Introduction to Sports Biomechanics: Analysing Human Movement ...

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Bone fracture THE ANATOMY OF HUMAN MOVEMENT others can be easily felt (palpated) – some of these are the anatomical landmarks used to estimate the axes of rotation of the body’s joints (see Box 6.2), which are crucially important for quantitative biomechanical investigations of human movements in sport and exercise. Lumps on bones known as tuberosities or tubercles – the latter are smaller than the former – and projections, known as processes, show attachments of strong fibrous cords, such as tendons. The styloid processes (Figure 6.6(a)) on the radius and ulna are used to locate the wrist axis of rotation in the sagittal plane. The acromion process on the scapula (Figure 6.5) is often used to estimate the shoulder joint axis of rotation in the sagittal plane (see Box 6.2). Ridges and lines indicate attachments of broad sheets of fibrous tissue known as aponeuroses or intermuscular septa. Grooves, known as furrows or sulci, holes – or foramina, notches and depressions or fossae – often suggest important structures, for example grooves for tendons. The suprasternal notch (Figure 6.5) is often used to establish the trunk–neck boundary for centre of mass calculations (see Table 5.1). A projection from a bone was defined above as a process, while a rounded prominence at the end of a bone is termed a condyle, the projecting part of which is sometimes known as an epicondyle. The humeral epicondyles (Figure 6.6(b)) and the femoral condyles (Figure 6.6(c)) are used, respectively, to locate the elbow and knee axes of rotation in the sagittal plane. Special names are given to other bony prominences. The greater trochanter on the lateral aspect of the femur, shown in Figure 6.5, is often used to estimate the position of the hip joint centre. The medial and lateral malleoli, on the medial and lateral aspects of the distal end of the tibia (Figure 6.6(d)), are used to locate the ankle axis of rotation in the sagittal plane. The factors affecting bone fracture, such as the mechanical properties of bone and the forces to which bones in the skeleton are subjected during sport or exercise, will not be discussed in detail here. The loading of living bone is complex because of the combined nature of the forces, or loads, applied and because of the irregular geometric structure of bones. For example, during the activities of walking and jogging, the tensile and compressive stresses along the tibia are combined with transverse shear stresses, caused by torsional loading associated with lateral and medial rotation of the tibia. Although the tensile stresses are, as would be expected, much larger for jogging than walking, the shear stresses are greater for the latter activity. Most fractures are produced by such a combination of several loading modes. After fracture, bone repair is effected by two types of cell, known as osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts deposit strands of fibrous tissue, between which ground substance is later laid down, and osteoclasts dissolve or break up damaged or dead bone. 235
INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS BIOMECHANICS Figure 6.6 Surface features of bones: (a) at the wrist; (b) at the elbow; (c) at the knee; (d) at the ankle. 236
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Introduction to Sports Biomechanics
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First edition published 1997 This e
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Contents List of figures x List of
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Study tasks 216 Glossary of importa
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FIGURES 1.26 Underarm throw - femal
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FIGURES 5.9 Typical path of a swimm
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Tables 2.1 Examples of slowest sati
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Preface Why have I changed the cove
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Introduction MISSING TEXT The first
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INTRODUCTION principal movements in
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INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS BIOMECHANICS
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Figure 2.2 ‘Principles’ approac
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Figure 2.13 Identifying critical fe
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INDEX 286 isokinetic contraction 24
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INDEX 288 muscle length-tension rel
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INDEX 290 three-dimensional 146-7,
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INDEX 292 validity 220 vantage poin
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