape, so the sex of the fetusis recognizable by the twelfth week. Fingernails and toenails form, hair follicles appear, and eyelids that open andclose emerge. By the end of the twelfth week the fetus is 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) long and weighs about ¾ ounce(21 grams) (Baron, 2008).Under ideal conditions, development during the prenatal period occurs in an orderly fashion and the newborn childis well equipped at birth to survive outside its mother’s body. Unfortunately, however, conditions are not alwaysideal. Many environmental factors can damage the fetus and interfere with normal patterns of growth. The placentatransfers nutrients and oxygen from the mother to fetus, while screening out many potentially harmful substances.But some substances slip by. The placental screen can admit teratogens (Myers, 2004). A teratogen (the wordcomes from the Greek word tera, meaning “monster”) is any agent that causes a birth deficit. We will considersome of the most important teratogens here. During the late 1950s and 1960s, several hundred women tookthalidomide early in pregnancy to prevent morning sickness and insomnia. Tragically, babies born to these mothershad arms and legs that had not developed beyond stumps (Santrock, 2000). Such severely deformed babies with theabsence of limbs or deformed arms and legs are described to suffer a haracteristic known as phocomelia (Clifford,1981).There is no known safe amount of alcohol for a pregnant woman. Even light drinking can affect the fetal brain andeven a single drinking binge can kill millions of fetal brain cells (Braun, 1996; Ikonomidou, Bittagau, Ishimaru,Wozniak, Och, Genz, Price, Stefovska, Hoerster, Tenkova, Dikrania and Olney, 2000). Alcohol enters the Woman’sbloodstream - her fetus – and depresses activity in both their central nervous system. If she drinks heavily, her babywill be at risk of her birth defects and mental retardation. For 1 in 750 infants, the effects are visible as fetal alcoholsyndrome (FAS) (Myers, 2004). This is a cluster of abnormalities that occur in children born by mothers who areheavy drinkers. These abnormalities include a small head (Microencephaly) and defective limbs, face and heart.Most of the children are also below average in intelligence, irritability, hyperactivity, retarded motor and mentaldevelopment, feeding problems and short attention spans (Bokstein, Sampson, Streissgarth & Barr, 1996).Other teragotens for example, rubella or German measles, can cause blindness during the first four weeks ofpregnancy. Other diseases that can be transmitted to the fetus include chicken pox, mumps, tuberculosis, malaria,syphilis and herpes (Samson, 1988). A pregnant woman never smokes alone: she and her fetus both experiencereduced blood oxygen and shot of nicotine. If she is a heavy smoker, her fetus may receive fewer nutrients and beborn underweight. Heavy maternal smoking may also affect fetal brain (Myers, 2004).The importance of woman’s health to the health of their offspring is nowhere exemplified than when the mother isinfected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the virus that is believed to be the cause of acquired immunedeficiency syndrome (AIDS). There are three ways a mother with HIV can infect her offspring:168

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 20091. During pregnancy, through the placenta (a life support system of tissue)2. During delivery, through contact with maternal blood and other fluids3. After birth, through breast-feeding (Santrock, 2000).PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT FROM INFANCY TO CHILDHOOD AND ITSASSOCIATED PROBLEMSPhysical growth is rapid during infancy. Assuming good nutrient, infants almost triple in weight (to about 20pounds or 9 kilograms) and increase in body length by about one-third (to about 28 or 29 inches, 71 to 72cm) duringthe first year alone (Baron, 2008). Although infants are capable for what they can consume at one time theirstomachs will not hold very much. They compensate for this by eating small amounts frequently, about every 2.5 to4 hours (Baron, 2008).At birth newborns possess several simple reflexes – inherited responses to stimulation in certain areas of the body.If these reflexes are present, the body’s nervous system is assumed to be intact and working normally; if they arenot, this is often a sign that something is seriously wrong. One of such reflex, the moro reflex, is triggered by a loudsound or a sudden dropping back of the infant’s head. It involves a series of actions in which the baby first throwsout his or her arms, then fans his or her fingers and lets out a cry before bringing the arms back over his or her chest.Another is the Palmer grasping reflex, which is elicited by pressing or stroking the palms of the newborn’s hands.The baby closes its hand and holds tight; in fact, infants can be lifted up from a flat surface by their grip. Babiesalso possess a rooting reflex , in which stroking the baby’s cheek causes the baby to turn toward the stimulation andmoves its lips and tongue. We have a sucking reflex, involving a combination of pressure and suction. Others areblinking reflex – baby closes eyes in response to light; tonic neck - when baby is placed on back with head turned toone side, baby stretches out arm and leg on side baby is facing babinski reflex – when baby’s foot is stroked fromheel to toe, toes fan out (Baron, 2008; Myers, 2004 Santrock, 2000)As an infant walks, talks, runs, shakes a rattle, smiles and frowns, changes in its brain are occurring. Indeed, at birththe infant has virtually all of the nerve cells (Neurons) it is going to have in its entire life. However, at birth and inearly infancy, neurons have only minimal connections (Santrock, 2000)As the infants’ ages from birth to 2 years, the interconnection of neurons increases dramatically as the dendrites (thereceiving parts) of the neurons branch out. By their third birthday, children are full of new tricks such as climbing,skipping and jumping. They are beginning to be able to make their body do what they want to do, giving themgreater sense of self-control. Catching, throwing, kicking, balancing, rolling, cutting, stacking, snapping, pushing,dancing swimming – children perform these special feat and many, many more.In the middle and late childhood, motor development is much smoother and more coordinated than in earlychildhood. Physical activities are essential for children to refine their developing skills. Child development expertsbelieve children should be active, rather than passive and should be able to plan and select many of their ownactivities.Sexual development at this stage can only be explained by psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud. At about agefour, the genitals become the primary source of pleasure and children enter the phallic stage. Freud speculated thatat this time we fantasize about sex with our opposite sex parent – parent – a phenomenon he termed the Oedipuscomplex, after Oedipus, character in ancient Greek literature who unknowingly killed his father and then married hismother. Fear of punishment for such desires then enters the picture. Boys fear that their fathers will retaliate againstthem by castrating them, however. This arouses castration anxiety, which is then the motivation for putting asidetheir desire for their mothers and aspiring to become like their fathers and their fathers’ value systems (NolenHousksema 2004).Freud believed that, during the phallic stage, girls recognize that they do not have a penis and are horrified at thisdiscovery. They also recognize that their mothers do not have a penis and disdain their mothers and all females forthis deficit (Nolen-Hoesksema, 2004). Girls develop an attraction for their fathers, in hopes that they will providethe penis they lack. Freud labeled this the Electra, after the character in Greek mythology that conspires to murder169

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009her mother to avenge her father’s death. Freud also thought that much of women’s behaviour is driven by penisenvy the wish to have male sex organ.The unsuccessful resolution of the phallic stage can lead to a number of psychological problems in children. Ifchildren do not fully identify with their same-sex parent, they may not develop “appropriate” gender roles or aheterosexual orientation. They may not develop a healthy superego and thus be either too self-aggrandizing or tooself-deprecating (Nolen –Hoesksema, 2004). If children’s sexual attraction to their parents is not responded to withgentle but firm discouragement, they may become overly seductive or sexualized and have a number of problems inromantic relationships.PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AT ADOLESCENCE AND ITS ASSOCIATEDPROBLEMSAdolescence begins at puberty, a period of rapid maturation in which the person becomes capable of sexualreproduction. The brain’s hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to increase its hormonal secretions. Thisstimulates other glands and physical growth through out the body, speeding up maturation of the primary sexcharacteristics (the sex organs involves in reproduction) (Passer & Smith 2001). Hormones are powerful chemicalsubstances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried throughout the body in the bloodstream. The concentrationsof certain hormones increase dramatically during puberty (Don & Chrousos, 1996). Testosterone is a hormoneassociated with boys with the development of genitals, an increase in height and a change in voice. Estradiol is ahormone associated in girls with breast, uterine and skeletal development (Santrock, 2000).In girls, puberty starts with breast development, which now often begins by age 10 (Brody, 1999). But puberty’slandmarks are the first ejaculation in boys, usually by about age 14, and the first menstrual period in girls, usuallywithin a year of age 12. The first menstrual period, called menarche, is a memorable event (Myers, 2004). Nearlyall adult women recall it and remember experiencing a mixture of feelings – pride, excitement, embarrassment, andapprehension (Greif & Ulman, 1982’ Woods & others, 1983). Most men similarly recall their first ejaculation(“Spermarche”) which usually occurs as a nocturnal emission (Fuller & Downs, 1990).During adolescence, individuals enter what Erickson calls a “psychological moratorium – a gap between security ofchildhood and the autonomy of adulthood. In their search for identity, adolescents experiment with different roles.Those who successfully explore a number of alternatives emerge with a new sense of self that is both refreshing andacceptable; those who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis are confused, suffering what Erikson callsidentity confusion. These adolescents are at risk because their likelihood of becoming productive adults is limited.They may engage in delinquent behaviours, substance abuse, unprotected sex and adolescent pregnancy and schoolrelated problems.Adolescents’ physical maturation fosters a sexual dimension to their emerging identity. Most adolescentsexperienced premarital sex by age 18. This increase in sexual activity has led to an increase in the adolescentpregnancy rate. Short of abstinence, contraceptives are the surest strategy for preventing pregnancy. Yet it may besuggested that only a few of sexually active male teens use condoms consistently. This lower rate of contraceptiveuse may increase higher rates of sexually transmitted infection (STI) (also called STD for sexually transmitteddisease)PHYSICAL AND SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT AT ADULTHOOD AND ITS ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS.Physical growth is usually complete by the time people leave their teens. Young adults are at the peak of theirphysical, sexual and perceptual functioning. Maximum muscle strength in the legs, arms, and other parts of thebody is reached at age 25 to 30. By the time we are in our forties, most people are all too aware of the age-relatedchanges occurring in their bodies. Cardiac output, the amount of blood pumped by the heart, decreases noticeablyand the walls of the large arteries lose some degrees of flexibility (Baron, 2008). The performance of other major170

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009organ systems, too, declines and an increasing number of people experience difficulties with digestion. It should bestated that individual differences exist in the rate at which such changes occur. While some persons in their fortiesand fifties closely match common stereotypes concerning middle age, others retain much of their youthfulappearance and vigour during this period of life.Among the most dramatic changes occurring during middle adulthood is the climacteric – a period of several yearsduring which the functioning of the reproductive system and various aspects of sexual activity change greatly.Although both sexes experience the climacteric, its effects are more obvious for females, most of who experiencemenopause cessation of the menstrual cycle in their late forties or early fifties. During menopause the ovaries stopproducing estrogens and many changes in the reproductive system occur’ thinning of the vaginal walls, reducedsecretion of fluids that lubricate the vagina, and so on (Baron, 2008).Among men the climacteric involves reduced secretion of testosterone and reduced functioning of the prostrategland, which plays a role in semen formation. In many men the prostrate gland becomes enlarged, and this mayinterfere not only with sexual functioning but also with urination. Men often experience reduced sexual drive at thistime of life; but although sperm production decreases, many can still father children.The physical changes of middle adulthood become more pronounced in late adulthood. Visual sharpness diminishesand adaptation to changes in light level slows. Muscle strength, reaction time and stamina also diminish noticeably,as do hearing, distance perception and the sense of smell (Myers, 2004). The body’s disease fighting immunesystem weakens, making the elderly more susceptible to life-threatening ailments such as cancer and pneumonia.Some adults do, unfortunately, suffer a substantial loss of brain cells. A series of small strokes, a brain tumor, oralcoholism can progressively damage the brain, causing that mental erosion call dementia (Myers, 2004)In fact, growing evidence suggests that while we cannot stop the clock of ageing altogether, we can slow it downappreciably. In other words, we can achieve successful ageing - experience minimal physiological losses in manyfunctions when compared to younger persons (Myers, 2004). This can be achieved through physical exercise,personal nutrition and effective stress management.CONCLUSIONWe have examined the different stages of physical and sexual development from conception to adulthood and theattendant problems associated with the various stages. For us to live successfully in those stages of life, we mustadopt a good pattern of lifestyle. When we indulge in unwholesome practices such as smoking, drinking, drug abuseand indiscriminate sexual habits, we may predispose our bodies to infection of deadly diseases. One of such may bethe monster called Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).171

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009REFERENCESBaron, R.A. (2008) Psychology. India: Dorling Kindersley Publishers.Bookstein, F.L., Sampson, P.D., Streissgarth, A.P., & Barr, H.M. (1996). Exploiting redundant measurement of doseand developmental outcome. New Methods from the behavioural teratology of alcohol. DevelopmentalPsychology, 32, 404-415Braun, S (1996) New experiments underscore warnings on maternal drinking. Science, 273, 738-739Brody, J.E (1999). Yesterday’s precocious puberty is norm today. New York Times P.162.Clifford, S.D. (1981). Principles of Educational Psychology. Warri, Nigeria Octopus International EnterprisesDorn, L.D., Chrousos, G.P. (1996) Behavioural predictors of stress hornonemeeting of the society of research on Adolescence. Bostonresponses. Paper presented at theFuller, M.J., & Downs, A.C., (1990). Spermache is a salient biological marker in men’s development. Posterpresented at the American Psychological Society Convention.Grief, E.B., & Ulman, K.J. (1982). The Psychological impact of menarche onof literature. Child Development, 53, 1413-1430early adolescent females. A reviewIkonomidou, C., Bittigau, P., Ishimaru, M.J., Wozniak, D.F., Koch, C., Genz, K., Price, M.T., Stefovska, V.,Hoerster, F., Tenkova, T., Dikrania, K. & Olney, J.W (2000). Ethanol-induced apoptotic neurodegenerationand fetal alcohol syndrome. Science, 287, 1056-1060Myers, D.G (2004) Psychology. Worth Publishers, New YorkNolen-Hoesksema, S. (2004). Abnormal Psychology. McGraw-Hill, HigherEducation, New York.Passer, M.W & Smith R.E. (2001) Psychology. McGraw Hill Higher Education, New YorkPlomin, R., & Grabble, J. (2000) DNA Psychological Bulletin. 126, 806-828Samson, L.F. (1988). Perinatal Viral Infections and neonates. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing, 1, 56-65.Santrock, J.W (2000). Psychology. McGraw-Hill, Higher Education, New YorkSinnott, E.W., Dum, L.C., Dobzhansky, T (1958). Principle of genetics.McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd.Woods, N.F., Dery, G.K., Most, A. (1983). Recollections of menarche, current menstrual attitudes andpremenstrual symptoms. In. Golub (Ed.), Menarche: The transition from girl to woman. Lexington, MA:Lexington Books.172

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationA Survey Study on the Stigmatization of the Mentally-ill: The case ofHA Leqele, Lesotho, Southern AfricaMahlalele, S. M. & Osiki, J. O. Ph.DNational University of Lesotho,Dept. of Theology & Religious Studies,P.O. Roma 180, Lesotho, Southern AfricaE-mail address for correspondence: jonathanosiki@yahoo.co.uk____________________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : The study examined the different ways that the mentally-ill are stigmatised in Lesotho. The study also attempts tofind out the factors responsible for such stigmatisation as well as the various supports available for the victims. The simplerandom sampling technique was utilised in picking 137 participants from the population. The participants’ age range wasbetween 18 and 64 while Mean age was 36.7(SD=14.8). The Stigma to Mentally-ill Opinionate Scale (SMOS) was theresearch instrument used in the study while the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at the 0.05 alpha level was the majorstatistical method employed. The findings which were statistically significant indicated overall, that the participantsperceived the stigma to the mentally-ill differentially. The results showed that, irrespective of the religious affiliation[F(5,131)=0.035;P

The experience of the patients is that discriminatory attitudes are widespread within the general public, the medicalprofession, employers, banks, insurance companies, media and many other organisations (BBC News: 2000). The generalpublic where mentally ill people have worked, employers of the patients, banks, insurance companies and many otherorganisations that mental patients once were, when they have recovered they do not accept them because of the belief thatmental illness is highly really incurable. Therefore, their decisions are undermined in the work setting, within their familiesand communities.The government of Lesotho created the Mental Observation and Treatment Units (M.O.T.U.) in every government hospital asa forum for the decentralization of mental health services and controlling high influx rate at caring centres at that time. Thepurse of decentralization was a way of integrating mental illness in the general health as a way of combating the stigma thatwas highly prevailing at the time. Bockoven (1963) says as mental hospitals multiplied severe money and staffing shortagesdeveloped, recovery rate declined and overcrowding in the hospitals became major problem thus such conditions made itimpossible to provide individual care and genuine concern. Hence in Lesotho mental patients are seen all over in the publicplaces without proper care.Most of the residents in poor supervised or unsupervised settings survive on government disability payments (Torrey, 2001)and many spend their days wandering through neighbourhood streets, thus “dumped’ in the community, just as they wereonce “warehoused” in the institutions. Comer (2004) and as cited in (Gilligan 2001; Torrey, 2001) submitted that a greatnumber of people with schizophrenia have become homeless. In the United States for instance, between 250,000 and 550,000homeless people in the United States, an approximate number (i.e one-third) has a severe mental disorder, commonlyschizophrenia (Torrey, 2001). Many such persons have been released from hospitals. Others are young adults who were neverhospitalised in the first place. Another 135,000 or more people with severe mental disorders end up in prisons because theirdisorders have led them to break the law.Statement of the ProblemIn Lesotho, the national health policies are influenced by the situation regarding the health status of the population and thehealth geo-political situation. In fact all factors which ultimately have an impact on the health status of Basotho or adverselyaffect the delivery of health care or the implementation of health programmes contributes to poor health care in Lesotho.Mohlomi hospital and Mohale’s hoek Detention Centre were the only places catering for mentally ill patients/clients. As timepast, the government of Lesotho (GOL) decentralised mental services by establishing what is known as Mental Observationand Treatment Units (M.O.T.U.) in every government hospital in the country. The aim of decentralising mental services wasto promote the integration of mental health services into general health system, thus combating discrimination of mentalillness and its victims.However, in the decentralisation of mental health services, there is not much solution as mental patients are seen all over inthe public places without proper care. In most cases, the mental patients are untidy but they are within their relatives. There isalso a discriminatory attitude towards mental patients during service delivery. The relatives, community and government ofLesotho seem not to care much. The least priority is given on mental health services; instead the blame is place on the mentalhealth patients’ professions. As a result, it is apparent that the type of stigma attached to mental illness and its victimsbecomes on obstacle to proper care and service of mental patients. In consequence therefore, the present study was muted toexplore some of the stigma attached to mental illness as a way of combating it while suggesting the way forward for theimprovement of care towards the mentally ill patients.HypothesesFour hypotheses were generated and tested in the study at the 0.05 alpha levels.1. Gender of respondents will not significantly affect the perception of the stigma attached to theMentally ill at Ha Leqele.2. Respondents’ educational status will not significantly affect their perception of the sigma attached at the mentally ill atHa Leqele.3. Religious affiliations of respondents will not significantly affect the perception of the stigma attached of the mentally ill.4. Respondents’ perception (i.e. knowledge, identification, treatment and support will no significantly differ when thenotion of their stigmatisation is considered.174

Perception of the Mentally-ill down the agesComer (2004: 24) writes that prehistoric societies apparently viewed abnormal behaviour as the work of the evil spirits.There is evidence that Stone Age cultures used trephination, a primitive form of brain surgery, to treat abnormal behaviour.He further says that people of early societies also sought to drive evil sprits by exorcism. He concludes that people in the darkages believed that the mentally-ill were possessed by the devil, therefore, the exorcists physically tortured the mentally-ill todrive the evil spirit out of their bodies.Sharma (2000), adds that many women who were mentally-ill were branded as witches and were ceremonially burned on thevillage post, ironically as an act of kindness to save their souls (even today the naming and practice still exists). She furthersays for time immemorial, patients with mental illness were feared therefore tortured and chained so others could live safely.These practices were solely out of kindness but it shows that they (practices) evoked feelings of fear of the mentalclients/patients. The fear gained its roots in the dark ages when mental illness was seen as the devil’s work which nowstigmatises mental clients, she says.In his book, Abnormal Behaviour, Comer (2004) says, in the middle ages, Europeans returned to demonological explanationsof abnormal behaviour. The clergy was very influential and held that mental disorders were the work of the devil though, asthe middle ages drew to a close, such explanations and treatments began to decline, and people with mental disorders wereincreasingly treated in hospital instead of by the clergy. Care of people with mental disorders continued to improve during theearly part of the Renaissance. Certain religious shrines became dedicated to the humane treatment of such individuals. Bymiddle of the sixteenth century, however, persons with mental disorders were being warehoused in asylums. Physicians ofthe Greek and the Roman Empire offered more enlightenment explanation of mental disorders but the stigma was therethough was under control.During the eighteenth century, the western health care in Lesotho started in 1884 when the Paris Evangelical MissionarySociety (now know as Lesotho Evangelical Church) brought the very first medical practitioner to work in what was thencalled Basutoland (Mohlomi Report: 2000). From these humble beginnings has emerged a health service which comparesfavourably with any in Africa. From this time, Basotho started using both traditional and western medicine for healthproblems, especially mental illness. Traditional healers may be able to plug gaps in primary mental health services in Africa,according to Anglo-Ugandan Research (1999).Hippocrates (sic) believed that abnormal behaviour was due to an imbalance of the four bodily fluids or humours: black bile,yellow bile, blood and phlegm and treatment consisted of correcting the underlying physical pathology through diet andlifestyle (Comer 2004: pg 24). He continues to say that inheritance plays a part in mood disorders yet with few exceptions,researchers have not been able to identify the specific genes that tare the culprits, nor do they yet know the extent to whichgenetic factors contribute to various mental disorders.In addition to Comer’s view, Andreasen (2001) said that scientists have known for years that genes help determine suchphysical characteristics as hair colour, height, and eyesight, so genes can make people more prone to heart disease, cancer ordiabetes and perhaps to possessing artistic or musical skills as much as they may also influence behaviour including abnormalbehaviour. He concludes by saying that many genes combine to help produce our actions and reactions, both functional anddysfunctional that can be prolonged and so stigma be attached to it.Torrey (2001) reasoned that since the discovery of these medications, mental health professional in most of the developednations of the world have followed a policy of de-institutionalisation, releasing hundreds of thousands of patients from publicmental hospitals. He additionally says out patient care has now become the primary mode of treatment for people with severepsychological disturbances as well as for those with more moderate problems, so today when severely impaired people doneed institutionalisation, they are usually given short-term hospitalisation and ideally they are then given outpatientpsychotherapy and medication in community programs and residences without educating the communities of these peopleabout the mental illness and stigma attached to mentally ill people is increasing.In Barnes and Maple (1992), mentally-ill people on the other hand are seen by the public in a different light: the studies theyreviewed earlier have shown that people often attribute psychiatric problems to character, weakness and defects,consequently, responsibility is imputed to the individual for the condition, likewise the feeling is often present that all would175

e well if the person “pulled himself together,” “mended his ways,” and tried harder to overcome his problems. This studysuggests that public belief that the mentally-ill people’s condition is a consequence of being neglectful about mental health.Furthermore, the report from Mohlomi Hospital (2000) say that the general attitude of the public was also very unhealthybecause those who were brought to the centre were usually tied up with ropes and had been subjected to severe beating andgeneral state of neglect. For those who were already admitted, the members of the public visited the Mental Detention Centreto amuse them and infact, actually teased and even provoke patients. This type of attitude also prevailed in the communitiesin which mental patients were found. Even today it is common to view mental patients as sources of fun.Harphan and Blue (1996) when reviewing some studies on mental illness, found that in a sense, all types of illness arestigmatising. If the term stigma is accepted to mean an undesirable differences, that is an attribute evaluated as something badand discrediting, then any illness falls into this category. This means mental illness is like any other illness though it is at themost stigmatising end of the continuum; as the studies results shows that mental illness is consistently ranked by people asmore undesirable and fearful than physical illness (Swartz, 1998). He further says that mental illness is popularly thought ofas serious conditions with little chance of full recovery; and the stigmatised person is often regarded less human(Goffman,1963).In McPherson, Richardson and Leroux (2003), prospective patients and members of the family are reluctant to seek medicalcare/help because of the frightening nature of stigma. Thus many of the mentally-ill themselves share the traditional negativestereotype of mental illness which causes individual’s response to the suggestion that their being mental patient is muchcoloured by the image of what that means; regarded them less human. The outcome of a related survey indicate that 43percent of respondents believe that people (i.e. those with supernatural powers) and evil can induce mental disorders onothers while 35 percent consider such disorders to be caused by sinful behaviour, and 19 percent point to a lack of willpoweror self-discipline (NAPHS, 1999).Though the American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000) has provided some distinction that a person with mentalretardation have a great difficulty in areas such as communication, home living, self direction, work or safety, it has nothowever ameliorated how the mentally-ill are perceived. This is due to fact that individuals have difficulties in distinguishingbetween the mentally-ill and the mentally retarded people. And thus consequently the confusion and notion that mentalillness is incurable while retardation is the most likely not to heal.Reinforcing Paradigms on Public Attitude of the Mentally-illQuite a number of paradigms are available for explanation. Two of such paradigms and for which the present study isconcern is the labelling and behaviour theories. Prominently developed by Lemert (1951-1964) and with the support ofBecker (1963), the labelling theory argue that the act of labelling someone as mentally ill creates the mental illnessbehaviour; and that, if their original symptoms are unimportant and without labelling, the illness would go unnoticed. Forexample, if the person asks who is mentally ill, the labelling theorist would answer that everyone who is labelled as such, are.The implication of this argument is that the persons who are labelled mentally ill would be quite right if it were nor for the actof labelling. This is very different from pointing out the social consequences of being identified as mentally ill. To minimisethe importance of the original psychiatric symptoms to that extent is essentially to agree with Thomas Szasz (1970) thatmental disorder is not recognisable in any specific form before the label is applied to it. If the illness is prolonged and isaccompanied by an unpleasant or repulsive sights or smell then the stigma will be attached to it. So, the stigma is attached tomentally ill people because of the prolonged deviance from social expectations. The labelling theorists are judgemental bythe attribution of certain social constructs that the person deviated from.The focus of behaviour therapy is on a person’s actions not thoughts and feelings. The major emphasis of skinner’s theory isthe functional analysis of behaviour. Reinforcements are consequences that lead to an increase in a behaviour, andpunishments are consequences that lead to a decrease in the behaviour. The principle of reinforcement states that a responseis strengthened when reinforcement is given. Behavioural models are helpful in planning client education and designingprogrammes for a variety of mental health clients and families. So that behaviour is learned.People learn to be depressed in response to an external locus of control as they perceive themselves lacking control over theirlive experiences. Throughout life, depressed people experience little success in achieving gratification, and little positivereinforcement for their attempts to cope sit negative incidents. These repeated failure teach them that what they do has no176

effect on their sense of helplessness is reinforced. When people reach the point of believing that they have no control, they nolonger have the will or energy to cope with life and a depressive state result.The cognitive schemas influence the way people with mood disorders experience themselves and others. The content ofdepressed individuals appraisals of the situations and events that they uncounted did much to explain their mood andbehaviour and revealed a consistent negative bias in information processing. Beck et al (1979) initially developed a cognitivemodel of emotional disorders to explain the biases and distortions in information processing that he observed in depressedindividuals. Those who are depressed focus on negative messages in the environment and ignore positive experiences. Thenegative schemas contribute to a view of the self as incompetent, unworthy and unlikely. All present experiences are vied asnegative, and there is no hope for the future, (Zust, 2000).In the manic phase, people focus on positive message in the environment and ignore negative experiences. These positiveschemas contribute to a grandiose view of themselves. Thus everything that occurs is seen as positive, and the future holds nolimits. When people get caught up in this process a number of cognitive distortions may occur which makes every bodyprone to have mental illness, hence no need to stigmatise the victims of the mental illness as it can strike anyone anytime.The cognitive behaviourism theory explains how people interpret their daily lives, adapt and make changes and develop theinsights to make those changes. The type of attitudes people play towards the mentally ill people are the results of the learnedbehaviour in their early childhood, hence the stigmatisation of mentally ill people is deep rooted as people learnt it as part oftheir life. Piaget (1973) thought that children learn by changing stimuli that challenge their experiences and perceptions. Heidentified our sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal operational stages as stages that a child canlearn or unlearn negative behaviours like stigmatisation.Beck’s cognitive theory focuses on how people view themselves and their world. He identified cognitive schemas as personalcontrolling believes that influence the way people process data about themselves and others. Cognitive distortions resultsfrom cognitive triad of inadequate view of self, a negative misinterpretation of present and negative view of future.Cognitive models help to assess clients’ learning capabilities. They also help to analyse cognitive distortions that aresymptoms of a number of mental disorders. Personality is the unique way people respond to the environment and includespatterns of behaviour, emotion and cognition that remain constant from one situation to another, (Fontaine, 2003).The Study and SettingThe aim of this study was to examine the different ways that indicate how the mentally-ill are stigmatised. The study alsoattempts to find out the factors responsible for such stigmatisation among the people of Ha Leqele, Lesotho. As part of theintent of the study the various support available for the mentally-ill are also investigated.The setting of the study was generally in Maseru Province but specifically, Ha-Leqele, a suburb area, Lesotho, SouthernAfrica. Haleqele is the village adjacent to the Makoanyane military base and is near the Mohlomi Mental Hospital wherethere are quite a lot of mentally ill people who are so defined, due to the peculiar nature of the area. Despite being near thehospital, the place is peri-urban which enabled the researchers to elicit the views of the people in both rural and urban areas inthe country. At Ha Leqele, the most community of men are soldiers and women are working at the public sectors. Least ofthe community is not working at formal settings but carry out the daily duties at the fields and gardens.In considering adherence to professional standard in the conduct of research, unethical treatment of the participants wasmeticulously avoided in the study. As the ethics of the research require that participation in a social research study bevoluntary, no participant was forced to respond to the questionnaire. This is because social research at times involvesimposition into people’s lives. It may also require people to reveal their personal information to strangers (Capuzzi andGross, 2005). Capuzzi and Gross continue to say “researchers must protect research participants from harm of any kind. Thisincludes voluntary participation, informed consent, ensuring confidentiality and paying attention to issues of diversity.” Theparticipants were well informed about the purpose of the research study. For example, the names of the participant wereinsignificant to the study to avoid any possible harm to the questionnaire while the findings reported were as summarized inthe results (ACA’s Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice booklet, 1995).177

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThe study adopted the descriptive survey method. The simple rationale informing the use of the descriptive research designwas the investigation on the kind of stigma that is attached to the mentally- ill and mental illness in general in Ha-Leqele,Maseru, Lesotho.The study Participants and sampling TechniqueThe participants are made up of 137 respondents including 56 (40.9%) males and 81(59.1%) females using the household asa yardstick for sample cluster while the simple random technique was the selection format adopted. Out of the total sample,87 (63.5%) were literate men and women (i.e could read without assistance) while 50(36.5%) are not literate. For theparticipants’ religious affiliation, 9 (6.6%) are from the traditional setting, while 47 (34.3%) are born again (i.e. individualswith esoteric prayer lives and are either Pentecostal and, or evangelical in belief) as another 7 (5.1%) also came from theorthodox churches (i.e. Catholic and Anglican background) just as 74 (54.0%) of the respondents did not indicate theirreligious affiliation. The participants’ age range was between 18 and 64 years and had a Mean age of 36.7(SD=14.8)respectively.Research InstrumentThe Stigma to Mentally-ill Opinionate Scale (SMOS) was developed, validated and utilized as the research instrument forcollect data in the study. The SMOS has four sub-categories (I, II, III, and IV), namely, knowledge (sub-category I),identification (sub-category II), treatment (sub-category III) and that of support (sub-category IV). Under knowledge thereare eleven (11) items, identification eleven (11) items, treatment thirteen (13) items and support had ten (10) items. The itemswere responded to by the respondents using a tick of any kind under the columns on agree, disagree and neutral. The scalewas so designed in this way because the background of the study and the literature reviewed revealed that the stigma attachedto the mentally-ill arose from the individuals’ misperception within the community. Some of the items in the questionnairewere picked from the literature of the study while others were the outcome of scrutinised and reprocessed information fromFocused Group Discussion (FGD) that elicited their perception of the mentally-ill people and the illness.Each of the sub-categories was submitted for expert screening with actual item-composition pruned to reflect the suggestedcorrections. The sub-categories in the SMOS were observed for content validity having both the face and logical (i.e. subsectioncomposition) dimensions. Using the Cronbach alpha its reliability measures for the respective sub-categories are(r=0.72) for sub-category I, (r=0.79) for II, (r=0.80) for III and (r=0.75) for IV respectively. The validation followed a twoweekadministration of the SMOS.Data AnalysisThe data analysis adopted was the One-Way Analysis of Variance (One Way ANOVA) as provided in the Statistical Packagefor Social Scientists (SPSS). The One-Way ANOVA procedure produces a one-way analysis of variance for a quantitativedependent variable by a single factor (independent) variable. Analysis of variance is used to test the hypothesis that severalmeans are equal.Results and Findings/DiscussionThe results of the analysis of variance (ANOVA) were summarized on the basis of the hypotheses advanced in the study. Thehypotheses were tested one by one.Hypothesis OneThe first hypothesis stated that the gender of respondents will not significantly affect the perception of the stigma attached tomentally-ill people. In testing this hypothesis the data was analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) while statisticalinferences were made at the alpha level of 0.05. The results are displayed on table 1 below. From the table, results whichshowed that there was significant statistical difference [F(5,131)=0.508;P

FrequencyTable 1: ANOVA indicating perception Along Gender DimensionSource of Variation Sum of squares df Mean Squares F Sig.Between GroupsWithin GroupsTotal1.05632.05333.1095131136.211.245.863 .508100gender8060402001.001.502.00Std. Dev = .49Mean = 1.59N = 137.00Fig. 1.1genderThe findings of the study as shown by the results of ANOVA summarized in table 1 above did not confirm this hypothesis.This by implication means that the respondents’ perception along gender dimension is statistically significant andtremendously varies. The indication going by this findings seem to have supported the notion that all human beings areunique while by inference our perception of concepts and, or situation as typified in the study, would ultimately not be thesame. In consequence therefore, human uniqueness not-with-standing, whether the individuals are males or female, wouldalmost always affect the way they reason, perceive and interpret events just as it is the case with the mentally-ill in HaLeqele, Lesotho.Hypothesis TwoThe second hypothesis stated that religious affiliation of respondents will not affect their perception of the stigma attached tothe mentally-ill people at Ha Leqele. In testing this hypothesis the data was analyzed using ANOVA. The results aredisplayed in table 2 below. From the table, the results [F(5,131)=0.035;P

Frequency80religion604020Std. Dev = 1.07Mean = 3.10N = 137.001.02.03.04.0Figure 2.2religionThe results of ANOVA as shown in table 2 above did not confirm this hypothesis. Thus, with the findings, the educationalstatus of respondents play a significant influence in the perception of the stigma attached to mentally-ill people. Though theargument may not be too different from that given already, the fact still remains that when people are well educated they areeasily not gullible in their perception and reception and, or rejection of information and, or ideas considered inimical andobnoxious. This finding, in consequence, therefore corroborate Scaife (2001) that educational status of individuals wouldusually have its effect when he opined that the younger and better educated people are, the more they tend to express a morefavourable accepting attitudes than it should have been if they are less educated. Although, while noting the trend asportrayed in the finding, it is also imperative to emphasize here that education as an important index in attitude change,might have been equally influenced by other personality factors which the present study was limited to.Hypothesis ThreeThe third hypothesis stated that the respondents’ educational status will not significantly affect their perception of the stigmaattached to the mentally-ill people at Ha Leqele. In testing this hypothesis, ANOVA was employed. The results are displayedin Table 3 below. From the table, the results [F(5,131)=0.878;P

FrequencyTable 3: ANOVA comparing the participants Response along the Education StatusSource of Variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.Between GroupsWithin GroupsTotal.42431.32831.7525131136.124.256.355 .878100education8060402001.001.502.00Std. Dev = .48Mean = 1.36N = 137.00Figure3.3educationThe findings of the third hypothesis as shown by the ANOVA results summarized in table 3 above were not confirmed. Inother words the hypothesis was rejected. This means that the religion of the respondents is significant to the extent thatindividuals perceived the stigma attached to the mentally ill people at Ha Leqele. Corroborating such studies as Comer(2004); Sharma (2000); and Harphan and Blue (1996) individual belief are potent fuel for reinforcing cultural stereotypesand, of course the stigma attached to mentally ill people over time. In addition to the above view, socio-cultural theoristsequally believe that abnormal functioning is influenced greatly by the labels and role assigned to troubled people (Szasz,2000). Religion and beliefs fall under culture of which every member of any given society affiliates to. These culturalbeliefs, most of the time builds the conceptions as well as the misconceptions about mental illness, sanity and generalhuman phenomena. The misconceptions in the cultures are roots for the stigmatization of the victims of mental illness andthe illness itself.Hypothesis FourThe fourth hypothesis stated that the respondents’ perception (i.e. knowledge, identification, treatment and support to thementally ill) will not significantly differ when the notion of their stigmatization is considered. ANOVA was used in testingthis hypothesis. The results are shown in table 4. From the table, the results in the four categories showed that while it wasstatistically significant at the levels of participants’ knowledge [F(5,131)=0.788;P

FrequencyTable 4: ANOVA Comparing the Participants along Knowledge, Identification,Treatment and Support respectivelySource of Variations Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.KnowledgeBetween GroupsWithin GroupsTotalIdentification Between GroupsWithin GroupsTotal.62033.58534.2042.16725.61427.78151311365131136.124.256.433.196.483 .7882.217 .056TreatmentBetween GroupsWithin GroupsTotal1.70935.76537.4745131136.342.2731.252 .289SupportBetween GroupsWithin GroupsTotal.75324.60525.3585131136.151.188.802 .55080knowledge604020Std. Dev = .50Mean = 1.480N = 137.001.001.502.004.1knowledge182

FrequencyFrequency140identification12010080604020Std. Dev = .45Mean = 1.150N = 137.001.001.502.002.503.004.2identification100treatment80604020Std. Dev = .52Mean = 1.360N = 137.001.001.502.002.503.004.3treatment183

Frequency140support12010080604020Std. Dev = .43Mean = 1.110N = 137.001.001.502.002.503.00Figure4.4supportThe findings of the above tested hypothesis as shown by the ANOVA in table 4 above were not supported. This means thatthe respondents’ perception would significantly differ when the notion of their stigmatization is considered. As the resultportrayed already, it was only confirmed when the participants’ responses were compared along the dimension ofidentification. Thus, by inference, it showed that while the participants are unanimous, they might have perceived generallythat the behaviour of the mentally-ill is without equivocation, the same every where. Where the participants took theirdecisions on the divide especially as regards the three dimensions of knowledge, treatment and support however, the sameargument that individuals’ position to information and situation would vary as long as they are different people withatypical cultural background, orientations and life experiences would hold. The argument here is that no matter whatindividual, would disagree on a number of issues as long as they are unique.IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGSThe findings from this study have a lot of far reaching implications; among which are:* it showed that as long as individuals are unique they would perceive things differently.*It also equally indicated that the way the mentally-ill are treated can be greatly influenced by the way individuals withinthe community perceive them and thus affecting consequently the discriminatory supports provided to maintain the victims.* The attitude of people to the mentally-ill is continuously negative.CONCLUSIONThe study found that the stigma attached to the mentally-ill is rooted in the interactions of the mentally-ill with peopleliving within the community. Moreover, individual position and perception of the mentally-ill is greatly influenced by theknowledge they have and how they identify with the victims which equally affect the needed treatment and support that isshown to the mentally-ill. As Miles (1988) suggests the stigma attached to mentally ill people is a social stigma because it isthe reaction of the society which singles out certain attributes, evaluates them as undesirable and devalues the person whopossesses them. Gender is socially constructed and is yet another factor that generates the stigma attached to the mentally illpeople. Women are more stigmatized than men even in this dimension (mental illness). The mental disorders in the psyche184

and emotions of the person are caused by the person’s non-improved social environment and disturbing experiences theyhave lived and are still living in.RECOMMANDATIONSThe following recommendations are based on the findings of this study; and include:1. People have to be educated about mental illness. This can be achieved through village gatherings, making use of media, andmaking information about the illness available. Young, middle age and elderly people have to be taught about mental illnessby engaging them in programs that demonstrates how the life of the mentally ill person can be improved should they livewithin an environment. Programs may include peer counseling to enhance mentally ill socialization levels, recreationalactivities that are consistent with their capabilities; in the acute phase, keep activities short and simple. Educating people bymaking information accessible helps the mentally ill person and their community and families to reduce the stigma attachedto mental illness and its victims. For instance for clients to become self-managers, it is essential they learn every thing theycan about their diagnosis and treatment strategies and their families should be included in this educational process.2. The community agencies have to be developed. The community agent can be a social therapist. The community therapistoffer therapy and teach problem-solving and social skills to the community at large without discrimination but giving eachindividual activity that suits their capabilities. They also ensure that medications are being taken properly. They shouldcoordinate available community services, guide clients through the community system, and perhaps most importantly, helpprotect client’s rights.3. The community health professionals and families of the mentally ill should help the mentally ill people by setting limits onthe time the mentally ill people talk about their failures because they may get more depressed or their grandiose beliefs thatmay cause them deny that they need help, by teaching them positive affirmations as a way to counter act negative talkwhich may cause the mentally ill to relapse.4. Engaging the mentally ill people in community activities and families helps them in identifying purposefully with life. Theyshould have opportunity for sense of belonging, value to friends’ short term goals, availability of supportive people andmake use of spiritual resources to decrease distress to facilitate early recovery of their condition.5. The department of Mental Health Department’s decentralization of its activities should facilitate adequate implementationof the Government’ goal of good health for all as well as the provision of funds needed for the treatment and support of thevictims.REFERENCESACA Code of Ethics & Standards of Practice, 1995.Accessed 21 April 2007 from www.counseling.org/Resources/CodeOfEthics/TP/Home/CT2.aspxAndreasen, N.C. (2001). Resolution of Polarization in Psychiatry. Accessed 17 March 2007 frommensanamonographs.tripod.com/id105.htmlAnglo-Ugandan Research, 1999: Healing mental illness the traditional way. Accessed 21 April 2007 fromhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/332641.stmAPA (American Psychological Association). 2000. DSM-IV text revision. Washington. DC: Author.Barnes, M & Marple, N. A. (1992). Women and Mental health: Challenging the Stereotypes. Britain. Birmingham.BBC News 2000 in the News Press for Change. Accessed 7 May 2007 from http://www.pfc.org.uk/node/692Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. NewYork: Guilford Press.Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: Free Press.Bockoven, J.S. (1963).Moral Treatment in American Psychiatry. New York, Springer Publishing Coy.185

Capuzzi, D & Gross. R. (2005). Counseling and Psychotherapy: Theories and Interventions, 3 rd Edition. New York,Prentice HallComer, R.J. (2004).Abnormal Psychology. New York, Worth Publishers.Fontaine, L. k. (2003). Mental Health Nursing. 5 th Ed. New Jersey. Pearson Education. Inc.Gilligan, J.(2001). What works in Residential Care? Accessed 3 May 2007 from www.acu.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/53962/WHAT_WORKS_IN_RESIDENTIAL_CARE_for_MYC_2209.pdfGoffman, E. (1963). Stigma: notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York. Prentice Hall.Harpham, T. & Blue, I. B. (1996). Urbanisation and Mental Health in Developing Countries. England. Avebury.McPherson, S., Richardson, P. & Leroux, P. (2003). Clinical Effectiveness in Psychotherapy and Mental Health. London.Karnac.Miles, A. 1988. The Mentally-ill in the Contemporary Society: A Sociological Introduction. 2 nd Ed. Basil. BlackwellMohlomi Report, Lesotho 2000.Accessed 20 June 2005 from http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/pht/womenshealth/Lesotho_Report_women_in_crisis_June2005.pdf.National Association of Psychiatric Health System (NAPHS)(1999), Assessing Performance at the Millennium. Access11 May 2007 from http://www.mhsip.org/assessing.htmPiajet, J. (1973). The Psychology of the Child. New York, Basic Books.Scaife, J. 2001. Supervision in the Mental Health Professions: A Practitioner’s guide. Canada. Brunner- Routledge.Sharma, T. (2000). Insights and treatment options for psychiatric disorders guided by functional MRI. Journal of ClinicalInvestigation, vol.112, 10-18Swartz, L. 1998. Culture and Mental Health: A Southern African View. Oxford University Press. SA Cape Town. SASzasz, T. S. 1970. The Manufacture of Madness: A Comparative Study of the Inquisition and the Mental HealthMovement. Syracuse. New York. Syracuse University Press.Szasz, T. S. 2000. Second Commentary on “Aristotle’s Function Argument.” Philosophical Psychiatry. Psychology. 7 (1),3 – 16Torrey, E. F. 2001. Surviving Schizophrenia: A manual for Families Consumers and Providers. 4 th Ed. New York. HarperCollins.Zust, B. L. 2000. Effect of Cognitive Therapy on Depression in Rural, Battered Women. Archives of Psychiatry Nursing.14 (2), 51-63.186

APPENDIXQUESTIONNAIREKindly answer the following questions as honestly as possible. Please do not write your name anywhere on thispaper because it is only for research purposes. Thank you for your cooperation.Age:Gender: Male/Female (Please tick) Education: Literate/ not literate (Please tick)Religious Affliction: Traditional …Born Again ……Orthodox ……... Others……(Please tick in the appropriate box)Table 5:Knowledge Sub-categoryMental illness is possession by the devil. Agree Disagree neutralMental illness is like any other illness.Mental illness is absolute craziness.Mental illness is incurable.People bring on the illness on themselves.Mentally ill people are sick because they are self neglecting.Every body harbours symptoms of mental illness.Mental ill people are no different from mentally retarded people.Exorcism (ritual performed to drive away demons) is used to cure mentalillness.Mentally ill people do not conform to social structures. They do not listen tothe rules of their societies.Mentally ill people are not cooperative.Table 6: Identification Sub-categoryMentally ill people have weak character. Agree Disagree NeutralMentally ill people are violent and therefore they are dangerous.People who are affected by mental illness loiter.Mentally ill people behave like children even when they are elderly.Mentally ill people are dirty.People who are affected by mental illness are always carrying oddities.Mentally ill people talk endlessly to themselves.The speech of mentally ill people is haphazard and incoherent. They often talkmany ideas at the same time without logic.The mentally ill people often do not like to be around sane people.Mentally ill people smell badly due to life styles.People who are mentally ill are full of energy that needs to be diverted into moreconstructive ways.187

Table 7: Treatment Sub-categoryMentally ill people are sources of fun. Agree Disagree NeutralMentally ill people must be tortured to immobilize them.The opinions of mentally ill people are undermined.People provoke mentally ill people as an intention to amuse themselves.The mentally ill people must be treated like children.Mentally ill people are not capable of making independent decision. They needapproval of sane people.The mentally ill people are seen as minors by the law.Mentally ill people should be kept indoors as a way to protect other people fromtheir violent behaviour.Mentally ill people are useless.Both Western and traditional medicine can cure mental illness, not social support.Western and traditional medicine cannot cure mental illness absolutely.Mentally ill people have got not to have friends.Mentally ill people need not to work at public offices.Table 8: Support Sub-categoryOffering mentally ill people social support helps them to recover quickly. Agree Disagree NeutralMentally ill people need to be cared for by their communities, families andgovernment in the villages.It is a waste of money to fund mental health services to improve quality oflife for mentally ill people.Giving mental ill people tasks help to improve their concentration.As much as mentally ill people need medicine as much they need socialsupport.Mentally ill people’s rights should be protected by law.Mentally ill people cannot be treated from home. They should all behospitalised.If the person seek help from a mental department or professional it meansthey are wimps.Social support or no social support, the mentally ill cannot always getbetter.Enacting laws for the mentally ill is a waste of time.188

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationOTTOMAN MODERNIZATION AND EFFECTSOF THE TANZIMAT EDICT ON TODAY(November 3, 1839)Zabit ACERDumlupinar University, Vocational School of Kütahya, Kutahya, TurkeyAbstract: Turkish Occidentalization Movements implies some innovations in applied culture and techniques.The innovative values of Western culture, wasn‟t immediately accepted by the intellectuals and the commonpeople. Occidentalization Movements started exactly together with the administrative reports and the superiorityof the Europe was accepted. Because the reforms before the administrative reforms were including traditionalismand Islamic principles, but the innovations after the administrative reforms were formed by the model of Europe.The innovations taken by the administrative reforms were mostly in favor of non-Islamic. During this period,Ottoman Empire found out that he had to have some innovations by abolishing some institutions which had lostits effectiveness instead of counterfeiting the Europe at random. Some compulsory and permanent amendmentswere formed by these innovations. It was aimed that giving birth to the state by the improvements done by theEuropean model. By intending the joining together and corporation thought, “Ottoman Citizenship” was aimed.By the administrative reforms appeared by the 1830 Revolutions in Europe, there had been a turning point of theOttoman Empire‟s modernization and there had been various amendments that its effects are seen today,commonly in the field of education. Municipality and archives movements were some important modelsdeveloped during that period. Lack of some innovations by taking into consideration of some national benefitsand not seeing the real purposes of the European countries‟ proposals had obstructed our benefits from theinterests brought by the administrative reforms. In spite of some officers had sent to Anatolia and Europe todescribe the administrative reforms, common people couldn‟t comprehend the circumstances and these reformscouldn‟t be succeeded. In one hand there had been some political and social innovations in the western style, inthe other hand there had been some other innovations for the army and education. The most important additionof the administrative reforms to the Turkish history was the education of the first intellectual staff and then thefirst step had been taken for the realization of constituonal regime.Key Words: Innovation, Cultere, Modernization, Occidentalization.INTRODUCTIONTurkish westernization movements include some applied renovations in cultural and technical areas. The Westculture‟s values which are new to us haven‟t been accepted immediately by intellectuals and the public. It wasaccepted that Westernization movements started absolutely with the Tanzimat. This beginning started with theedict known as the Imperial Edict of Gulhane (November 3, 1839), revealed important changes in the areas ofeducation, culture, philosophy, law, literature and society. In the Tanzimat Edict, from that time backward a onehundred fifty years review of the Ottoman State against the West was discussed and it was stated about problemsthe State lived. The most intensive critiques to the Tanzimat and westernization movements focused on that theserenovation movements were realized in consequence of the pressure of the West and were not so imperative.(İhsanoğlu 1999: 195)Superiority of Europe was accepted with this edict. Because in the reforms made prior to the Tanzimat while itwas conformed to the principles of traditionalism and commitment to Islamic principles, Europe was taken asmodel in renovations performed after the Tanzimat. “The State concept, bureaucratic organization, army,education, commercial and penal laws and even partly the court organization were changed according to theirEuropean samples.” As a result, a duality within the State occurred almost in every area. (Türkler 12/2: 356)189

The last one of principles of providing the safety of life, goods and chastity, abolishing mistaken applications inthe land tenure system and applying courts equally to people of every religion that take place in the Edict quitehurt Muslim people‟s feelings. Because the superiority of Muslims over infidels had lodged perennially untilnow both in traditions and in morals. To make them equal to each others was perceived an action made againstdiscreation. (Lewis 1993: 107)Innovations the Tanzimat brought mostly became in favour of Non-Muslims. Christian minorities got a greatquantity of wealth by benefiting from the edict. Especially their becoming exempted from military serviceprovided them to grow rich economically and socially. (Ayverdi 1993: 315)1. Proclamation Process of the Tanzimat EdictIn the Ottoman state, the Tanzimat concept was used in the meaning of arranging, improving and reviewing theexisting State structure. The Ottoman State, with the proclamation of the Tanzimat Edict, made reforms inadministrative, civil, military and social areas that this term was called “the Tanzimat Term”. (Hayta 1999: 9)The Tanzimat movements are scheduled renewal and culture movements which were performed being inspiredfrom Europe, to bring a western style thought and management model to the Ottoman. This program started insultanate years of Mahmut II and its being more comprehensive happened with the effect of Mustafa ReshidPasha in the term of Abdulmecid. The Tanzimat Edict was announced to the people in Gulhane by MustafaReshid Pasha. The purpose of this edict can be summarized as preventing European States from intervening ininternal affairs of the Ottoman State, providing closeness with European States and saving the State fromregression by taking help from them in the Mehmed Ali Pasha Rebellion.The Ottoman State, in regression term, understood that it was necessary for him to make important renovationsby abolishing old and dysfunctional institutions instead of copying them slavishly to be able to survive againstEuropean States. In this sense the Tanzimat term differed from previous terms. While renovations made until thisterm were in military area, renovations in social, administrative and legal areas were made with the Tanzimat.The first and most important step of the realization of constitutional order was taken and so first in this term thesultan limited himself even if it is one-sided. To change administrative structure in the western style was aimed.Performed reforms revealed an irreversible situation through this edict. (Hayta 2003: 119)The Tanzimat innovations brought important obligatory and perennial changes in the State management.(Türkler 12/2: 355) The most important innovation the Tanzimat Edict brought to the Ottoman State is theformation of law force. Namely the sultan accepted through the Tanzimat the existence of a power above hisown power. This wasn‟t an agreement made with the people and could be accepted as the starting ofconstitutionalism.The Tanzimat term is one of the most important milestones of the Turkish history and which starts from 1839and continues until 1876 and the effects of which are felt also today. The Ottoman State was not able to show itsold successes against Europe as of late 16 th century and started to make reforms by the aim of removing a varietyof numerous problems. While Europe improved continuously through Renaissance and geographical discoveries,the Ottoman was not able to refresh itself. As of the second half of 18 th century, it accepted military superiorityof Europe, started to lose its lands. The Ottoman accepting the superiority of Europe wanted to benefit fromscience and technologies of Europe by sending embassies and knowing them more closely. That Tulip Termrenovation movements finished with the Patrona Halil Rebellion and then European States urged Non-Muslimcitizens quite wore the Ottoman State. The State all institutions of which corrupted looked for cures to be able tosave from this situation it fell into. Although Selim III looked for permanent solutions to be able to save fromthis situation and started the Nizam-ı Cedid (a modern army) renovations, this term ended with the KabakçıMustafa Rebellion. In the term of Sultan Mahmut II, internal and external problems became inextricable. Afterthe inducement of other minorities in consequence of concessions given to Serbians in 1812, Muslim peopleneeded to migrate from the Balkans to Anatolia. With the Venice Congress, the East Issue clearly becameappear. The rebellion of Mora, giving independence to Greece, living the Navarin Event, giving autonomy toWallachia and Moldavia and the Mehmed Ali Pasha Rebellion put the Ottoman State on the very spot. As aresult of that Mehmed Ali Pasha arrived to Konya, the Ottoman wished help from Russia. For that reason,Austria, England and France interfered in this matter and Kütahya Agreement was done signed between theOttoman State and Mehmed Ali Pasha. Therefore internal problem of the Ottoman State became politicalproblem of Europe also with interventions of European States. European States started to state their views notonly in military and political areas but also in social, juridical and economic areas. They even started to make190

pressure about giving new rights to Christian minorities over the Ottoman State. Mustafa Reshid Pasha believedthat the State could be saved if reforms could be made by taking Europe an example. That Tanzimat Edict wasproclaimed under these hard conditions and included many ideas regarded unfamiliar by the society, likedeeming Muslim and Non-Muslim citizens equal before the law until that time. Innovations made with theTanzimat became the beginning of a new term and lighted the way for reforms which will be made in the future.(Yıldız 1992: VII-IX) In the times when the Tanzimat Edict was proclaimed, the problematic situation in whichthe Ottoman State took place was wanted to be solved through interventions of European States and especiallyEngland. (Kütükoğlu 2001: 355) So the moderate medium provided with the edict facilitated to solve the Egyptissue which became a matter of Europe. The problem was solved thanks to that five States meted in London withthe suggestion of England and France being the ally of Mehmed Ali Pasha was excluded and then the LondonAgreement was signed in July 15, 1840 between England, Russia, Austria and Prussia. Therefore Mehmed AliPasha left the lands he occupied and Egypt Governorship was left to him with the inheritance method. (Küçük1999: 259)Some sovereigns and Statesmen believed that reforms in military area should be made to prevent successivemilitary failures and assumed they could be saved from these problems with the Tanzimat. (Kaynar 1991: 2)Whereas with this edict, the pressure of the West much increased primarily in the subject of situations ofChristian minorities and later of the realization of administrative and judicial reforms. (Zürcher 1996: 87)The Imperial Edict, which was read in the garden of Gulhane by Mustafa Reshid Pasha on Sunday 3 November1836, was entitled the Tanzimat Edict. “In the reading of the edict, the audience consisted of the sultan, first menof the State, notables, representatives of Non-Muslim congregations, embassies of foreign countries and peoplefrom the public.” It was stated that the safety of life, goods and chastity would be given to everybody eitherMuslim or Non-Muslim, taxes would be collected righteously, an arrangement would be brought to militaryservice and the „imtiyazat (privileges)‟ declared in the edict would be complied by the sultan himself and peoplenot complying with it would be punished. (Türköne 1999: 275, Koçu 1981: 393)2. Analysis of the Tanzimat EdictThe Tanzimat Edict aimed interdependence in the society and the togetherness thought and goaled the Ottomancitizenship thought. In the first part, in respect of opinions revealed, it was stated that the State became powerfulas of the beginning was sourced from the commitment to Koran and its principles. In the second part, it wasstated that the State got weaker for laws and rules were not complied in the last a hundred and fifty year. In thethird part, it was stated that new laws were put for the State to be powerful again. In the fourth part, it was statedthat the laws to be formed newly would be applied among citizens justly and equally. In the fifth part, it was toldabout bases of new laws in principle. When we analysed the edict in this way under five parts, the mostimportant point attracting our attention was living of big changes in terms of personality rights. Therefore thesecular and democratic system became important for the Ottoman State. (Hayta 2003: 121-123) As a result ofrenovations made with the Tanzimat Edict, the basic principles accepted by European States were accepted.Therefore in the Ottoman State, democratic order will start to come into being. (Karal 1988: 173)In the Tanzimat Edict there isn‟t any lack of method with respect the way text is written. However whenexamined its provisions, there are big changes in terms of rearranging relations between citizens and the Stateand limiting authorities of the sovereign legally. So this edict provided the formation of a constitutionalmanagement. With the Imperial Edict of Gulhane, it was promised to ensure Muslim and Christian citizens‟safety of life, goods and chastity, to levy taxes regularly according to everybody‟s own income, to arrangemilitary affairs, to make courts open and to rearrange the death sentence, to discuss judicial and fiscal topics inthe Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye) and military topics in Daru‟ş-Şura-yıAskeri (a military council), to possess one‟s own commodities and estates and to be able to leave these as legacy,to abolish bribe and favour, the sultan‟s taking an oath upon conforming to laws and to accept the existence ofthe law force above every power. While in the Tanzimat Edict the commitment to Sharia provisions was seen inthe forefront, views concerning European law and State understanding took important place. Because laws madeto develop the country were taking their source from the West. In this edict, Sharia provisions and Ottoman TacitLaw took place together with the west based law. So the Tanzimat Edict occurred with the mixture of West andEast. (Gencer 1993: 440-441)Although the Tanzimat Edict is a movement occurring with the effect of the 1830 Revolutions in Europe, it can‟tbe compared with love of freedom appearing in the West not as a movement coming from the base but as a wellintentionedfavour the sultan granted. In addition, while the foundation of constitutional regime was aimed in191

interdependence movements in Europe, some guarantees provided to individuals with the Tanzimat Edict in theOttoman State can be deemed the first step taken toward constitutional order. (Armaoğlu 1993: 55-56)With this edict, which brought equality between Muslim and Non-Muslim citizens in terms of right and law,since such an equality was being deemed unavailable according to Islamic rules in the past, deep injuriesoccurred in the society structure. (İhsanoğlu 1999: 95) A thing that citizens living in the Ottoman State beforethe Tanzimat Edict had not basic rights and freedoms and everything was between two mouths of the sultan cannot be told. The administration of the kings in the West was absolutely a monarchy and they had legislation,execution and juridical forces in their hands. There isn‟t an autocracy of this meaning in the Ottoman State.Sherry provisions were accepted in return for legislation power and anybody wasn‟t able to intervene in theseprovisions. Sometimes oppositions and exploits happened. In juridical power, if the sultan hadn‟t got thischaracteristic, then this authority was not given to him. Execution came together in the sultan being the head ofexecution, being suitable with sherry provisions. So in the text of the Tanzimat Edict it was observed that somedefects in the application were stated. The Imperial Edict of Gulhane proclaimed by Sultan Abdulmecid with theefforts of Mustafa Reshid Pasha was a good starting concerning rights and freedoms and an important step takenfor justice to be realized within the State. The reason of that Western States made pressures in the proclamationof this edict was sourced not from unavailability of rights and freedoms in the Ottoman State but from theexistence of some exploits. Therefore they wanted limitations and liabilities brought by Islamic Law to Non-Muslims to be abolished. (İhsanoğlu 1999: 96)Prior to the Tanzimat, while reforms were made to be able to produce solutions for problems in the country,external pressures came out in the reforms made with the Tanzimat Edict and in consequence of this, somechanges were made. Mustafa Reshid Pasha stated that the solution way to problems the Ottoman State lived wasintegration with the West. And Western States directed the Ottoman State in realizing economical, political andadministrative reforms. (Sofuoğlu 2004: 79)Since embassies of European States were invited by Mustafa Reshid Pasha in the proclamation of the ImperialEdict, a sort of guarantorship was given to the Western countries for the sultan to not abolish the edict. Thereforethe related people deemed this situation a baseline for themselves and started to intervene in internal affairs ofthe Ottoman State and to intermeddle continuously. (Sofuoğlu 2004: 81-82)3. Application of the Tanzimat EdictViews taking place in the Tanzimat Edict are quite important and have formed a milestone for the modernizationof the Ottoman State. This edict stating that it did“Usûl-i atîkayı bütün bütün tağyir ve tecdîd (completelydisordered the old procedure and then renovated it)” not only stayed on the paper and most of it were applied. Soit differed from its similar ones. (Türköne 1999: 275)The Imperial Edict of Gulhane can be evaluated in two terms with respect to applying its provisions. The first isthe term which continues until the Reform Edict and in which Mustafa Reshid Pasha is leading performer andthe second is the time which continues until the 1 st Constitution Act term under the leadership of Ali, Fuad andMithat Pashas. Since there wasn‟t any preparation about the application of provisions in the first term, theapplication of renovations became an important problem. So a new Edict (1840) was prepared by ministerscouncil for the Tanzimat Edict to be understood better by the people and to prevent riots and it was clearly statedthat it wouldn‟t be against laws and regulations the sultan wanted to be applied. It was stated that everybodyfrom the vizier to the shepherd would be deemed equal, life, goods and chastity safety of all citizens would beensured, the penalty of death was abolished except obligatory reasons, those acting against these provisionswould be punished no matter which ranks they had and so injustice would be prevented. These provisions startedto be applied primarily in Istanbul and vicinity and then information was sent to other provinces and they wereinformed about applications. Taxes started to be taken from everybody according to their incomes and the landtenure system torturing to the villager was abolished in 1840. Officers were assigned to be able to gather taxesregularly. New laws were enacted and the Treasury was upgraded and courts concerning commerce werefounded. To be able to prevent the fiscal stress, a paper money called “kaime-i mutebere-i nakdiyye” was putinto circulation. It was desired to found a State Bank but later desisted from founding it. However precautionstaken in fiscal area did not make glad Muslim and Non-Muslim people. Especially with the Tanzimat, that Non-Muslim people freely could perform their religious rituals and so they could ring the church bells freely formedhate among Muslim people. Clergy in churches also didn‟t become glad for their incomes went out due to newtaxes. The reason of the rebellions occurring in some provinces primarily in Istanbul was sourced from newapplications. The application of renovations was accelerated by solving the Egypt problem but the oppositionwasn‟t be able to be prevented. In consequence of this, Mustafa Reshid Pasha falling from grace was reappointed192

to Paris Embassy. Mehmed Sadık Rıfat Pasha taking the place of him defended the Tanzimat renovations to beapplied not immediately but gradually and slowly. Despite many troubles, performed reforms were continued bythe efforts of Sultan Abdulmecid. Stamp duties and finance stamps were put to be able to increase revenue in thisterm. Maps concerning cities and ports were formed. To be able to form a Western style army, permanentrenewals were made. After 1843, military service time was elevated to 5 years and the previous soldiers weredisbanded. The army was separated into five classes as Hassa, Dersaadet (Istanbul), Rumelia, Anatolia andArabia. To raise students for Military School (Harbiye Mektabi), senior high schools were opened. With theTanzimat Edict, when Western States became defenders of rights of Non-Muslim people, to manage them turnedout quite difficult. Non-Muslims benefiting from privileges the edict brought along carried the affair to such apoint that they accepted themselves as a person of the State the religion of which was the same with theirreligion, to be able to save from the dominance of the Ottoman. For example, Catholics accepted themselves asFrench, Orthodoxes as Russian. So Europeans started to intervene in internal affairs of the Ottoman State. Inaddition, the sect struggle among Christians (e.g. Maruni, Ulah, Roum) revealed important difficulties in theapplication of the Tanzimat. Such fights precluded successful commerce to be produced in the country andabroad. (Gencer 1993: 442-445)To understand the Tanzimat Edict better, abbreviated exact text is that:“My Vizier,As known by everybody, since almighty provisions of Koran and sherry laws were complied as of the foundationof our exalted State, the force and glory of our supreme royalty and the whole citizens‟ welfare and prosperityhad arrived to the peak. There is a one hundred fifty years in that neither sharia sharif nor laws were complieddue to successive troubles and various reasons and so the previous force and prosperity were reversed and left itsplace to weakness and poorness. Whereas it is very real that countries not managed under sharia laws won‟t bepermanent.As of our accession to the sultanate position, our auspicious opinions and works are only and only exclusive toissues of the belief of the country and welfare of people. If we look at our State‟s geographical position, efficientterritory and abilities of people, it will necessarily come to desired form with the benevolence of Allah within 5-10 years provided that necessary attempts are applied.By trusting the support and benevolence of Allah and relying on spirituality of Hz. Prophet, as of now, to preachsome new laws is necessary for the best administration of our exalted State. The basis of these compulsory lawsshall consist of topics of life safety, the protection of chastity, decency and goods, tax levying and determinationand necessary military call and employment.Indeed since in the world there isn‟t anything mightier than life, chastity and decency, as a man see them underrisk, even if he doesn‟t tend to betray by its very nature, for protecting his life and chastity he can attempt somebetrayal ways as well and it is admitted by everybody that this will harm the State and nation. In contrary, thosebeing sure of their lives and chastity don‟t leave from honesty and course and it is quite clear that their worksand interests will be good service to their State and nation. In case there isn‟t safety of goods, everybody can‟twarm to both his State and nation, can‟t concern reconstruction of the country and always feels anxiety and grief.Otherwise namely if he be sure of his goods and property thoroughly, he becomes busy with himself and caresfor widening his sustenance circle. The State-nation ardour and the fatherland love increase day by day in him.To this, he tries to serve well.In tax levying and determination, a State stands in need of soldiers and making other necessary expenses for theprotection of the country. And this be with money. Money is got with taxes of citizens. So it is very important tocare for the arrangement of the tax issue in the best way. Albeit the people of our country were saved from themonopoly devil supposed as revenue before, praise be to Allah, the land tenure procedure which is one of themost destructive tools in this subject and any useful fruit of which is never seen is still in force today. The landtenure procedure means delivering political affairs and fiscal operations of a country to the management of asingle man and maybe his unjust treatment. If that man whom it is delivered is not a good human, he cares foronly his interest and all actions of him consist of ruthlessness and oppression.For this reason, after that, every individual in the country is obligated to give a suitable tax according to hisproperty and financial power and it is compulsory to not take any more thing from anybody and also to explainand limit our exalted State‟s military expenses and other costs in the land and sea and to make actions accordingto these.193

In military service issue, as meant above, even if sending soldiers for the protection of the country is the owe ofthe people, as realized until now, without looking the present population of a country, demanding soldiers morethan endurance power of some and demanding less soldiers from some are the reason of the disorder and of thecorruption of both agriculture and commerce. In addition, the employment of those soldiers, who come to thearmy, until the end of their lives requires languor and the generation‟s extinction. So if needed, for soldiersdemanded from every country, it is necessary to find a good method and to employ them for four or five yearsand to perform military service by turns.In short, if these imperative laws are not preached, getting force, prosperity, public peace and repose is notpossible. The essence of all them consists of shortly explained basic issues.After that, if case of criminals are not handled publicly and decided according to sharia laws, the execution ofsecret or open death sentence and poisoning operation is not allowable. The attack by anyone against the other‟schastity and decency shouldn‟t happen. Everybody will possess and own his goods and property within anabsolute freedom and anyone will not able to intervene in him. If the accusation and misdemeanor of anyone areavailable, his heirs, since they will be far from that accusation and misdemeanor, these heirs won‟t be madeexempted from right of inheritance by sequestering his goods.Muslims and other religions‟ members who are citizens of the Ottoman will benefit from these provisionswithout exception. In life, goods and chastity issues, an exact safety was given to people of the whole countryaccording to sharia provisions and the decisions about other issues were taken unanimously and the necessity foraccomplishing affairs was confirmed.Members of the Supreme Council of Judicial Ordinances will be increased in number if necessary; deputies andother Statesmen of the exalted State will be bring together in the days scheduled; and all of them will be able tounreservedly state their opinions and comments freely.Necessary laws regarding safety of life and goods and the tax determination will be decided in one side andarrangements in military topics will be talked in the Dar-uş Şura of Bab-ı Seraskeri (council of the ministry ofnational defence).As every law is decided, for it be in force as long as Allah likes, it will be presented to us for it to be confirmedwith our signature of the imperial.Since these sharia laws will only and only preached for the welfare of the State‟s religion and the nation‟sproperty, we‟ll promise not to realize any contravention; and the oath will be offered to scholars and deputies inthe Room of Hırka-i Sherife.According to this, the necessary punishment of those acting in the opposite of sherry laws, no matter they bescholars or viziers or anyone, in the grade of their identified crimes, will be executed without paying attention tosake and feelings. For this, a penal statute book shall be arranged.All officers currently have sufficient amount of wages; it there are those not having, for they will becompensated as well, bribe issue being damnable according to Shari‟a and causing the destroy of the countryshall be testified for it not to happen again.Since explained issues means to totally change and renovate the previous procedure (Tanzimat), hereby ourprecious behest shall be proclaimed to Dersaadet (Istanbul) and all people of the country. In the testimony offriendly States for this procedure to hopefully continue eternally, it shall be declared officially to Embassiesresiding in the Dersaadet.May Our almighty Lord render all of us successful. May those acting in the opposite of these preached lawsobtain the damn of Allah and not get salvation eternally.Sha‟ban 26, 1255 / November 3, 1839. (Akgündüz 1999: 252)CONCLUSIONIn the Tanzimat term, many changes especially in education area were realized that their impacts are felt eventoday. Municipal service and record keeping are important models developing in this term. So the Ottoman Stateunderstood it fell behind the West and realized renovations in every area in the western style. (Akgündüz 1999:253) That any changes were not made by taking into account national interests with the Tanzimat Edict and thatwe weren‟t able to see real intentions under the suggestions of the Western States prevented us from benefitingessential advantages the revolution would bring about. Western States wanted to break the Ottoman State into194

pieces and to take the largest piece for themselves and compelled the State to proclaim the Tanzimat. By usingchanges the Tanzimat brought about, they intervened in internal affairs of the Ottoman and precluded therecovery of the empire. (Ayverdi 1993: 324) Since with the renovations a solution wasn‟t found to break-downsin the State and morals, desired result wasn‟t able to be taken and the State wasn‟t able to be saved fromcollapsing. Since the Tanzimat Edict came into being with the will of people but with unilateral will of thesultan, it couldn‟t be understood by people completely. For the Tanzimat Edict to be able to be understood betterby people, although officers were sent to Anatolia and Rumelia, the goal wasn‟t able to be arrived. The OttomanState goaled to take the support of European States when proclaiming this edict. The Western style renovationswere made about outward appearance, life style and social area and the law, trade, penal codes and courts. Alsoin the army and education areas renovations were made by taking the West as a sample. Immediately after theTanzimat, the Mehmed Ali Pasha problem was able to be solved with the support of them. Europeans and Non-Muslims benefited from rights the edict brought along more than Turks and Muslims. The most importantcontribution of the Tanzimat Edict to the Turkish history is that the first Ottoman intelligentsia raised in this termand that the first important step was taken on the way to realize the constitutional regime.BIBLIOGRAPHYAkgündüz, Ahmet-Said Öztürk;, İstanbul 1999,Bilinmeyen Osmanlı, Osmanlı Araştırmaları Vakfı Yay..Armaoğlu, Fahir; Ankara 1993, 20.Yüzyıl Siyasi Tarihi, Türkiye İş Bankası Yay., C. I,.Ayverdi, Samiha; İstanbul 1993, Türk Tarihinde Osmanlı Asırları, Damla Yay.Gencer, Ali İhsan; İstanbul 1993, “Tanzimat Fermanı (1839)‟dan 1876‟ya Kadar Osmanlı İmparatorluğu”,D.G.B.İ.T., Çağ Yay.Hayta, Necdet-Refik Turan; Ankara 1999, Atatürk İlkeleri ve İnkılap Tarihi, Siyasal Yay.Hayta, Necdet-Uğur Ünal; Ankara 2003,Osmanlı Devleti‟nde Yenileşme Hareketleri (XVIII.yüzyıl başlarındanyıkılışa kadar), Gazi Yay.İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin-Feridun Emecen; İstanbul 1999, Osmanlı Devleti Tarihi, C. I, Feza Yay.İhsanoğlu, Ekmeleddin-Nuri Yüce; İstanbul 1999, Osmanlı Medeniyeti Tarihi, C. I., Feza Yay.İnalcık, Halil; Eskişehir 2001, “Tanzimatın Uygulanması ve Sosyal Tepkileri”, M.E.B. İ.A., C. 12/2.Karal, Enver Ziya; Ankara 1988,Osmanlı Tarihi, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yay., C. V.Kaynar, Reşat; Ankara 1991, Mustafa Reşit Paşa ve Tanzimat”, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi.Koçu, Reşad Ekrem; İstanbul 1981,Osmanlı Padişahları, Ana Yay.Küçük, Cevdet; İstanbul 1999 ,“Abdülmecid”, T.D.V. İ.A., C. I.Kütükoğlu, M.S.; Eskişehir 2001, “Osmanlı-İngiliz İktisadi Münasebetleri (1838-1850)”, M.E.B. İ.A., C. 12/2.Lewis, Bernard; İstanbul 1993,Modern Türkiye‟nin Doğuşu, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yay.Sofuoğlu, Ebubekir; İstanbul 2004, Osmanlı Devletinde Islahatlar ve I.Meşrutiyet, Gökkubbe Yay.Türköne, Mümtazer; Ankara 1999, “Tanzimat Fermanı ve Mehmet Sadık Rıfat Paşa”, Osmanlı, Yeni TürkiyeYay., C. VII.Yıldız, Hakkı Dursun; Ankara 1992,150. Yılında Tanzimat, T.T.K..Zürcher, Eric Jan; İstanbul 1996, Modernleşen Türkiye‟nin Tarihi, İletişim Yay.195

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 2(3), 2009ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationHow Libraries Contribute to Communities and SocietyJ. A. AbolajiDeputy University LibrarianJoseph Ayo Babalola UniversityIkeji-ArarkejiP. M. B. 5006,Ilesa, NigeriaE-mail address for correspondence : jabolaji@yahoo.com._____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : This paper discusses the roles of library as a unifying factor in the community.It argues that though the school library in a rural area should focus on its primary clientele, it should also extend itsservices and resources to other residents of the community in which it is located. The paper then gives a briefdescription of the development of mobile and rural libraries in England, United States and Nigeria.The efforts of some university libraries to achieve the same goal are discussed. It argues that the university librariescan do better in communities where library services are poor or not available. It also discusses how the advent ofthe ICT has transformed library services.__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe modern library is not only a collection of textbooks. It includes other sources like reference materials, booksrelating to school curriculum, general books not relating to a specific subject area, periodicals, newspapers, audiovisualmaterials, government publications and electronically stored and retrievable materials. These resources enablelibraries to play a crucial role in the success of lifelong education of communities and society in general.It is a well known fact that education at certain levels goes beyond the normal teacher–student or classroom–studentrelationship. Students who really intend to acquire substantial knowledge must work independently in their searchby using reference materials and other sources available in the library. Apart from being agents of educationalchange, libraries serve other purposes like economic, social, political and recreational changes because they containthe written history, culture and knowledge of the human race.In Nigeria and other developing countries of Africa, government objectives include (a) life-long education for thecitizens as the basis for the nation’s educational policy (b) emphasis on the use and improvement of moderneducational techniques at all levels of the educational system (c) the structuring of education system to develop thepractice of self learning (d)making the people to become actively literate and generally well-informed (e) theintroduction of universal basic and compulsory education for all citizens. In this regard, the African NetworkCampaign for Education for All (ANCEFA) stresses the need for serious focus on and investment in formaleducation and non-formal education like adult literacy programmes and youth training centres to tackle the literacycrisis (Olanrewaju 2009). These objectives can be easily achieved with the aid of well-stocked and equippedlibraries in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions in addition to the maintenance of public, rural and mobilelibraries across the country. Let us now examine how these libraries can help in the realization of these objectives.197

School LibrarySeveral authors have written on the importance of improving school library services and their roles in providing lifelong education for students in secondary schools and tertiary institutions. Ogunsheye (1966), Fadero (1968), Dean(1969). Sinnette (1969), Akinyotu (1971), Adediran (1971) and Olanlokun (1976) have, among other things, calledon institutions like library schools, universities and ministries of education to come to the aid of school libraries toenable them to improve on their services. The authors mentioned above have acknowledged school libraries as anintegral part of the school and a teaching aid in supporting the educational programme (Olaosun 1978). Similarly,Abolaji (1981) emphasized the roles of a school library or media resource centre in making the teaching andlearning of history more lively and interesting to both the teacher and the pupils. He noted that certain materialswhich are not within the reach of both the teacher and the pupils, for reasons of cost and availability, should beprovided by the library.Our suggestion in this paper is that a school library should extend its resources and services to other residents of thecommunity in which it is located in addition to its primary clientele. This is more crucial in villages andcommunities where public libraries are not available.Almost every rural community in Nigeria, for example, owns a school at least. Some of the schools have one kind oflibrary or the other. For example, the Bauchi State Government recently embarked on the restocking of all librariesin the public secondary schools and tertiary institutions across the State. According to Michael (2009), the poorcondition of the public school libraries in Bauchi State informed the decision of the State Government to embark onmass purchase of relevant textbooks worth over five billion naira for its nursery, primary, post-primary and tertiaryinstitutions in the state. Conversely, not every village or rural area can boast of the public library or its services. Thereason is that the library has not been actively involved with information transfer activities in rural areas (Aboyade1987). This is because the policy makers often exhibit the notion that libraries generally are not on their priority list,how much less libraries for rural areas. This is why a school library should, as much as possible, make its resourcesand services available to all residents of the community on equal terms regardless of occupation, creed, age, class orpolitical inclination. There is a possible way of doing this. A school library can borrow a leaf from what Brown(1971) saw in one American public library. There teenagers swayed to a rock music concert. People played checkersor chess in reading rooms. Others talked and laughed. A group of mothers drank coffee and made clothes on donatedsewing machines in a library room. Children acted out a story. All these could take place in any village library that isfunded from taxes paid by residents of a community.Moreover, it is the responsibility of the village school library to ensure that the products of universal basic educationand adult literacy programmes in the rural area do not lapse into illiteracy soon after the completion of their formalcourses. To achieve this goal, the school library should provide recreational reading materials which are related tothe people’s cultural background. Such materials will interest people with limited knowledge and local interest.They will also make reading for the people a pleasurable activity and not like another school assignment. Themobile public libraries, in addition to the school libraries, where they are available, are certainly the best institutionsto provide this service (Ogunsola, 1999). Above all, school libraries have the responsibility of providing literaturewithin the field of education. It is also their responsibility to supply information and subject reference services. Thebasis for these services is a sufficient collection of general and subject-oriented reference works.Mobile LibrariesAccording to Orton (1980), the first recorded instance of readers borrowing books from a vehicle in England wasfrom a horse drawn van in Warrington in 1859. The working men of Warrington, through the offices of theMechanics Institute, purchased the van. The van was used mainly within Warrington for the benefit of the workingmen who would not go to the Institute Library. It is important to note that the mobile library served a varied clientelefrom pre-school age to the elderly thus catering for the information needs of all groups within the community.Eastwood (1967), in addition, had asserted that ―the first true mobile in England was the converted bus whichManchester operated from 28 th July, 1931‖. Surprisingly, most county librarians at that time did not accept the ideaof the mobile library as the best way to serve remote areas. The feeling at the time was that the village library wasthe centre of the community and should be maintained as the ideal centre of service. Mobiles were considered to198

spoon feed the general reader. This was thought to be undesirable. This was partly due to the influence of theCarnegie Trust, which was firmly behind the establishment of the village centre library.Nevertheless, the service was appreciated and used by those living in the rural areas. The mobile service wasenthusiastically supported by users throughout England. In 1976, it was reported that the mobile library gave a farbetter selection of books to a community, attracted borrowers from a wider cross-section of the population andissued more books than a static village centre library.In the same manner, Gunter (1986) observed that traveling libraries were used to make books accessible to readersin remote villages and hamlets in England. There had been book deposits over the years and boxes of books weresent out to be changed at intervals. However, a greater need was recognized to provide a varied collection to therural areas on a regular basis. This had developed over the years into a modern van service. The van serviceprovided the population of rural England with light reading and substantial amount of reference materials as well.In 1978 a new innovation was introduced to library services in Nigeria. The Rivers State Library Board launched―M. V. Knowledge I‖ on 21 st March, 1978. It was a mobile library operated in a boat. The boat library attractedvisitors from all corners of the country apart from users in the Rivers State who were the primary clientele.The boat had a capacity for 2000 volumes. It could also accommodate two Library Assistants, two Sea-men, aQuartermaster and an Engineering Assistant. Its activities were supervised by a Senior Librarian. ―Three boats wereeventually commissioned to provide library services to the rural areas of the state. The rural areas were divided intothree zones and a boat served each zone. Readers who borrowed books could keep them for a month before theyreturned or renew them because it took up to a month for a boat to go round all the towns in a zone‖ (Yobe,1978).It is clear from the foregoing that wherever a library building is not practical in any community, the bookmobile isan instrument that can be used to extend library services to every nook and cranny of the community to enable allsegments of a society to enjoy library services. A bookmobile can thus be used to introduce library services tounderserved areas and to give continued services to areas that cannot support permanent library buildings in thesociety.The bookmobile should also operate as an integral part of the public library system. The successful bookmobile hasthe same high standard for staff, for book collection and services to be rendered as any other department of thelibrary system. Services such as charging and discharging of books to readers and enrolment of new readers areperformed at bookmobile centres. Bookmobile also includes reference materials among its collection for renderingreference services. Services should be offered at a time convenient to the majority of the people in a given area. It isdesirable to provide services during evening hours. Services on Saturdays may be popular in some communities andshould be scheduled wherever possible.If, however, there is no opportunity of organizing a bookmobile service in a given area, probably as a result ofinaccessibility of the place by easy means of transport, book-boxes should be stationed in centrally located premiseslike schools, churches, mosques and town-hall. In such a situation, a teacher or some other interested andresponsible person should be asked to take care of the lending services.Rural LibrariesUntil the 1940s rural library service was identified with extension services. The first rural services were the travelinglibraries administered by state. They were based on a conviction that rural areas were not able to organize andsupport their own libraries. Any definition of rural library services must include not only libraries in the rural areas,but supporting agencies and extension services as well (DeGrutes, 1980).The history of rural public library services in the United States has been one of constant expansion of services tounserved populations and formation of larger units of services. There are many obstacles which library services inthe rural areas must overcome. They include scattered population and low population density, poor transportationand communication systems, lack of financial resources and lower educational levels than in urban areas.The traveling library of the nineteenth century in the United States was ―a collection of books lent to a communityfor general reading. Its purpose was to provide moral and cultural edification rather than research materials. Thiswas in line with the purpose of small public libraries at that time.‖ There were two types of collections. The first199

types were ―fixed set‖ in which the original combination of books remained unchanged and were rotated amongdifferent communities. The second type were ―open-shelf‖ which were collections made up for a specificcommunity from a central general collection. Most of the books were fiction, with a few non-fiction titles. The ideawas to encourage reading for the purpose of reading as a wholesome and uplifting recreation. Another interestingpoint to note is that the first rural service was not free. Every state except Delaware and California required theborrowing community to pay at least some of the transportation charges.As Stith and Klee (1983) have reported, telephone is another important tool that had been used to provide libraryservices in the rural areas. In this regard, telephone reference service includes all the calls that a library receivesfrom its patrons. These calls may be request for direction or library hours or request for readers’ services whichrequire checking the card catalogue or offering interlibrary loan services. Regardless of the level of reference serviceexecuted, every telephone call plays an important role in the library. In the rural setting the telephone’s critical roleis intensified by the library’s geographical isolation from patrons and large libraries.The picture of rural library service in the developing world is not as bright as the one painted above. Aboluwarin(1998), Agboola (2000),Ikhizama and Okojie (2001) have documented the efforts of some libraries in informationdissemination in rural areas of Nigeria. Nevertheless adequate attention has not been paid to library services in therural areas of Nigeria. As Aboyade (1987) has observed, some librarians argue that because it is not yet possible toadequately serve the city dwellers, who have the educational capacity to use library services, serving the ruraldwellers, who are mostly illiterate would be a misdirection of efforts. However, the outcome of a modest pilotproject aimed at giving library and information services in a rural setting which Aboyade (1984) set up in Badekuvillage near Ibadan in Oyo State of Nigeria has proved that argument wrong.At Badeku library service was provided in a building that was erected through the efforts of the village women. Thebuilding was often used as a meeting place for the villagers and other research teams. The library team visited thevillage on Fridays. Friday was the only work-free day in the village when people could spare some time to use thelibrary.The project was an eye opener to the role of the library in the rural area. In the first place, the project has shown thatthe information needs of rural dwellers are many and diverse. They include interest to know more about farming,concern with cultural matters, public affairs and entertainment. Secondly, it has shown that the library can assisteven rural dwellers in a country where the majority of the population are illiterate, but not unintelligent, to realizetheir aspirations quickly. Thirdly, it has been realized that non-literate rural dwellers can make effective use of asophisticated institution like the library, when it is tailored to their own structure of information demand. Forexample, the pilot project gave the people an opportunity to voice out their information needs. It was eventuallyfound that they were most willing to utilize such information they requested for much better than any other type ofinformation given to them.Moreover, it was surprisingly discovered that the villagers could benefit from other aspects of information that arenot so functional. ―Sitting down in a relaxed atmosphere and listening to someone read to them was a completelynew and pleasing experience to nearly all the patrons. In the traditional mode they were the ones required to retellfolktales to children by moonlight. Now they themselves received similar pleasure from modern creative writings.Consequently, there were demands for more books than the project could afford. That was the only limiting factor tothe new horizon that broke before the people who could not read themselves‖ (Aboyade, 1987).From the above one could see that the cultural purposes of a library are not limited to and appreciated by the refinedmembers of the society who do not have to spend most of their time, like the rural dwellers, just to make ends meet.Therefore, reading or listening can play an important role in the beneficial use of leisure, in addition to what ruralpeople normally do to fill their work-free hours. The library in a rural setting can consciously strive to help people tocultivate a taste for books and reading.Above all, the project has demonstrated that the library, through some of its activities, can draw all interested groupstogether. This can be done by providing a forum in particular localities where all officials like agricultural extensionofficers, rural health personnel, community development officers, home economic agents and political field agentscan obtain reference information and materials for their extension services. They will, through this, get to know anduse other materials that are not produced by their own institutions. This will also enable the library to intervene with200

its own information support for whatever project is going on in the locality. The library will also provide a forum formutual interaction among officials at the local level, which may be difficult at their various ministries andheadquarters. To be able to play the coordinating role successfully, the library in the rural area will have to pay moreattention to its own extension activities than is usual in the urban areas.University LibrariesSome university libraries in Nigeria have taken certain steps to bring together different sections of theircommunities. The first is the establishment of Leisure Reading Collection (LRC). Two universities did this severalyears ago. In 1967 the University of Ife Library (now called Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library, Obafemi AwolowoUniversity, Ile-Ife) established an LRC. The idea was copied from the University of Ibadan where such a collectionexisted.The collection covered all subject areas like history, biography, science, religion and philosophy. Current fiction anddrama predominated. At Ibadan students who wished to read books outside their degree programmes for purposes ofinformation and pleasure used the collection a great deal. More importantly, wives of staff, mainly expatriates,borrowed immensely from the collection. At Ife, the same principle and similar objectives informed the introductionof the collection (Dipeolu, 2002). The point to emphasize here is that, with the LRC, the two universities extendedtheir services beyond the staff and students, whom they were primarily established to serve, to wives of staff, whowere neither students nor staff themselves but members of the university communities. By so doing the libraries alsoinculcated the reading and library use habit in those patrons. They also developed in the patrons effective library useby teaching them the skills and techniques of using a collection of this kind as a basis for library use in later life.Secondly, the Customary Court Records of Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library has always attracted users from differentparts of the country especially the six states of the South-West. The library inherited the records of all the oldcustomary courts of the old Western Region of Nigeria from which Lagos State, Ogun State, Oyo State, Osun State,Ondo State and Ekiti State have been carved out. Today users patronize the library to obtain photo copies ofjudgments of cases handled by the customary courts, especially on land disputes, whenever such cases are revisitedin higher courts of the land.Thirdly, at Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji, in Osun State, two of the resources of the library alwaysbring patrons from different sections of the community together. The first is the e-library, which we shall discussmore about later. The second is the Reprographic Section. Members of the Ikeji-Arakeji community use thisresource a great deal. In this section the people make photo copies of documents such as birth certificates, drivers’license, vehicle license and academic certificates. The lamination of the original copies of such certificates is alsodone in the section. By this effort the library brings town and gown together.ICT and the New LibraryLibraries all over the world are beginning to be more interactive than passive. ―The coming of ICT into the libraryhas completely changed the face of the library to more of a social networking centre. This is the only way you canattract young audience to use the library outside reading to pass examinations‖ (Akinbulumo, 2008). A good numberof public libraries in the developing countries now have restaurants, snacks shop and computer games for the youngaudience as well as the adults. The new innovation has shot up the number of young people that use the library ormake the library their second home. This has also cut down on crime rates in some of the countries.According to Onuoha (2008), the library at Loma Linda University in California has fully redesigned its readingspaces. They now have ―the quiet library reading area and the interactive areas.‖ In the quiet reading areas you canhear a pin drop. The interactive reading areas are however different. They have the computer here for browsing.There is also a vending machine in that section. One can buy drinks and biscuits and take them in the interactivereading areas. This is so because the computer is interactive and when users go there they want to interact withothers to ask for help on the system and other things. Some patrons actually spend all day working with computers.That is why the library makes provision for inter-personal interaction and something for the stomachs of those whowant to spend time in the library.201

Moreover, libraries are now going online in droves. According to Bertot(1998), approximately 72 percent of publiclibraries in the United States have some type of internet connection. Many patrons now go to those libraries solelyfor internet access. Therefore, in order to attract and retain such new patrons, libraries must provide a range ofservices that go along with internet access. The most important of these services is training. Ongoing support andtraining are essential. This training is necessary not only for patrons but also for staff. Due to increasing prevalenceand popularity of information technologies libraries must train both old and newly hired staff (Holland 1999).At Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji-Arakeji in Osun State of Nigeria, internet access always draws differentcategories of users from all over the university to the e-Library to do one thing or the other. The users includefaculty members, administrative staff members, technical staff members and messengers. Staff and students use theresources on the internet to do their assignment and research. It is a common sight to see this category of users in thee-library with their laptops to download information from the internet. Technicians, clerks, and messengers who donot normally use the resources of other sections of the library such as reference and circulation sections meet at thee-library to send and receive messages from their friends and relatives at home and abroad via the e-mail. Otherscome to read newspapers electronically. This is apart from the physical newspapers like The Guardian and NigerianTribune which also normally attract different categories of users to the library on a daily basis since the year 2006when the University was established. This is how the library serves as a unifying factor in the community.Special Services to the DisadvantagedIn order to serve all segments of the community, the library must also pay attention to the disadvantaged members ofthe society. Many categories of people fall within this group. But for the purpose of this paper we shall concentrateon the sick in hospital, inmates of penal institutions, the aged and the physically handicapped.It is true that the library cannot directly restore good health to the sick or bring about the release of a prisoner orrestore youth to the old, nevertheless there are other ways the library can help these people. There is no doubt thatreading can make time fly faster than lying down hours on end in the hospital bed doing nothing. Some long-termpatients may be interested in serious reading for the first time while they are in the hospital because they have moreleisure hours than they had before being hospitalized. If they have an opportunity to read, they will appreciatelibrary services and may continue to use the library when they recover. Moreover, some patients might have beenregular library users before they were admitted into the hospital. This category of patients should not be deniedlibrary services because they are now in the hospital. By extending its services to the hospitaliszed, a library like theHezekiah Oluwasanmi Library Annex at Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Complex in Ile-Ife will enablenon-users of the library to become aware of the existence of a library that has many books on many subjects. Alibrary assistant in that library can take a trolley of books to different wards in the hospital at regular intervals tocater for the patients.Nowadays, the inmates of many prisons include not only illiterates and semi-literates but also highly educatedpeople. Some well-educated and notable scholars, who found their way into prisons for one reason or the other,wrote interesting and fast-selling books when they were in prison. A glaring example is Nigeria’s Nobel laureate,Wole Soyinka, who wrote The Man Died, when he was in prison. Prison inmates should, therefore, be provided withlibrary services like other members of the society. Those who have imbibed the reading culture before incarcerationshould be given ample opportunity to continue to read. Those who have not formed the reading habit beforeimprisonment should be taught to acquire the culture of literacy. This will greatly help in reforming, rehabilitatingand reintegrating them into the society after their discharge from prison.Until recently, most of the prisons and correctional institutions for the young in Nigeria have no libraries of theirown. However, history was made in the welfare package of prison inmates in Nigeria on 25 th May, 2001. On thatday, the first ultra modern reading room and literacy centre for prison inmates was commissioned at the Ilesa Prison.The literacy centre is equipped with the state of the art books and computer hardware and software to enable theinmates to benefit from the literacy empowerment goal of the Non Governmental Organization that set up the centre.The reading room and literacy centre was named after Heinrich Boll who was one time a prisoner. The story ofHeinrich Boll has shown that incarceration cannot hinder an individual from actualizing his / her goals in life.Although Boll suffered incarceration, in 1978, he won the Nobel Prize for literature. This shows that to any inmate,the sky is the limit, if the individual so desires. The reading room in Ilesa was set up to enhance the self esteem of202

the inmates and give them a taste of beauty (Onukaogu, 2001). It is hoped that other well-meaning Nigerians willreplicate the reading room and literacy centre in other prisons in the country.In addition, gifts of books of which a library has enough copies can be sent to prisons and similar institutions as partof their permanent collections. The same thing should be done with magazines which are in good physicalconditions and of fairly recent date. Old magazines or shabby books should not be sent to these institutions, becausethey are likely to cause resentment and do more harm than good. A prisoner or a juvenile delinquent may regardsuch cast-offs as an insult.Services to the AgedThe public library can help the aged to obtain needed information or pass their leisure hours with greatercontentment by extending its services to them. This can take the form of providing them with books, newspapers,magazines and video cassettes which they can listen to in their private homes. On the other hand, the library can cooperatewith philanthropic organizations in charge of old peoples’ home.Services to the Physically HandicappedThere are two ways by which the library can help this category of people. First, the library can employ thephysically handicapped wherever the handicap does not prevent them from performing behind-the-scene routinetasks. This has two advantages. It will enable the handicapped to augment their means of livelihood. It will alsoenable the library staff to concentrate on technical and professional duties.Secondly, literate classes should be provided for the visually handicapped as part of the public library services tothis section of the community. With the availability of personnel, a professional librarian could pursue a course onhow to teach with materials in Braille. The talking-books, tape and players could also be used. This operation can becarried out in conjunction with voluntary organizations responsible for the care and education of the blind. Thespecially trained librarian in this field will be able to disseminate his knowledge to this group and place the rightbook in the right hand at the right time.The purpose of library activities to the disadvantaged especially the aged and the handicapped is to develop theability left and encourage the individual to accept disability and make the best of the situation. Above all, theapproach to the disadvantaged must be personal and individual. A librarian who is used to working mainly with theadvantaged needs adequate in-service training to understand the points of view and reactions of the disadvantaged.Prejudices, intolerance and fears must be eliminated. Only those members of staff who develop patience, sympathywithout sentimentality and perseverance should be assigned special work with the disadvantaged.CONCLUSIONFrom the foregoing discussion, we can see how different kinds of libraries can serve as a melting-pot for thedivergent social, political, cultural and religious interests in the society and like Caesar’s wife ―be above board‖. Butin order to maintain this achievement, the library must continue to provide good services to the student, theresearcher, the pleasure-seeker and the illiterate farmer. At the same time, it must continue to embrace the largesegment of the population it has often missed—those who are far-removed from the library premises, the shut-insand the disadvantaged. Towards this end, traditional services should not be neglected because of out-reach activities,nor should outreach activities be neglected because of the rising demand for traditional services. Above all, it is myopinion that university libraries can do more than what we discussed above especially in a community where libraryservices are poor or not available. A right step in this direction was taken by a group of professional librarians fromHezekiah Oluwasanmi Library. The group, under the auspices of the Nigerian Library Association, organized atraining programme to teach secondary school teachers in the neighborhoods on how to run effective schoollibraries. Such a good foundation should be sustained. For instance, Hezekiah Oluwasanmi Library should continuethe practice of donating light reading materials to secondary school libraries in Ile-Ife and other neighbouring towns.It should also continue to donate excess copies of reading materials to new university libraries that now spring up allover the state. These include Osun State University, Osogbo, Fountain University, Osogbo and Joseph Ayo BabalolaUniversity, Ikeji-Arakeji.203

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