Manual on sea level measurement and ... - unesdoc - Unesco

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Sea Level Measurement and InterpretationTable of contents1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 12. The Nature of Sea Level Variations ..................................................................... 22.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................22.2 Surface Waves ................................................................................................................................32.3 Seiches ...........................................................................................................................................42.4 Tides ..............................................................................................................................................42.4.1 Tidal Analysis .................................................................................................................................52.5 Storm surges ..................................................................................................................................62.6 Tsunamis ........................................................................................................................................72.7 Mean Sea Level and Trends ............................................................................................................72.8 Estimation of Extreme Sea Levels ....................................................................................................72.8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................72.8.2 The Annual Maximum Method (AMM) .........................................................................................82.8.3 The Joint Probabilities Method (JPM) .............................................................................................82.8.4 The Revised Joint Probabilities Method (RJPM) ..............................................................................92.8.5 The Exceedance Probabilities Method ...........................................................................................92.8.6 Spatial Estimation of Extremes ......................................................................................................93. Instruments for the Measurement of Sea Level .............................................. 103.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................103.1.1 The Choice of a Tide Gauge Site ................................................................................................ 103.2 The Stilling Well ...........................................................................................................................123.2.1 Datum Switches ..........................................................................................................................123.3. Pressure Gauges ..........................................................................................................................133.3.1 Pneumatic Bubbler Gauges .........................................................................................................133.3.2 Pressure Sensor Gauges ..............................................................................................................143.3.3 The Datum of a Pressure System .................................................................................................153.3.4 Multiple Pressure Transducer Systems (‘B’ gauges) ......................................................................163.3.5 Pressure Transducers in Stilling Wells ...........................................................................................163.3.6 Bottom-mounted Pressure Gauges .............................................................................................163.4 Acoustic Tide Gauges ...................................................................................................................173.4.1 Acoustic Gauges with Sounding Tubes .......................................................................................173.4.2 Acoustic Gauges without Sounding Tubes ..................................................................................173.5 Radar Gauges ...............................................................................................................................193.6 Summary of the Merits of Different Technologies .........................................................................21iii
Sea Level Measurement and Interpretation4. Datum Control and Levelling ............................................................................. 284.1 Datums and Benchmarks ..............................................................................................................284.1.1 Tide Gauge Benchmark (TGBM) ..................................................................................................294.1.2 GPS Benchmark (GPSBM) ............................................................................................................294.1.3 Gauge Contact Point (CP) ...........................................................................................................294.1.4 Tide Gauge Zero (TGZ) ................................................................................................................294.1.5 Revised Local Reference (RLR) Datum ..........................................................................................294.1.6 National Levelling Network .........................................................................................................294.1.7 Chart Datum ...............................................................................................................................304.1.8 Working Datums .........................................................................................................................304.2 Levelling Between Local Benchmarks ............................................................................................304.3 Levelling Between Wider Area Marks ...........................................................................................304.4 Geodetic Fixing of Tide Gauge Benchmarks ..................................................................................314.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 314.4.2 GPS Measurements .....................................................................................................................324.4.3 DORIS Measurements ................................................................................................................ 334.4.4 Absolute Gravity Measurements ................................................................................................ 334.4.5 Geocentric Co-ordinates and Vertical Land Movements of Tide Gauge Benchmarks .................. 345. Real Time Data Transmission ............................................................................. 355.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................355.2 Choice of a System ......................................................................................................................385.3 Data Transmission Systems ......................................................................................................................395.3.1 Systems already well established .................................................................................................395.3.2 Systems now being applied or considered for applicationin the transmission of sea level data ............................................................................................395.3.3 The Global Telecommunications System (GTS) ............................................................................415.4 Data Transmission Formats ...........................................................................................................416. Quality Control of Data ...................................................................................... 427. Training Materials and Contacts ........................................................................ 438. New Techniques for Sea Level Measurements ................................................. 458.1 GPS on Buoys ...............................................................................................................................458.2 GNSS Reflectometry .....................................................................................................................46References ............................................................................................................... 48Appendices .............................................................................................................. 52I. GLOSS Requirements for Tide Gauges .............................................................................................52II. Previous Volumes of the IOC <strong>Manual</strong> ..............................................................................................53III. List of Websites ..............................................................................................................................55IV. List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................................56iv
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