The geographical distribution of animals, with a study of the relations ...
The geographical distribution of animals, with a study of the relations ... The geographical distribution of animals, with a study of the relations ...
.92 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [part i.BIRDS.Birds are perhaps the most difficult to classify of all thedivisions of the vertebrata. The species and genera areexceedingly numerous, and there is such a great uniformityin oeneral structure and even in the details of external form,that it isexceedingly difficult to find characters by which ordersand families can be characterised.For a long time the systemof Vigors and Swainson was followed ; but this wholly ignoredanatomical characters and in many cases plainly violated wellmarkedaffinities. Characters derived from the form of thesternum, the scutellation of the tarsi, and the arrangement ofthe feathers, have all assisted in determining natural groups.More recently Professor Huxley has applied the variations of thebony palate to the general arrangement of birds ;and still morerecently Professor Garrod has studied certain leg-muscles forthe same purpose. The condition of the young as regardsplumage, and even the form, texture, and coloration of the egg,have also been applied to solve doubtful cases of affinity;yetthe problem is not settled, and it will probably remain foranother generation of ornithologists to determine with anyapproach to accuracy what are the most natural divisions of theclass into orders and families. In a work like the present it isevidently not advisable to adopt all the recent classifications;since experience has shown thatno arrangement in which oneset of characters is mainly relied on, long holds its ground.Such modifications of the old system as seem to be wellestablished will be adopted ; but the older groups will be adheredto in cases where the most recent classificationsare opento doubt, or seem inconvenient as separating families, which,owing to their similarity in general structure, form and habitsare best kept together for the purposes of geographical distribution.The old plan of putting the birds of prey at the head of theclass, is now almost wholly given up ;both because they are not
chap, v.] CLASSIFICATION. 93the most highly organised, but only one of the most specialisedforms of birds, and because their affinities are not with thePasseres, but rather with the cormorants and some otherof theaquatic groups. The Passeres therefore are placed first ; and theseries of families is begun by the thrushes, which are certainlythe most typical and generally well-organised form of birds.Instead of the Scansores and Fissirostres of the older authors, theorder Picarise, which includes them both, is adopted, but withsome reluctance; as the former are, generally speaking, well markedand strongly contrasted groups, although certain families havebeen shown to be intermediate.In the Picarise are included thegoat-suckers, swifts, and humming-birds, sometimes separatedas a distinct order, Macrochires. The parrots and the pigeonsform each a separate order. The old groups of Grallse andAnseres are preserved, as more convenient than breaking themup into widely separated parts ; for though the latter plan mayin some cases more strictly represent their affinities, its detailsare not yet established, nor is it much used by ornithologists.In accordance with these views the following is the series oforders and families of birds adopted in this work :Class—AVES.Orders.1 Passeres \ Including the great mass of the smaller birds—Crows,'\ Finches, Flycatchers, Creepers, Honeysuckers, &c, &c.2 Picari-e ""\( ^ncm^m g Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, Toucans, Kingfishers,Swifts, &c, &c.3. Psittaci . . . Parrots only.4. Columbee ... Pigeons and the Dodo.5. Gallinaa ... Grouse, Pheasants, Curassows, Mound-builders, &c.6. Opisthocomi The Hoazin only.7. Accipitres ... Eagles, Owls, and Vultures.8. Grallse ... Herons, Plovers, Eails, &c.9. Anseres ... Gulls, Ducks, Divers, &c10. Struthiones . . . Ostrich, Cassowary, Apteryx, &c.The Passeres consistof fifty families, which may be arrangedand grouped in series as follows. It must however be rememberedthat the first family in each series is not always thatwhich is most allied to the last family of the preceding series.All extensive natural groups consist of divergent or branchingalliances, which renders it impossible to arrange the whole inone continuous series.
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.92 DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. [part i.BIRDS.Birds are perhaps <strong>the</strong> most difficult to classify <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong>divisions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vertebrata. <strong>The</strong> species and genera areexceedingly numerous, and <strong>the</strong>re is such a great uniformityin oeneral structure and even in <strong>the</strong> details <strong>of</strong> external form,that it isexceedingly difficult to find characters by which ordersand families can be characterised.For a long time <strong>the</strong> system<strong>of</strong> Vigors and Swainson was followed ; but this wholly ignoredanatomical characters and in many cases plainly violated wellmarkedaffinities. Characters derived from <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>sternum, <strong>the</strong> scutellation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> tarsi, and <strong>the</strong> arrangement <strong>of</strong><strong>the</strong> fea<strong>the</strong>rs, have all assisted in determining natural groups.More recently Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Huxley has applied <strong>the</strong> variations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>bony palate to <strong>the</strong> general arrangement <strong>of</strong> birds ;and still morerecently Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Garrod has studied certain leg-muscles for<strong>the</strong> same purpose. <strong>The</strong> condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> young as regardsplumage, and even <strong>the</strong> form, texture, and coloration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> egg,have also been applied to solve doubtful cases <strong>of</strong> affinity;yet<strong>the</strong> problem is not settled, and it will probably remain forano<strong>the</strong>r generation <strong>of</strong> ornithologists to determine <strong>with</strong> anyapproach to accuracy what are <strong>the</strong> most natural divisions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>class into orders and families. In a work like <strong>the</strong> present it isevidently not advisable to adopt all <strong>the</strong> recent classifications;since experience has shown thatno arrangement in which oneset <strong>of</strong> characters is mainly relied on, long holds its ground.Such modifications <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> old system as seem to be wellestablished will be adopted ; but <strong>the</strong> older groups will be adheredto in cases where <strong>the</strong> most recent classificationsare opento doubt, or seem inconvenient as separating families, which,owing to <strong>the</strong>ir similarity in general structure, form and habitsare best kept toge<strong>the</strong>r for <strong>the</strong> purposes <strong>of</strong> <strong>geographical</strong> <strong>distribution</strong>.<strong>The</strong> old plan <strong>of</strong> putting <strong>the</strong> birds <strong>of</strong> prey at <strong>the</strong> head <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>class, is now almost wholly given up ;both because <strong>the</strong>y are not
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