Introduction to Sports Biomechanics: Analysing Human Movement ...

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THE BODY’S MOVEMENTS Movements of the human musculoskeletal system As we noted in Chapter 1, a precise description of human movement requires the definition of a reference position or posture from which these movements are specified. The two positions used are the fundamental (Figure 1.2(a)) and anatomical (Figure 1.2(b)) reference positions. With the exception of the forearms and hands, the fundamental and anatomical reference positions are the same. The fundamental position of Figure 1.2(a) is similar to a ‘stand to attention’. The forearm is in its neutral position, neither pronated (‘turned in’) nor supinated (‘turned out’). In the anatomical position of Figure 1.2(b), the forearm has been rotated from the neutral position of Figure 1.2(a) so that the palm of the hand faces forwards. Movements of the hand and fingers are defined from this position, movements of the forearm (radioulnar joints) are defined from the fundamental reference position and movements at other joints can be defined from either. Planes and axes of movement As we noted in Chapter 1, movements at the joints of the human musculoskeletal system are mainly rotational and take place about a line perpendicular to the plane in which they occur. This line is known as an axis of rotation. Three axes – the sagittal, frontal and vertical (see also Box 1.2) – can be defined by the intersection of pairs of the planes of movement as in Figure 1.2. These movements are specified in detail and expanded upon in the next section. Movements in the sagittal plane about the frontal axis THE ANATOMY OF HUMAN MOVEMENT Flexion, shown in Figure 1.3, is a movement away from the middle of the body in which the angle between the two body segments decreases – a ‘bending’ movement. The movement is usually to the anterior, except for the knee, ankle and toes. The term hyperflexion is sometimes used to describe flexion of the upper arm beyond the vertical. It is cumbersome and is completely unnecessary if the range of movement is quantified. Extension, also shown in Figure 1.3, is the return movement from flexion. Continuation of extension beyond the reference position is known, anatomically, as hyperextension. The return movement from a hyperextended position is usually called flexion in sports biomechanics although, in strict anatomical terms, it is described, somewhat cumbersomely, as reduction of hyperextension. Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion are normally used to define sagittal plane movements at the ankle joint. In dorsiflexion, the foot moves upwards towards the 225
INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS BIOMECHANICS 226 anterior surface of the calf; in plantar flexion, the foot moves downwards towards the posterior surface of the calf. Movements in the frontal plane about the sagittal axis Abduction, shown in Figure 1.4, is a sideways movement away from the middle of the body or, for the fingers, away from the middle finger. Radial flexion – also known as radial deviation – denotes the movement of the middle finger away from the middle of the body and can also be used for the other fingers. The term hyperabduction is sometimes used to describe abduction of the upper arm beyond the vertical. Adduction, also shown in Figure 1.4, is the return movement from abduction towards the middle of the body or, for the fingers, towards the middle finger. Ulnar flexion, also known as ulnar deviation, denotes the movement of the middle finger towards the middle of the body and can also be used for the other fingers. Continuation of adduction beyond the reference position is usually called hyperadduction. This is only possible when combined with some flexion. The return movement from a hyperadduction position is often called abduction in sports biomechanics although, in strict anatomical terms, it is described, again rather cumbersomely, as reduction of hyperadduction. Lateral flexion to the right or to the left, shown in Figure 6.1(a), is the sideways bending of the trunk to the right or left and, normally, the return movement from the opposite side. Eversion and inversion refer to the raising of the lateral and medial border of the foot (the sides of the foot furthest from and nearest to the middle of the body) with respect to the other border. Eversion cannot occur without the foot tending to be displaced into a toe-out, or abducted, position; likewise, inversion tends to be accompanied by adduction. The terms pronation and supination of the foot, shown in Figures 6.1(b) and (c), are widely used in describing and evaluating running gait, and may already be familiar to you for this reason. Pronation of the foot involves a combination of eversion and abduction (Figure 6.1(b)), along with dorsiflexion of the ankle. Supination involves inversion and adduction (Figure 6.1(c)) along with plantar flexion of the ankle. These terms should not be confused with pronation and supination of the forearm (see below). When the foot is bearing weight, as in running, its abduction and adduction movements are restricted by friction between the shoe and the ground. Medial and lateral rotation of the lower leg is then more pronounced than in the non-weight-bearing positions of Figures 6.1(b) and (c).
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Introduction to Sports Biomechanics
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First edition published 1997 This e
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Contents List of figures x List of
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Study tasks 216 Glossary of importa
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FIGURES 1.26 Underarm throw - femal
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FIGURES 5.9 Typical path of a swimm
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Tables 2.1 Examples of slowest sati
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Preface Why have I changed the cove
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Introduction MISSING TEXT The first
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INTRODUCTION principal movements in
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INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS BIOMECHANICS
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Figure 2.2 ‘Principles’ approac
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Figure 2.13 Identifying critical fe
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INDEX 282 balls air flow past 173 b
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INDEX 284 energy 219 kinetic 219 mi
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INDEX 286 isokinetic contraction 24
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INDEX 288 muscle length-tension rel
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INDEX 290 three-dimensional 146-7,
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INDEX 292 validity 220 vantage poin
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