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THEFORMATIONOF CHRISTENDOM.

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ADVERTISEMENTIN" the six chapters forming the first volume of thiswork I was engaged in describing the operation ofChristianity, as it took the individual human soul for*/ *its unit, purified' it, and wrought in it a supernaturallife. I began with the consummation of the old worldin its state of the highest civilisation united with theutmost moral degeneracy; I proceeded thence to thenew creation of individual man; compared heathenwith Christian man in the persons of Cicero and St.Augustine; drew" out certain effects upon the worldaround of Christian life, as seen in those professing it,and viewed Christian marriage as restoring the primaryrelation between man and woman, and thus remakingthe basis of human society, while the Virginal Lifeexhibited the crown and efflorescence of the most distinctiveChristian grace in the soul.I had thus, beginning with the stones of which thebuilding is formed, reached the building itself; and thenext thins; was to consider the Christian Church in itshistorical development as the Kingdom of Truth and-L

VIADVERTISEMENT.Kingdom of Truth and Grace, proceeding from thePerson of its Founder, which I here attempt to de-lineate.But not merely is the volume which 1 now publish apart only of a projected design; even as a part it isincomplete. It was my wish to finish this portion ofmy subject in one volume, which should reach to thegreat Nicene Council. But the treatment of the GreekPhilosophy was too large for my limits, and so thelast two chapters A serve t but as an introduction to theactual contact of that Philosophy with the ChristianCIlurch, which-remains to be considered before I canftcomplete my view of the Formation of Christendom inthe ante-Nicene period.

IST. & t *COUPCONTENTS.CHAPTERVII.THE GODS OF THE NATIONS WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.PAGEThe imperial unity how advantageous to the provinces. 1I. Transition to the polytheistic idolatry o1. Its multiplicity 4Specimen of the worship at Athens ... 5Greek worship encompassing all nature ...8Roman worship9Oriental religions10Effect of conquest on these idolatries . . .11Exception of Jewish Monotheism . . . .122. Universality of Polytheism . . . . . 123. Its grasp on daily life by means of institutions . 13And still more by the belief in invisible agency . 104. Moral influence of Polytheism . . . .19Yarro's fabulous and civil theology identical. . 20Corruption of the theatre image of corruption inthe temples21Absence of any moral teaching on divine warrant. 23Prayers not for moral objects24Corruption arising from the sexual relation attri-buted to the deities 25Idea of sanctification absent from religion . . 25Moral corruption the source of polytheistic idolatryon man's part26o. Further, a consummating cause for it outside ofman07 - tIts unity consists in its worship of the fallen Angels 28And it is directed by one Sovereign ... 29Statements of Scripture corroborated by historicalJ-tiClbo O

yiiiT6. ECONTENTS.1. Its injuriousness to man's happiness hereand hereafter2. Its illogical character ....PAGE3. The superhuman power shown in it . 33Witness of its victims to this ... 35Witness of its opponents in facts, in theprayers and rites of the Church, andin Christian writers .... 30Cumulative force of this evidence .... 38V 1. to civilisation . . 382. to the political constitution of the empire . 383. to the national feelings of the provinces . 44,m 45Prospects of Polytheism in the last twenty yAugustus46m -hall of Pilate . . .* . 48GodheaThe restoration of truth His proper work ... 52The restoration of man springs from the eternal rela-tions in the Godhead.553031CHAPTEEYIII.The force of man'sTHE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.Introduction : Universality of false worship in the mostdiverse nations the summing up of man's whole history. . . . . . . . . ..57Fact of man's corruption hence proved . . . .58Solution of this fact given by the Christian Faith . . 5959Creation of man : 1. The ideal state of pure nature . 602* The state of integrity ...... 613. The state of original justice or innocence . . 62Great elevation of this state63One of its conditions, Adam's headship . . . G4His disobedience and its consequences6GCondition of Adam and his race after the Fall . . 67The captivity to the devilHeathenism the result of this state ....Adam's headship shown in the communication of guiltto his racesocial nature69707172

SICCLLECONTENTS.IXPAGESummary of the preceding . . . . 73he counterpart of the First Man as an individual Per-Head, and as one Body with his race . . 7GHow the action of Christ in his Headas that of Adam 801. 'the Kingdom of Truth . 812. The House or Temple of Christ . . . 8G3. The Body of Christ4. The Bride of Christ.........88915. The Mother of the race92The various loves of Christ shown in the titles of Kingdom,Temple, Body, Bride, and Mother . . . 9"What the union of these terms imports ....95Parallel in the formation of the natural arid mysticalBody of Christ . . . . 96The Church " the Power of the Holy Ghost coming uponmen"97gies between the natural and the mBody97Holy Ghost the soul of the Church : S. Augustine. 99The power of the Holy Ghost the whole treasure cTruth and Grace100The five titles indicate that the fruits of the Incarnationcome through o the Church 101The first communication of the divine life in Baptism . 102Coherence of the natural and mystical Body in the Eucharist: S. Augustine103Universal sense in Christians that the mvstical t/ Body 4/ ofChrist is imperishable and incorruptible . . ,104Imputation of falsehood to this Body the denial of allChristian belief105The force of corporate unityAnd that in the Body of Christ108110The ultimate result112CHAPTERIX.THE SECOND MAN VERIFIEDIX HISTORY.I. The giving of the Spirit the result of the Dispensationof the SonSo set forth by our Lord at his resurrection, his ascension,and in the discourse preceding his passion . 116115

XCONTENTSIts generic character the communication of Truth andGraceIts differential marks: 1. that it is to be perpetusm-^^"-bPAGE120123possession : 1. of U Charity;4. of Sanctity . 125-^^^-dy in their completeness,and there alone127Qualities bestowed on the individualborgiveness of sins . .128m of faith . . . .1293. The adoption of sonship 1294. Sanctification by charity 130These qualities not irrevocable in the individual . . 131The complete pentecostal gift of the Spirit . . . 131Analogy between it and the relation of man's soul andbody133Again, between it and the human commonwealth . .134And, again, between it and the natural unity of the race 135II. Historical fulfilment of the above statement . . . 138Actual creation of the divine Society by the descent ofthe Holy GhostThe fruits of the Incarnation received by admissioninto it138Its unity through the unity of its jurisdiction . . 146by per-.1 148b .biect of which wastaken out of this oral teachingd150Pduse of oral teaching alone at first, a direction of theHoly GhostRelation of the Church to the Scriptures152154Further, the Truth itself committed for its propagationto a Society invested with Grace . . . .155T Lssion of the Truth conveyed in this Societyby a triple succession, first of men . . . .156Secondly, of the doctrines taught by them . .158Thirdly, of the institutions established in it160stances of the force of this union in maintaining doc-trine, first, the forgiveness of sins . . . .161ndly, the Be162dly, Episcop163

CONTENTS.XIPAGEFourthly, the Primacy164Instance of a doctrine preserved without the WrittenWord1GThis mode of transmitting the Truth enjoined by ourLord in his concluding words as given by S. Matthew 1GGDevelopment of the Truth in its various relations theproper work of such a Body ..... 1G8The result a divine life, embracing the intellect and thewill of man, produced over against the corrupt lifeof heathenism170Statement of S. Augustine to this effect . . . 172CHAPTEKX.THE FIKST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH,The Heathendom reigned over by Augustus and Tiberius unconsciousthat there was an order of moral truth of infinite1 C*, i L I tJ " " * . * 4 * * * * * 177That this truth is bound up with a Person the subject of thelast two chapters ........ 179Its recognition, as being so bound up with a Person, by theRoman empire the present subject ..... 181The principle of persecution lay precisely in this union of theTruth with the Person of the Godman . . . .182The Christian Church for the first ten generations a specialwitness to this union ........ 184Picture of the result of the Apostolic age, the first seventyyearstiansmpire treated the Christian Faith . . . .188Nero's act for the sub191The end of the reign of Antoninus Pius a fit time for estimatingthe progress of the Church . 195Its material extension ...197Its internal growth198Picture of it in the epistles of S. Ignatius, as the seat of au-Communion 199The ris by which it resisted them 204m aatius to this power . . 206A C tistians .... 209Pliny's report to him, and his answer * . " . * **j-\j 210at state of things th 213 -*- X *J

XllCONTENTS.PAGEMartyrdom of S. Ig5His special mention of the Eoman Church . . - .218S. Chrysostom's notice of his power of intercessionConduct of Hadrian, and state of Christians in his reign . 221His rescripto Minucius Fundanus222His Dersecution of S. SvmDhorosa224Antoninus Pius . . . .226Apology of Justin .227inents bv Celsus in corrob230Rescript of Antoninus Pius to the Province of Asia . . 231.ghest point of toleration in the first 130 years - . » 233A Roman emperor's ^" view of Christianity at ththis period 233 «-

CONTENTS.XlllPAGEHe distinguishes the perpetual teaching office set up inJIOJ. »»""""*«*»* 269He contrasts the certainty ^r of one truth in her with theuncertainty of ever-varying error without her . . 270The main idea in Iren&us, and that which is subsidiaryt)O lu. " . * * . . . * » £tLTertullian in like manner rejects the appeal of hereticsto Scripture, and puts forward the possession of thetruth by the Church throughout the world . * 274Clement of Alexandria does the same . . . 278And Origen appeals to the like rule on the same ground 280Effects produced by heresy . . . * . .2811. The enucleation of doctrine 2812. Determining of the Canon of the New Testament 2843. Statement of the principle of Tradition . 28GUnion of Scripture and Tradition in the teachingoffice ........ 2874. Extension and corroboration of the hierarchy . 288Summary of the internal history in 161-235 . . . 288First movement towards the formation of Theology . 290III. Treatment of Christianity by the empire in 161-235 . 292The bearing of Marcus Aurelius to it . . . 292Juiiius Rusticus and his sentiments as expressed byMaximus of Tyre .29Judgment of Justin and his companions by Rusticus . 294This judgment expresses the mind of Marcus Aurelinstowards Christians 298The martyrdom of Polycarp at Smyrna .; 299The persecution at Lyons in 177, and the Emperor'sapproval300Position of Christians in the reign of Commodus . . 302Persecution of Severus302Review of the period .,...,.04CHAPTERXII.THE THIRD AGE OP THE MARTYR CHURCH.I. In the third century the Christian Church is takpossession of societyThree great contrasts to it1. The empire in a state c30830909

IVCONTENTS." PAGE2. The unstable barbarism beyond . . . .3123. The sects which fought around the Church . .315istians drawn from every tribe and religion in 1m . 316Testim Diognetus . 318Martvr319Of Origen, who distinguishes the work of Christ in thindividual, in the local Churches, and in the wholhurch which is His Body .... 320me of peace in which Origen wrote succeeded bygreat stoi323stimony of S. Cyprian on occasion of the first Anti-H delo rm mdea of organic unity foundedbv Christ to Peter . 3Origen and Cyprian give us the mind of the third century. """"""""" 3Causes of this belief : 1. The catechetical instruction of325every convert in the article, " the Holy CatholicChurch" . 3352. The moral change which accompanied conver-felOU . 3353. The persecution which marked them out asone Body ...... 3384. The historic origin of the Church on the dayof Pentecost ...... 339The Christian society in its moral character, in its priesthood,and in its government, expresses that connectionwith its Founder to which Cyprian and Origen obear witness . 341Historical sequence of this fact. 346In the first generation, A.D. 29 to G7 . . . . 346S. Paul's testimony, about 66 347That of S. Ignatius, about 110 ... . . . 348That of S. Irenseus, about 180 " » * * * Q~Ti7Crowned by that of S. Cyprian in 251 . . . 340Chief events of the third century which bring out theunity of the Church, and the Primacy as its instru-' ment351The doctrine and practice of penance . . .351The question of rebaptising heretics . . . 353The time of keeping Easter .... 354II. The empire's treatment of the Church, A.D. 235-313 . 355Persecution of Decius356

CONTENTS.PAGEState of relaxation among Christians preceding it . 358Persecutions of Valerian and Aurelian . . . .361Persecution of Diocletian 362Termination of the state of persecution . . . 370Koman law in the matter of Christianity from A.D. 64to 313371CHAPTERXIII.THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND THE GREEK PHILOSOPHYTARTI.The encounter of the Heathen mind with the Christian . 374Rise of Greek Philosophy376The Greek race and its languageStanding-point of the Greek mind377380Human reason left more to itself in this race than in any other 382The Presocratic Philosophy384The second period of Philosophy : Socrates .... 386The special principle which he gave to Philosophy. . . 389His view of the gods and the godhead"JO 309 -*He halts between unity and plurality in his conception ofthe godheadXenophon and Plato as his disciples396398Plato embodies in a system the Socratic principle of inductionand definitionHis philosophy and his idea of God . . 399401This idea only stated incidentally, and combined with polytheism* 406His God not absolutely personal, nor free, nor a creator . 408His ethical system . . .410Plato's conception of the method of teaching . . . .411The example herein of Pythagoras " " * * " 419 -*Writing viewed as a mean of imparting doctrine, as set forthin the Phaadrus414Plato carried this conception out in his life . . . . .418Aristotle's conception of teaching the same420It was the Greek idea 423Zeno and Epicurus pursued the same plan .... 423Oral teaching the great work in their schools to the end ofGreek philosophy425

XVICONTENTS.CHAPTERXIV."THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.PARTAristotle's character as a philosopherHis view of the soulII.rAGB429430Relation of his philosophy to religion . .433New political era begins with Alexander .... 436Four great schools at Athens436Zeno sets up the Stoic school: his conception of God and ofthe soul438Epicurus and his doctrine442The Sceptic school of the Middle Academy .... 446The rise of Eclecticism449Cicero its chief representative: the sources of his philosophicaltreatises .,....*.*" 450Review of the effect produced on the mind of the culturedclasses by Philosophy at the beginning of the reign ofClaudius " * " * TrOGAlexander . .455And the establishment of the Roman emire , 456Negative effect of Philosophy458ie effet : 1 A to belyGodhead460As to belief in the hum in personality . . . 465As to the duties owed by man to God . . 467As to the duties of man to man. and the conceotionhuman society470pmrenateits principles477human reason hdto the time that the Christian religion was published. 481

THEFORMATION OF CHRISTENDOMCHAPTERVII.THE GODS OF THE NATIONS WHEN CHEIST APPEARED." Emmanuel, Eex et Legifer noster, Expectatio gentium, et Salvatorearum, veni ad salvandum nos, Domine Deus noster."UNDER the sceptre of the imperial unity werebrought together a hundred different lands occupiedby as many different races. That rule ofRome which had grown for many centuries without, as it seemed, any presiding thought, by thecasual accretions of conquest, may be said toassume under the hands of Augustus, about theyear of Rome 750, certain definite and deliberatelychosen limits, and to be governed by a fixed Idea,more and more developed in the imperial policy.The limits which the most fortunate of Romanemperors, nay the creator of the empire itself, putto it, were the Rhine and Danube, with the " EuxineSea, on the north; the deserts of Africa on thesouth; the Euphrates on the east; the ocean onii.B"'ST f~ "M **k«itHFC

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.altars, and adore Egyptian, Asiatic, African, orGallic gods. These various systems agreed all inone point, that they were systems of polytheisticlatry: they all divided the attributes of thgodhead, assigning them to more or fewer objects,and worshipping all these by visible symbols whichthe power worshipped was deemed to inhabit:2but they did not make the same division with amere difference of name; on the contrary, theyran into and across each other with the most bewilderingmultiplicity, variation, and contradiction.Even in the same system, if we may givethis name to any of the various mythologies, the ftseveral divinities were perpetually interfering witheach other's province. When the Koman madevows for the removal of his ailments, in his uncertaintyto which god the ailment belonged, orwho was most proper to remove it, he addressed .his vow to several together ; or in public supplicationsoften uncertain whom actly theprayer or offering should be made, he cautiouslyexpressed himself, " whether it be a god or a goddess."And the various Hellenic, Asiatic, or Egyp-tian cities often possessed local gods, whose worshipwas supreme there, while they exercisedfluence, or were even scarcely known elsewhere.3Now merely as a specimen of what this worshipwas all over the Eoman empire, let us take2 See Aug. de Civ, Dei, 1. viii. 24.3 Dollinger, Heidentlmm und Judentkum, pp. 528, 529.

THE GODS OF THE NATIONSthe brilliant Athens, Greece's eye, the world'suniversity. First of all ruled in her the worshipof Pallas-Athene : she was the lady of the land ,who had won it for her own after a hard contestwith Poseidon.Her chief sanctuaries were thetemple of Athene, guardian of the city, with itsold statue fallen down from heaven on the Acropolis.On the Acropolis likewise the Parthenon ,built expressly for the gorgeous Panathenaic festival; and in the lower city the Palladium withthe statue of the goddess supposed to have beenbrought from Troy. Yet the worship of the "highgoddesses," Demeter and Persephone, was alsorichly endowed with shrines and festivals, andaffected scarcely less the feelings of the Athenians.Then Jupiter, as " supreme," was honoured withunbloody offering before the Erechtheium, dedicatedto Athene : whilst as" Olympian" he hadthe colossal temple begun by Peisistratus and finishedafter many hundred years by Hadrian, and9as "guardian of the city" distinct festivals. Yetmore manifold was the invocation of Apollo, asthe Pythian, the Delphic, the Lycian, as the an-cestral god of the lonians. The multiform Artemishad her temples and worshippers as the Tby the name Brauronia ; as the port-goddess, bythe name M unychia ; as the goddess of the hunt,by the name Agrotera, who had the credit of thetory won at Marathon ; as presiding over birth,was cae tone, while Themistocles had

WHEN CHRIST APPEAREDbuilt a temple to her as the Counsellor. Here hadonly a doorless and roofless temple on the roadto Phalerum; but the god of fire was worshippedin Athens abundantly. Hermes had his peculiarstatues in every street, irreverence to which mightbe fatal even to an Alcibiades, the city's darling ;while Aphrodite had a crowd of temples and shrineswhose unchaste worship found but too many frequenters.Poseidon had to content himself witha single altar in his rival's city, and with gamesin its harbour ; but Dionysos had three temples,with brilliant festivals; Mars was not without one;Hestia was throned in the Prytaneum ; the Earth,Kronos, and Rhea had their temples and festivalsas also the Erinnyes, who were worshipped onlyin two other places in Greece. Here alone in Greecewas a sanctuary and a rite to Prometheus; whilethe Asiatic mother of the gods had a splendid templewhere the archives of the state were kept. Besides,there was the worship of the Hours and the Graces,of Eileithyia, goddess of victory and of birth, of JEs-culapius and Themis, of the Kabirian Anakes, theArcadian Pan, the Thracian Cotytto and Bendis,the Egyptian Serapis. Mercy and Shame, Fameand Endeavour had their altars; and the hero-worshipnumbered Theseus, Codrus, Academus, Solon,1the tyrant - slayers Harmodius and Aristogeiton ;and Hercules, originally a hero, but here and else-where widely honoured as a god. 4From Heidenthum, und Judenthum, pp. 101-2

THE GODS OF THE NATIONSAthens, if the most superstitious as well as themost intellectual of cities, may be taken as thetype of a thousand others of Hellenic race scat- *tered over the Koman empire from Marseilles toAntioch. Say that she had twice as many deitiesand festivals as her sister cities, * enough will remainfor them wherewith to occupy the soil withtheir temples and to fill the year's cycle with theirrites.The lively Grecian imagination impregnatednot with stern notions of duty, nor with reverentialdevotion to those whom it worshipped, butregarding them as objects of assthetical satisfaction,5and yearning for a serene and confidentialexchange of relations with them, had in processof time spun out a complete web of idolatrousworship which encompassed heaven and earth, thewhole domain of nature, every state and act ofhuman life. Rain and sunshine and the weatherstood under the ordering of Zeus ; the fruitful-ness of the soil was Demeter's care ; countlessnymphs of field, of fountain, and of river, offeredto men their gifts; the vine and its juice wasder the protection of Dionysos, and Poseid 11was lord of the sea. The flocks had thaiders in Hermes and Pan; the Fates ruled thlot of men. Kings and magistrates had in Zeutheir prototype and guardian. Athene heldhield over cities; the hearth of each private hHeidentlium und Judenthum, p. 480.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.and the^public hearth of the city were^_ ^_in Hestia's*charge. O Marriage O was secure under Here's care.bDemeter was entrusted with legislation ; the painsof childbirth were recommended to Eileithyia, orArtemis. Music, archery, divination, were Apollo'sattributes ; the art of healing claimed him ison J^sculapius as patrons. Athene and Areswaved the issue of war; the chase was themain of Artemis ; smiths and all workers in firesaw in Hephaestus their patron ; whilst Athene theWorker protected the gentler trades, and Hecatewatched over the roads.6Yet Kome itself, whose own Capitoline Jupiterclaimed a certain superiority over all these gods,would scarcely have yielded to any Grecian city,even were it Athens, in the number or variety ofher deities, the frequency and solemnity of her festivals; while in the costliness of victims offered toher gods, and in the strictness of her ceremonies, *she probably far surpassed that and all other cities.Her sterner worship of originally shapeless gods,presiding over the labours of a simple agriculturallife, had long yielded to the seductions of her dangerousGrecian captive. The rude block Terminus,and Jupiter the Stone, ceased to satisfy those whohad beheld the majesty of the father of gods andmen embodied by the genius of a Phidias ; andshe had ended by going farther in breaking upthe conception of one god, and in the personifi-6 HeidentJium und Judentlium^ p. 107.

10 THE GODS OF THE NATIONScation of particular powers, operations, physical*functions, and qualities, than any nation of antiquity.7But though the beautiful forms of theHellenic gods, as expressed by the skill of unrivalledsculptors, had carried her away, yet thenature of her worship was in strong contrast withthat of Greece. Her religion had rested originallyon two ideas, the might of the gods friendly toRome, and the force of ceremonial over thesegods ;8 and still when she accepted the gods ofconquered nations for her own, it was to securethe possession of their might, and to have themfor friends instead of foes ; while her own worshipwas a matter of routine and habit jealouslyguarded by unchanging ceremonies, and prosecutednot out of affection, but for the materialsecurity of daily life, which, according to thedeeply-rooted feeling of the people, could not goon withoutit.The individualised and humanised Latin andHellenic gods, if they had much in common, stillcould not be thoroughly amalgamated ; but Rome,as the mistress of Western Asia and Egypt, cameupon Oriental religions of a very different stamp.Instead of this wide Pantheon of gods, each ofwhom had his occupation, these Asiatics generallyregarded the deity in a sexual relationship, as onemale and one female god, representing the active7 Hcidentliwn und Judentlmm, p. 469.8 Ibid. pp. 468, 480.

WHEN CHKIST APPEARED.11and passive forms of nature,9 and worshipped witha mixture of fear and voluptuousness. Such wereBel and Mylitta, Moloch and Astarte, and by whateverdifferent names the same idea was presented.The worship of the great mother Cybele, so widelyspread through Asia Minor, approached in manyrespects in character to that of this female goddess.But it is needless to go farther into thespecific differences of these various idolatries; onlybear in mind that thev in their severoccupied the domain of public and private life, asthe worship of which I have given the details didat Athens. So it was before the influence of externalconquerors reached them. After this a certainchange ensues. The Roman empire was accomplishingin the west as well as in the east whatthe progress of Grecian rule and thought had commencedthree hundred years before10 under Alexanderand his successors, 7 the brinonn£ o O togetherc3and in some sort fusing the multiform and oftencontradictory worship of the nations surroundii e> ^-fthe Mediterranean Sea. Not merely in Rome, bin all the chief cities of the Empire, the Asiathe Egyptian, the Libyan deities, and many othbject nations under the Eoman sway, wered side by side. Accordingly, in the timf Augustus, and at the year of Rome 750, whwe are taking our stand, there prevailed all9 Heidenthum, tend Judenthum, p. 344.10 Ibid. p. 312.

12 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSthe hundred millions of men ruled by him a polytheisticidolatry bewildering by its multiplicity,internal contradictions, fluctuations, * and UU^LVt. mixtures XJLA-L-t:*- \J lA-JL v-/K^ayet imposing by its universal extent and prevalence.The only exception seems to have beenthe Jewish worship of one God, whether in itschief seat, the small province of Juda?a, or as itwas seen in the lives of Jewish settlers scatteredthroughout the empire. It must be remarkedthat this Jewish worship of the true God wassanctioned as that of a national god belonging tothe Jews, and sacrifice was perpetually offered forAugustus in the Temple at Jerusalem. But theJews did not, as a rule, make efforts to convertthe Gentiles to their religion, nor seek to exhibitit as antagonistic to the prevailing idolatry, andas claiming to subdue and cast it out. Theywere content to keep their own worship to themselves,and with the toleration which the Romanlaw thus allowed them. Yet even so in everyplace where they dwelt in any numbers some ofthe better heathens were found to be attracted totheir worship by the intrinsic beauty of their beliefin one God.. But such an exception as this hardly madea perceptible break in that continuous mass of eviland falsehood which then surrounded young andold, learned and ignorant, rich and poor, in itsgrasp. The sea stands in Holy Writ as the well-known image of the world's disobedience to the

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.13divine* promptings, of its impetuosity and lawless-ness. What image is there in nature so strikingand awful as the long waves of the Atlantic bearingdown in storm upon a helpless ship, andsweeping it upon an iron-bound coast ! So brokethat wild sea of human error over the individualmind of man. The observer looked round uponall the nations, and it was everywhere the samea multiplicity of gods filling up the whole circleof human life, many-named, many-natured, but allwithout truth, purity, and justice ; full of violentand sensual deeds, and still viler imaginations.What stay was there for the spirit of man againstthat universal flood ? Its vastness was everywhWho was strong enough, who wise enough, to resistwhat all his fellows accepted ? And the struggleof a single soul against it might seem like thatof "some strong swimmer in his agony" alone atnight amid the waste of waters.3. For this polytheism was no dormant, otiospower withdrawn into the backround and crouing apart from the actions and feelings of dailylife. Its presence was indicated in every homeby the little images of the Lares ; homage wasdone to it at every table by libations ; everyhouse had its consecrated emblems ; every streetits statues of Hermes and serpents ; in the forum.there were feasts in honour of the gods ; theshops, taverns, and manufactories had little altarson which wine and incense were offered to them ;BRARY ST. MAWS COLLEG

14: THE GODS OF THE NATIONSthere were idolatrousemblems on the foreheadsf the dead, on th , on their tombThe places of amusement were specially dedicatedto the gods ; the theatres had representatons nnour of them; the circus had their imageschairs, carriages, robes borne in procession ; theamphitheatre was consecrated to them, and asbeing so Tertullian called it "the temple of alldemons." So much for private and social life.But not only so. All political acts were boundup with a crowd of religious formalities, and outwardsigns of divine concurrence; and were carriedon with a ceremonial, every part of whichwas prescribed as having an exact inward meaning.Then there were continually recurring vowsto the gods made for the great, made for privateindividuals, made for the emperor and his family.Three special ceremonies were used to obtainfavours from them or to deprecate calamities,feasts, the solemnly bearing their images on cushions,processions with naked feet.11 To this wemust add the priestly colleges, pontifices, flamines,augurs, and magistrates, whether distinct or coordinated.Then, * besides, *-/K-JJL\_^LV> N-'* consider the magicalcharacter of the prayers, and the strict use offormularies without mistake, / omission, 1 or addition, 7which were supposed to insure success apart fromthe intention of those offering them. Thus thewhole life of the Romans was filled with invoca-11 " Epula), lectisteruia, nudipedalia."t

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.15tions, propitiations, purifications, and even in anysmall matter a whole string of gods had prayerand service offered to them, and no one of theirnames miht be omitted. Consider again o the great ofrequency of the offerings, whether propitiative " orconsultatory ; and, further, how particular beastsbelonged to particular gods. The mere expenseof victims was felt as a great burden. It wasreckoned that on the accession of Caligula 160,000animals, chiefly oxen and calves, were sacrificedin the Eoman Empire in token of the general joy;and Augustus and Marcus Aurelius devoted sucha multitude of beasts to their sacrifices that whathad been said of the former was repeated as tothe latter, how the white oxen had written to him,saying, "If you conquer, we are lost." Indicationsof the will of the gods were to be taken onall occasions ; nothing was to be done in publicor private without consulting the auspices. Thenthere was the institution of the Haruspices, in itstwo branches of examining the entrails of the victims,and divining the meaning of all prodigies.One is still amazed at the ever-untiring solicitudewhich the senate showed to have all these thingscarefully watched-eclipses, rainbows of unusualcolours, * shooting Kjj_t.v_/ \_/ *j.i__i__L.4r stars, h?UMJJL »OA misbirthshuman or bestialshowers of earth, stones, chalk, or asnes; mgnawing the golden vessels of a temple, b

16 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSd people with consternation; special supplicatwere ordered to appease the causers of them.12These are the external manifestations of polytheismwhich struck every eye, and affected themind by their constant recurrence. But if wego beneath the surface and examine the root, weshall find an universal sense in the minds of allmen in that day of unseen power overthe material operations of nature. It was toostrong as well as too general and invariable to becalled an opinion, and it so acted on the nervesand feelings of men that I term it not so mucha logical conviction * as a sense of the close contactbetween man and nature, or rather an unseenpower behind the veil of nature and workingthrough it. Various as the forms of idolatry weregyptian, Asiatic, Libyan, Greek, or Roman;or, again, Iberian, Gallic, German, - all teemedwith this sense. To the adherents of these religions,one and all, the world was very far frombeing a mere system of nature governed by generallaws ;13 it may rather be said that this waswhat it was not. They looked 11ture in all its forms as an expression of thepine will, and therefore the unusual productionsare became to them intimations respectingthat will. And having lost the guidance of a fixedm various places in Heidenthum midJudenthum, pp. 531, 540, 550, &c.Champagny, Les Antoninsy liv. v. c. 3.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.17moral and religious teaching, they were ruled byan ever - watchful anxiety to gain acquaintancewith that will. On this sense rested the universalbelief that it was in man's power to hold intercourse. by, means of charms, spells, adjurations,with spirits of greater might and knowledge thanhis own-that is, magic or witchcraft. Hence theevocation of the spirits of the dead to reveal secretsof their prison-house, or necromancy. Hencethe recurrence to oracles, running through all paganhistory, of which there were many scatteredthrough the Roman world, - and which, after atemporary discredit, rose again into name in thetime of Hadrian. Not less general was the beliefthat t men and women might be possessed byspirits who ruled their words and actions accordingto an overmastering will. Then divinationexisted in endlessly various forms ; and of itsforce we can gather a notion by Cicero's remarkthat it lay like an oppressive burden on the mindsof men, so that even sleep, which should be therefuge from anxieties, became through the meaningattached to dreams the cause of a multitudeof cares.14 To this must be added the use ofsortileges, amulets, and talismans, in countlessnumber and variety ; and the belief that the actionsand fortune of men were swayed by thecourse of the stars-that is, astrolosrv. It wasnot the vulgar and ignorant merely whose minds" De Divinat. ii. 72.II.C

18 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSwere filled with these things. Scarcely a philosopher,scarcely a statesman, scarcely a ruler canbe found whose niind, even if proof against agenuine devotion to a divine providence, 'was notopen to one or more manifestations of the darkmysterious power pressing upon the confines ofhuman life, and every now and then breakingthrough the veil of visible things with evidencesof malignant might. A more determined and unscrupulousconqueror than Sylla, a more genuinephilosopher than Marcus Aurelius, a more sagacioususer of religion than Augustus, we shall noteasily find; yet each of these, like their ordinarycountrymen, had this sense of the supernaturaland intangible above, beneath, and around them.Sylla, on the eve of any battle, would, in thesight of his soldiers, embrace a small statue ofApollo, which he had taken from Delphi, and entreatit to give an early fulfilment of its promises.15Marcus Aurelius, in his war with theMarcomanni, collected priests from all quarters toRome, and was so long occupied in offering ritesto their various foreign gods that he kept hisarmy waiting for him. And Augustus watchedcarefully the most trivial signs, and was distressedthe morning his left shoe was iven to himfor his right. Even that Julius before whosegenius all men quailed, and whose disbelief of afuture state stands recorded at a notable point of"15 Valerius Max. i. c. 2, 3.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.19Eoman history, never mounted a chariot withoututtering certain words for good luck and preservationagainst calamity.16 We shall thereforejudge most inadequately of the force which theinnumerable rites, temples, festivals, pomps, ceremonies,prayers, invocations, priesthoods, sodalities,initiations, and mysteries of polytheism exercisedupon the minds of men, unless we take into fullaccount that remarkable sense of contact and sym-pathy between the external world and man-ofinvisible power betraying itself through palpableagents, whether in reasoning or unreasoning productions,whether in the animal or vegetableworld-which served as its basis. The line be-tween religion and superstition in paganism noeye can trace ; but at least the foundation of trueworship plunged deep out of sight into the secretrecesses of abj ect fear.4. But what was the moral influence of thismultiform, universal, all-embracing, and all-penetratingworship ?Varro, whom Cicero calls the most acute andlearned of writers, and whose great work in forty-one books he praises as containing the names, classes,offices, ' and causes of all divine and human things, O fdivided theology into the fabulous, the natural, andthe civil. In the first, he said, are many fictionsunworthy of the nature and dignity of immortal16 Merivale's History of the Romans, ii. 447

20 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSbeings : such as that one god sprung from thehead, another from the thigh, another from dropsof blood; such, again, as that gods were thieves orlulterers, or became slaves to men. In fact, thfabulous theology attributed everything to themwhich might happen not merely to a man, but tothe most contemptible of men.17 Let us leave whathe calls natural theology, which is the discussionof philosophers concerning the physical nature ofthe gods, and proceed to the third, which he callscivil, and which is that which the citizens, and especiallythe priests of human communities, are boundto know and administer. This treats of what godsare to be worshipped, and with what rites and sacrifices.The first theology, he says, belongs tothe theatre, the second to the universe, the thirdto the city. »/ S. Augustine, O / commenting o at length ^upon his division, proves that the first and thethird, the fabulous and the civil, are, in fact, identical,since the universe is a divine work, buttheatre and the city works of men. The theatreis indeed made for the city, and the very sames are ridiculed on the stage who are adoredin the temple ; the same have games exhibitedin their honour and victims sacrificed to them.The images, features, ages, sexes, bearing of thegods in the one and in the other are the same.Thus this fabulous, * theatrical, J and scenic theolosr," O«7 i17 See Varro, quoted by S. Aug. de Civ. Dei, lib. vi. 5.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.21full of everything vile and criminal, is actually apart of the civil, cohering with it as limb with limbin the same body. 18Conceive, then, every revolting detail of adultery,prostitution, incest, or of dishonesty, or ofviolence, which the perverted invention of modernwriters has ever dressed up for the theatres of greatcities in this and other countries. They will perhapsyield in turpitude to that which the theatresof the Roman empire exhibited. But what thesetheatres represented in mimic action was theexact image, n 7 as reflected in a mirror, 7 of what wastransacted at the solemn service of the gods in unnumberedtemples.19 The exact image so far as itwent, yet stopping short in some respects, for oureye-witness above cited declares that gratitudewas due to the actors, inasmuch as they spared theeyes of men, and did not lay bare upon the theatreall that was hidden within the w^alls of temples. Itwas not enough, then, that all the many games andspectacles in which such things were representedwere dedicated to the gods, acted under their especialsanction, even enjoined by them as meansof gaming their favour or averting their wrath,which alone would have made them answerable for"the immorality so portrayed; not enough, even,18 De Civ. Dei, I. vi. 5, 6, 7.19 " Illam theatricam et fal ,111noverunt, et ei de carminibus poetarum tanquarn de spet ideo ista exposita, quam damnare non audent, illamliberius arguunt." De Civ. Dei, vi. 9; id. vi. 7.

22 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSthat actions of this quality were in the theatresascribed to the gods who presided over them ; butthese acts of immorality were not the fictions ofpoets or the acting of players, but the very substanceof the theology itself in which the worshipof all these nations was embodied. Priapus appearedto make a laugh on the stage exactly inthe costume in which he was worshipped in thetemples, or in which he entered into the rites ofmarriage ; a costume of indescribable turpitude,the shame of our human nature. The players onthe stage and the statues in the temples equallyexhibited Jove bearded and Mercury beardless,Saturn in decrepitude and Apollo in youthfulbeauty. In the rites of Juno, of Ceres, of Venus,of the mother of the gods, words were uttered andscenes acted such as no decent person would sufferto be spoken or acted before his own mother ; orrather they contained, as a portion of themselves,the worst crimes which the theatres represented ;nay, crimes which they stopped short of acting,and persons so infamous that they were not toleratedeven on the stage, where yet to take partwas a civil dishonour. What, then, was the natureof those rites wherein those were chosen totake part whom the utmost license of the stagefrom its boards ?20 Let us conceivesuch a conception can be adequately represented20 " Quee sunt ergo ilia sacra quibus agendis tales elegit sanctitasquales nee thymelica in se admittit obscoenitas." De Civ. Dei, vi. 7.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.23to the mind-that the vilest drama ever actedupon a modern theatre was being daily carried onin all the churches of Christendom by troops ofpriests and priestesses, with all the paraphworship, " with > V J-L/iJ. pravers, i^JL IA) V V^J. KJ« invoc JLJ.J. T Vy \JlAi U-M-\S J-JL«sacrifices, as a service acceptable to the Euler ofman's lot, and as an account of what that rulerhad Himself done, and of what He loved to beimitated by others. That would be a picture ofheathen worship in the time of Augustus ; thatwould be the moral food on which was nurturedthat crowd of nations which acknowledged Cesar'ssway; that the conception of divine things wroughtinto the minds of the hundred millions of men whoformed the Roman empire.Was it surprising that all worshippers of thegods should look for their example rather inJupiter's actions than in Plato's teaching or themoral judgments of Cato?21 A nature subject intself to the sway of passion was stimulated byauthority supposed to be divine to the commissionof every criminal excess ; and herein lay a strongproof of the malignant and impure character ofthese gods.On the other hand, the same eye-witness challengesthe defenders of the pagan gods to produceia single instance wherein moral precepts of livingwere delivered to their worshippers upon divine21 " Omnes cultores talium deorum-magis intuentur quid Jupiterfecerit, quam quid docuerit Plato vel censuerit Cato." De Civ. Dei, ii. 7.

24 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSauthority. True, indeed, there were here and therewhispers of secret rites in which a pure and chastelife was recommended, but where were the buildingsdedicated to the public preaching of suchtruths? Places there were in abundance consecratedto the celebration of infamous games, rightlytermed "Fugalia," since they put modesty and decencyto flight, but none where the people mightlisten to divine commands repressing avarice, ambition,or unchaste desire. Thus with the positiveinculcation of all evil, under cover of theirown example, was united the negative absence of22all moral teaching.For even the prayers which accompanied thesesacrifices and this ceremonial, and this lavish ex-hibition of every human wickedness under divinenames, were not addressed for moral goods, butfor wealth, bodily strength, temporal prosperity.Horace but expresses the general mind when hesays :" Sed satis est orare Jovem quas donat et aufert;Det vitam, det opes, asquum mi aninmni ipse parabo."(JEpist. i. 18, 111.)They were moreover viewed as carrying with thema sort of physical force, not as prevailing throughpurity of intention in those who offered them. Infact, the gods to whom they were addressed werepowers of nature, or malignant and impure powers,22 De Civ. Dei, ii. 6. " Demonstrentur vel commemorentur loca-ubipopuli audirent quid dii prseciperent de cohibenda avaritia, ambitionefrangenda. luxuria refrasnanda." See also sec. 28.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.25but in neither ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^|^H case beings who looked for a moralservice from rational creatures.One other turpitude the Asiatic idolatry addedto the Greek and Koman forms. By consecratingthe sexual relations themselves in one male andone female god, they effected this crowning connectionof idolatry with immorality that unchasteacts became themselves acts of sacrifice, and soof worship.23 This is the strange perversion bornewitness to by Herodotus, and corroborated by theprophet Jeremiah. A great seat of this worshipwas the city of Hierapolis, in Syria, where wasone of the most magnificentemples of the ancientworld, dedicated to Derketo, and rich with the offeringsof Arabians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians,Cilicians, Cappadocians, and all nations ofthe Semitic tongue. Nor was this worship i confinedto the East, for hence, as from a centre, theadherents of the Syrian goddesspread themselvesin begging troops over the provinces of the empire..And the worship of Venus at Eryx, andother places in the West, with the thousands offemale priestesses dedicated to it, reproduced thesame abomination.As the great result of all that we have said,we find the notion of sanctifying the human wi'om the religious rites of the polytheistlatry in all its forms. To this corresponded23 See Heidenthum und Judenthum, p. 398. Herodotus, i. 199. Baruch,vi. 42-3.

26 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSthe absence of the notion of holiness in the gods.And this leads us finally to the remarkable characterwhich defines it as a whole. This worshipwas throughout a corruption,24 the spoiling, thatis, of something good; a turning away from thebetter to the worse. The worship itself had beenoriginally good. The corruption lay in the alterationof the quality and the object of the worship.Worship had been implanted in man, and prescribedto him. It was at once the need of hisnature and the command of Him who gave thatnature. It had for it, first, positive institution,and then tradition and custom, and throughout,the conscience, the reason, and the heart of man.The reason of man ever bore powerful witness tothe unity of the Godhead; the breaking up of thatunity, as exhibited by this idolatrous polytheism,in contradiction to the original prompting andcontinued witness of the reason, is a very strongproof of that moral corruption in the will whichfirst generated it, which continued its existence,and which, while multiplying, degraded its formsfrom age to age. But man was free to declinefrom the good in which he had been placed. Thecorruption which was left in his power he exerted;he changed the quality of the service, and theperson served. The productive cause of idolatryon the part of man was the soul of man turning24 See S. Atlian. con., Gentes, 5-9. In like manner S. Theophilus,lib. i. ad Autolyc. c. 2.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.27away from the notion of a good and holy Creator,the contemplation of whom was its present supportand future reward, to visible things. Of thesethings the chief were bodily pleasures. Thus thiscorruption of the soul, in process of time, andcontinually becoming worse, produced this wholepantheon of gods, originally the creation of itsown lusts, and subsisting as a perpetual food andsupport of those lusts. For this cause it hadbroken up the one perfect idea of God the Creatorand Euler of all persons and things into a multitudeof gods, whose functions became more andmore divided, until the ether, the air, the earth,and the water swarmed with these supposed beings,which took possession even of wood and stone,dwelling in the statues erected to them; and everydesire which the soul in its corruption could entertainhad its corresponding patron, helper, andexemplar. In this descending course cause andeffect were perpetually reacting on each other,and as the corruption of the human soul hadgenerated these gods, so their multiplication anddegradation intensified its corruption from age toa^e.25. But this was not all. If corrupt affectionin man himself, if the charm of representing theIn order to form " "scend, and what an incredible depth of turpitude it reached, see De Civ.Dei, 1. vi. c. 9, de officiis singulorum deorum. Its foulness prevents anyadequate representation of it.

28 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSunseen objects of worship in visible characters ofwood or stone, if, finally, the ignorance of thetrue God, together with the beauty of the creaturesubstituted for Him,26 were the disposing causeswithin man to idolatry, there was a cause outsideof him which must not be forgotten. When welook upon this idolatry, occupying not one countryor race, but all; not merely bewildering savage oruncivilised man, " but throned in the chief seats ofthe world's choicest civilisation : when we loolupon its endlessly divergent forms, its palpablecontradictions, its cherished or commanded immoralities,its crowd of debasing, irrational, heterogeneoussuperstitions, its cruelty, sensuality, andfearfulness, all these being no less an insult toman's reason than a derogation from God's majesty,who is there that does not feel this to be thestrangest and most astonishing sight which historypresents to man ? And yet there is a unity whichruns through it all, and stamps it with a doublemark. ^Not only is it a service due from manto God, which is paid by him to the creaturerather than to the Creator,27 but more especiallyit is that service paid by man to God's enemies,the fallen angels. These it is who have assumed26 See S. Thomas, Summa, 2, 2, q. 94, a. 4.27 Of this whole polytheism in the mass S. Paul pronounces the judgment: Olrives /j.er'fjXXaav rrjv aA7]0etcw rov &eov eV T£ t//eu5et, /cat 6eXdrpsva-av ry Kruret irapa rbv Krliravra. Rom. i. 25. And the Psalmistadds :"Or* irdvres ol 0eot ruv tQv&v 8ai/j.6via' 6 Se Kvpios rovs ovpavovs e'TroSept. xcv. 5. See also Ps. cv. 37.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.29the mask of dead men ; these it is who within thesculptured forms of Jupiter, Juno, Mars, and Venus,of Baal and Derketo and My lit t a, of Anubisand Serapis, of Thor and Woden, and so manymore, receive man's adoration, and rejoice aboveall things in possessing his heart. These it iswho have seduced him by exhibitions of visiblebeauty, have lain in wait for him by fountain,forest, and field, and filled the groves and highplaces with the charms which best pleased himunder the name of worship ; or have promised todisclose future things O to him '; or, i again, " haveharrowed his soul with phantasms and terrors ofthe unseen world. These incoherent systems ;these deities, whose functions ran into and athwarteach other ; these investings of human passions,and even unnatural and monstrous vices, withimmortality and terrible power ; these rivals everquarrelling with each other, and jealous for thepossession of man's homage, all serve the purposeof those behind the scenes, are puppets undertheir command, and have a common end and resultin the captivity of their victim. More eventhan this ; while they seem disunited and contradictory,they are really i one, marshalled by thepower, directed by the mind, held in the handof him who is called " the ruler of this world,"" the power of darkness," " the might of theenemy," who "holds the power of death," "theancient serpent, who leads into error the whole

30 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSworld," athat malignant one in whom the wholeworld is lying," " the prince of the power of theair, the spirit who now works in the children ofdisobedience," who musters "the principalities,the powers, the world-rulers of this life's darkness,the spirits of wickedness in ethereal places," toserve him in his conflict with man's flesh andblood; in fine, for S. Paul's language goes onepoint even beyond that of his Master, and termshim - not merely the ruler, but " the God of thisworld ;"28 that is to say, this manifold idolatry isthe establishment of his kingdom, the enthronementof his godhead over men, the mark of theircaptivity and prostration before him.The statements of our Lord and his apostlesbeing so express and definite as to the existenceof this diabolic kingdom, and as to the personalsway of a sovereign over it, let us look once moreat this idolatry itself by the light thus shed upon it.And first, whether we regard men as made tobe members of a well-ordered society, enjoyingtemporal prosperity in this life, or as further intendedfor happiness in a future life, resultingfrom their present actions,29 the condition in whichthe heathen nations are actually found at ourLord's coming is quite unintelligible unless we28 See John xii. 31; xiv. 30; xvi. 11; Luke xxii. 53; x. 19; Apoc.xii. 9; Heb. ii. 14; 1 John v. 18; Ephes. vi. 12; ii. 2; 2 Cor. iv. 3.2D These two subjects occupy respectively the first five and the secondfive books of S. Augustine's City of God, where the argument is carriedout in great detail.

WHEN CHEIST APPEARED.31suppose the reality of a diabolic power exercisedupon them. The polytheism which we have witnessedholding all human life in its grasp, while itdid not teach and uphold the great laws of morality,did, on the other hand, actively inculcatethe violation of those laws by continually representingto the minds and eyes of men such a violationin the acts of the deities worshipped. It wasa perpetual incitement of men to crimes, as wellagainstOsocial order as againstOall the sanctities ofprivate life ; it fostered the savageness of slavery,and the utmost cruelty in carrying on war, becauseits deities, being diverse for every nation, and belongingexclusively to the nation, had obliteratedthe idea that all men were of one blood, and thusdelivered over the captive and the slave to thepitiless hatred or equally pitiless luxury of theirfellow-men. So much for its action on humsociety as terminating with this life, while for alife to come it had no doctrine and made no preparation,but had suffered the earlier teaching ofa future retribution to be considered as a fablefit for children and old women. Looking at sucha condition of human society from the moral pointof view, we may conclude with certainty that manwould never, " if Jfc-K. left JLV-/JL !_' to VX*T himself, AAJL^.JLAK^ V^^JL* have devised it.dly, regarding this polytheism as anesented to the human intellect, nothingmore unreasonable and monstrous than this crowdof deities can even be conceived.The human rea-

32 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSson demands imperatively the unity of the godhead,since infinite power at least enters into theconception of the godhead, and to divide or limitinfinity is an unreason. All the great works andorder of the world bore witness likewise to thisunity of the godhead, and were sufficient to proveit ;30 and even in the worst times of paganism wefind this proof exhibited with a force and lucidityto which even now little can be added. And inthe worst times, again, we find the natural witnessof the human soul breaking out in momentsof sudden trial or great anguish, and calling uponthe one God for help.31 Yet in spite of this wesee whole nations renowned for their intellectualproductions, and men among them in whom theforce of reason has rarely or never been surpassed,bowing their necks to this yoke of poly theism, andaccepting this tissue of monstrous error, payinghomage to it in their life, and dying with it ontheir lips ; as Socrates offering the cock to JEscu-lapius, and Seneca the libation to Jove the liberator.We know not how to account for this,were man's reason left alone.We can see an adequateground for it only in "men having beenmade unreasonable, and in the demoniacal errorovershadowing the earth, and concealing the knowledgeof«the true God.32m 20. See the Stoical argument for the unity of the deityin Cic. de Nat. Deor. 2.31 Tertullian de Testimonio Anima, 2.32 O#ro? roivvvvra> rr?)S

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.?>3Let us take a third view of it, neither themoral nor the logical, but the view of it as anexisting fact, as something which for many hundredyears occupied the earth, ruled nations,moulded the institutions and characters of men.Here we do not speak merely of the multitude oftemples, of priests or priestesseserving in them,of sacrifices offered by these, of prayers, vows, festivalsin honour of the gods - because all thenter into the notion of a service rendered byman to the power superior to him, and in theirutmost perversion there is nothing which maynot be accounted for b a simpl human corruptionstealing into and spoiling an originally goodinstitution : but all these in the actual condition7of paganism were mixed up with and penetratedby other elements, and accompanied by effects noto be so accounted for. Let us take the universalpersuasion that the statues of the gods were inhabitedby the deities which they represented, asbodies by souls.33 Here was the notion of a spiritualpower taking possession of material forms.But how was this notion introduced, propagated,and maintained in men's minds ? By certain visibleand palpable effects,34 of which those whoeiriffKia^ov(rr]S TO, iravraxov, Kal KpvTrTotxrrjs T^V irepl TOV o.Xt}Qivov eo vS. Athan. de /near. 13.^^33 See S. August, de Oh\ Dei, viii. 24, "Immundi spiritus, eisdemsimulacris arte ilia nefaria colligati, cultorum suorum animas in suarom^^»34 Called by S. Athan. T\ TUV 8aifj.6vcav a-irani-pavta.- (pII.D

-) 1 THE C50DS OF TIIK NATIONSeye-witnesses give us many derails. Takeagain the oracles -which existed throughout theheal hen world, ft and, as dealing O with the same subject-matter,divination in all its forms. Howevermuch of deceit there miidit O be, here, * was ihcre notalso, in many instances, an exhibition of powerand knowledge beyond that of man, which no meredeceit could produce I ? Take a^ain £j maufic, C7 ' the invocation,adjuration, and compacting with spirits,which ran through heathen society in numberlessshapes; and take lastly the fact of spirits sei/ingupon and possessing the bodies of men, speakingby their voice, and controlling their minds. The(our classes which we have jusl given comprehendin themselves nn innumerable multitude of factswhich are apparent in pagan history, in all whichthe corruption of the human soul is an agent orpatient, but for which that corruption by itselfsupplies no adequate cause. A spiritual power isbehind, laying hold of and acting upon this corruption,and by limit of the human will making aninroad into the visible world, and partially masteringit, bending it to an evil purpose, and makingit serve as an agent to man's captivity. Let usbriefly cite as to the reality of this spiritual powerthe witness of its victims and ihe witness of itsopponents.Dtl In

WHEN CimiST API'KAKKD.35First, as to its victims. Scarcely a writer,whether poet, historian, philosopher, or biographer,can be found amono; O the heathens of Greece andRome who does not attest facts belonging toone or more of these four classes which surpasshuman power, and suggest an invisible spiritualagency. The poet who writes expressly to denysuch an agency speaks of the whole world asbowed beneath the fear of it; another poet,35 referringtacitly to this very passage, felicitates the mannot who has a pure conscience, but who throughknowledge of natural things has trampled thesefears under his feet. Nor is such a belief confinedto the vulgar; but scarcely a man of eminence,a soldier, or a statesman can be cited whodoes not in his life and actions acknowledge it,shrink from it, or cower beneath it. It is toopowerful for Alexander or even Julius to escape;and the philosophers who affect to deny it in theirsystems exhibit it in their conduct. They haveall the conviction of an evil power beyond andabove nature, but taking hold of natural forms,and ever lying in wait to burst forth from themupon human life. The Greek name for superstitionis fear of the demons; and what S. Paul s;dd of the35 " Humana ante oculos fcede quam vita jaceretIn terris, oppressa gravi sub rcligione," &c. Lucret. i. C3." Felix qui potuit re rum. cognoscere causas,Atquo metus onmes ct incxorabile fatumSubjecit pedibus, strepitumque Acherontis avari."Vir#. (Ifo. ii. 491.

36 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSAthenians, that he found them in all things too fear-ful of the demons, might be applied to the wholecircle of nations surrounding the midland sea.Secondly, as to the opponents of this power.Now they offer a triple witness to its existence.The first of these is in the facts mentioned in theNew Testament. The strongest, most terrible, andmost inexplicable instance of this power lies inthose diabolical possessions with which so manyof our Lord's miracles are concerned. Again, asto the reality of divining powers arising from thepresence of a demon in a human form, we havethe evil spirit in the girl at Philippi acknowledgingin S. Paul a servant of the most highGod, and, when cast out by the Apostle in thename of Christ, leaving his victim destitute ofthose powers which had brought gain to hermasters, who forthwith try to avenge themselvesfor their loss by exciting a persecution against theApostle. 36A second witness is found in the rites and of-fices of the very power set up to dethrone andabolish this other power. The Church called uponevery one who was received into her bosom tobegin by renouncing the usurpation of this greatenemy, which was thus declared to be universal.She provided forms for exorcising him. One ofher Apostles warned those to whom he wrote thatmen could not partake at once of the Christian_3f! Acts xvi. 16.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.37sacrifice and the heathen ; for as truly as one wasthe chalice of the Lord, the other was the chaliceof devils ; as one was the table of the Lord, theother was the table of devils.37A third witness is found in the unanimous testimonyof all Christian writers as to the realityof the demoniacal powers with which they werewaging war; as to their perpetual interference withhuman life ; as to the open and palpable effectswhich they produced ; as to their unwilling retirementin the face of that Stronger One who wascome upon*them. It was not merely the fervidTertullian who offered to rest the truth of Christianityand the life of any ordinary Christian uponhis power publicly to expel a demon. Athaiiasius,who weighs every word he utters, says also, " Lethim who will, try the truth of what we have said,and in the very presence of the spectral illusion ofthe demons, of the deceit of oracles and the won-ders of magic, let him use the sign of the crossderided by them, only naming the name of Christ,and he shall see how by him the demons fly, theoracles cease, and every sort of rnagic and witch-craft is annulled." No less express is S. Augustinein acknowledging the reality of these darkpowers, and the wonders worked by them. 3837 1 Cor. x. 21.38 Tertullian, Apologeticus, 23; S. Athanas. de Inc. 48; S. Aug. deCiv. Dei, xxi. 6, who says, " Ut autem demones illiciantur ab hominibus,prius eos ipsi astutissima calliditate seducunt, vel inspirando eorum cor-dibus virus occultum, vel e'tiam fallacibus amicitiis apparendo, eorumque

38 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSResuming O then for a moment our view of heathenismas a whole, / with regard ~ to the exhibitionof diabolic power in it, let us bear in mind, joinedto the absence of moral teaching, its flagrantly immoraldisposition; secondly, its illogical character,by which it is an insult to human reason whileyet accepted by the human will; and thirdly, thesuperhuman effects noted in it and attached to itsrites, ceremonies, and practices, attested by manygenerations alike of its victims as of its opponents.These proofs have each their own separateforce, but they have likewise as to our conclusiona cumulative force ; and its result is, thatthe existence of a diabolic kino'dom cT and sovereign Othroned in heathenism, pervading its rites anddirecting its operations, which is so expressly declaredin Holy Writ, is no le>s strongly proved bjthe facts of history.6. Now, having sketched in four main pointsthe substance of this polytheism, its multiplicity,its universality, its hold upon daily life, and itsmoral corruption, to all which a consummatingforce is added by the indwelling of diabolic power,it remains to give a srlance at certain conditionsand circum-taiices under which it was acting O onthe minds of men. AVe have here taken it andexamined it by itself, abstracting it from thosepaucos discipulos suos faciunt, plurimorumque doctores. Neque enimpotuit, nisi primum ipsis docentibus. disci quid quisque illorum appetat,quid exhorreat quo invitetur nomine, quo cogatur, unde magicae artesearumque artifices exstiterunt. "

HARY si.AY-AWHEN CHRIST APPEARED.39circumstances, but it never so appeared to thosewho lived under it. The wonderful error whichso enfolded these widespread nations never exhibiteditself to them bare and naked.On the contrary,it came to them interwoven with the dearestclaims of the family, the city, the country, withthe force of habit and tradition, with the dreadof change, with the past history and future hopesof their fatherland, coloured moreover with theradiant dress of a rich and ever-advancing civilisation.To judge of its power, vitality, and chance ofpermanence, we must look at it under these conditions.And if, when we regard this idolatrouspolytheism in itself, one is lost in wonder at itsever having arisen, at its existence, at its continuance,so, when one regards it as throned in thecustoms, feelings, convictions, and interests of society,one wonders how any moral force could everoverthrow it. At the present time not only arethere religions outside of Christianity, but thereare also sects within it, so irrational, so devoidof the witness given by internal truth ammony, so unable to render any account of themselvesand their claims which will satisfy a mindlooking for consistency, that, regarding themmerely as facts, one cannot account for them, yetnotwithstanding they may have existed for severalhundred years, and had a large share in formingnational habits of thought, ts / or even national cha-

40 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSracter ; nay, perhaps their secret strength lies insome fold of this character itself. And becausethey are never seen by themselves, their intrinsicabsurdity does not come before their adherents,and the last thing which these think of examiningis the foundation of their sect, inasmuch as in factit has never approached them otherwise than as acondition of their daily life. So we shall understandpaganism better by considering it as interwovenwith civilisation, polity, and national feelings.We will treat of it briefly under these threeheads.1. First, the whole eastern part of the Romanempire was made up of many various nations havinga long and sometimes renowned history, kingdoms,and polities imich anterior to Rome herself,of which the Romans had taken violent possession,but wherein remained still the fruits of a rich andundisturbed civilisation. And this word comprehendsall the natural life of man, all the discoveriesgained by his invention or experience, and accumulatedby wealth descending from age to age,all the manifold ties of social intercourse, all thepleasures of the intellect, united, moreover, intheir case with an art even now unrivalled inportraying the beauty of the human figure, andin the elegance with which it adapted materialforms to the conveniences of life. So rich andvaried an inheritance unfolded itself in a thousandHellenic cities studding the shores of the Mediter-

42 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSand deeply sensualised ; but their glory was thisgreat Hellenic civilisation, with which polytheismmight be termed one and the same thing.*2. When we turn to the West, the seat of thesovereign city and of the empire itself, we findthat from the very beginning and through manycenturies the political constitution of the city hadbeen indissolubly blended with the worship of theRoman gods. The religion of Eome wasmore than national ; her polity seemed only anothcname for her worship. Her temples were as muca part of her political life as her forum. So far atleast she had embodied in her whole structure thelegend of her Etruscan teacher, wherein the dwarfTages sprung from the soil to communicate theworship claimed by the gods.39 Her soil and herworshi were indivisible. And even after sevencenturies, when the city was embracing the worldin its arms, this union practically existed. Romeindeed admitted, as we have said, the gods of theconquered nations into her pantheon, but it wason the same tenure as the nations themselvesshared her civic rights. Jupiter Capitolinus wasa sort of suzerain not only to the gods of theGrecian Olympus, but to the dark forms of theNile deities, to the Syrian, the Libyan, the Gallic,the Germanic, the Sarmatian Valhalla. Whenthe greatest of her poets would express unendingduration, he joins together the race of ./Eneas en-39 Merivale, Hi. 496.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.43throned on the Capitol with the god who dweltthere :"Nulla dies unquam memori vos eximet asvo,Dum domus JKnesQ Capitoli immobile saxumAccolet, imperiumque Pater Romanus habebit."The Eoman father is the Capitoline Jupiter.am not a king ; the only king of the Romans isJupiter, said the most royal of the race, and thefounder of her empire, when, seeing all prostrateat his feet, he put away reluctantly the diademoffered by his creature. Thus even he who hadseized the reality of power, who would have omenswhen he pleased, and whose will was his law, leftthe crown on the head of Jupiter. In Rome, allthrough her history " piety and patriotism werethe same feeling."40 When her empire becameworld-wide, this sort of devotion did not cease.Rome had long been deified; and the double importof her name41 expressed strength against thefoe without, and nourishment to the child within.She was agoddess clothed in mailto meet the enemy, and a mother offering herbosom to her citizens clustered around her. Andso in her new constitution, adapted for the world,her emperor too was deified, as the first of herchildren, her living representative, the embodimentof her force and love, the visible wielder ofer unseen power. All that is sacred in home40 Beugnot, Destruction du Paganisme, i. 8.41 (3o5/i?7, strength; ruma, a mother's breast.

44 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSand country to us the Roman signified when heswore by the genius of the emperor. Nothingcould be more tolerant than this polytheism, if theinnovation extended only to the borrowing or ere-ating a new divinity, to reforming a rite or a ceremony,42or to suchlike modifications of worshipwhich admitted that on which it rested ; but no-thing more intolerant than the same polytheismwhen the worship itself was attacked. A movementagainst the Capitoline Jupiter would be notonly sacrilege but high treason, and the refusal tocall to witness the emperor's genius was in fact todeny his imperial authority. The worship of thegods was as much identified with the empire ofRome in the West as with the civilisation oGreece * throughout c the East.ut as if these two powers were not tiessufficiently strong to hold polytheism together,there was another feeling distinct from both, whichformed its last bulwark. The iron hand whichheld in its grasp these vast countries, many ofthem so large that by themselves they might havebeen empires, was strong enough to prevent orcrush insurrection, but provided only the majestyof the Roman peace was accepted, did not seekto disturb a large remnant of local feeling andinterest still representing the former life and polityof the several provinces. Now whatever of national,tribe, or race feeling existed, was grouped*2 Beugnot, i. 17.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED. 45ywhere about the worship of the native godThe Nile-land had ceased to be a royal seat, andwas governed by a simple Roman knight as prefectof the ^emperor ; but not for this had the Nilegods abdicated their dark sway over their votaries.In them the Egyptians still felt that they hadsomething which was their own. Thus, whateverforce of patriotism still lurked in the several partsof the empire was nurtured by its own form ofpolytheism, which it in turn invested with thememories dearest and most ineradicable in man.of past independence or renown. Not only theEgyptians, but the various Asiatic and Libyanraces, the Gauls and Germans under Roman sway,were thus attached to their native gods with afeelin no doubt akin to that of the English O towardsu Old England," or the Russians towards" Holy Russia."4. Two more conditions of society throughoutthe whole empire we have yet to consider in theirbearing on the maintenance of polytheism : first,the concentration of the vast power of the statein itself an acknowledged omnipotence, withoutthe restriction or reservation of individual rights o-in one hand, the hand of the emperor, the solerepresentative of the people, By this it wouldseem that all the upper classes of society, theclasses at ease as to their maintenance, the classeswho have leisure to think and will to act in poll*43 Ot t

46 THE GODS OF THE NATIONStical matters, were deprived of so much of theirfreedom, and such deprivation would tend to supportan existing institution. Secondly, the despotismabove was met by a corresponding despotismbelow. The rights of the slaveholder over thehuman labourer left as little margin of freedom todaily toil as the right of the imperial autocrat tothe freedom of conscience in the rich. The ser-vants throughout the world of Rome being slaves,were as much in the hand of their masters as thosemasters were in the hand of the prince.We can now take a prospect of human societyin reference to the polytheism of the empire fromthe standing-point of Augustus in the last twentyyears of his reign. The worship of her gods wasso intertwined with the political constitution ofRome from her birth through seven centuries anda half, that it might be said to be one thing withit. Almost as close was the identification of theseveral religious systems of the East with theenjoyments of civilised life which they prized sohighly, and which the empire of Rome securedthem. Further in the background the nationalgods of the many races included in the empirewere the last inheritance of their former independentlife. Again, not only was the emperor asPontifex Maximus the official head of this polytheism,but as representing the whole power ofthe state, he was its guardian, and whatever assailedit was an insult to the majesty which he

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.47embodied ; while the slavery in which the masseswere lying seemed to represent in human societythe chances of war which had all ended in theinion of Rome and the subjection of the wholpantheon of incongruous gods to the sovereigntyof the Capitoline Jupiter. These were generalconditions to that multifarious whole * of nationsand races. Then if Augustus sought to examinemore narrowly the society of Roman citizens spreadthrough his empire, he would find it divided veryunequally as to numbers into two classes. Thevast majority were those who take things as theyfind them, and who belonged with more or lessfidelity and heartiness to the idolatrous polytheism.The worship which came to them as partand parcel of the empire, of civilised and of nationallife, they accepted without thought. To all thesean indefinite number of immoral gods was thronedin possession of Olympus ; to all these the resultof such worship was, as we have seen described byS. Augustine, the utter perversion of morality, theconsecration of fables equalling in turpitude theutmost license of the theatres. But everywhereamong the educated * classes were to be found asmall number of sceptical minds : philosophersthey termed themselves : it was fashionable ito fol-low some philosophic system or sect, and these fellmainly into two. Now the Epicureans and theStoics, while they left the existing polytheism inpractical possession, as a matter of custom and

48 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSstate religion, and so delivered themselves fromany unpleasant consequences of denying the prevailingworship, concurred entirely in this, thatthe one by the way of atheism, the other by thatof pantheism, destroyed all religion of the heartand inner conduct; because they equally removedthe notion of a personal God, and its correspond-ing notion of a personal being in man outlivingthe body and the world of sense, and meeting witha personal retribution. Whether the power theyacknowledge be nature, as in Lucretius, or a hiddenphvsical "I force running through all nature,which might be called Jupiter, Juno, Hercules, orthe name of any other god, as in Marcus Aurelius,the notion of a personal Creator, provident andrewarding, was equally destroyed. Nor before thereaching of the Gospel does there appear a singlewho drew out of the existing polythism such a conclusion. On the contrary, in Augustusand his successors the imperial idea of unityin religion was to make out that all these systemsof polytheism, running into and athwart each other,came practically to the same thing, differing in nameonly. Their obedience to Jupiter of the Capitolwas the only bond of unity, and pledge of the empire'sduration, conceived by the Roman rulers.II. Thus in the time of Augustus no humaneye, whether we look at the mass of mankind or thethinking few, could see any sign either that thedominant polytheism was about to fall, or that the

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.49lost doctrine of the divine Unity and Personalityconld be extricated from the bewildering mass oferror and superstition which had grown over, disguised,and distorted it. Darker still, if possible,became the prospect under his successor, Tiberius,whose rekm had reached the climaxof moral de-obasement, when Sejanus was all-powerful at Koine.Hope for the human race there appeared none,when such an emperor devolved his omnipotenceon such a prime minister. Then in the judgment-hall of a procurator in a small and distant easternprovince, there passed the following dialogue betweenan accused criminal and his judge :-" Pilatewent into the praetorium again, and calledJesus, and said to him, * Art thou the king of theJews ?' Jesus answered him, ' Sayest thou thisthing of thyself, or have others told it thee of me ?'Pilate answered, ' Am I a Jew ? Thine own nationand the chief priests have delivered thee upto me: what hast thou done ?' Jesus answered,c Mykingdom is not of this world. If my kingdomwere of this world, my servants would strive thatI should not be delivered to the Jews ; but nowmy kingdom "is not from hence.' Pilate thereforesaid to him, ' Art thou a king, then ?7 Jesus answered,' Thou sayesthat I am a king. For thiswas I born, and for this came I into the world,that I should bear witness to the truth. Every onethat is of the truth heareth my voice.' Pilate saithto him, 4 What is truth ?' " He who thus declaredn. E

50 THE GODS OF THE NATIONShimself to be a king, the cause of whose birth ando iadvent into the world, the function of whose royalty,was to bear witness to the truth, receivedfrom the power which then ruled the world thepunishment allotted to the slave who was worthyof death. For many ages a false worship had overshadowedthe earth, hiding the true God frommen, and setting up instead a multitude of demonsfor gods. And during this time the thinkers ofGreek and Roman society had been asking, Whatis truth ? And now the officer who asked thatquestion of the Truth Himself, replied to it bycrucifying Him. And when the body of that CrucifiedOne was the same day taken down from thecross and laid in its sepulchre, the power whichreigned in polytheism and spoke by the mouth ofthe judge, seemed to have given the final answerof triumphant force to its question, What is truth?and falsehood might be thought to reign supremeand victorious in the world.It was with the resurrection of that Body, infwhich Truth was enshrined, that the resurrectionof truth among men began. He had said to Hisdisciples a few hours before, not " I show thetruth," but UI am the Truth." His birth andHis advent took place J. that His witness might begiven to it, the witness to it being that very birthand advent, His appearance among men, and thereception He would meet with. The crucifixionitself-the reply of triumphant force to its own

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.51unanswered question-was the witness which, firstin Him, and then in His followers, should make it-self heard over the earth, now held in captivity byfalsehood. And since Truth is His proper Nameand His personal Being from eternity, and by beingthe Truth He who spoke is the second Person inthe Godhead, the perfect Image of all Truth, let usconsider the import of His Name as the summing-up of the great antagonism which He then plantedon the earth.For He named Himself the Truth because Heis the Son and the Word of the Father. " Thusthe Father, as it were uttering Himself, begot HisWord, equal to Himself in all things. For Hewould not fully and perfectly have uttered Himself,if there were anything less or anything morein His Word than in Himself. . . . And thereforethis Word is truly " the Truth ; inasmuch as what-ever is in that knowledge of which He is begotten,is also in Himself; and whatsoever is not in it, isnot in Himself. . . . The Father and the Son knoweach other, the one by generating, the other bybeing generated."44 Thus it is that He is the perfectWord, ' the absolute Image of God ;*and beingthe Image of God He created man in the beginninga copy of that Image, and according .to itsresemblance, in that He created him in the indivisibleunity of a soul intelligent and willing-acreated copy of the Trinity in Unity. But though44 S. Aug. de Trin. 1. xv. c. 14, torn. viii. 984.

52 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSby the original constitution of the soul this copycould not be destroyed, being the very essence ofthe soul, yet the resemblance might be marred, andthe harmony which reigned in the original manbetween the soul, its intellect, and will, throughthe indwelling of God's Spirit, was broken by theact of sin ; whereupon that Spirit withdrew fromhim, and left the copy of the divine Image defacedand disordered. All the heathenism we have beenconsidering is the sequence of that disorder, partof which is the grievous obscuration of truth, thatis, of the whole relation between God and man, ofwhich idolatrous polytheism is the perversion.was the exact representation^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^HHof the soul's own dis-order, being the distortion but not the extinctionof worship ; the fear of many demons, instead ofthe fear of one God ; slavish instead of filial fear.ut as the Truth of the Father is beheld anexpressed in generating His Son, His Word, Hisperfect Image, so truth to man is the resemblanceof created things CD to the archetypal v J. idea of them inGod; the resemblance of the works of the divineart to the Artificer's intention. In this long actof heathenism we see the work of the divine Artificermarred and obscured, and the marring andobscuration seem to have gone as far as was possiblewithout touching the essence of the soul.Who, then, should restore, but He who had firstcreated ? Who should give back to the copy thelost harmony, and reimprint the defaced resem-

WHEN CUBIST APPEARED.53blance, save the perfect Image of God ? Thus,when the corruption had run its course, and theoriginal disobedience had reproduced itself all overthe earth in a harvest of evil and disorder, thetime for the work of reparation was come, and theDivine Word, the Image of the Father, took flesh.Magnificent as had been the dower of the FirstMan, and wonderful the grace which held his soulin harmony with itself, and his bodily affections inobedience to his soul, incomparably more magnificentwas the dower of human nature in its reparation,inconceivably grander the grace which ruledthe Soul and Body of the Restorer.For whereasthe First Man's person had been simply human, thePerson of the Second Man was the Divine WordHimself, the perfect Image of the Father ; andwhereas the grace of the First Man was such thathe was able not to sin, the grace which had assumedthe nature of the Second Man was a Personwho could not sin, the fountain of grace itself,measureless, absolute, and personal. The Imageof God Himself came to restore the copy of thatImage in Man; his appearance as man among menwas the reconveying of the Truth to them, becauseHe was the Truth Himself. The Truth in all itsextent ; X the Truth in the whole moral order i andevery relation which belongs to it ; the Truth by. which all the rational creation of God correspondsto the Idea of its Creator, was the gift which Hebrought to man in His Incarnation.

54 THE GODS OF THE NATIONSBut this truth is not merely external to man.In order to be received and appropriated by him,he must become capable of it. The Restorer workshis restoration by an inward act upon the soul, itsintellect and will. The Image of God sets up Hisseat within His work, the copy. Man is sealed bythe Holy Spirit with the likeness and resemblanceof the Father's Face, the Son ; and having the Sonwithin him, and giving a home within the soul tothe divine character, and making this his treasure,man is formed after God.45 The supreme likeness,which is beyond all others, is impressed on humansouls by the Spirit of the Father and the Son. Asthe defacing of the likeness, the result of the originalfall, caused the obscuring of the Truth, so itsrestoration was itself the recovery of the Truth.And this restoration is itself the witness to theTruth of which He spoke before Pilate as the objectof His birth and advent. But to make thewitness operative and fruitful, the greatest wonderin this list of wonders is required, the suffering ofthe Truth Himself. He said of the corn of wheat,as to bear fruit in unnumbered hearts.that it would remain alone unless it fell into theground and died. And so His crucifixion in thenature which He had assumed was the act fromwhich the renewal of truth went forth ; and notonly in His Person, but likewise in His chosenwitnesses this special mode of vivifying the truth,45 S. Cyril. Alex. torn. v. 1, pp. 544, 557 a.

WHEN CHRIST APPEARED.55and making it fruitful, should be repeated. Notonly must the absolute Truth of God appear inour nature itself in order to be accepted, but thenature in which it appeared should offer the sacrificeof itself; and this particular mode of propagatingthe truth should be observed in that chosenband whom He termed specially His witnesses.Their witness should be their suffering ; in themtoo the Truth should be crucified, and so becomefruitful.And as man in his original creation had been acopy, however faint, of the eternal relations of theGodhead in itself, so his restoration springs fromthose same eternal relations. In it the Father, theon, and the Holy Spirit are seen working.46 Itsprings from the Father, in that He is the Father ofthe only-begotten Son, the Original of the Image,and so the Father of all those who are the copiesof that Image. It springs from the Son, in that Heis the perfect Image of the Father, and by dwellingin a created nature has raised it to the dignityof His Person, from which the grace of Son shipconies. It springs from the Holy Spirit, whosework as the Spirit of the Father and the Son isto imprint the copy of the Son on man. He performsin every one of the redeemed by communicatingto them a participation of the divine nature,by dwelling in them, by contact and coherence withthem, a work infinitely less in degree, but yet of46 S. Cyril. Alex, in Joli. x. p. 858 b.

56 WHEN CHRIST APPEAREDthe same order with that work of His whereby allthe fulness of the Godhead dwelt by personal unityin our Lord's Manhood.47But we left our Lord before Pilate, bearingwitness to the truth. It remains to see how thattruth became impressed on the world.47 Petav. de Trin. lib. viii. c. 7.

CHAPTERVIII.THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN." Totus Christus caput et corpus est. Caput unigenitus Dei Films, etcorpus ejus Ecclesia, Sponsus et Sponsa, duo in carne una." S. Aug.de Unitate Ecc. tom. ix. 341." Totus Christus, id est, caput et membra." S. Thomas, Prolog, ad 1Sentent. art. 4.LET us look back on the space which we havetraversed, and gather up in a few words the sightwhich it presents to us. We have man before usas far ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V^^^^^^^las history will I^H^^^^^^^^^I carry us back, as far asreasoning, planting itself on the scanty traces ofhistory, will penetrate into the cloudland of prehistorictimes : and the result stands before usexhibited in the manifold records still remainingof the most renowned ancient civilisation. Herethen, we see nations whose genius, whether in history,poetry, and literature, or in works of art, or111 civil government, we still admire comprisingmen in many of whom the powers of reason reachedtheir utmost limit; nations inhabiting the mostvaried climates and countries, and amongst themthe fairest in the world, nations formed under themost different tances and pursuing the m t

58 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.distinct employments, some agricultural, some commercial,some inland, some nautical, but alike inthis, that they were enthralled by systems of a falseworship, of which it is hard to say whether it wasthe more revolting to the reason by its absurdity,or to the conscience of man by its foulness. Andthis false worship does not lie distinct and apartfrom the concerns of daily civil and domesticlife, but is intertwined with all the public andprivate actions of men, forming their habits andruling their affections. Moreover, the polytheisticidolatry described above as existing at the time ofAugustus in every province of his empire exceptone, in almost1 every country which touched uponit, or was known to it, is the result, the summing-up, the embodiment of man's whole history upto that time, so far as we know it : it is thatinto which this history had run out, its palpable,it almost seemed its irresistible, form. And itamounts to a complete corruption, first of the relationbetween man and his Creator, secondly ofthe relation between man and his fellow, thirdly ofthe relations of man in civil government, that is,of states and political communities, to each other.Now, looking at this polytheistic idolatry simplyas a fact, without for the moment any attemptto give a solution of it from authority, looking atit just as modern science would regard the facts of1 An exception must be made in favour of Persia, where the originalmonotheism was preserved with more or less corruption.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.59geology or astronomy, there is one thing, we maysuppose, which it proves with a superabundance ofevidence not found to belong to any other fact ofhistory; and that is, the intrinsic corruption of manas a moral being. That which in theologiesguage is called the Fall of man is, apart from allrevealed doctrine on the subject, brought in uponthe mind with irresistible force by the mere enumerationof the gods which heathendom worshipped,and of the worship paid by it to them ;a force which is indefinitely increased by everyinquiry into the moral and religious state of manas he lived under this worship.Now, then, let us consider what solution theChristian faith does give of this fact, which exists,be it remembered, independently of this swould exist with all its force undiminished,if this were rejected.1. The Christian faith, as a solution of thiswonderful maze of polytheistic idolatry, with allts accompaniments and consequences, carries usack to the first father of the race, whose develop-ient we have been following in it. This, it says,thing else2 but the body of Adam carriedthrough thousands of years, the body of Adfallen under a terrible captivitv. Not onthe Christianfaith set before us man as one race descended from one, but because he is this one race2 " Das Heidenthum 1st nichts anderes als der gefallene und nichtebome Mensch im Gro^sen." Mohler. Klrchenaeschichte. i. 169.

60 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.descended from one, it represents him as havingcome into such a state. To understand this wemust contemplate the original creation, the fall ofman, and its consequences, in their several bearingson each other, which will then lead us on tothe nature and mode of the restoration.In speaking of the creation of man we mayfirst consider the union of the soul and body simplyby themselves ; that is, in order to obtain aclear view of our subject, we may form to ourselvesa purely ideal state of simple nature. Sucha state would include two things; one positive, theother negative.3 Positively, human nature in thiscondition would have all natural faculties in theiressential perfection, and the assistance and providenceof God naturally due to it : negatively, itwould have nothing superadded to nature, nothingnot due to it, whether evil or good, thatis, neither sin on the one hand, and what followssin, the guilt which entails punishment, i nor onthe other hand any gifts of grace, or perfectionsnot due to nature.Human nature, if created in such a state, wouldhave no supernatural end ; its end would be tolove God with a natural love, as the Author andRuler of the world.Of such a state it is requisite for our presentpurpose to say only two things further. The first,that it is not contrary to any attribute of God to8 Suarez, de Gratia, Proleg. 4, cap. i. sec. 3.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.61have created human nature in such a state. The "gift of eternal beatitude, arising from the visionof God, which such a creature would not have hadfor its end, is simply and absolutely a gratuitousgift of the divine bounty, which God is not boundto bestow on any creature as such. Secondly, Goddid not in fact so create man.Going on from this state of simple nature, wemay consider another state in man, in which, beyondall his natural faculties,4 he would have acertain special perfection, consisting in the absenceof immoderate concupiscence, or in the perfectsubjection of the sensitive to the rational appetite,so that the inferior appetite should not be allowedto set itself in motion against the superior, or toanticipate reason. .For human nature, regardedin itself as the union of a spirit and a body, isas it were divided in its natural affections, whichtend in diverse directions, and thus totters, so tosay, in its gait; when, therefore, it receives an inwardpeace in its own proper faculties, it is saido be supplemented, or to receive its integrity. Now it is much to be noted that this ggift of integrity would not be connatural to man,that is, not given to him by force of his natureitself. It is true indeed that as such a gift perfectsnature in regard to all natural acts, andsupplies a sort of natural deficiency arising out ofthe combination of a spiritual with a material sub-4 Suarez, de Gratia, Proleg. cap. ii. sec. 3.LIBRARY ST. i M

62 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.stance, ' wherein a conflict is engendered, O / in such asense it may be called natural : but strictly speakingit is a gift superadded to nature.It must further be noted that this state of na-ture in its integrity, however high and beautiful,is not only entirely distinct from but of an inferiororder to the state of human nature raised tothe gift of Divine Sonship. Between human naturein this condition and human nature raised tothe gift of sonship, there would be more than thedifference5 that with us exists between the kindly-treated servant and the adopted son : for humannature in this integrity would still not by virtueof it posses sanctifying grace, or, in consequence,have God and His vision for its supernatural end.But, thirdly, it was not merely in this statethat God created man, but in a state which notonly included this, but had grace for its basis,6that is to say, every perfection which it hadsprang out of this, that it was united to God bygrace. This is a state of far superior order, absolutelygratuitous, and beyond anything whichis due to nature. The first man, Adam, then,was not only a union of soul and body, not onlydid he possess this nature in its integrity, buthe was created in grace, so that there was a unionof the Holy Spirit with him, whereby he wasexalted to the condition of a supernatural end5 Kleutgen, die Theologie der Vorzeit, ii. p. 559.6 Suarez, de (7 rat. Proleg. 4, cap. v. sec. 3.

THE FIKST AND THE SECOND MAN.63and adopted Sonship, and in this union was rootedthe integrity of his nature, and the supernaturalpower of so ruling all the lower faculties of hissoul that the higher could mount undisturbedlyto God: and certain other gifts over and above,such as immunity from error or deception, so longas he did not sin, immunity from even venialfault, immunity from death, and from all pain orsorrow. Such was the original condition whichgrace bestowed on human nature, wherein manhad not only a supernatural end, but the powerto attain it easily. 7Now it is evident that man, by being createdin grace, was raised to an astonishing height ofdignity, to which not only his nature, but anycreated nature whatsoever had 110 claim. Allthat the justice and goodness of God required himto do in creating such a being as man of two substances,soul and body, was to bestow on the compoundbeing so united such perfections as madethe several substances complete in their own order.the ideal state of simple nateated above. It was a gift beyond natsuch as nature in its first beginning could notclaim, to bestow on it the intesritv which in thesecond place we considered. But how farthis, passing it by an unmeasured chasm, was thatower of soiiship rooted in sanctifying grace whichGod actually bestowed on His favoured child ? It7 Kleutgen, die Thcologie der Vorzeit, vol. ii. 650. *

64 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.is obvious at first sight that the divine gift hereintended, being in Adam's actual creation thwhich was over and above the naturaties of body and soul in their union, was bestowedabsolutely by the pure goodness of God, and thereforecould be bestowed with such conditions attachedto it as pleased the Giver. In all that isbeyond the mere faculties and needs of naturein forming which God's own being is a sort ofrule to Him-He is absolutely free to give aspleases Himself, to what degree He pleases, onwhat terms He pleases. What, then, were theconditions on which He invested Adam with thegift of Sonship, and created Him in grace as itsfoundation ? He created him, not only as theindividual Adam, bufc as the Head of his race, sothat his race was summed up in him, and a unitywas founded in him attaching his whole race asmembers to his body, in such manner that thesupernatural gift of sonship bestowed on him wasto descend from him by virtue of natural propagationto every member of that body, which thusbecame a supernatural race from a supernaturalfather. So absolute was this unity that the ordermaintained in the case of every other creature putunder the dominion of the man so formed wasnot followed in his case. For whereas they werecreated with the difference of sex, each a maleand a female, he was created alone, as the Head,and then she, by whose cooperation the race was

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.65to be continued, was formed out of him. It wasnot a second man who was so formed from thefirst, but one made with reference to him, in dependenceon him, to be a help meet for him, notfor herself, with an independent being, but forhim. This formation of Eve from Adam, whichhas a meaning of unfathomable depth in the developmentof the race, is an essential part of theoriginal design. " Therefore," says Adam, sj;&*«Cs in an ecstasy sent upon him by God, the wordsof God, " this is now bone of my bone and fleshof my mf flesh: she shall be called woman, * becauseshe was taken out of man. Therefore shall a manleave his father and his mother, and shall cleaveunto his wife, and they shall be one flesh." First,the Eve so formed from him is one flesh with him;secondly, the race springing from both is one fleshlikewise with him. The consequence intended bythat one flesh was the transmission of that mag-nificent inheritance in which Adam was standinwhen he so spoke. In this he was Father andHead, for this created alone, then Eve built upfrom him, from whom afterwards was to issuetheir joint race. On the further condition of hispersonal obedience to God and fidelity to his grace,he held the whole supernatural gift of grace conferringsonship, both for himself and for his race:on these terms it was bestowed by the charter ofGod, the original Giver. Thus, the greatness ofhis Headship was visible in two things, the powerii.-

66 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.of transmitting his quality of divine sonship to hi srace by propagation, and the dependence of thatquality, in them as well as in himself, on his personalfidelity to God.But the First Man, the Father and Head of therace, did not stand in his inheritance. He brokethe divine command, and lost the gift of sonship,and with it all the prerogatives attendant on thatgift, which were above nature and rooted in grace,and which the eminent goodness of God had be-stowed upon him: and by the terms of the originalcharter lost the gift, not only for himself, but forhis race. But he did not, therefore, destroy thatrelation between the Head and the Race, whichwas part of the original foundation of God. Thiscontinued; but whereas it had been intended tocommunicate the blessing of adoption, it nowserved to communicate the demerit of adoptionlost, the guilt, and with it the punishment incurredby that loss. This is the original sin, thesin of the nature, not of the person, inherited bythe members of Adam's body; and as there canbe no sin without free-will, the sin of the wholenature included in Adam as its Root and Head,which sinned by Adam's abuse of his free-will.Let us try to determine as accurately as wecan the position into which Adam and his racefell.Did, then, Adam simply lose with the forfeitureof sanctifying grace the gift of sonship, the super-

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.67tural inheritance, all which God had bestowedon him beyond that ideal state of pure naturewhich we described in the first instance ? God,we said, might have created man originally in thiscondition, and man so created, that is, in virtueof this creation, would not have been under anysin, nor exposed to the anger of God. Did man,by Adam's sin, fall back into it ? Not so. Hisstate after his fall differed from such a state ofpure nature in that he had upon him the guilt oflost adoption, of adoption lost by the first Adam'sfault, and in proportion to the greatness of theloss, and the gratuitousness of the gift originallybestowed, was the anger with which, on the donor'spart, the loss was regarded. How would a king,a man like ourselves, regard one whom he hadraised out of the dust to be his adopted child,and who had been unfaithful to the parent whohad so chosen him with more than natural affection? Such an anger we can indeed understandwhen felt against the person sinning ; but we failto enter into it as resting on the race, because thesecret tie which binds the head and the race intoone is not discerned by us ; because too the greatnessof the divine majesty, the awfulness of Hissovereignty, and the wrath of that majesty slighted,3ebly appreciated by us. But this image mayt least give us some notionof the nature of thatdivine anger which pressed upon Adam and hisrace after the fall. Not only, therefore, was the gift

()8 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.of sonship and the prerogatives attending it withdrawn,but this withdrawal was a punishment,which their absence in the presumed case of anoriginal state of simple nature would not have been.Thus death was a punishment to Adam and hisace ; the body's weakness and disease, the soul'ssorrows and pains, the disobedience of the inferiorappetites to the reason, the resistance of the reasonto the law of God, were all punishments, and a remarkablepoint of the punishment is to be seenin this. Aclam, as the head of his race, was invirtue of natural propagation to have bestowedon the children of his flesh, the members of hisbody, his own supernatural inheritance. Thus asingular honour was conferred on the fathershipof Adam. But now when, in virtue of this naturalpropagation, he, continuing to be the head of hisrace, transmitted to it the guilt of adoption lostinstead of the blessing of adoption -L conferred, apeculiar shame was set by God upon this father-ship of Adam, and upon all the circumstancesattending it: so that henceforth in the disinherited"race the bride veiled her head, and the act ofbeing a father became an act of shame.The condition, therefore, of Adam and his posterityafter his fall differed from the conditionwhich would have been that of simple nature bythe whole extent of the guilt incurred by thenature in its fall from sonship.And herein lies one peculiarity, and one

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.69strangely distressing condition of his state, in. thatwhile he lost by the fall the grace in which, asan indwelling gift, his whole supernatural statehad been rooted, he yet did not lose that conditionof being formed and intended for a supernaturalend which grace alone could enable himto attain. For the supernatural vision and loveof God he had been created, and in his fall he didnot sink to be merely a natural man ; but hisoriginal end was still held out before him as thatwhich he might reach supported by that gracethe aids of which were in a different measure promisedto him in order to lead a life of penance,and as the earnest of a future restoration.This, however, is far from being a completestatement of his case, and we must go back to thecircumstances of his fall in order to add thatfurther still more peculiar and remarkable conditionwhich, added to the one just described,made up the whole of his fall.Adam had not disobeyed the divine command,and so broken the covenant of his sonship, by thesimple promptings of his own will. Another hadintervened ; had suggested to the woman doubts.against her Maker and Father. She had yieldedto these * doubts, and disobeyed ; and then Adamhad suffered himself to be drawn with her in herdisobedience. Who was this other ? He wasthe prince and leader of spirits created good, butfallen into enmity with God. Thus, the favourite

70 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.son of God had listened to the persuasion of God'schief enemy, and his fall from sonship had been,by the judgment of the offended Parent, not asimple fall from his supernatural estate, but a falllikewise into servitude to that enemy. This servitudealso, with the guilt of the nature in whichhe had sinned, Adam transmitted to the membersof his body in and by their nature. Adam withhis race was the captive taken in war by theenemy mj of God, f and the life which he was allowedto live had the condition of this servitude impressedon it, with this alleviation only, that theassistance of the divine grace offered to him bythe mercy of God in his state of penance couldprotect those who accepted it from the effects ofthis servitude, and ultimately deliver them-Here, then, is the condition of Adam's posterityin consequence of his fall; members of a Headwho had broken his allegiance to his Creator andFather, and so inheriting with their nature thedisinherited state into which he had cast himself;captives, moreover, of that powerful spirit, God'santagonist, who had tempted Adam, seduced him,and led himto his fall.Now the heathenism which we have beencontemplating is the carrying out in time andspace of this body of Adam in those who, by theirpersonal fault, fell away from the aids of gracewhich were accorded to man after his fall-aidsgiven first to Adam for the whole race, and then

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.71renewed to Noah for the whole race ; and thefalse worship, so blent and mingled with heathenism,which seemed as if it were the soul of itsbody, is the sign and stamp of that captivity tothe evil spirit which the first man's sin inaugurated.How powerful was the bond between Adamand his race, how great and influential the headshipwhich the Divine choice had vested in him,we see in that mysterious transmission of guiltwhich passed from him to his children. And itmust be expressly noted that it was not a transmissionof punishment alone. Eather, the divinejustice cannot punish where there is no guilt; andas in this case Adam's fall, and that of his posteritywith him, was not merely a loss but a punishment,so it had the special nature of guilt, notonly in him but in his posterity, and was a sinboth of the person and of the nature in him, ofthe nature only in them. We see the force andrange of the divine endowment of Adam here,though it be in the tenacity of the calamity whichensued to his race ; but it must be rememberedthat such in this respect as the punishment was,the blessing would have been. Adam was createdboth an individual and a race. In him were twothings-the single man and the head ; but of thesetwo things the headship was peculiar to himself,while such as the individual Adam was, his racewas to be. He had it in his power to break the

72 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.covenant of his son ship with God, but not the tiebetween himselfand his race.And this sheds a light upon the darkest partof that terrible picture which collected heathenismpresents to us. Man, as a social animal, is incessantin his action on his fellow-man ; the parentand the family form the child ; the companion andthe neighbourhood lead forth the child into manhood.This work is perpetually going on in allits parts, and society is the joint result. When,therefore we see this societ once fallen into thepossession of a false worship, which perverts thevery foundations of morality, and instils deadlyerror into the child with the mother's milk, nothoughtful mind can gaze without horror uponbeings involved in such a maze,8 yet intended foran eternal duration. Man's nature, as a race,seems turned against him ; and in addition to theguilt under which each individual of the race isborn, and the nature which each inherits, whereinthe internal harmony of peace is broken, andneither the appetites obey the reason nor thereason is obedient to God, comes the force ofhabit, of education, of culture, of companionship,of man's business and leisure, his play and hisearnest, the force of his language, the expressionof his thoughts upon himself and others, the wholeforce, in fact, of man's social being when it is putunder possession of an evil power, man's adversary."8 Tills is called by S. Peter 1. i. IS ?ej furraux di/aarpo^ irarpoTrapdSoros.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.ut this social naturewas to have been to himthe means of the greatest good. As by his naturaldescent from Adam unfallen would havecome the grace of sonship, so the whole brotherhoodof those who shared that gift would havehelped and supported each in the maintenance * ofit. The human family would have had a beautyand a unity of its own as such ; an order anda lustre would have rested on the whole body,confirming each member in the possession of hisown particular gift. The concatenation of evil inthe corrupt society is the most striking contrastto the fellowship of good in the upright; andwhile it is distinct from that 2'uilt which descendsto man as the sin of his nature, yet springs like itfrom the original constitution of that nature asa race. It is the invasion of evil upon good carriedto its utmost point, wherein we discern mostplainly " the prince of this world" wielding thatupower of darkness'7 by which the Apostle describedthe whole state of the world, out of whichthese nations, which made the empire of Augustus,were a part.We have thus contemplated four distinct pictures.The first of these was human nature bareand naked by itself, a merely ideal view of man,as a being compounded of soul and bod, eachpossessing only the faculties which belong to themas spiritual and corporeal natures, the result ofwhich is a substantial union, because the spiritual

74 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.substance becomes the form of the corporeal, notby making the body, when already animated byanother principle, to participate of spiritual life,but by becoming itself the principle first animatingit. And we set forth this condition of humannature in order to throw light upon our secondpicture-the first man as he was actually created,possessing, as a gift superadded by the purestdivine bounty to this his natural constitution, adivine sonship founded in grace; which trans-cendant union of the Holy Spirit with his soulkept the soul with all its faculties in a lovingobedience to God, and the body in obedience tothe soul; and added even to this state the furthergratuitous prerogatives of immunity from error,fault, pain, distress, and death. Our third picturewas man in this same state, but constituted besidesby the divine will, whose good pleasure was thesole source of all this state of sonship, to be fatherof a race like to himself, receiving from him, withits natural generation, the transmitted gift of son-ship ; that is, from our view of him as an individualperson we went on to consider him as thehead of a body-the root of a tree. Fourthly, wehave looked on the same man stripped by a fault "personal to himself but natural to his race, of thisdivine sonship-reduced to a state like that whichthe first would have been, but altered from it bytwo grave conditions, one of guilt lying on himselfand his race on account of this gratuitous gift of

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.75sonship lost, another of captivity to that enemy ofhis Creator and Father who had seduced him tofall. And this picture included in it the doubleffect of guilt transmitted through a whole racefrom its head and father, and of the ersonal sinsof each individual of the race : which, * moreover -E-i-LVX-l. V-/VX V^JL *had a tendency to be perpetually heightened bythe social nature of man-that part of his originalcondition which, as it would have supported hishighest good in the state of innocence, so came tomake his corruption intense and more complicatedin the state of fall. It has not been our purposein this sketch to dwell upon those who, like Adamhimself after his fall, accepted the divine assistanceoffered to them, and the promise of a futureRestorer, and who, living a life of penance, kepttheir faith in God. Such an assistance was offerednot only to Adam but to his whole race, and sucha line of men there always was ; of whom Abelwas the type in the world before the flood; Noahafter the flood, as the second father of the wholerace ; Abraham, the friend of God and father ofthe faithful, in whose son Isaac a people was tobe formed, which, as the nations in their apostasyfell more and more away from the faith and knowledgeof the true God, should maintain still theseed of promise out of which the Restorer shouldspring. But before that Restorer came, the heathenism-ofwhich we have been speaking in theformer chapter, and of which we have been giving

7() THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.the solution above-was in possession of all butthe whole earth, and the captivity of man to hisspiritual foe, on account of which that foe is calledathe Ruler" and "the God" "of this world,"which is said " to lie in the malignant one,"9 wasall but universal. This universality denoted thatthe fulness of the time10 marked out in the providenceof God was come.For Adam, in his first creation, and in thesplendour of that robe of sonship11 in which heuras invested, had been the figure of One to come :his figure as an individual person, his figure asfather and head of a race ; his figure likewise,when the race itself is viewed as summed up inone, as one body. Let us take each of these intheir order.What was the counterpart of Adam, as an individualperson, in the new creation ? It was theEternal Son Himself assuming a human soul andbody, and bearing our nature in His divine personality.Over against the creature invested withstood the uncreated Son, invested with acreated nature. For the grace of the Holy Spiritgiven by measure, and depending for its continu-9 The apostle speaks here not of " wickedness/' but of a personalagent, " the wicked or malignant one ;" as the context shows. " He whois born of God keeps himself, and the malignant one touches him not.We know that we are of God, and the whole world lies in the malignantone." 1 John v. 18, 19.10 XP11 rvTTos rov fjL¬\\ovro$. Kom. v. 14. "Ftus ostenditur." S. Aug. niHI

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.77aiice on the obedience of the creature, was theFountain of Grace Himself ruling the creature bya union indefeasible and eternal ; for grace communicatedrace immanent in its source. For theson gratuitously adopted was the Son by nature,making, by an inconceivable grace, the creatednature assumed to be that not of the adoptedbut of the natural Son. In a word, the figurewas man united to God ; the counterpart, theGod-man.What, again, is Adam's counterpart as Fatherand Head of his race ? It was human nature itself,which the Word of God espoused in the bridalchamber of the Virginal Womb, and so is becomethe Second Adam, the Father of a new race, theHead of a mystical Body, which corresponds toAdam's original Headship, but as far transcendsit as the grace of the Incarnate Word transcendsthe grace bestowed on the first man. As Adam,had he stood in his original state of son, wouldhave transmitted the gift of a like sonshi to hiswhole race - as, falling, he did actually transmit tothat race the guilt of adoption lost, so the SecondAdam, out of His own uncreated Sonship, butthrough the nature which He had assumed,stowed the dower of adopted sons and the giftof justice on his race. From the one there waspunishment generating through the flesh ;12 from12 " Adam unus est, in quo omnes peccaverunt, quia non solum ejusimitatio peccatores facit, sed per carnem generans poena : Christus unus

78 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.4the other, grace regenerating through the Spirit.From the one, nature stripped and wounded, yetstill bound to its head by an indissoluble tie ; bythe other, the Spirit of the Head, the Spirit ofTruth, Charity, Unity, and Sanctity, ruling hisBody and animating it, as the natural soul animatesthe natural body. Precisely where themystery was darkest and the misery greatest, thedivine grace is most conspicuous, and the divinepower most triumphant. The very point whichbrings out Adam's connection with his race hasan exact counterpart in Christ's Headship of Hispeople, and an inscrutable judgment serves to illustratean unspeakable gift. In exact accordancewith the doctrine that the sin of Adam is man'ssin, and the guilt of Adam man's guilt, is thatboundless and unimaginable grace that the IncarnateWord did not merely assume an individualhuman nature, but espoused in that assumptionthe whole nature ; that on the cross He paid thedebt of the whole nature, ' whether for original o oractual sin ; that His resurrection is our collectivejustification ; that the gift of sonship is bestowedon men not as individual persons, but as membersof His Body, before they have personally meritedanything, just as the guilt came on them, as membersof Adam, before they demerited anything personally.Exactly where the obscurity of the fallest, in quo omnes justificentur, quia non solum ejus imitatio justos facit,sed per spiritum regenerans gratia." S. Aug. torn. x. p. 12 c.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.79was the deepest, the light of the restoration isbrightest; and where the sentence was most severe,the grace most wonderful. But to deny thefirst Adam would entail the loss of the Second ;and he who declines the inheritance of the fatherstripped and wounded cannot enter into the Bodyof the Word made flesh.But thirdly, as in that terrible corruption ofheathenism, wherein immorality was based onfalse * worship, we saw the body of Adam run outthrough time and space into the most afflicting>rm which evil can assume in the individual andsocial life of man, so in that Body which is ruledby the Divine Headship we see the counterpart,the triumph of grace, individual man taken outof that state of fallen nature, and invested with amembership answering to the dignity of the Head.The one great Christian people, the Kingdom ofChrist, stands over against that kingdom of violence,disorder, impurity, and false worship. Asthere is a unity of the fallen Adam, a force of evilwhich impact only gives, so much more is there aunity of the Second Adam, which is not a collec-tion of individuals, but a Body with its Head. Thefirst unity consists in the reasonable soul, informingthe flesh which was moulded once for all fromthe clay and descended to the whole race ; andthe race so descending was polluted by a commonuilt, on which, as an ever-fertile root, grew thewhole trunk of man's personal sins, of falsehood,

80 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.enmity, corruption of morals, division, having thecommon quality of egotism. The second unityconsists in the Holy Spirit of the Head communicatedto the soul and body of the faithful people,both being restored by that grace of which truthand charity, unity and sanctity, are the tokens,the full virtue being planted in the cross of theHead, and from the cross diffusing itself to HisBody.II. And so we are brought again to Him whostood before Pilate to make the good confession,and who declared that the cause of His coming intothe world was to bear witness to the truth. Inwhat form was that witness to be made, and how7was it to be efficacious ? This is that point whichwe have now to illustrate. Adam's disobediencewas a single act, the power of which, springing outof his headship, extended through the whole line ofhis race ; through the consequences of this act thetruth was obscured to them, and human life involvedin manifold error. What was that actionon the part of Christ, the purpose, as He declares,of His Incarnation, which had an equally enduringeffect ? If the guilt communicated was not transitory,then should the corresponding grace be perpetual.And how was it so ? The Son of God,as the Head of His race, does not stand at disadvantagewith Adam, but rather, we are told Hisgrace is superabundant in its results over theother's sin : and He Himself declared that He had

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.81completely finished the work given Him to do.13But here He describes this work to be the bearingwitness to the truth. For, indeed, it was worthyof the eternal wisdom to clothe Himselfin flesh14in order that truth, the good of the intellect, andthe end of the whole universe, might stand forthrevealed to His rational creatures : and He whomade all things in truth would Himself restoretruth, when it had been obscured by the traducer.1. Let us take the character which He acknowledgedo and claimed before Pilate : His character ofKing, and the kingdom in which it is exercised.The Person of Christ, as that of the eternalWord, is the Truth itself. But He has assumeda body, and in that body He declares that He isa king, and that the exercise of His royalty is thebearing witness to the truth.15 His words thereforeindicate no less than the creation of a kingdomto which the truth should be the principle ofsubsistence. But what in the material or temporalngdom is that by force of which it subsists ?Plainly power. A kingdom may be larger ormailer in population, wealth, extent, stronger orweaker in the quality of its people ; but as longas it retains in itself that in which power culminates,sovereignty, it will be a kingdom. Ifthis power departs from it, if it falls into subjec-13 John xvii. 4. H S. Thomas, Swnma contra Gentiles, 1. i. c. 1.15 John xviii. 37. " Thou sayest that I am a king. To this end wasI born, and for thithe truth."II.G

82 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.tion to a foreign authority, or if its own subj ectssuccessfully rebel against its power, it ceases to be.In the kingdom, therefore, of which Christ speaks,the maintenance of truth corresponds to what themaintenance of power is in a material kingdom.But power in the material kingdom moves mento the natural end of society; it preserves order,administers justice, allows and assists all naturalforces to develop themselves, and it must be in itssupreme exercise one and indisputable : that is,it culminates in sovereignty. So in the spiritualkingdom truth, the corresponding power, movesmen to the supernatural end, and truth culminatesin infallibility. But where is this power seated,and how does the King O wield it ?The same who here calls Himself King anddeclares it to be the function of His royalty tobear witness to the truth, in describing elsewherethe very creation of His kingdom says to Hisapostles, u You shall receive power by the HolyGhost coming upon you," bidding them also to remainin Jerusalem " until they were endued withpower from on high."16 But a few hours beforethat scene in the hall of Pilate He had told themalso that He would send them the Spirit of Truth,who should abide with them for ever, and shouldlead them into all truth. He creates therefore thekingdom of the truth by sending down the Spiritof the Truth to dwell for ever with those to whom16 Acts i. 8; Luke xxiv. 49.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.83He is sent; and this Spirit of the Truth is Hisown Spirit, whom He Himself will send as thetoken of His ascension and session ; the Spirit whodwelt in the Body which He had assumed, and inwhich He spoke before Pilate, should be sent byHim when that Body had taken its place at theright £ hand of God, / should invest with His ownpower those to whom He was sent, and shouldnever cease to be with them in His character of theSpirit of Truth. Here, then, is that power in thekingdom of the Truth which enables it to bear atrue and a perpetual witness. It is the power ofthe King, for it is His Spirit : it is the power ofthe kingdom, for it remains in it, is throned in it,and makes it to be whatit is.But to create a kingdom of the truth, and tobear perpetual witness in that kingdom to thetruth, is not only to state what is true. Theseexpressions mark out an organisation in and bymeans of which truth is perpetuated. And further,the spirit in man is both reason and will;and that man may act, the intellect which hastruth for its object must work on the will whichhas good for its object. And so the witness whichour Lord speaks of is that action of the truthupon the will which produces a life in accordance*with it: it is truth not left to itself, but supportedby grace. This power of the Spirit of Truth istherefore double, as intended to work on the twopowers of the soul, the reason and the will : it is

84 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.the double gift of Truth and Grace ; as He is theSpirit of Grace no less than the Spirit of Truth,and all grace is His immediate gift.Thus the Word made flesh being full of Truthand Grace from His own Person communicatedthat Truth and Grace as the power which shouldform His kingdom for ever, abide in it, and con- ,stitute its being a kingdom ; the gift of truth andgrace being the very presence of His own Spirit,who took possession of His kingdom on the day ofPentecost and holds it for ever.This whole possession of Truth and Gracedwelling in a visible body is the work of the eternalWord, who assumed a body for that purpose.It is the counter-creation to the kingdom of falsehoodwhich commenced with the sin of the firstman believing a falsehood against his Maker, andwhich spread itself with his lineage into all lands.17And as in the natural creation He not only createdbut maintained-for He did not make Hiscreatures and then depart from them, but fromthat time they exist in Him - so in the supernaturalthe act of maintaining is equivalent to theact of creating O' it is a continued creation. As theguilt had a force which was fruitful, which con-.tinued and propagated itself, and produced a widespreadreign of falsehood, how much more shouldthat mighty and astonishing grace of a Divine Personassuming a created nature be fruitful, con-17 See S. Aug. torn. iv. 1039 e. "Ippe ergo Adam," &c.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.85tinue, and propagate itself in the maintenance ofa visible kingdom, O " whose distinctive character andits very life should be the possession and communicationof the truth. Should the Creator of manin His greatest CJ work be less powerful than Hisseduced creature in his fall ? and if the fall, pregnantwith falsehood, bore fruit through ages in awhole race, should not the recovery likewise haveits visible dominion, and stand over against theruin as the kingdom of truth ?It is as King ruling in the kingdom of truththat the Divine Word incarnate redeems man fromcaptivity, which began in a revolt from the truth,and in becoming subject to falsehood. All whoare outside His kingdom lie in this captivity ;18the life which He gave voluntarily is the price paidfor their liberation ; and as age after age, so longas the natural body of Adam lasts, the captivityendures, so age after age the liberation takes effectby entering into His kingdom. And this is themost general name, the name of predilection, whichboth in prophecy marked the time of Messiah theKing, and was announced by His precursor, and18 on fK TOV ®¬ov eV/xei/, Kal 6 K6o~p.os oAos fv T

86 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.taken by our Lord to indicate His having come.The eternal duration of this kingdom may be saidto be the substance of all prophecy, and it wasprecisely in the interpretation of a vision describingunder the image of a great statue the fourworld-kingdoms, that is, the whole structure, course,and issue of the heathenism which we have been"contemplating, that Daniel contrasts these kingdomswith another. " In the days of these kingsshall the God of heaven set up a kingdom whichshall never be destroyed ; and the kingdom shallnot be delivered to another people, but it shallbreak in pieces and consume all these kingdoms,and shall stand itself for ever." As King in thiskingdom through all the generations of men fromthe moment that He stood in Pilate's hall until Hecomes to judge the world, our Lord bears witnessto the truth, His witness and His royalty beingcontemporaneous and conterminous to each other.2. This perpetual possession and announcementof the truth is indicated by another imagewhich is of constant recurrence,19 wherein Christis the Inhabitant, His people the Inhabited, whileboth are the House or Temple, for that in whichGod dwells is at once His House and Temple.Thus Moses is said to have been "faithful in allhis house as a servant, but Christ as a Son overHis own house, whose house are we." Here theHeb. iii. 1-6; Ephes. ii. 19-22; 1 Cor. iii. 9,10-15; 2 Cor. vi. 16;1 Peter ii. 4, 5.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.87King O who bears witness to the truth is the Godwho sanctifies the faithful people by dwelling inthem and building them in the truth. It is notmerely the individual believer, but the whole massof the faithful which grows up to be a holy temple; and the ever-abiding Spirit of truth, whosepresence is the guarantee of truth, is the equallyabiding Spirit of sanctity, whose presence impartsholiness. The Son dwells in His own house byHis Spirit for ever : as He ceases not to be incarnate,He ceases not to dwell in His house, andcould falsehood be worshipped in His temple, itwould cease to be His. That was the work ofheathenism, when a false spirit had caused errorto be worshipped for truth; the specific victoryof the Word incarnate was to set up a templein which the truth should be worshipped for ever,u the inhabitation of God in the Spirit." Butliving stones make up this temple, that is, indvidual spirits, endued with their own reason andwill, yet no less fitted in and cemented togetherby His grace, and so forming a structure whichhas an organic unity of its own, being the Houseand Temple of One. It is in virtue of this inhabitation.that the Church is termed the Houseof God, the pillar and ground of the truth, inasmuchas it contains, as between walls.20 the faith20 TOVTO yap earl rb m&ijtw rty irlaTiv Kal rb K-fipvypa. S. Chrys. in loc.Compare S. Irenaaus, lib. i. c. 10. Tovro rb tcf]pvyna TrapeiATj^i/Ta, Kal raim}vrrrf?, &$ Trpoe^a/xej/, 7) 'E/c/cA-yjcn'a, Kai-rrep & SAaj

88 THE FIKST AND THE SECOND MAN.and its announcement and proclamation, that is,the law of the King of Truth declared by Hisheralds. " We speculate," says S. Augustine,u that we may attain to vision ; yet even themost studious speculation would. fall into errorunless the Lord inhabited the Church herself thatnow is."-1 And again : " In earthly possessionsa benefit is given to the proprietor when he isgiven possession; not so is the possession whichis the Church. The benefit here lies in beingpossessed by such a one."-" Christ's Body isboth Temple and House and City, and He who isHead of the Body is Inhabiter of the House, andSanctifier of the Temple, and King of the City.What can we say more acceptable to Him thanthis, Possess us ?"223. Again, to take another image, which is thegreatest of realities. What a wonderful productionof divine skill is the structure of the humanbody! Even its outward beauty is such as tosway our feelings with a force which reason hasat times a hard combat to overcome, so keen isthe delight which it conveys. But the inward distributionof its parts is so marvellous that thosewho have spent their lives in the study of itsanatomy can find in a single member, for instance,in the hand, enough out of which to fill a volumewith the wise adaptation of means to ends which21 S. Aug. in Ps. ix. torn. iv. 51.22 Ibid, in Ps. cxxxi. torn. iv. 1473.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOXD MAX.89reveals. There are parts of it the structureof which is so minute and subtle that the mostpersevering science has not yet attained fully tounravel their use. In all this arrangement ofnerves and muscles, machines of every sort, meetingall manner of difficulties, and supplying allkinds of uses, what an endless storehouse of wisdomand forethought! And all these are permeatedby a common life, which binds everypart, whatever its several ^ importance, into onewhole, and all these, in the state of health, worktogether with so perfect an ease that the livingactor, the bearer of so marvellous a structure, isunconscious of an effort, and exults in the life sosimple and yet so manifold poured out on such amultitude of members, a life so tender that thesmallest prick is felt over the whole body, andso strong that a wound mav transfix thwhole structure leaving the life untouched. And,in addition to this physical marvel, the incorporealmind, which has its seat in this material^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^lstructure, and whose presence is itself its life,rules like an absolute monarch with undisputedsway over his whole dominion, so that the leastmovement of volition carries with it a willingobedience in the whole frame, and for it instantaneouslythe eye gazes, the ear listens, the tonguespeaks, the feet walk, the hands work, and thebrain feels with an incomparable unity. Themarvel of the body is that things so many an

90 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.various by the rule of the artificer impressedupon them are yet one, concur to one end, andproduce one whole, from which no part can betaken, and to which none can be added withoutinjury, the least and the greatest replete with onelife, which so entirely belongs to the whole bodythat what is severed from the body at once dies.u Now as the body is one, and has many members,but all the members of this one body, beingmany, are one body, so also," says S. Paul, uisChrist," giving the name of the Head to thewhole Body. What the human head is to itsown body, that our Lord is to His Church. Perhapsno other image in the whole realm of naturewould convey with such force the three relations23which constitute spiritual headship, an inseparableunion, by which the head and the body formone whole, an unceasing government, includingevery sort of provision and care, and a perpetualinflux of grace. This is on the part of the head,while as to the body perhaps no other image butthis could equally convey the conjunction of manydifferent members with various functions, whoseunion makes the structure, and whose unity issomething entirely distinct from that which allthe parts in their several state, or even in theircollocation and arrangement, make up, for it is thelife which makes them one. Thus it is an un-fathomed depth of doctrine, which is conveyed in23 Petavius on the Headship of Christ.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.91the words, " God gave Him to be Head overthings to the Church, who is His Body, theness of Him who fills all things in athough o no language o o could exhaust or duly *hibit the meaning of the kingdom or the temple -Lin which the abiding work of our Lord is indi-cated, we have in this title yet more strikinglyportrayed the intimate union and common lifeof His people with Christ, and His tender affectionfor them, since the King of Truth who redeemsand the God of Truth who sanctifies is at thesame time the Head who by His own Spirit ofthe truth rules and vivifies His »own Body. Ifit be possible to dissociate the idea of the Kingfrom his kingdom, or that of God from the temple xof living souls in whom He is worshipped, andwhose worship of Him makes them one, yet inthe human frame to dissever the head from thebody is to destroy the propriety of both terms,and it is as a whole human body that the apostlerepresents Christ and His people to us.4. Yet, as if this was not enough, S. Paulgoes on to delineate Him as the Bridegroom,whose love after redeeming sanctifies one whoshall be His bride for ever, one who obeys Himwith the fidelity of conjugalove, one whose preservationof His faith unstained is not the dryfulfilment of a command, but the prompting ofwedded affection. The image seems chosen toconvey intensity of love, first on the part of the

92 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.Bridegroom as originating it, and then on thepart of the Bride as responding to it. But noless does the unity of person in the Bride, givenby S. John as well as by S. Paul, indicate in theChurch something quite distinct from the individualswho compose her. For she is the patternof the faithful wife in that she is subject toChrist ; and in these words a fact is stated,24 afact without limit of place or time, which thereforemarks that she who is so described can never»at any time be separated from the fidelity andlove due from her to her Head and Husband.And this is not true of the individual souls belongingto her, for they, having been once faithfulmembers of the body, may fall away and be finallylost. The Bride alone is subject to Christ witha never-failing subjection. And He on His partloves her as His own flesh, a union of the twoloves of the Head for the Body, and of the Bridegroomfor the Bride, which is true with regardto Him of the Church alone, since individualswithin her He may cast off, but her alone Hecherishes and fosters for ever. It is indefectibleunion and unbroken charity with Him which herquality of Bride conveys.5. And out of this wedded union by that greatsacrament concerning Christ and the Church, ofwhich in the same passage S. Paul speaks, thatthey two shall be one flesh, springs the whole race ,24 Passaglia de Ecclesia.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.93in the generation of whom is most completely verifiedhis title of the Second Adam. From the wombof the Church, become from a Bride the Mother ofall living, the Father of the age to come bears thatchosen race, and royal priesthood, and holy nation,and purchased people. And here we see expressedwith great force the truth that all who belong tothe Father's supernatural race must come by theMother. Her office of parent is here set forth ; asher fidelity and intense affection shine in the titleof the Bride, as her union, submission, and unfailingreception of life in her title of Body, so in thetitle of Mother all the saved are borne to Christby her, as S. Cyprian25 drew the conclusion, " hecannot have God for his father who has not theChurchfor his mother."n all this we see the five26 great loves firstshown by God to man, then returned by man toGod; the love of the Saviour, redeeming captives,and out of these forming O His kingdom; o" the loveof the friend, who is God, sanctifying those whomHe redeems into one temple ; the love which Heanted in man for self-preservation, sincethat which He so redeems and sanctifies He hasmade His own body; the love which He has givento the bridegroom for the bride, since it is theBride of the Lamb who is so adorned; and the love25 S. Cyprian de Unitate, 5.26 All these five relations between Christ and the Church are mentionedin one passage of S. Paul, Ephes. v. 22-33.

94 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.of the Father for his race, since it is his wife whobears every child to him. Why is the whole forceof human language exhausted, and the wholestrength of the several human affections accumulated,in this manner ? It is to express the super-eminent work, of God made flesh, who, when Hetook a human body, created in correspondence toit that among men and out of men in which thevirtue of His Incarnation is stored up, the mysticalKingdom, Temple, Body, Bride, and Mother.No one of these titles could convey the full richesof His work, or the variously wrought splendour ofHis wisdom, which the angels desire to look into ;therefore He searched through human nature andsociety in all its depth and height for images whoseunion might express a work so unexampled andunique. Rather, it is truer to say that these naturalaffections themselves, the gift of that mostbountiful giver, were created by Him originally tobe types, foreshadowings, and partial copies of thatmore excellent supernaturalove which He had decreedto show to man, since first of all things inthe order of the divine design must the Incarnationhave been. The whole structure of the family,and the affections which it contains, mustspring out of this root, for nature was anticipatedby grace in man's creation, and must ever havebeen subordinate to it. And now, ' when the fulltime of grace is come, these titles of things whichby His mercy have lasted through the fall, serve

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.95to illustrate the greatness of the restoration. Forthis, which has many names, all precious and dear,is but one creation, having the manifold qualitiesof redemption and sanctification, of organic unityin one body, wherein many members conspire to acorporate life, which life itself is charity, and inwhich is the production of the holy race. As wegaze on the Kingdom, Temple, Body, Spouse, andFamily, one seems to melt and change intoother. The Kingdom is deepened and enlargedby the thought that the King is the eternal Truthwho is worshipped therein; and the worship passeson into the love of the IncarnateGod for the membersof His own Body, whom He first saves, then*fosters and cherishes as His own flesh : and hereagain is blended thathtenderest love of the Bride-groom for the bride, which further issues into thecrowning love of the Father for His race. Themode of the salvation seems to spring from thee of God Himself, since all patven and earth springs from that whereby He isther of the onlv-begotten O Son, / who, / descendifrom heaven with the love of the Bridegroom forthe bride, binds together in sonship derived fromhis own the members of His body, the bride of Hisheart, the subjects of His kingdom, who are builtup as living stones into that unimaginable templeraised in the unity of worshipping hearts to theever-blessed Trinity. To this grows out, as thefulness of Him who fills all in all, that body ofRARY ST. .'

96 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.the Second Adam, of which in the body of thefirst Adam He had Himself deposited the germ.When the ansrel described to the Blessed Virginherself that miracle of miracles which was to takeplace in her, the assumption of human flesh bythe Son of God, he used these terms : " The HolyGhost shall come upon thee, and the power of theMost High shall overshadow thee." When the Sonof God, at the moment of His Ascension, declaredto His Apostles the creation of His mystical body,by using similar words He referred them back toHis own conception : " You shall receive power,the Holy Ghost coming upon you:" having alreadyon the day of His Resurrection told them, " I sendthe promise of my Father upon you ; but wait youin the city until you be indued with power fromon high."27 Our Lord Himself thus suggests to usthe remarkable parallel between the formation ofHis natural and His mystical body. He who framedthe one and the other is the same, the Holy Ghost:the Head precedes, the Body follows ; because ofthe first descent, that Holy Thing which was to beborn should be called the Son of God; becauseof the second, "you shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem,and in all Judea, and Samaria, and tothe farthest part of the earth;" and this is said inanswer to their question whether He would then27 Luke i. 35. n^eC/xa aryiov eTreTuiWrat tiri (re, Ka\ 8vvau.is vfyicrov eVi-crei croi. Acts i. 8. XrjiJ/ecrfle Swcuur, cVeA0

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.97restore the kingdom to Israel: that is, the seconddescent of the Holy Ghost forms the kingdomwhose witness to Christ is perpetual; forms thebody with which and in which He will be for ever bythis power of His Spirit dwelling in it to the endof the world. We have therefore here all thevarious functions and qualities which, under the fivegreat titles of Kingdom, Temple, Body, Spouse, andMother, delineate His Church, gathered up intothat unity which comprehends them all, and fromwhich, as a source, they all flow, u The Power ofthe Holy Ghost coming upon men."28 This creationis as absolutely His, and His alone, as the formingof our Lord's own Body in the Virginal Womb ;it is the sequel of it; the fulfilment among menof those divine purposes for which God becameIncarnate ; in one word, the Body of the Headperpetually quickened by His Spirit. And here wemay remark those striking resemblances betweenthe natural and mystical Body which this " powerof the Holy Ghost," the former of them both,indicates. For in the first the manhood29 cannotbe severed from the Person of the Word, nor inthe second can the body of the Church be severedfrom Christ the Head and His Spirit. Secondly,in the first the Person of the Word and His manhoodmake one Christ, and in the second Christ28 The Church is so called by S. Augustine.29 These five are taken from Passaglia de Ecclesia, lib. i. cap. 3,p. 34, 5.II.H

98 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.the Head and the Church the Body make one completeBody. Thirdly, in the first the manhood hasits own will, 7 but through Q union with the Godheadis impeccable and indefeasible ; and in the secondthe Body of the Church, though possessing its ownliberty, is so ruled by Christ and guided by HisSpirit, that it cannot fail in truth or in charity.Fourthly, in the first there is an influx of celestialgifts from the Person of the Word into the manhood,and in the second there is a like influx fromChrist the Head into His Body the Church, so thathe who hears the Church hears Christ, and he whopersecutes the Church, as Saul before the gate ofDamascus, persecutes Christ. Fifthly, in the firstthe Head, through the "manhood as His instrumen.,ilfilled all the economy of redemption, dwelt amongmen, taught them, redeemed them, bestowed onthem the gifts of holiness and the friendship ofGod ; and in the second, what He began in Hismanhood He continues through the Church as Hisown Body,30 and bestows on men what He meritedin His flesh, showing in and by the Church Hispresence among men, teaching them holiness, pre-30 Compare S. Athanasius cont. Arian. de Incarn. p. 877 c. -KOI orau6 TleVpos, acr^xxAcos ovv ywwaK¬TU iras of/cos 'ItrparjA tin Kal Kvpiov KalavTov fTToi-rjcrev 6 0ebs roiTov TOJ/ 'lr)v vpeis ttfTavpucraTe, ov ireplTTJS ©eJTTjTos auTOu Ae'yei, oVi Kal Kvpiov avrbv Kal Xpiafbv eiroirjcrev, aAAa TreplTi)S avOpcoTTor'rjros auTOu, T^TIS ecrrl Traaa rj eV/cATytria, TJ ev avry Kuptevovcra Kalvovaa, fiera TO avrvv aTavpudrjuai' Kal ^ptOjueVTj els PaffiXfiav ovpavuv,'tva avr r 5t' avrrjv tavrbv Kevuxravn Kal a.va\a&6vTLSia TT)S SoyAt/crjs

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.99serving them from error, and leading them to theeternal inheritance.It is also by this one "power of the Holy Ghostcoming upon men" that we learn how the Head andthe Body make one Christ. As in the human T framethe presence of the soul gives it life and unity,binding together every member by that secret indivisibleforce, from the least to the greatest, fromthe heart and brain to the minutest portion of theoutward skin, so hi this divine Body, which makesthe whole Christ, it is the presence of the HolyGhost, as of the soul, which gives it unity andlife. The conclusion was drawn by a great Saint,and no less great a genius, fourteen hundred yearsago, and I prefer S. Augustine's words to any whichI can use myself: "Our spirit by which the wholerace of man lives is called the soul; our spirit, too,by which each man in particular lives is called thesoul; and you see what the soul does in the body.It quickens all the limbs : through the eyes it sees,through the ears it hears, through the nostrilssmells, through the tongue speaks, through thhands works, through the feet walks ; it is presenat once in all the limbs that they may live ; life itLves to all, their functions to each.The enot hear, nor the ear nor the tongue see, nor the ear "nor the eye speak, but both live; the functions arediverse, the life common. So is the Church of God.In some saints it works miracles ;. in others givesvoice to the truth; in others, again, maintains the

100 THE MUST AND THE SECOND MAN.virginal life ; in others keeps conjugal fidelity; inthese one thing, O / in those another ;/each have theirproper work, but all alike live. Now, what thesoul is to the human body, that is the Holy Spiritto the body of Christ, which is the Church : whatthe soul does in all the limbs of an individual body,that does the Holy Spirit in the whole Church.But see what you have to avoid, what to observe,and what to fear. It happens that, in the humanbody, or in any other body, some member may becut off, hand, finger, or foot. Does the soul followit when cut off ? As long as it was in the body itlived: when cut off, it loses life. So too the Christianman is a Catholic while he lives in the body ;when cut off, he becomes a heretic; the Spirit does31not follow the amputated limb."But what is this " power of the Holy Ghostcoming upon men"? It is the whole treasure oftruth and grace, which dwelt first in the naturalbody of Christ, which He came to bestow on men,which He withdrew not when He ascended, but ofwhich He promised the continuance in the Personof the Holy Ghost, and fulfils by that Person indwellingin the Church. It was the imparting thewhole treasure of truth and grace by such an in-dwelling which made it expedient for Him to go,which made His bodily departure not a loss, but again, which was " the promise'7 of which He spokeon that last night, and which was expressly declared31 S. Aug. serm. 267, torn. v. p. 1090 e.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.101to be a perpetual presence, leading, as it were, bythe hand32 into all truth-an all-powerful, all-completing,all - compensating presence, such as thatalone is or can be which maintains the intellectof man in truth, because it maintains his will ingrace: and, instead of the two wild horses of whichthe great heathen33 spoke, guides the soul in hercourse as borne aloft on those twin divine yokefellows,34faith and charity.Correlative, therefore, to the Person of Himwho is at once King, and God, and Head, andBridegroom, and Father, is that singular creationof His Spirit, by which, in the Kingdom, Temple,Body, Spouse, and Mother, He deposited the treasureof the truth and grace which He became manto communicate. It was not as individual menliving a life apart, but as common childrenrace, joint members of one body, that the guilt ofthe first father fell upon them ; it is only on themas children of a higher O race and members of a fargreater body, that the grace of the Deliverer is bestowed.The distinctions of race and the divisionsof condition drop away as they are baptised intoone body, and made to drink of one spirit. Thenew and supernatural life cannot be communicated32 Luke xxiv. 49 and John xvi. 13. e/ceu/os, rb TireC/xa rrjsfytas els iru&av TTJV &A^0¬i

102 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.save by this act of engrafting into a new body. AsEve from the side of Adam sleeping, so the Churchfrom the side of Christ suffering ; as Eve bearsstill to Adam the children of men, so the Churchto Christ the children of Christ. These are nottwo mysteries, V * but one. * unfathomable in both itsparts, of justice and of mercy ; but the whole historyof the human race bears witness to the first,and the whole history of the Christian people tothe second. It would be amply sufficient to provewhat we have been saying, that the first communicationof the supernaturalife is conferred by beingbaptised into one body and made to drink into onespirit. But this is not all. There is a yet dearerand more precious gift, which maintains and increasesthe life so given. Our Lord stands in themidst of His Church visibly forming from day today and from age to age that Body of His whichreaches through the ages ; He takes from Himselfand gives to us. He incorporates Himself inHis children. He grows up in us, and by visiblestreams from His heart maintains the life firstgiven. Here, above all, is the one Christ, the Headand the Body. This is but an elemental truthof Christian faith, though it is the highest joyof the Christian heart. It was in an instructionto catechumens that S. Augustine^- %A*JU-L,.LJLVysaid, KJ WJ-VA * "Wouldyou understand the Body of Christ ? Hear theApostle saying to the faithful, 'But you are theBody and the members of Christ.' If, then, you

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.103are Christ's Body and His members, it is yourown mystery which is placed on the Lord's table ;it is your own mystery which you receive. It isto what you are that you reply amen, and by replyingsubscribe. For you are told, ' the Body r ofChrist,' and you reply, amen. Be a member of theBody of Christ, and let your amen be true. Why,then, in bread ? Let us bring here nothing of ourown, but listen to the Apostle himself again andagain, for in speaking of that sacrament he says,' We that are many are one bread, one body.'Understand and rejoice. Here is unity, verity,piety, charity. One bread. Who is that onebread ? We being many are one bread. Eemem-ber that the bread is not made of one, but ofmany grains. When you were exorcised, it wasas if you were ground ; when baptised, as if youwere kneaded together with water; when youreceived the fire of the Holy Ghost, it was yourbaking. Be what you see, and receive what youare. This the Apostle said of the bread. Ofthe chalice what we should understand is clearenough even unsaid. For as to make the visiblespecies of bread many grains are kneaded withwater into one, as if that were taking place whichHoly Scripture records of the faithful, ' they hadone mind and one heart in God,' so also in thecase of the wine. Many grapes hang on thebunch, but their juice is poured together intoone. So too Christ the Lord signified us; willed

104 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.us to belong to Himself; consecrated on His owntable the mystery of our peace and unity. Hewho receives the mystery of unity and holds notthe bond of peace receives not a mystery for himself,' but a witness against O himself."35Thus the coherence of the natural and mysticalBody of Christ was at once exhibited andeffected in the great central act of Christian worship,and the whole fruit of the Incarnation wasseen springing from the Person of Christ, andbestowed on men as His members in the unityof one Body. Thus were they taken out of theisolation, distraction, and enmity-that state ofmutual strife and disorder which heathendom expresses-andmade into the one divine commonwealth; and thus the Body of Christ grows to itsfull stature and perfect form through all the agesof Christendom.And if there be one conviction which, /ther with the belief in the Incarnation itself ofthe Word,"is common to all the Fathers, Doctors,Saints, and Martyrs of the Church-which togetherwith that belief and as part of it is the groundof their confidence in trouble, of their perseverancein enduring, of their undoubting faith intimes of persecution, of their assurance of finalvictory, it is the sense which encompassed theirwhole life, that they were members of one Body,which, in virtue of an organic unity in itself and35 S, Aug. serm. 272, torn. v. p. 1104 c.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.105with its Head, was to last for ever. The notionthat this Body, as such, could fail, that it couldcease to be the treasure-house of the divine truthand grace, would have struck them with as mhorror as the notion that Christincarnate, and was not their Redeemer. TheBody which the Holy Ghost animated on the dayof Pentecost never ceased to be conscious of itsexistence-conscious that the power of its Head,the Eternal Truth, was in it, and would be in itfor ever. Confidence in himself as an individualmember of the Body, the Christian had not, forhe knew that through his personal sinfulness gracemight be withdrawn from him, and that he mightfall away ; confidence he did not place either inhis own learning, knowledge, and sanctity, or inthese gifts as belonging to any individual Christian; his confidence lay in the King who reignedin an everlasting Kingdom, in the Head whoanimated an incorruptible Body. To sever thesetwo would have been to decapitate Christ.36 Thethought that the Bride of Christ could herselfbecome an adulteress, and teach her children thevery falsehoods of that idol-worship which shewas created to overthrow, would have ^appearedto him the denial of all Christian belief. Andsuch a denial indeed it is to any mind which,36 "Quid tibi fecit Ecclesia, ut earn velis quodammodo decollare?Tollere vis Ecclesise caput et capiti credere, corpus relinquere, quasi ex-anime corpus. Sine caussa capiti quasi famulus devotus blandiris. Qvult, et caput et corpus conatur occidere." S. Aug. torn. v. p. 636.

106 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.receiving the Christian truth as a divine gift, looksfor it also to have a logical cohesion with itself,to be consistent and complete, to be a body oftruth, not a bundle of opinions. Let us takeonce more S. Augustine as expressing, not a privatefeeling, but the universal Christian sense,when he thus reprehended the Donatist pretension,that truth had deserted the Body of theChurch to dwell in the province of Africa. " But,they say, that Church which was the Church ofall nations exists no longer. She has perished.This they say who are not in her. 0 shamelessword ! The Church is not because thou art notin her. See, lest therefore thou be not, for thoughthou be not, she will be. This word, abominable,detestable, full of presumption and falsehood, supportedby no truth, illuminated by no wisdom,seasoned with no sense, " vain, rash, precipitate,and pernicious-this it was which the Spirit ofGod foresaw, and as against these very men, whenHe foretold unity in that saying, 'To announcethe name of the Lord in Zion, and his worship inJerusalem, when the peoples and kingdoms jointogether in one that they may serve the Lord.' "37Now, to suppose that anything which is falsehas been, or is, or can be taught by the Churchof God, is to overthrow the one idea which runsthrough the titles of the Kingdom, Temple, Body,and Spouse of Christ, it is to make the Mother37 S. Aug. in Ps. ci. torn. iv. p. 1105 d.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.107of His children an adulteress, to deny that powerof the Holy Ghost coming down on the day ofPentecost, and abiding for ever, with His specialfunction of leading into all truth, that presenceof the Comforter in virtue of which the Apostlessaid for themselves and for the Church throughall time, " It has seemed good to the Holy Ghostand to us." With all men who reason, such asupposition is equivalent to the statement thatChrist has failed in what He came on earth todo, for " the Word was made flesh that He mightbecome the Head of the Church."38 Next, therefore,in atrocity to that blasphemy which assaultsthe blessed Trinity in Unity upon His throne isthe miserable and heartless blasphemy which, -byimputing corruption of the truth to the veryKingdom and Temple, the very Body and Spouseof the Truth Himself, the Incarnate God, woulddeclare the frustration of that purpose which Hebecame man to execute, the UJ_AV-/ falsifying JL14M»WJLA > -kU.GL of thatwitness of which He spoke in the hall of Pilate,and would so annihilate that glory to God in thehighest, and on earth peace to men of good-will,which was the angelic O song O on the morning O ofHis birth, and is daily39 in the mouth of HisBride. The truth can as little cease out of theHouse and Temple of God as the Father and Son,mubi conjungeretur Sponsus Sponsas. Verbum caro factumcaput Ecclesise."in the M

108 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.can cease sending the Spirit to dwell in it: thetruth can as little cease to be proclaimed andtaught in its own kingdom as the King can ceaseto reign in it. The conjugal faith of the Brideof Christ cannot fail, because He remains herBridegroom. The power of the Head, the doublepower of truth and grace, cannot cease to ruleand vivify His Body, because He is its Head forever. The Mother cannot deceive her children,because she is of one flesh with the Son of Man,in the union of an unbroken wedlock.It has been said above that the power of thatbond which from the origin of man united theorace to its head was shown not only in the guiltwhich the act of that head was able to inflicton the body, not only in the exact transmissionof the same nature, thus stained, from age to age,but likewise in that social character of the racein virtue of which such a thing as a man entirelyindependent of his fellow men, neither actingupon them, nor acted upon by them, never hasexisted nor can exist. It was in that connectedmass which this social nature creates, that cor-human society, that heathenismappeared most terrible, because corruption seemedto propagate itself, and evil by this force of cohesionto become almost impregnable. But itpecially in creating a corporate unity wh_ ould show the force of our social naas the corruption had shown it for evil, that the

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.109power of the Restorer shines forth. The trueHead of our race came to redeem and sanctifynot so many individuals but His Body. Surelythere is no distinction more important to bear inmind.40 " No single member by itself can makea body ; each of them fails in this ; cooperationis required, for when many become one, there isone bod. The being or not being a body dependson being united or not united into one."And, again, beautiful as the individual member,the hand or the eye, may be in itself, far higheris the beauty which belongs to the body as thewhole in which these members coalesce and areone. Each member too has a double energy, itsown proper work, and that which it contributesto the body's unity, for this is a higher workwhich the cooperation of all produces; each adouble beauty, its beauty as a part, and thatwhich it adds to the whole : and these two, whichseem to be separate, have the closest connection,for a maimed limb impairs the whole body's force,and as to its beauty, as it is incomparably finethan the beauty of any part, so is it marred by aslight defect in one part, as the fairest face would40 OvSfV yap airrcav /co0' eavrb (ra>(j.a Svvarai troi¬?v, oAAJ djtoicos HKCUTTOVAei7T¬TOt ¬15 TO 7TOt¬«/ CTW/XO, Kttl Se? Trj$ (Tw6^0V' %TO.V a TO 7T0AAOyiv^rai, TOT* ¬ffT\v cv aG>p.a . . . . rb yap tlvai %(JL^ elvai 0-&

110 THE ^IRST AND THE SECOND MANbe spoilt by the absence of eyebrows, the fairesteyes lose their lustre, and the countenance itslight, by the want of eyelashes. It is, then, in thebeauty of the Body of Christ that the Christianmind would exult, not merely in the several gracesof those who are its members, but in that corporateunity which they present. We see in thecourse of the world that great image of the prophet,lofty in stature and terrible to behold, whosehead is of gold, whose breast and arms of silver,the thighs of brass, the legs of iron, the toesmixed of iron and clay. This is the form of thefirst Adam, seen in his race ; and over against itlikewise is the one man Christ, forming throughthe ages, gathering His members in a mightierunity. This is the Word made flesh, the SecondAdam, "so that the whole human race is, as itwere, two men, the First and the Second."41So much, then, is the creation of the Churchsuperior to the creation of a single Christian asthe creation of a body is superior to that of asingle bone or muscle. This superiority belongsto the nature of a body as such. It is anotherthought, which we only suggest here, whose bodyit is. And here it appears in two very differentconditions, the one as it is seen by us now, theother as it will be seen hereafter. There is, Iconceive, no subject in all human history comparablein interest to that which the divine com-*41 S. Aug. Op. imp. contr. Julian, lib. ii. torn. x. p. 1018 d.

THE FIKST AND THE SECOND MAN.Illmonwealth as such, when traced through theeighteen centuries which it has hitherto run, presents.What nation can be compared to this nation? what people to this people ? what laboursto its labours ? what sufferings fc to its sufferings ?what conflicts to those which it has endured ?what triumphs to those which it has gained ? whatduration to that portion * only of its years whichis as yet run out ? what promise to its future ?what performance to its past ? What is thecourage and self-denial, what is the patience andgenerosity, what the genius, the learning, the sustaineddevotion to any work, shown by any humanrace, compared to those which are to be found inthis race of the Divine Mother ? How do thosewho are enamoured of nationalities fail to see theglories of this nation, before which all others paletheir ineffectual fires? How do those with whomindustry is a chief virtue, and stubborn perseverancethe crowning praise, not acknowledge herwhose work is undying and whose endurance " neverfails ? These men admire greatness and worshipsuccess. Let them look back fourteen hundredtyears, when that great world-statue seemed to bebreaking up into the iron and clay which ranthrough its feet. Then this kingdom was alreadygreat and glorious, and crowned with victory,and filled the earth. The toes of that statue havemeanwhile run out into ten kingdoms, and theislands which were forest and swamp when this

112 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.kingdom commenced have become the head of adominion which can be mentioned beside that .ofold Rome ; but still in undiminished grandeur thegreat divine republic stands over against all thesekingdoms, penetrates through them, stretches be-them, and while they grow, mature, andecay, and power passes from one to the other,her power ceases not, declines not, changes not,but shows the beauty of youth upon the brow ofage, and amid the confusion of Babel her pente-costal unity. If success be worshipful, worship ithere ; if power be venerable, bow before its holiestshrine.ut if this be the Body of Christ here in itsstate of humiliation, during which it repeats thepassion of its Head, if these be the grains of wheatnow scattered among the chaff,42 what is thatone mass to be which these shall make when thethreshin - floor is winnowed out ? We see theody in its preliminary state of suffering, whereit has a grandeur, a duration, and a beauty likenothing else on earth. What it shall be in itsfuture state S. John saw when he called it thegreat City invested with the glory of God, the %Bride adorned for her husband; and S. Paul hints,when he speaks of the perfect man compacted andfitly framed together by what every joint supplies,42 " Grana ilia quze modo gemunt inter paleas, quse massam imamfactura sunt, quando area in fine fuerit ventilata." S. Aug. in Ps. cxxvi.torn. iv. p. 1429.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.113and grown up to full stature in the Head. Thereis in the redeemed, not only the exceeding greatnessof the quality of their salvation, that is, thegift of divine sonship; nor, again, that this gift isheightened by its being the purchase of the Son ofGod, so that He is not ashamed to call those brethrenwhom He has first washed in His own blood :but over and above all this, one thing more,that the whole mass of the redeemed and adoptedare not so many souls, but the Body of Christ.Faint shadows, indeed, to our earthly senses areHouse and Temple, Kingdom and City paved withprecious stones of that mighty unity of all rationalnatures, powers, and virtues, each with the perfectionof his individual being, each with the super-added lustre of membership in a marvellous whole,under the Headship of Christ. The exceedin gloryof this creation, which will be the wonder of allcreation through eternity, is that God the Wordmade flesh, the Head and His Body, make onething, not an inorganic, but an organised unity,the glorified Body of a glorified Head.*Once more let us note the consistencyand un-broken evolution of the divine plan.In the first creation of the human race theBody of Christ is not only foretold but prefigured,not only prefigured but expressed in the verywords uttered by Adam in his ecstasy, the wordsof God delineating that act of God, the greatestof all His acts of power, wisdom, and goodnessii.i

114 THE FIRST AND THE SECOND MAN.whereby becoming man, and leaving His Fatherand His Mother.43 He would cleave to the wifeHe so took, the human nature which in redeemingHe espoused. This, and no other, was thereason why Eve was formed out of Adam. It isthe beginning of the divine plan, which is coherentthroughout, which was designed in the state of in-nocency, which remains intended through the stateof guilt, which is unfolded in the state of grace £L -i. f^W/X*/*which is completed in the state of glory, whenwhat that forming of Eve from the side of Adam,and of the Church from the side of her Lord, whatthat growth through thousands of years, throughmultitudinous conflicts, through unspeakable sorrows,through immeasurable triumphs, shall finallyissue in, shall be seen by those whom the SecondAdam has made worthy of that vision, and bywhom it is seen enjoyed.43 See Origen on Matt. xiv. 17. KOI 6 Kriffas ye O.TT apxrjs riv KO.TiK6va fa ev /ioppf; 0eoC inrdpx^v ap*pKO.T eiKOva afuporepois xapiffdiJ.ti'os' Kal KaraXeXoitre 76 8ia TT\V^KKXriaiav Kvpios b avbp irarepa I §v eupa. Sre ev wood??? f A Qeov urrwpYe, r w Kara-AeAotTre 8e Kal rty ,U7?T6pa Kal avrbs vlbs &v rrjs &vta'lfov(raX^fM, Kale'/coAArj(?T/ Tj7 evravOa Karaireaovar) ywaiKi avrov, Kal fyey6va

CHAPTERIX.THE SECOND MAN VERIFIEDIN HISTORY." Magnum principium, et regni ejus non erit finis. Deus fortis, doini-nator, princeps pacis."IN order to complete the view taken in the pre-ceding chapter of the work of Christ as the secondAdam over against the work of the first Adam,is necessary to dwell at greater length upona point of which only cursory mention was madetherein. It was our object there to bring outthe relation of Christ to the Church, but thiscannot be done without fully exhibiting the relationto the same Church of the Holy Spirit. Tothe Incarnation the Fathers in general give thetitle of the Dispensation of the Son, and as theequivalent, the result, the complement and crownof this Dispensation, they put the Giving of theSpirit.1 This Giving of the Spirit occupies the1 As S. Irenaeus, v. 20. " Omnibus unuin mmdeni aisnositionemm donationemp. 307 f. " Ecce iterum humanis divina miscentur, id est, Vicarius Ee-demtoris: ut beneficia qua* Salvator Dominus inchoavit peculiari SpiritusSancti virtute consummet, et quod ille redemit, iste sanctificet, quod illeacquisivit, iste custodiat." This striking sermon is quoted by Petaviusines m

116 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORYwhole region of grace, and is coextensive witthe whole action of the Incarnate God upon menwhom He has taken to be His brethren. TheHoly Spirit in this Giving is He who representsthe Redeemer, and executes His will, not as aninstrument, not as one subordinate, but as thevery mind of Christ between whom and Christthere can far less enter any notion of division orseparation than between a man and his own spirit.He is that other Paraclete, abiding for ever, whoreplaces to the disciples the visible absence of thefirst Paraclete, the Redeemer Himself: He is thePower constituting the Kingdom of Christ ; theGodhead inhabiting His Temple ; the Soul animatingHis mystical Body ; the Charity, kindlinginto a living flame the heart of His Bride ; theCreator and Father of His Race.This connection between the Dispensation ofthe Son and the Giving of the Spirit was delineatedby our Lord himself when He first appearedto His assembled disciples after His resurrection.As they were gazing in wonder and trembling joyon that Body which had undergone His awful passion,as He showed them the wounds in His handsHis feet, He told them how His sufferingswere the fulfilment of all that in the Law, theProphets, and the Psalms had been written concerningHim. And thereupon it is said, He openedtheir mind to the understanding of these Scrip-tures. It was thus that the Christ was to suffer,

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.117it was thus that He was to rise again on the thirday. Hitherto He has dwelt upon His own dispensation,as the fulfilment of all prophecy, nowHe proceeds to its fruit: that in the name of thisChrist repentance and remission of sins should beproclaimed to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem." And you," He says," are the witnesses of thesethings. And, behold, I send the promise of myFather upon you : but stay you in the city ofJerusalem until you be endued with power fromon high." Again, at another occasion of equalsolemnity, when He was with His assembled disciplesin visible form for the last time, at themoment preceding His ascension, He uses the sameemphatic words, charging them not to depart from.the city, but to await there that promise of theFather, the baptism in the Holy Ghost, which theywere to receive in common together, which wasto be the power in virtue of which they shouldbe His witnesses for all time unto the ends of theearth : the power which instead of restoring alocal kino;dom O to Israel, / as was in their thoughts Owhen they questioned Him, was to create an universal* kingdom to Him in the hearts of men.It is then as the result of His passion, and thetoken of His resurrection, that the Son sendsdown upon His disciples the promise of the Father,that is, the perpetual presence of the Spiritf the Father and the Son, the Spiritd Grace, that permanent and immanent pow

118 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.from on high, who, dwelling for ever in the disciples,makes the Church.But these words, so singular and so forcible,which He uses on these two occasions, at Hisresurrection and His ascension, are themselves areference to the long discourse which He had heldwith His apostles on the night of His passion. Itis in this discourse, from the moment that Judasleft them to the conclusion of the divine prayerand if we can make any distinction in His words,surely these are the most solemn which were everput together in human language, since they arethe prayer not of a creature to the Creator, butthe prayer of One divine Person to Another-itis in this discourse that He describes the powerfrom on high with which, as the promise of theFather, He, the Son, would invest His disciples.It is here He says that He would ask the Father,who should give them another Paraclete, the Spiritof truth, to abide with them for ever : whom theworld would not receive, nor see, nor know, butwhom they should know, because He should abidewith them and be in them. This other Paraclete,coequal therefore with Himself, whom the Fathershould send in His name, and whom He shouldsend from the Father the Sirit of holiness as wellas the Spirit of truth, should teach them all thingsand remind them of all His teaching. And Hiscoming, though invisible, should profit them morethan His own visible presence. For while He

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.119declared Himself to be the Way, the Truth, andthe Life,2 He revealed to them here that it wasby that very way that the Spirit of tlead them by the hand into all truth. Itthis Truth, that is, in Himself, that thebe sanctified, and that they should be one, theglory of the Incarnation, which had beento Him, passing on to them as the meHis Body, by the joint possession of the spirittruth and holiness, whose presence was the gagethat the Father loved them, as He loved Christ,the Body being identified with the Head. In allthis He was describing to them the work of thatother Paraclete, His own Spirit, " who was tosanctify what He had redeemed, and to guard andmaintain possession of what He had acquired."This is but a small portion of that abundant revelation,which our Lord then communicated toHis apostles,T concerning the Power from on highwith which they were to be invested.The words of our Lord to His apostles at thethree great points of His passion, His resurrection,and His Ascension, stand out beyond the rest intheir appeal to our affections. The last words2 There is in the original words here something which is lost bothin the Vulgate and in the English translation. First, c. xiv. 6. 670;ipi "* T) 68bs, Kui T] aAjnflem, Kal 77 far}' ^f then C, XVI. 13, orav 5e eA.07? e«e?wsrb Tlvevfia rrjs aA?j06tas, 65 TiyfjcrGi v^as els iravav rty aX-fjOeiav. Asis the 6Sbs, so His Spirit is the ofyyw. " Ego sum via et veritadocebit omnem veritatem," does not render this : and as little, theway, the truth, and the life ; He shall lead you into all truth,"in

120 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.of a friend are the dearest, and these are the lastwords of the Bridegroom, and they are concerningHis Bride. When He was Himself quitting Hisdisciples He dwells upon the Power which wasto create and maintain His Church, upon the giftof His Spirit, His other self, in which gift lay theformation of His kingdom. It is thus He expressesto us the point with which we started,that the Giving of His Spirit is the fulfilment ofall that Dispensation wherein the eternal Wordtook human flesh.It is not only then the unanimous voice of theFathers which sets the Giving of the Spirit overagainst the Incarnation of the Son. They are butcarrying on that which our Lord so markedlytaught; their tradition was but the echo of Hisvoice, as their life was the fulfilment of it.But it was a double malady in man which Godthe Word became man to cure. It was the wholenature which was affected with a taint, and thesoul through the whole race touched in both itspowers jof the intellect4 and the will. That falseworship which we have seen spreading throughthe earth, and that deep corruption of mannerswhich was interlaced with it, were the symptomsof this malady. The perversion of the truth concerningthe being of God, and all the duties ofman which grow out of this being, was inextricablyblended with the disregard of these duties4 This word is used as the equivalent of \oyos, ratio, Vermin ft ^ in man.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.121in the actual conduct of man. It was in vain tset the truth before man's intellect without a correspondingpower to act upon his will. Thereforethe apostle described the glory of the only-begotten Son, when He dwelt as man among us,by the double expression that He was "full oforace and truth."Viewed as the Head of humanonature, its Father and new beginning, He is theperpc tual fountain to _^^_ it of these two, which nlaw, not even one divinely given, could bestFor the law could make nothing perfect, becauseit could not touch the will; and the law gave theshadow, but not the very truth of things. Butwhen that unspeakable union of the divine naturewith the human had taken effect in the unity ofone Person, Truth and Grace had an everlastinghuman fountain in the created nature of the IncarnateWord. Now was the fountain to pourforth a perpetual stream upon the race assumed,And this it does by the * descent of the Spirit. "Inthis descent upon the assembled Church the Graceand Truth of the divine Head, with which HisFlesh, carried by the Godhead, overstreams, findthemselves a human dwelling in the race. Suchan operation belongs only to the Divine Spirit,for God alone can so act upon the intellect andwill of creatures as to penetrate them with Hisgifts of Truth and Grace, while He leaves themtheir free will, their full individuality, as crea-res. This, * then, VJU»VJ-*.* was the ransre of that powerLIRDADY IDKAKY CT Jl. J yUCY *F>vc 5 rAi V.UlLt(sc i crs;

122 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.with which our Lord foretold to His apostles thatthey should be invested, and for which He badethem wait. The whole field of truth as it respectsthe relation of God to His creatures as moral beings,and the whole extent of grace, as it touchesthe human will, for the performance of every actwhich a reasonable creature can execute, madeup the extent of that divine indwelling in menwhich the Spirit of Christ assumed upon the dayof Pentecost. This was the power of the HolyGhost which then came down upon men. Throughthe whole divine discourse which preceded Hispassion, our Lord dwells upon this double power,referring to Himself as the Truth, to His Spiritas the Spirit of the Truth, to Himself as the Vine,and so that root of grace which should communicateits sap to the branches, and to His Spirit,who should take of His and give it to them;uniting both ideas of Truth and Grace in that oneword, " Sanctify them in thy Truth," that is byincorporation with me, who am the Truth, in mySpirit, who is the Truth. And so the eternWord, having assumed a human Body, when Hwithdraws His corporal presence, proceeds to formthat other human Body, the dwelling-place of HisSpirit, in which His Truth and Grace are to becomevisible.Thus the transfusion of Truth and Grace fromthe Incarnate Word to His mystical Body is thegeneric character of the Giving of the Spirit.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.123Two differential marks distinguish this givingfrom any which preceded the coming of our Lord.First, the Spirit should come upon them, butshould never depart from them. " He shall giveyou another Comforter, to abide with you for ever,the Spirit of Truth." This giving was not an intermittentoperation, whether extraordinary, suchas had shown itself in Moses and the Prophets, fortheir inspiration in writing, or their guidance inicular trials, nor that ordinary one wherebyfrom the beginning He had enabled all the goodand just to lead a life acceptable to Him. It wasa far higher gift,6 wherein, as S. Augustine says,by the very presence of His majesty no longer themere odour of the balsam, but the substance iof the sacred unguent was poured into those vessels,making them His temple, and conveying thatadoption in virtue of which they should not be leftorphans, but have their Father invisibly with themfor ever. No intermittent operation, and no presenceless than that of His substance, would reachthe force of the words used by our Lord, " I willask the Father, and He shall send you another Paraclete,the Spirit of Truth, to abide with you forever ;" for that word " other" conveys a comparisonwith Himself, from whom they had never beenseparated since He had called them, in whose continuance"with them alone was their strength, O / their5 See Petavius de Trin. vii, 7, where he states it to be the generalbelief of the ancient writers that a new and substantial presence of theHoly Ghost began at the day of Pentecost.

124 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IX HISTORY.unity, their joint existence and mission, withoutwhom they could do nothing. All this to themthat "other" Paraclete was to be, in order*thatthe departure of the Former Paraclete should beexpedient for them. For in this continuity ofHis presence was involved the further gift thatthe Paraclete was to come to them as a Body,and because of this manner of coming He replacedthe Former. Had He come to them onlyas individuals, they would have suffered a grievousloss, the loss of the Head who made them one.But He came to them as the Body of Christ, andcoming made them that Body, being the Spiritof the Head. That rushing mighty wind filled thewhole house in which they were sitting, and theyall were filled together with the presence ; and asa sign that the old confusion and separation ofmankind were in them to be done away, speakingin one tongue the one truth which was evermoreto dwell with them, they were heard in allthe various languages of the nations present atthe feast. " The society by which men are madethe one Bodv of the only Son of God belongs tothe Spirit,"7 and He came upon all together inone House to indicate, * as MPNJ He J--L vy made, 1^0*11 MMkAV 4 that oneBody. " The mode of giving," says S. Augustine,"was such as never before appeared. Nowheredo we read before that men congregatedtogether had by receiving the Holy Ghost spoken6 S. Aug. torn. v. 398 g.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.125th the tongs. "7 uTh Hme upon P( tecost pon His birthd "8It is esence one which coi f< rgifts upon the body which He vivifies.It was the will , says S. Augustine9 , of the Fatherand the Son that we should have communionwith each other and with Them by means of thatwhich is common to Them, and by that gift tocollect us into one, which, being one, They bothhave ; that is to say, by the Holy Ghost, who isGod, and the gift of God. For, says S. Thomas,10the unity of the Holy Spirit makes unity in theChurch. It is not by similarity, or by juxtaposition,or by agreement, how much less by concessionsand compromises, that unity exists in thebody of Christ, but because the Spirit is one,.becauseall gifts, however various, all functions, howeverdistinct, are distributed by this One.For the same reason truth dwells in this Body,because He is the Spirit of Truth. Our Lord Himselfhas denned His great function in this particular,to lead His disciples by the hand11 into alltruth, ' to teach all things, O J and remind of all things owhich made up His own teaching. This functionbegan on the day of Pentecost, and lasts to the dayof judgment, and belongs to the Body of Christ ,7 S. Aug. torn, iii, pp. 2. 527 8 Ib. torn. v. 47.9 Ib. torn. v. 392 e.10 S. Thomas in Joh. i. lee. 10; " Nam unitas Spiritus Sancti facitin Ecclesia unitatem."

126 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.and to it alone, and belongs to it because it is animatedby the Spirit of Truth. And this animationis like the Head, the same yesterday, to-day, andfor ever. It is not of any past time more or lessthan of the present or the future. It is the illuminationwhich belongs to that whole last day,through which the Body of Christ grows, teaches,labours, and suffers, until the mortal day breakinto the light of eternity.His third gift to the Body is that of charity,and for the same reason, because He is this Himself.He who is not only the Unity of the Fatherand the Son, 7 but their mutual Love, * coming O as thegift of that Divine love which redeemed the worldby the sacrifice of its Maker, and as the Spirit ofthat Love, who invested Himself with human flesh,creates in this human dwelling-place that one cha-rity which bears His name, and is of His nature ,and which in that one body joins the wills of mentogether as His Truth joins their intellects. [If theBody of Christ has one prevailing charity, whichreaches to all its members, and encompasses theleast as well as the greatest, it is because the heartis divine.The fourth gift which He bestows upon theBody is sanctification, and it may be said to bethe result of the other three. This, again, is Hisown name and nature, and many have thoughtand said, His personal attribute, to make holy ;and that, as Fathership indicates the First Person,

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IX HISTORY.127and Sonship the Second, so the making holy namesthe Third, the bond of the most blessed Trinity.But this, at least, may be said to be the final causeof the body which He animates, the imparting ofholiness. In virtue of this gift, all the means andaids and rules of holiness are stored up in theBody. And this does not mean that there is nota continual falling away from the rule and practiceof holiness in particular members, but it meansthat while these, in spite of the Body's nurtureand solicitude, fall away from it and perish, theBody lasts for ever, the rules and aids and meansof holiness lasting for ever within it, because it isthe Body of the Spirit of holiness.Now these four gifts, Unity, Verity, Charity,and Sanctity, can none of them exist in the Bodywithout the other, and all of them exist togetherthere, because they have one divine root, that indwellingof the Holy Spirit which is the fruit ofthe Incarnation, and whereby the mystical Bodyof Christ corresponds to His natural Body. Ofthis Body the beginning is Unity, the substanceTruth, the bond Charity, the end Sanctity. Countlessheresies and schisms have sought to break upthe coinherence of these gifts, but in vain. Theonly success which the indwelling Spirit allowsthem is to detach from the Body those who areunworthy to remain in it, and to prolong for atime their maimed existence by some portion ofsome of His gifts. Truth, for instance, has such

128 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.a vitality that many a heresy will live for ageson that fragment which it has detached fromthe mass ; unity and charity have such force thateven their shadow, that is, the joint possession offragmentary truth, and the good-will thenceproceeding, will prolong for a time a sortcorporate existence. Holiness has so attractivea power, that zeal and self-denial, which presentthe seeming of it, will make the fortune of a sectfor a time. But in the union and the completenessof these four gifts, the great Body of Christstands out through all the ages inimitable andunapproachable. Alone it dares to claim themthus united and complete, for alone it can presenttheirrealisation.These four gifts, then, dwell in the Body in ahigher degree than that in which they adorn themembers of the Body, as in it, by force of theSpirit's indwelling, they ever exist together. Letus now see the qualities which the Spirit impartto the members of the Body, by virtue of theirincorporation into it.First of all is the forgiveness of sins. The Spirittakes them out of that state of alienation in whichthey are born, and unites them to His Body; andin so doing He effaces both the birth-sin and everyactual sin which they may have committed. Thisis that plenary forgiveness of sins, the pure gift ofGod unpreceded by any merit on man's part, whichgreets the new-comer out of Adam's body of sin

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.129into the Body of Christ. It is imparted by andfrom the Body, and to its members alone.The second quality is that illumination of themind, irradiated by the truth, the whole compassof which exists in the Body. This illumination isthe root of the virtue of faith, by means of whichthe individual mind appropriates the divine truthpresented to it. The force of the virtue differs inthe individual as the keenness of sight in the naturalman, but the visual power is the same inquality in all. By it the mind of the believer layshold in ever varying degree, one more and oneless, of that great harmony of truth which is heldin its completeness, its manifold applications, andall but infinite relations, only by the Body. For thetruth with which we deal is not unlocalised and scattered,the prey, as it were, of the individualwhich can hunt it down and take it as a spoil, bar .it is a divine gift, orbed in the sphere which wascreated for it, the Body of that Word who is theTruth. Hence the first question to the applicantfor baptism : What askest thou of the Church ofGod ? and the answer is, Faith.The third quality is the adoption of Sonship,which flows directly from incorporation into- theBody of Christ, and to which man has no sorttitle in himself or from his own nature, but ^comes to him only by kindred with Him who, onthe morning of His resurrection, greeted that exeatt who bore the figure

130 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.paschal salutation of the Second Adam, " Go to mybrethren, and say, I ascend to my Father and toyour Father, to my God and to your God." Andthe divine virtue of hope well corresponds to thisquality, the effects of which in a state of trial andconflict are to so great a degree future and unseen.It seems, moreover, to be as a special link and tiebetween the virtue which purifies the intellect,and that which corrects the will and makes itobedient. Thus through it we pass on to thefourth quality of Sanctification, which is the completionof the other three and their end, the harmonyof each individual will with the divine will,the work of charity. That divine virtue is thespecial fruit of the passion of Christ, which wasto gather up into one what sin had disunited andtorn away, first from its Author, and then fromthe order by Him created, which was to heal theanimosities thus introduced, and to change theworld from a conflict wherein each sought tobetter himself at the expense of his neighbour,into a community cemented together with mutualaffection. It was with reason, therefore, that S.Augustine would not allow the possession of charity,save in the unity of that one Body whichChrist had created,12 and without charity there isno sanctification.12 Epist. 185. torn. ii. p. 663. " Proinde Ecclesia Catholica sola corpusest Christi, cujus ille caput est, Salvator corporis sui. Extra hoc corpusneminern vivificat Spiritus Sanctus, quia sicut ipse dicit Apostolus:Caritas Dei diffusa est in cordibus nostris per Spiritum Sanctum, qui

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.131The four qualities thus slightly sketched, forgivenessof sins, illumination of faith, adoption tosonship, and sanctification by charity, which cometo the individual by and with incorporation intothe Body, are not given to him irrevocably, but areconditional upon his perseverance. They are portionsand derivations of that vast treasure of Truthand Grace which the Body holds in their entirenessand for ever, because of the perpetual indwellingof the Spirit who makes its life, but which He dispensesas it pleases Him to the members, andwhich He may withdraw from them in default oftheir cooperation. Vast are the losses thereby incurred,not to the treasure-house which remainsinexhaustible, but to those who fall out of it backinto the world, or rather that body of Adam fromwhich they were taken. But these losses touchnot the beauty and the glory of that Body ofChrist, which goes on through the ages, and takesup its own, fulfils its appointed work, and reachesits intended end.Thus on the day of Pentecost a new Power,the Spirit of the Incarnate God, descended notpon single men, but upon an assembly ofling it in a unity, conveying to it a truthkindling in it a charity, and working througla sanctmcatioii never before known; whichPower,g in that Body, was tdatus est nobis.m particeps divinaeest unitatis. N< le Spiritum Sanctumclesiam.'

132 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.collect and draw into itself out of all nations andranks of men those who should form the Church,that is, the Kingdom and Temple, and House, andBody, and Family of Christ. In it was to workand from it to go forth henceforward to all timethe virtue of Him who had assumed our flesh, nottransiently, but for ever; in the Head and theBody, through the life of His Spirit, Christ shouldfceach and bear for ever that witness to the truthof which He spoke in the hall of Pilate, and concerningwhich He said that "this gospel of thekingdom should be proclaimed through the wholeworld, for a witness to all nations, and then thatthe end should come."13 To the continuance, theindissolubility, the purity of this power He hasedged His word in such a way that they whodeny it must in doing so deny Him. He haseven made the unity of this Body the specialmark to men of the truth of His mission, beseechingHis Father in that last prayer, " Neitherpray I for these alone, but for those also whothrough their word shall believe in Me, that theyall may be one, as Thou, Father, art in Me, and Iin Thee, that they also may be one in Us, that theworld may believe that Thou hast sent Me."There are three analogies14 which illustrate this13 Matt. xxiv. 14.14 See Mokler, Die Einlieit i)i der Kirche, p. 176. " Der Korper dessnschen 1st eine Offenbarung des Geistes, der in ihm sein Dasein be-kundet, und sich entwickelt. Der Staat ist eine nothwendige Erscheinung,eine Bildung und Gestaltung des von Gott gegebenen KOI

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.133creation of our Lord-a creation in itself as singularas His assumption of man's nature.Fir st, that of the relation between the soul andbody. The soul is the life of the body; the body,as it were, the mansion and home of the soul, itsbearer. Through the body the qualities of thesoul become visible and known; its powers exer-cise themselves, and personal unity so binds thetwo together that we love or hate, admire or despise,the one for the sake of the other ; the griefof the soul acts upon the body, the sickness ofthe body depresses the soul. Through the acts ofthe body we learn the very existence of the soul,and in these acts it portrays itself. Human naturehas been so made by its Creator that the qualitiesof soul and body, of spirit and matter, are imputedin the individual man to each other. Now to theBody we have been considering the Spirit of Christis, as it were, the soul. It is nothing strange, then,f it was His will to create such a Body, if itthe result of His Incarnation, that the like effectswhich exist in the case of every human soul andbody should take place here. To this Body alsothe power and virtue of its soul are communicated;and, since Christ by His Spirit animates it, in honouringit He is honoured; in despising it, He iidespised. There is an imparting to it of the qualities which He has ; and thus it is thtity, truth and charity dwell in it as thf His mind. Thus every man contains in

134 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.himself, in the union of soul and body, an image ofthat tie by which Christ and His Church are one.Secondly, because God has created man forsociety, He has implanted in him an irrepressibleinstinct of communion with his brother men. Thisinstinct it is which, under circumstances of everypossible variety, results in one end, the State. Thehuman commonwealth, whatever external shapeit wear, whatever division of its powers it make,springs from this. In virtue of this original formationof man, that he is made to live together,and gregariously, not separately, the supreme powerof government, the power of life and death, dwellsin the community, and obedience to it has a divinesanction. Thus, the commonwealt has a varietyof powers which the individual has not, and notonly so, but it also has powers which do not arisefrom the mere aggregation of individuals, ratherwhich belong to it as a community, as a whole,for instance, sovereignty in all the details of itsexercise. But now the very object for whichChrist became Incarnate was to constitute a divinecommonwealth. He is the King : it is thetenderness of a God Incarnate that He calls andmakes His Kingdom His Body. The powers, then,which belong to the earthly commonwealth belong,with the changes which the change of subjectcarries, to the Divine. They who have so greata reverence for human government, who respect inthe nation an ultimate irresponsible power, ought,

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.135if they were consistent, when they acknowledgeChrist as having ~. come V> V/JL-U V^ in O-JLJ. the 1,/J.Jt \^ flesh, -*Jk\^ KJ^-*a to acknow-ledge His government in the kingdom which Hehas set up. All that his country is to the patriot,the Church is to the Christian, but in so muchhigher a degree, as the object for which Christin ,bove the needs and cares of this preslife. Has the City of God, then, less claim uponChristians than the City of Komulus had uponEomans? Thus, in the natural duty of the citizen,as well as in the compound nature of man,is contained a reminder of the Christian's relationto the Church, and a picture and ensample of theChurch's authority.Thirdly, there is the analogy presented by thetransmission of natural life15 through the one fleshof Adam to all his race. As the breath of naturallife, once given to Adam, is continued on to allthose sprung from his body, the power of theCreator never starting anew, but working in andthrough the trunk of human nature; so the supernaturallife springing from our Lord, as the giftof His Incarnation, is breathed on the day of Pentecostinto the whole Body of the Church to becommunicated from that Body for ever. Christ15 Mohler, Einlieit, &c. p. 8. " Wie das Leben des sinnlichen Men-schen nur einmal unmittelbar aus der Hand des Schopfers kam, imd wonun sinnlicb.es Leben werden soil, es durch die Mittheilung der Lebens-kraf t eines schon Lebenden bedingt ist, so sollte das neue gottliche Lebenein Austromen aus den schon Belebten, die Erzeugung desselben sollteein Ueberzeugung sein."

136 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.is to the one exactly what Adam is to the other.As the Word of God, creating, joined to the inheritanceof the flesh of Adam from generation togeneration the communication of a spirit such asAdam's, by which double action we have the unityof race, so the Word of God, redeeming, when Hehad taken our flesh as the first-fruits of humannature, breathed forth from that flesh the conimu-nication . of His Spirit to the Body of the Church,by which we belong to the race of the IncarnateGod, and are become His family, and make Hishouse. Thus that which the body of Adam isnaturally, the Body of Christ is spiritually, andthe descent of human nature in its unity a pictureof the Holy Spirit's unity working through theBody which He has chosen. And this analogis made the more striking by the statement sooften repeated in the Greek Fathers, that with thenatural life, as first given to Adam, was conjoinedthe gift of the Holy Ghost, forfeited afterwardsby his sin, and withdrawn from, him and his race,and now restored as the special gift of the IncarnateGod.16 Thus the descent of the Spirit atPentecost is a true and real counterpart of thecreation of man in Eden ; but they who share itare become kindred of God through His flesh, andby so sharing it together, they form that society16 For instance, two passages on the Incarnation in S. Cyril of^ m ^^"qucnce of the Fall and the Restoration, and how wonderfully the giftof the Spirit replaces what was lost in Adam.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.137which failed through Adam's sin. In the firstcreation, the Omnipotent Creator, in His bountytowards His favourite child, as foreseeing the assumptionof that nature by Himself, attached tothe gift of natural life the Spirit of sanctification;in the second, having assumed that nature, Hegave through His own Body, first taken out ofus, then crucified, now risen and exalted, the giftof the Spirit, Who, with all the endowmentsspringing from Him, as the Inspirer of truth andcharity, of unity and holiness, dwells in that Bodyfor ever.Thus in the union of the soul and body, in theconstitution and authority of the human commonwealth,7 and in the race's natural unity, ./ 7 God holdsbefore us three analogies, which each in some respect,and altogether very largely, illustrate Hisfinished work, to which all natural productions ofHis providence are subordinate, His work of predilection,His work of unbounded love and sovereignmagnificence, the creation of that which isat once the Body, the Kingdom, and the Familyof the Incarnate Word.From all that has gone before we gather thisconclusion, that to become a Christian was to enterinto a spiritual and physical17 unity with Christ*17 See S. Cyril. Ales, in Joan. p. 997 e. & Se TOVTOLS ^87? TTUS Kal/ecu ofTray-res 0e

138 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTOby incorporation into that Body which He hadcreated as the result of His becoming man. Thisit was for the individual to become a Christian.But Christianity itself was neither a mere systemof belief, nor an outward order representing thatbelief, but " the great and glorious Body ofChrist,"18 possessing and exhibiting the wholetruth of doctrine, possessing and distributing allthe means of grace, and presenting together toGod those whom it had reconciled with Him, andmade one, as the members of the Son by the indwellingof the Spirit.Let us now trace the exact correspondence ofthe historical fact with the dogmatic statementjust given.The Acts of the Apostles exhibit to us thecreation of the divine society by the descent ofthe Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. Whenthey were all together, the sound as of a rushingmighty wind was heard, which filled the wholehouse wherein they were sitting, and tongues asof fire were seen, the tongues apportioned severally,but the fire one,19 which rested upon each,to kindle in all that eternal flame of charity which18 S. Iren. iv. C. 33, 7. avatcpivei roils ra (r%io7x,ara epya£op.4vovs, KeVousovras TTJS TOV 0eoG 07^775, /cat rb tSiov AwnTeA.es OVCOTTOWTOS, aAAatvuaiv TTJS e/c/cArjcrias' Kal Sta jiu/cpas Kal TU.S ttyoucras amas T& ptya KalTOV XpiffTOv re/j-vovras Kal Siaipovvras, Kal ftaov rb CTT' avrois avaipowras,TOI/S tlTvrv \a\ovvras Kal rbv, KOI rltv Kap.T)\ov Karairivovras.19 Acts ii. 3. w

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.139was to draw into one the hearts of men, the fireof which our Lord had spoken as being that whichHe was come to light upon the earth. Fire,whose inward nature it is at once to illuminateand warm, to purify and unite, was thus appropriatelyselected as the outward sign, both expressingand conveying the fourfold office of theComforter, who came to be " no longer an occasionalvisitant, but a perpetual Consoler andeternal Inhabitant"20 of this His chosen home. Aseach in that assembly spoke in the one tongueof the country, he was heard by those present inthe several tongues of all the nations of the earthrepresented at that great feast by the Jews whodwelt in them. And this was the mark, saysS. Augustine,21 of the Church which was to bethrough all nations, and that no one should re-ceive the Holy Spirit, save he who should bejointed into the framework of its unity; the markwhich signified that the confusion of Babel, dividingthe race into nationalities jealous of each otherand perpetual enemies, was to be reversed andovercome by the one Power whose force to unite20 " Non jam visitator subitus, sed perpetuus consolator et habitatorseternus." S. Aug. torn. v. d. app. p. 307.21 Con. Crescou. lib. ii. c. 14, torn. ix. p. 418. " Hie Spiritus sanctusveniens in eos tale signum primitus dedit, ut qui eum acciperent linguisomnium gentium loquerentur, quia portendebat Ecclesiam per omnesgentes futuram, nee quemquam accepturum Spiritum sanctum nisi quiejus unitati copularetur. Hujus fontis largo atque invisibili flumineIcetificat Deus civitatem suam, quia Propheta dixit: Fluminis impetus lasti-ficat civitatem Dei. Ad hunc enim fontem nullus extraneus, quia nullusnisi vita teterna dignus accedit. Hie est proprius Ecclesiae Christi."

140 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.should be greater than the force of sin to sever ;who should gather out of all nations the City ofGod, fed by the exulting and abounding river ofHis Spirit, the fountain proper and peculiar to theChurch of Christ : the mark of that one truth,2222 'H a\rjd¬La : there seems to be no one word in the New Testamentmore pregnant signification than this, which in a greatnces bears the sense of the whole body of the divine r Thet of this meanin woulc seem to lie in Christ HimseDifaia, the dicky of the Father ; on which titleS. Athanasius and S. Cyril of Alexandria specially dwell, while S. Hilary2E m ,gustnes mrd i frmin and by His Incarnation He becomes in a special sense the Truth toel/a£a>>? ' and so the Spirit who proceedsfrom the Father and the Son, " ille ineffabilis quidam complexus(S. Aug.), is TO Uv^a TTJS- dATj^etas, who dfajytpttds Traffav nty aXriOetav: and again, 1 John v. 6, rb IlveC^ua ear*on TO Uyevfjid cany TJ aA?'jdem. This is the first meaning. Secondly, as de-m it, the Truth is the whole body of the divine revelation. Inthis sense it is used in a great many places of S. John's Gospel and theApostolic Epistles, e.g. John i. 14, 17 ; viii. 31 ; xvi. 13 ; xvii. 17 ; xviii.37 ; 1 John ii. 21 ; iii. 19 ; 2 John i. 1-3 ; 3 John 3, 4, 8, 12; 1 Tim. iii.15, where, because this whole body of truth dwells in the Church ofChrist and there alone, it is emphatically called the " House of God,which is the Church of the living God, the pillar and ground of theTruth ;" 1 Tim. ii. 3 ; Rom. xv. 8 2 Cor. iv. 2 ; xiii. 8 ; Gal. iii. 1 v. 7 ;(mKara r&s brtOvfiias TTJS airdr^sthe other, rbv Kara ©eb^ /mcrfleWa e^ 8iKat,o(rvvr} /cat OCH^TTJTI TTJJ aA^fleias1,mass of the Gentiles, as Ta e6j>7? TrepnruTeT eV fj.ara.t6rrirt rovvobs avr&y, eVKOTtcr/xeVoi rp Siavo/a, while Christians eV avrSKa9

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY. 141hich conveys and harmonisesand workall its details the whole revelation of God, and sois the utterance of one voice, the voice of Christ;speaking to all nations, not in the broken lanoguages O of their division, i but in the Unity J of HisPerson, carried by His Body. We have then inthe one Fire the one inward power; in the onelanguage its outward expression, in the assemblyits receptacle, the House of God. This Body appearsat once as formed and complete. In it sitsand prays in her silent tenderness and unapproachablegrandeur, as the Mother of the risenLord and Head, and the Mother too of His race,the most beloved, * the U-LAVy most -LAAWKJU lovable, AVy T CUfr^J-V^* and the mostloving of creatures,23 whose great function in theChurch for ever is to pray for the members of herSon, and to solicit the graces of His Spirit, whichas the Mother of the sacred race she gains anddistributes to all and each that belong to it, aSecond Eve who corresponds to the Second Adam,as the First Eve in the divine plan correspondedto the First Adam. In it the Apostles, so longbefore chosen and designated by their Lord, andhaving already received from Him portions of theirsupernatural power on the day of His resurrection^^"^^^^^^^"^^P^^^^^^H^^^^^^V^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B_^^^^^^B_ln^^^^H__l__^^^H^^^^^_ __Fifthly, correspondence to fact.In the Apocalypse our Lord is designated " the holy, the true," " theAmen, the Witness faithful and true," the rider of the white horse," called faithful and true," " whose name is the Word of God." iii. 7,14 ; xix. 11.23 " La creatura, la piu ainabile, la piu amata, e la pi£ amante di Dio."S. Alfonso, Gran Mezzo della Preghiera, p, 280.

142 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.and during the forty days of His secret instruction,teach and govern ; in it Peter at their headexercises that primacy, which, imaged out by anew name imposed at his first calling, promisedat his great confession, and confirmed and con-veyed on the sea-shore of the lake of Galilee, isexhibited with such grandeur, as he stood with theeleven and lifted up his voice, to describe to themen of Judea and the inhabitants of Jerusalem thenature of the event which they were witnessing, andthe fulfilment of all the promises made throughtheir prophets concerning that presence of God inthe pouring out of His Spirit among men in thelast days. That first discourse of his at the headof his brethren is the summary as it were of hisperpetual office of teaching and promulgating thedispensation of the Christ in the midst of theChurch. Its immediate effect was the aggrega-tion of three thousand persons to the Body, whowere told that this was the way in which theyshould receive remission of sins and the gift ofthe Holy Ghost.24 The subsequenteaching ofPeter and the Apostles, accompanied with miraculouscures, produced further aggregations amongall ranks of the people. And the mode of salvationfor all time is pointedly marked out by thewords, " the Lord was adding to the Church dayby day such as should be saved."We have only to repeat the process which is24 Acts ii. 38.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IX HISTORY.143thus described as having taken place at Jerusalemin the first months after the day of Pentecost, bycarrying it through the various cities of the Romanempire, Damascus, Antioch, Rome, Alexandria,and between these all round the shores ofthe Mediterranean, to have a just picture of themode in which the Divine Society grew and gatheredinto itself more and more of those wholistened to the truth which it announced. Whatis important to dwell upon is that men uniformlybecame Christians in one way, by being receivedinto the Divine Body, through which reception forgivenessof sins and the gift of the Holy Ghostwere conveyed to them. From the whole accountcontained in the sacred Scriptures, and from allthat remains to us of history, the great fact isestablished for us that Christianity came into theworld at its first beginning a society created bythe Holy Ghost, and held together and informedby Him as its soul, who is sent down upon it asthe Promise of the Father from the Incarnate Son.Fui'ther, it was in and by their reception intothis society that men received all the fruits of theIncarnation ; it was in it that all the gifts of theHoly Ghost dwelt, and through it that they weredispensed. By hearing the truth announced by itsministry penitence was engendered in the listeners,itself a preventing grace of the Holy Ghost, whichgave inward effect to the outward word. As aworking of this penitence they came, according to

144 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.the instruction of the teachers, to be baptised.and in the act of baptism they were received intothe divine society, and made partakers of the fulloperation of the Spirit who dwelt in it. They hadthe supernatural virtues of faith, hope, and charityinfused into them, each according to the measureof the grace accorded to him, and to help the exerciseof these virtues, that they might be borneas it were with the wings of a Spirit, the sevenfoldgifts of wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude,knowledge, piety, and fear, were added tothe soul. None of these virtues and gifts werepossessed by believers as individuals ; all of themcame to men as membersof her who was doweredwith the blood of Christ,25 and whose bridal qualityimparted to her children all which that bloodhad purchased. In her was stored up that great,inexhaustible source of abiding life, the Body andBlood of her Lord and Husband: in her the redeemingO Word gave O direct from His heart thevivifying stream. In her was the gift of teachingwhich illumined the understanding, and notonly drew from without, as we have seen, thosewho should be saved from the ignorance of thepagan or the carnalism of the Jew, but whicherected in the world the Chair of Truth,26 that25 " Non te fefellit sponsus tuus: non te fefellit qui suo sanguine tedotavit." S. Aug. torn. v. 1090 b.26 " Quod tune faciebat imus homo accepto Spiritu sancto, ut unushornomnibus loquitur,Et modo unus hoiDO in omnibus gentibus linguis

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.145is, the rule and standard of right U_ JLA. \J belief, r^ *^A-*.v^-i_» whichwas the continuance of the pentecostal gift, theilluminating and kindling fire, and the speakingtongue of unity, which the Body of Christ possessesfor ever. It was by enjoying these endowmentstogether in her bosom, / by t/ the actions of alife pervaded with these principles, by the joint possessionand exercise of these supernatural powerswhich at once opened to the intellect a new field ofknowledge O and strengthened O the will to acts aboveits inborn force, that men were Christians. Andthose who remembered what they had been asJews, and what they had been as heathens, hadno difficulty in recognising such a life as the effectof a divine grace, and no temptation to refer it toanything which belonged t to them as individuals,since its commencement coincided with their entranceinto a divine society, its growth dependedon their membership in that Body. Their unionwith Christ in this Body was something direct andpalpable ; to them the several degrees of that oneministry constituted by Christ were the joints andarticulations of the structure ;? the teaching O thenceproceeding as it were the current of life ; by theirbeing parts of the structure they were saved fromthe confusion of errors which swept freely roundm* f fEcclesia, vir perfectus, ille sponsus, ilia sponsa. Sed erunt, inquit, duoin came una; judicia Dei vera, justificata in idipsum: propter unitatem."S. Aug. in Ps. xviii, 2, torn. iv. 85 f.II.L

146 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.them without, through the craft of men and theseduction of deceit.27 " Possessing the truth inarity," or a sanctified in the truth," was the expressionof that divine life in common wherebythey were to grow up into one, and be called by thename of their Lord,28 because inseparably unitedby the nerves and ligaments of one BodjAnd this makes manifest to us how Christians,while scattered through every city of the greatRoman empire, formed one Body. It was byvirtue of the unity of spiritual jurisdiction whichdirected the whole ministry of that Body. Thecommand of our Lord was, u Go, and make disciplesall nations," "proclaim the gospel to everycreature ;" the Body assembled and empowered atPentecost was to carry out this command. Howdid it do so ? The teaching and ruling powerwas distributed through a ministry wherein thoseof a particular order were equal as holding thatorder: bishops as bishops were equal, priests aspriests. But not the less by the distribution ofthe places where the ministry was to be fulfilled,subordination was maintained through the wholeBody. Had it been otherwise, as each Bishop hadhe completeness of the priesthood in himself, hisshere of action, that is, his diocese, would haveconstituted a distinct body. But no such thing27 Ephes. iv. 11-16. d\7j0et'orre$ «V aydirr). Job, xvii. 19. $yto0p¬P»< eV28 1 Cor. xii, 12. O&T& Kai 6 Xpt(rr6$.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.147was ever imagined in the Church of those firstcenturies. The Bishops were, on the contrary,joint possessors of one power, only to be exercisedin unity.29 The unity was provided for inthe Apostolic body by the creation of the Primacy,without which the Body never acted, the Primatebeing designated before the Body was made ; thePrimate invested with his functions on the seashoreof the lake of Galilee before the Ascension,the Body on which he was to exercise them animatedon the day of Pentecost. Spiritual jurisdictionbeing nothing else but the grant to exerciseall spiritual powers, two jurisdictions would maketwo bodies ; a thousand would make a thousand ;so that the more the Church grew, the more itwould be divided, were it not that the root of allits powers in their exercise is one. A spiritualkingdom is absolutely impossible without this unityof jurisdiction; and in virtue of it the whole Church,from north to south and from east to west, was andis one Body in its teaching and its rule ; that is,in the administration of all those gifts which werebestowed at the day of Pentecost,"and which haved to be exercised from that day to thand which shall never cease to the end of the world.Thus as it is through the Body that men are madeept Christians, so the Primacy is that prin--^pars tenetur."mm

148 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.ciple of cohesion and subordination without whichthe Body cannot exist.Let us carry on the history of the divine Bodyto another point. How was the Truth transmittedin it ?Peter and his brethren having received throughthe great forty days from our Lord the complementof His teaching concerning His kingdom, were empoweredby the descent of the Holy Ghost to commenceits propagation. And for this work they usethe same instrument which their Lord had usedthe living spoken word. They labour togetherfor some time ; after several years they divide theworld between them; but in both these periodsthey found communities and supply them witheverything needful for complete organisation andfuture increase and progress by their spoken teaching,which therefore contained the whole depositof the truth. The gospel of which S. Paul so re-peatedly speaks was that which he communicatedby word of mouth, and S. Peter and all the rest didthe same. Communities were planted by Apostoliczeal over a great part of the Roman empire beforeas yet anything was written by their founders.The whole administration of the sacraments, andthe order and matter of the divine service, werearranged by this personal teaching of the livingword. All that concerned the Person of our Lord,all that He had taught, done, and suffered, was socommunicated. One reason of this is plain. It

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.149was not the bare gospel, but the " gospel of thekingdom/'30 which was to be proclaimed to allnations. It was not a naked intellectual truth ofich they were the bearers, but a kingdom whthey were to build. They were ncing a sect of philosophy, but founding an empThey were a King's heralds, and every king has arealm. Thus the Kingdom of the Word was proclaimedby the word spoken through many voices,but as the outpouring of one Spirit given on theday of Pentecost. This whole body of their teaching,therefore, was one Tradition ; that is, a deliveryover of the truth to them by inspiration ofthe Spirit, as the Truth who had become incarnatetaught it, and a delivery of this truth from themto the communities which they set up. The firstcommunication of the Christian faith to the individualwas never made by writing. How, said theApostle, should they invoke one whom they didnot believe, but how believe in one of whom theyhad not heard, and how hear without a preacher,and how preach except they were sent ?31 It didnot occur to him to ask how should they believein one of whom they had not read. On the contrary,he gives in these few words the whole orderof the truth's transmission. He conceived notheralds without a commission, any more than faithwithout trust in the word of the heralds. Buthere is the great sending, at and from the day30 Matt, xxiv, H. 31 Rom. x. 15,

150 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.of Pentecost, the root-of perpetual mission fromwhich the heralds derive their commission; theyare sent, they proclaim, they are heard, they arebelieved, and this faith opens the door for the admissionof subjects into the kingdom, according tothe law which they proclaim. Thus are describedo us at some length the acts of that wise master-builder whose words we have just cited; butthough he laboured more abundantly than all,all acted after the same manner. The Churchwas founded by personal teaching, of which theliving word was the instrument, and the wholetruth which was thus communicated was termedthe Tradition32 or Delivery.We now come to the second step. Beforethe Apostles were taken to their reward, the sameSpirit, who had instructed them that they wereto found the spiritual kingdom by means of theliving word, inspired them to commit to writinga portion of that great tradition which they hadalready taught by mouth.33 But they never deliveredthese writings to men not already Chris-3- ?) 7rapa5o

THE SECOND MAN VEEIFIED IN HISTORY.151tians. One evangelist expressly says that he drewup a narrative in order that his disciple mightknow the certainty of what he had already been instructedin catechetically, that is, that by that greatsystem of oral teaching by question and answer,that grounding of the truth in the memory, intellect,and will, which Christianity had inaugurated,and that he wrote after the pattern of those whohad delivered over the word to us, having been itsoriginal eyewitnesses and servants.34 A secondevangelist declares that what he was putting intowriting was a very small portion indeed of whathis Lord had done.35 Another verv"/remarkablething is that the Apostles are not recorded tohave put together what they had written themselves,or others by their direction, so as to makeit one whole ; far less that they ever declaredwhat was so written to contain the complete traditionof what they had received. But what theydid was to leave these writings in the hands of particularchurches, having in every case addressedthem to those who ted asChristians, and not having left among: th7 O oocument whatever intended to impart the Christianfaith to those who were ignorant of it. Thesewritings were in the strictest sense Scriptures ofthe Church, which sometimes stated, and alwaysin their form and construction showed that theywere adapted to those who had been taught the» Luke i. 2-4. " j^ xs> 30.

152 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.Christian faith by word of mouth. Moreover, itwas left to the Church to gather them together,and make them into one book, which thenceforwardshould be the Book; it was left to the Churchto determine which were to be received as inspiredwritings, and in accordance with the teaching alreadydiffused in her, and which were not. Andthis collection of the several writings from the particularChurches to which they were addressed intoone mass would seem not to have taat least three ^or four generations after the wholeorder and institutions of the Church had beenestablished by oral teaching, which filled as witha flood the whole Christian people. Then, finally,the authority of the Church alone established thecanon of Scripture, and separated it off from allother writings.Now as the planting of the Church by oralteaching was a direction of the Holy Spirit, fromwhom the whole work of mission proceeded, so allthese particulars concerning the degree in whichwriting was to be employed, and the manner inwhich that writing was to be attested, and thepersons to whom it was to be addressed, were adirection of the same Spirit. That a spiritualkingdom could not have been established save byoral teaching Christians may infer with certainty,because, in fact, that method was pursued. Thata portion of the great Tradition should be committedto writing they may for the same reason

THE SECOND MAN VEEIFIED IN HISTORY.153infer to have been necessary for the maintenanceof the truth, because it was so done. That thesewritings were the property of the Church-herScriptures-may be inferred with no less truth,because they were addressed only to her children,and presupposed a system of instruction alreadyreceived by those who were to read them. And,finally, that they were to be understood in theirright sense only, by the aid of the Spirit who dictatedthem, is, their being given in this manneronce admitted, an inference of just reasoning. Itis plain, when once these things are stated, thatthese writings were not intended to stand alone,as ordinary books, and to be understood by themselves.Not only were they part of a great bodyof teaching, but a portion of a great institution,to which they incessantly alluded and bore witness.They would speak very differently to thosewithout and to those within the kingdom of whichthey were documents. They would remind theinstructed at every turn of doctrines which theyhad been taught, corroborating these and themselvesexplained by them. Some of them indeedwere letters, and we all know how different is themeaning: toof letters to those who know the writerand his allusions, and to those who do not. Aword of reference in these documents to a greatpractice of Christian life would kindle into a namethe affection of those who possessed that practice,while it would pass as a dead letter to those who

154 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.ad it not.36 Such word, therefore, would be absoluteproof of the practice to the former, whileit would seem vague and indeterminate and noproof at all to the latter.From what has been said we may determinethe relation of the Church to the Scriptures. Shehaving been planted everywhere by the personaloral teaching of the apostles and their disciplbeing in full possession of her wore"sacraments, filled by that word which they hadspoken to her, and ruled by that Spirit in whomthey had spoken, accepted these writings whichthey left as conformable to that teaching whichthey had delivered by word of mouth, esteemedthem, moreover, as sacred, because proceedingfrom the dictation of the one Spirit, and finallyput them together and severed them off from allother books, as forming, in conjunction with thatunwritten word in possession of which she passedthis judgment upon them, her own canon or ruleof faith. Thenceforth they were to be for all agesa necessary portion of the divine Tradition whichwas her inheritance from the Incarnate Word,36 As one instance out of many take the words of S. Paul, 2 Cor. i. 22:" He that confirms us with you is Christ, and that has anointed us isGod ; who has also sealed us, and given the pledge of the Spirit hi ourhearts." How differently would this passage appear to one who hadreceived the confirming chrism, with the words conveying it, " Signo tesigno crucis, et eonfirmo te clu'ismate salutis ;" and to one who had lostthe possession of this Sacrament. Those who have deserted the ecclesiasticaltradition and practice read the Scriptures with a negative mind,and so fail to draw out the truth which is in them.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.155distributed by His Spirit. They were to be inher and of her. To her belonged, GtiV/Vi%« first, _I_L-L- K-* V «the uii-el-Standing of them ; secondly, the interprethem to her children, out of the fund of thatwhole Tradition lodged in her, and by virtue ofthat indwelling Cl Spirit, ^^ KS~L-i. A U» who, 1 JLAVy * as He had created,maintained her ; as part and parcel, moreover, ofthat whole kingdom, of that body of worship andsacraments, which she is.And this brings us to a further point of theutmost importance. For the Truth, which is thesubject matter of all this divine Tradition orDeh* very from the Incarnate Word, in order to beefficacious and permanent, approached men in theshape of a society invested with grace.37 It wasnot proposed as a theory which is presented simplyto the reason, and accepted or rejected by it.True, it was addressed to the reason, but onlywhen illuminated by faith could the reason acceptit. Here, again, it showed itself manifestly asuthe gospel of the kingdom" It was the goodtidings proclaimed, not simply and nakedly toman's intellect, but as the gift and at the sametime the law of that kingdom which accompaniedits publication by the bestowal of power to acceptit, and to make it the rule of conduct. Therem whom the word, though proclaimed tthem as to others, did not help, because it was nomixed with faith in those who heard it. S. Paul37 Eine Gnadenanstalt: our language does not supply the expression.

156 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.preached to many when the heart of one Lydiawas opened to receive what he announced.38Thus with the first hearing of the message coincidedthe beginning of grace to accept it. But solikewise the Church supplied a storehouse of gracethe continuance of the truth in those who hadonce received it. Truth and grace, as they cometogether in her, so they remain together inseparable.Wisdom, understanding, counsel, andknowledge, which perfect the intellect, are linkedin her with fortitude, piety, and fear, which per-ct the will. And this which is true of the invidual is true of the mass. In the Body, as wellas in each single member of it, and the morebecause the Body is an incomparably grandercreation, ' it is the sanctified intellect which mustreceive, harmonise, and develope the truth. Ifthe sevenfold fountain of the Spirit's gifts is onein the individual, much more is it one in thatody out of whose plenitude the individual receives.Thus wherever the Apostles preached theword, if faith made it fruitful, they bestowed thesacraments.We shall see, if we observe it closely, that it isa triple cord through which the Holy Spirit conveysHis life perpetually to the Body; and in Hislife is the Truth.First, there is the succession of men. As theWord Incarnate taught, so men bear on His teach-33 Heb. iv. 2 ; Acts xvi. 14.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.157£. O Personal labours, ' intercourse from mouth tomouth, * the action of men on men, the suffering ofmen for men, this was from the beginning, &********& i this isto be for ever, the mode of spreading His kingdom.It is not a paper kingdom, it cannot beprinted off and disseminated by the post"on! His own Person it passed to Peter and theApostles, and from them to a perpetual successionof men, whose special work it is to continue onthis line by a chain never to be broken. Theseare the messengers, or heralds, or stewards, orministers, or teachers, or shepherds. They are alland each of these according to the manifoldnessof the gift which they carry. Through the un-brokenness of this line the continuity of the giftis secured. Through it the Redeemer, King, andHead touches, as it were, each point of time andspace, and with a personal ministry lays hold ofeach individual through i the vast extent of Hiskingdom in time and space. And the gift is asliving and as near to Him now as it was when. Paul spoke of it as communicated by the impositionof his hands to his disciple; nay, as it waswhen He himself breathed on His Apostles to-ether assembled, and said, "Receive the HolyGhost;" and will be equally living and direct fromHim to the last who shall receive it to the end oftime. And all this because these men who aretaken up into this succession are the nerves of Hmystical Body, through which runs the supply to^^i«%ST. I **iiE -^

158 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.all the members. This is the indestructible frameworkwhich He has wrought for carrying on tomen His own teaching, until the whole mass growup to that fulness of the perfect stature which Hehas foreseen and determined.The second succession is that of the Truthitself committed to these men. For that plenitudeof teaching which the Apostles delivered orally tothe Church has never ceased to rest in her, andout of it she dispenses to all the ages her divinemessage. But part of this teaching by the furtherordering of the Spirit of Truth has been incorporatedin writing. And no one can doubt that thisincorporation has given a firmness and stability tothe teaching which we do not see how it couldotherwise have possessed. Thus the great Traditionof the Truth poured out upon the Churchhas been partly written and partly unwritten; notas if there were two teachings separable from eachther, but one and the same which runs in apetual blending. Through the written teachingwe receive the very words consecrated by ourLord's use : we have the priceless privilege ofknowing how He spoke ; of catching the accentsof His voice, and the look of His eyes, and thegestures of His body, portrayed in that narrative.The words of Him who spake as never man spakelive and sound for ever in our ears; and we recognisein the structure of His sentences, which conveyin a clause principles of endless application,

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY. 159forces on which a universe can be built, theFather's Word, and the world's Creator, and theChurch's Head. Parable and apophthegm andanswer, metaphor and plain speech, when used byHim, are all impregnated with this power. Andnow that we possess this peculiar language of theWord Incarnate, embodied and fixed for ever toour senses as well as our affections, it seems asif we could not have done without it. Then themode in which His own Apostles apply and illustrateHis doctrines, and exhibit to us the formationof the society which He came to institute,possesses a value only subordinate to His ownwords. The written word, it has been said,39 givesto the whole Church through all times a sense ofthe truth and consistency of her teaching like thatwhich the sense of personal identity gives to theindividual respecting his own being. And again,what memory is to the single man, such is thewhole tradition of the Truth in the bosom of theChurch. But it is throughothe unwritten teachingodeposited in her by the Apostles that she possessesthe key to the true understanding of that which, iswritten. The one in her practice has never beensevered from the other. So dear has the writtenword been to her that almost the blackest epithetin language, & ' traitor' / is derived from the namewhich she gave to those who, under fear of persecution,surrendered to the heathen her sacred39 By Mohler.

160 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.books. With these in her hand, or rather in herheart, she has directed and carried out that greatsystem of instruction which the Apostles laid downand established by their acts. For to her whatthey did was as sacred as what they said, orwhat they wrote ; and numberless acts of theirsconstituted her teaching originally, and have prolongedand continued it on since.For, besides the succession of men and thesuccession of doctrine, there is in her likewisethe succession of institutions. As chief of these ,but involving a number of subordinate rites, theApostles with their first oral teaching deliveredlikewise to the Church sacraments, instituted, notby them, but by their Lord Himself, which at onceembodied the truth taught by them, and conveyedthe grace by which that truth was to find a homein men's heart and mind. ISTo sooner was thefirst teaching of Peter at the head of the Apostlesuttered, and the gift of forgiveness of sins andof adoption disclosed, than three thousand personsreceived the double gift by the baptism whichfollowed. Thus they established in the Churchseven great rites, encompassing the whole of humanlife. The regenerating power which was thebeginning of the whole change that they sought towork in man was stored UD in one; the confirmingand developing it in a second ; the feeding andincreasing it in a third; the removal of obstaclesto it in a fourth; the supporting and restoring the

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.161human nature so elevated, when under pressure ofsickness and in fear of death, in a fifth; the blessingand consecrating the union of the spth; and, finally, the conferring that distinctivepower which transmitted through all ages herLord's gift to the Church in a seventh. This isthat great and marvellous sacramental system bywhich the Church, " dowered, V*-\_/ ?T V->-L V^VA* as UB+J we TT \-J have AAC/U T \^ said, KJ1AJLXA* inher quality of Bride with her Lord's blood, appliesthat blood to His members, / according O to theirneeds. This is the perpetual consecration of matterto a supernatural end, of which the highestexample is found in the Body of the Head Himself,and so it is an enfolding of human naturewith the Incarnation, and a transforming it intothe image of its Head. But such, likewise, is thesummary of the whole written and unwrittenteaching of the Church ; such also, in few andbrief words, the perpetual work of the successionof men whom we have described.Thus the three successions, of men, of doctrines,and of institutions, are woven by the HolySpirit together as three strands of a rope whichcannot be broken : in the union of these threeHis eretual resence dwells and this is tpinal cord whereby He joins the Body with thHeadLet us take instances wherein the force of thisunons seen.The first gift He bestowed upon men when theii.M

162 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.gospel of the kingdom approached them was theforgiveness of sins. This is a power belonging toGod alone, as sin is an offence against His majesty.The conferring of this power upon the Apostlesby our Lord Himself is explicitly recorded. Butthen two sacraments exhibit the application of thispower, first that of baptism, where it is given ple-narily; secondly that of penance, where it is givenunder restriction. And further, an order of menis instituted for this perpetual application. Here,then, we see the force of the triple cord carryingon through all ages this great truth of the forgivenessof sins in and by the Church of God. Thevery definite mention of the grant of this powerin the written tradition is not left exposed byitself to the action of unbelieving reason. It hasa double bulwark in the two institutions whichassert its perpetual exercise as a matter of history,and in the order of men established to canit out.Take again the doctrine of the Real Presence,upon which infidelity falls as being a proof chargeof human credulity,40 on which faith and love restas the sovereign gift of God. The recorded wordsof our Lord Himself express it distinctly and emphatically;further words of His in the sixth chapterof S. John allude to it with equal force, and S.Paul repeatedly refers to it. But this is not enoughfor the solicitude with which the Holy Spirit has40 See Macaulay's Essays.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.163guarded it against all attack. As the great centralrite of Christian worship it is presented dayafter day, in myriads of churches, from age toage, to the eyes and hearts of men. The act inwhich Christians assemble, in which they offer upat once their repentance and their requests, theirthanksgivings and their praises, to Him who hasformed them into one Body, lives upon this truth.And further, the order of men which is the backboneof the Church, the great Christian priesthood,made by our Lord in instituting the riteand conferring the gift, exists for its continuance.Against such a truth, defended with such bulwarks,both infidelity and heresy dash themselveswith impotent rage in vain.Thirdly, we have in the epistles of S. Paul amention of the bishop's office and the duties belongingto it. The mention " is incidental, and thewords not so determinate as in the former instancesgiven. Those who are outside the Body,in their attack upon the necessity of episcopacy,thought that they could cat through these wordsso as to make it doubtful whether the office ofbishop, as distinguished from that of priesf origut then historv disthe fact that when the last apostle was taken fromthe earth not a church existed which was notunder episcopal jurisdiction, and through thewhole world, by the institution, of bishops, wasfulfilled the prediction, - Instead of thy fathers

164 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.thou shalt have children, whom thou mayest makeprinces in all lands. Thus, while the written recordwas interpreted, the unwritten teaching ofthe Church found a plain and unanswerable proofin her invariable practice. All through her longhistory she is seen to be governed by bishops ;and the words of S. Paul, flanked by the institutionand the practice, are more than sufficient tomaintain the truth.Once more let us take the primacy of S. Peter'ssee in the Church. This, as is well known, restsin the written word mainly on three great passagesof S. Matthew, S. Luke, and S. John. These, indeed,are so specific and definite that they conveythe dignity intended as clearly as the passagesabove referred to convey the forgiveness of sinsor the Real Presence. But over and above these,what an overwhelming proof in the unbroken successionof those who exercised the primacy fromthe beginning, and are referred to from age toage by the doctors, fathers, and historians of theChurch. Beside the charter»of institution standsthe long record of the work wrought in virtue ofit, the witness of the Church to it in councils,the obedience to it in fact. As the priesthoodexists in attestation of the Real Presence, 7 sothe primacy stands beside our Lord's words, firstpromising and then conferring it, like the commentof eighteen hundred years, uniform and consistent.

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.165What we have here applied in the case of theforgiveness of sins, the Real Presence, episcopacy,and the primacy of the Church, might be carried outin the case of many more doctrines forming a partof the great deposit. But it may be well, to citeone instance of a truth not contained in the writtenword at all, which through the unwrittenteaching of the Church has passed into universalpractice. This is not the abolition only of theJewish Sabbath, constituted as it was by the mostexpress divine command, for to that abolitionthere is a passing reference in an epistle of S.Paul, but the further substitution of the day ofthe resurrection, the first day of the week for theseventh, with a modified observance. This restssolely upon the deposit of the Church's unwrittenteaching, corroborated by universal practice fromthe apostolic times.Viewing, then, the transmission of the Truas a whole, and the creation of the mystical Bodyof Christ as its home, and the Holy Spirit as theperpetual Indweller who fills that treasure-house ofTruth and Grace, we may consider its maintenanceas secured by the triple succession or tradition ofmen, of doctrine, and of institutions which are inseparablyjoined together in that its home. Butthere are some words of our Lord so distinctlyand translucently expressing all this statementrespecting the mode in which His Truth was firstand is ever to be transmitted, and the conditions

166 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.to which His perpetual presence is attached, thatwe cannot forbear to adduce them.His parting instructions to His Apostles on theMountain of Galilee given by S. Matthew run thus:" Jesus, approached them and said unto them, Allpower has been given unto Me in heaven and onearth. Go therefore, and make disciples all nations,baptising them in the name of the Fatherand of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, teachingthem to observe all things whatsoever I have commandedyou : and behold I am with you all dayseven to the end of the world." We shall herenote six things. First, there is the root andfoundation of all mission, the power bestowed uponChrist as man, in virtue of the Incarnation: "allpower has been given to Me in heaven and onearth ;" secondly, there is the derivation of thispower from Christ to His Apostles, in virtue ofwhich sent by Him, as He by His Father, theywere to go forth : "Go ye therefore ;" thirdly,there is the creation of the perpetual teachingpower, the authority by which truth was to beimparted: " make disciples all nations." He placedit in them as in one Body, here fulfilling what S.Augustine afterwards expressed, that He " seatedthe doctrine of Verity in the Chair of Unity."They, invested with one Spirit, His own Spirit ofTruth, should go forth and make disciples all nationsto one Body of Truth. It is the creation ofa power new as the Incarnation, as it unique, be-

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.167cause springing from it, founded and continued init.He Himself is the one Teacher whose voicethey express: He who came on earth for threeand thirty years speaks for evermore in thosewhom He sends as one Body, which calls no manteacher, because it is the Body of Christ, theTeacher : so that this function of magisterialteaching is the great distinctive office of HisChurch, coming: from above, 5 and invested withthe authority of the God-man, by which it drawsto it disciples, whose consent is not the groundbut the result of its authority. Fourthly, thereis the creation of the sacraments, as containingthe grace which is needed for the reception ofthis Truth, and they are summed up in the first,which is the beginning of the new life, illumination,and perfection, and which is given in thecovenant name of God, as the Christian God, andis the mark of the triune Creator, Redeemer, andSanctifier, impressed on his own people of acquisition.Thus Grace is for ever associated withTruth as the means whereby alone on earth Truth pshall prevail and be received, and that only as theteaching of that Body whose Head is full of Graceand Truth. Fifthly, there is marked the mannerof the teaching, the nature of the magisterial officecreated as that of a living O bodv J of men: "-teaching: othem to observe all things whatsoever I have commandedyou." The fund from which this teachingis drawn is that whole communication of truth

168 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.from the Incarnate Word Himself, given to themby word of mouth, of which we have spoken aboveas the great Tradition or Delivery ; and out ofwhich a part is incorporated in the written word,while the whole dwells ever in the Boclv createdto receive it, from which it is to be imparted byperpetual oral teaching. The teaching, therefore,rests upon the perpetual presence of the Body representingChrist, and as in the days of His fleshHe teaches through it, and has fixed part of Histradition in it by writing, not to the exclusion ofthe rest, but as the charter of a sovereign, thetitle-deeds of an empire, to be perpetually applied,interpreted, and developed in that whole systemof institutions, by that whole race of teachers, inthe life of that one Body, which He was creating.And lastly, to this perpetual living line of teachers,to this perpetual living doctrine, to this perpetualliving framework of grace, He has promised Hisown presence without fail to the end. In thistriple succession He is seen, lives, and rules, andthis is His Kingdom, His Temple, His Body, HisBride, His Family, to whom He says, Behold,am with you all days, even to the end of theworld.From these words of our Lord, as from thewhole previous argument, we gather that whilethe Truth which Christ imparted to His Apostleswas one and complete, its development in its variousrelations was designedly left as the proper

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.169work of such a Body as He created. He Himselfspoke as God in human flesh, uttering, that is,creative words, which gathered up in a sentencea germ of truth capable of a long series of applications,and requiring them in order to be understood.And the aptitude to make these applications,so that the truth proclaimed by Him andcommitted to His Apostles should penetrate throughand leaven the whole human society, He gave toHis mystical Body. Let us take an instance ofthis. The Pharisees approached Him one day toentangle Him by their words, and proposed toHim a dilemma from which they thought that Hecould not escape save by ruining His influencewith one great party, or by encountering thedanger of being charged with seditious teachingby another. They put to Him the question whetherit was lawful to give tribute to Caesar or not.Whereupon He asked them to show Him the tri-bute-money, and pointing to the image of theemperor upon it, uttered those famous words," Eender therefore to Caesar the things which areCaesar's, and to God the things which are God's."]STow these words were laid up in th 7of His Church, and by them she has hadtermine the relation between thspiritual powers in the society created by Himwho spake them. Here is a vast developmentfrom a small seed: but it is a seed cast by theworld's Creator and the Body's Head. And His

170 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.teaching is full of such seeds, as the history of HisChurch is one great process of developing andharmonising and conveying to man the truth thuscast into the fallows of her soil. It is not newtruth, for He gave the germ, and no power in mancould have developed it without the germ, anymore than it could produce the oak without theacorn. It is the same truth, as He taught it, butwith that process passed upon it which He intendedwhen He gave it in such a form, and whenHe made a living Body, to be called by His name,to propagate His teaching, to collect His membersinto one, and to fill the earth with the knowledgewhich He brought. CDSuch a work, therefore, the root and authorisationof which we have been attempting to delineatein this chapter, stretches over the wholeeld which Truth and Grace occupy, and over athe relations of men which are summed up inthey are to believe and what they are to do. Theseramifications are all but endless. But to all theseextends that giving of the Holy Ghost in Hisfourfold character of the Spirit of Unity, Verity,Charity, and Sanctity, which is the result of theIncarnation, and which makes the Church. Whatwe have said here has a special relation to Truth,and to Christian morals as resting upon Christiandogma. But it is impossible to separate Truthfrom Grace, in their actual operation as powers:faith and charity in the Christian are linked to-

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.171gether, as the intellect and the will are one soul.What we have said is but an introduction to asketch of the great evolution of dogmatic truththrough eighteen centuries: but in recording itsrise, the secret of its growth, and the source cits strength, it was impossible not to bring out thgreat fact that Christianity was nothing less thana divine life produced in the world over againstthe existing heathenism, and laying hold of thewhole soul of man, in which, as we have just said,intellect and will are inseparable. It did not consistin anything which individuals believed, howevertrue ; but in a society of which Truth andGrace were the joint spring, and it was producedin the midst of a world which had to a great extentforfeited both Truth and Grace, while bothreturned to it as the gift of Christ assuming man'snature. This error and distraction of heathenism,and this great unity of Christian life grounded infaith and charity which rose up against it, wereprofoundly felt by all the Fathers, being eye-witnessesof the old world and the new. Their writingsexpress it again and again, with the vividnesswhich only eye-witnesses, who are likewise actorsand sufferers, feel. In nothing, perhaps, do theyso differ from modern writers as in the energywith which they appreciate the supernatural characterof the Christian, and the wonderful beingand endowment of that Christian Body which impressedthis character on its members. One cause,

172 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.we may suppose, of this was the sight of heathenismbefore them with all its impurities and itsimpotence to produce good. So they were noteven tempted to that naturalism which is the besettingsin of our age and these countries. Itwould have seemed to them not only an ingratitudebut an absurdity to refer to the inborn forceof humanity a change equally of the intellect andof the will which they saw to belong only to thepower of Christ revealed in His Church. Wewill cite one such passage as a conclusion to thisdiscussion, and because it represents the wholetrain of thought which we have been drawingout. 41" Of this sacrament, this sacrifice, this priest "this God, before, having been made of a womanHe entered on His mission, all sacred and mystical,angelic and miraculous appearances to ourfathers, as well as their own deeds, were resemblances,in order that every creature might in amanner by its acts speak of that One destined tocome, in whom should be the salvation of all thatwere to be restored from death. For as we hadstarted away from the one true supreme God bythe injustice of impiety, and fallen out of harmonywith Him, and become unstable as water,and wasted ourselves on a multitude of vanities.rent in pieces, and hanging in tatters to everypiece, need was there that by the will and com-41 S. Aug. de Trin. iv. 11,12, m

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.173mand of a compassionating God this multitude ofobjects itself should utter a cry in unison, callingfor One to come ; and that thus called upon thisOne should come, and that the multitude shouldattest together that the One had come: and sowe, discharged from the burden of this multitude,should come to One ; and dead in our soul bymany sins, and from our sin doomed to death inthe flesh, should love that One, who, being withoutsin, died for us in the flesh: and believing onHim when risen, and with Him rising again in theSpirit through faith, should be justified, being inthe One Just made one: and should not drising again in our very flesh, beholding our Headbeing One going before His many members; inwhom now, cleansed by faith, and hereafter restoredby vision, and reconciled by the Mediatorto God, we might inhere in the One, enjoy the One,and continue One for ever." Thus the Son of God, Himself at once theWord of God and Son of man, Mediator of Godand men, equal to the Father by the unity of thegodhead, and partaker of us through the assumptionof the manhood, interceding with the Fatherfor us through that which was man, yet not concealingthat as God He was One with the Father,thus speaks: * Neither pray I for these alone, butfor those also who shall believe through their wordon Me; that all may be one, as Thou, Father, artin Me, and I in Thee, that they also may be One

174 THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.in Us, that the world may believe that Thou hastsent Me. And the glory which Thou gavest Me,I have given them, that they may be One as wealso are One/ He said not, that I and they maybe One thing, although in that He is the Head ofthe Church, and the Church His Body, He mightsay, I and they not One thing, but One person ,because the Head and the Body is One Christ.But marking His Godhead as consubstantial withthe Father (whence in another place He says, Iand the Father are One thing), He wills that Hisown should be One thing in their own kind, thais, in the consubstantial parity of the same nature,but in Him, because in themselves they could not,as severed from each other by diversity of pleasures,desires, and impurities of sin. From thesethey are cleansed through the Mediator, so as tobe One Thing in Him, not merely by the same naturein which all from mortal men become equal tothe angels, but likewise by the same will breathingin perfect harmony together into the same beatitude,welded, as it were, by the fire of charity intoOne Spirit. For this is the force of His words,That they may be One, as We also are One : thatas the Father and the Son are One not onequality of substance, but also in will, so thesealso between whom and God the Son is Mediator,may be One Thing not merely by being of thesame nature, but also by the same society of affection.And the very point that He is Mediator,

THE SECOND MAN VERIFIED IN HISTORY.175by whom we are reconciled to God, He indicatesin the words, 'I in them and Thou in Me, thatthey may be consummated into One/ Thus asthrough the mediator of death we had recededfrom our Creator, 7 stained and alienated, ' so through Othe Mediator of life we might be purified and reconciled,wherein consist our true peace and stableunion with Him."

CHAPTERX.THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH." Magnum hrereditatis mysterium! Templum Dei factus est uterusnescientis virum. Non est pollutus ex ea carnem assumens. Omnesgentes venient dicentes, Gloria tibi, Domine."Antiphon on Vespers of Circumcision.THE world which Augustus and Tiberius ruledwas not conscious of the fact that there was anorder of truth, and of morality based upon thattruth, the maintenance of which was to be purchased,and cheaply purchased, with the loss oflife, or of all that made life valuable. This worldwas indeed familiar with the thought and with thepractice of sacrificing life for one object-an objectwhich collected all the natural affections and in--terests of a man together, and presented them tohim in the most attractive form, his country.Greek and Roman history, and indeed the historyof all nations up to that time, had been full ofinstances in which privations and sufferings wereendured, and, if necessary, life itself given up forwife and children, for the dear affections of houseand home, for friends, for freedom, for fatherland.Man, civilised and uncivilised, was alike capable ofthis, and capable of it in profusion. Rome hadii.N

178 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.many a Regulus and Sparta many a Leonidas inthe humblest ranks of their citizens : Gaul hadthousands as noble as Vercingetorex, and Spainnot one but many Numantias. Human naturehad never been wanting in the courage to die forthe visible goods of human life. But to labour,to combat, to endure pain, sorrow, privations, tosuffer in every form for the invisible goods of afuture life, to recognise, that is, an inviolableorder of religion and morality, so far superior tothat a man can grasp and hold in his possession,to wife, children, goods, friends, freedom,and fatherland, and to life adorned and crownedwith these, that any or all of these, and life itself,are to be sacrificed for its preservation ; this maybe said to be a thought of which the wholeheathen world ruled by Augustus and Tiberiuswas unconscious.1 For other reasons also it wasfamiliar enough with the sacrifice of life, since thecontinual practice of war and the permanent institutionof slavery had made human life the cheapestof all things in its eyes. And further, to dierather than to live dishonoured was still the ruleof the nobler among the millions who yielded tothe sway of Augustus, But to die for the main-1 Tertullian, Apol. 50. " O gloriam licitam, quia humanam, cui neeprsesumptio perdita nee persuasio desperata deputatur in contemptumortis et atrocitatis omnimodae, cui tantum pro patria, pro imperio, proamicitia pati permissum est, quantum pro Deo non licet." See again theinstances he collects ad Marty res^ 4; and Eusebius, Hist. 5, prooem.,draws the same contrast.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.179tenaiice of moral truth, that is, for faith,-this wasknown indeed to the Jews, who had already their" cloud of witnesses" to it; but it was unknown toheathendom, which has in all its ranks and timesbut one man2 to offer whose death approaches tosuch a sacrifice, and therefore shines with incomparablelustre among all deeds of purely humanheroism. But the death of Socrates found in thisno imitators, he created here no line of followers;and he stands alone in this greatness, an exceptionto an otherwise invariable rule.However, in our two preceding chapters wehave been describing something much more thanthe exhibition of this order of truth ; that is, wehave set forth the union of it with a Person, whoboth exhibits it in Himself, and is the source of itto others. And the difference between these twothings is very great. Many at different times havesaid, " I teach the truth." One only has said, uam the Truth:" and to say it is the most emphaticindirect assumption of Godhead which can be conceived.And with it that One also joined a simi-ar expression, containing the same assumption ofGodhead, and which equally was never approachedby any other teacher, "I am the Life." Thunion of the Truth at once and of the Life withHis Person, which is thus become the root of bothto human nature, was the subject of the last two2 Celsus only alleges the suffering of Socrates as a parallel to that of11 I s-^. * j*\ "+maryr

180 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.chapters. Now, as we have said, that there wasan order of truth sacred and inviolable above allthings, was borne witness to by the Hebrew martyrs,and therefore was not new to the chosenrace of Israel, though it was new to heathendom,at the time at which our Lord appeared. But theunion of the Truth and of the Life with the Personof One appearing visibly in the world as man,was as new to the Hebrews as to the heathen, wasan absolute novelty to human nature. And so theChristian Faith also, as a system of belief andaction, that is, as embracing the mind and the willof man, as giving both Truth and Life, is entirelynew in this respect; that in this double action itis in its origin and in its whole course and maintenancebound up with a Person. Thus all whichit teaches is not naked truth, unlocalised as itwere, and impersonal, but is the development ofrelations in which the disciples of Christ stand toHim ; for instance, as King, as God, as Head, asBridegroom, as Father. As these, He is at oncethe Truth and the Life. Thus it is that the Chris-tian Faith flows out of the Person of Christ theGod-man; and, as its Truth is centered in thatPerson, so also its continuous Life depends onHim.And further, as the connection of doctrine, ortruth, and of life, that is, action, with a Person isthe point from which all this movement springs,in which respect we have said it was absolutely

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.181new, so the term to which it reaches is the creationof something in both these things correlativeto that Person, the creation of a Kingdom, a Temple,a Body, a Mother, a Race, in which respectalso the term is as new as that from which itsprings. That He is the Truth and the Life isshown in this creation, which has a distinctivecharacter, as He has, an unique existence, and anorganic unity with Him.The subject on which we are now employed isto describe as an historic fact how the duty ofmaintaining, propagating, and dying for the truthand conduct thus identified with the Person ofChrist, was carried out through many generationsand under difficulties which seemed to precludethe possibility of its success ; and to show themeans by which this great creation, starting fromthe day of Pentecost, made a home and establisheditself in the Roman empire, by which, after a conflictof nearly three hundred years, it was finallyrecognised.The worship of the one true God had beenfixed in the children of Abraham, Isaac, andJacob, as the faith which made them a nation, *that is, as the dogma on which their national ex-istence was so based, that through maintaining itthey were to continue a people. The Jewishlity lived in and by this belief, and, as a nwas its prophet. Certainly, this was the noblestform which nationalism has ever assumed. Yet it

182 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.was nationalism still; and the proselyte who wouldenter into the full worship of the God of Abrahamand all its privileges had to become a Jew. Butnow, ' instead of this bond another was substituted,signifying that the King of the Jews who had appearedwas come as the saviour of man, not ofthis or of that nation. The bond is thereforeplaced at the point which constituted the salvationof the whole race, that is in the Person of the God-man, and by this the corporation was put beyondthe bounds of a nationality, and made coextensivewith the world. The Christian creed was formedround the Person, the actions, and the sufferingsof Christ. Now here, precisely in what constitutedthe character, the greatness, and the glory of theChristian faith, was seated the principle and thebeginning of the persecution which it encounteredfrom the Roman empire. In that empire everyspecies of idolatry3 had a right of homestead asthe national or tribe religion of any one of its constituentparts; and the worship of even one God,exclusive as that Jewish worship was of the wholeheathen pantheon, was allowed by the laws ofRome to the Jews, because he was considered3 With an appeal to this fact Ath tomerors Marcus Aurelius and Commfhxrias Kardyov(nv £s Uv edcAdWU' &vQpwKQL Kal oirrrnoL Kal al\ovpovs Kal KpoKO$¬i\ovs Kal otyOeovs vofJLifyvffi. /cat To\rrois iruatv tTreTpeTrcre Kal fyuets Kal ol v6p.otrifuv 8e (Kal/ur; irapaKpovaOrJTe, us ol TroAAol, e£ aKofjs) T$ ov6/j.ari aTre^Od-. Ch. i. See also Kellner's Hellenismus und Christentlium, p. 79;and Ckampagny, Les Antonins, ii. 189.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.183their national god. But the Christians had nosuch justification in Roman eyes for their exclusiveworship. They were not a nation nor a provinceof the empire ; they had not, therefore, thattitle for their worship which constituted the charterof toleration to all besides, * including: JLJULvJi VA V^JL.LAC^ the UjLJ-V^ Jew \_>who worshipped the same God. For * the Chris-tians worshipped Him, not as their ancestral God,but as the Father of that Son who had takenhuman flesh, and become the Saviour of men.Their worship of the one true God was not onlyexclusive, but in and through the fact of theIncarnation claimed the homage of all men to it.It knew of no bond of brotherhood but in Himwho had deigned to call men His brethren. Thusits special character and preeminent glory were thecause of its persecution, and from the moment thatit came before the notice of the Roman governornot as a Jewish sect but as a distinct belief, it wasconsidered as not a lawful religion. Thus too itwas that the selfsame point which kindled Jewishhatred entailed Roman persecution. The Christianfaith was a mortal offence to the Jew becauseit extended what had been his special privileges to"all the Gentiles. He abhorred the substitution ofthe Person of the God-manfor the race of Abrahamafter the flesh ; as the Roman at once despisedand hated a worship which not only adheredto one God, but dethroned from his political supremacythe capitoline Jupiter, and whose title rested

184 MARTYR CHURCH.not on tradition and national inheritance, but ona fact touching the whole race of man, and thereforeclaiming the allegiance of the whole racethe assumption of human nature by a divine Per-son. Thus the doctrine in which lay the wholecreative force, the truth and the life of Christianity,was that which from the first caused thedislike of the Jew and the persecution of the Gentile-thekingship of Christ, involving the headshipof a universal religion, and a power which wasnot that of Ca3sar.We have, then, now to treat of a period of 280years, homogeneous in its character from the beginningto the end, which is, that it is the carryingout by a people ever increasing in numberand strength of that good confession made beforePontius Pilate-that witness at its proper time ofwhich S. Paul4 in its first stage said that he wasthe herald and apostle. The course and life ofChristians during these ten generations is to bethe prolongation of this testimony, the embodimentof this confession. It is as soldiers, imitators, followersof one Chief, that all appear on the sce^ie intheir respective order.5 It is by a direct virtuedrawn from the cross of that Chief that they move« 1 Tim. vi. 13; ii. C.5 "^Emulos nos ergo Sibi esse yoluit, ac primus virtute coelesti in-justorum Justus obtemperavit arbitrio; dans scilicet secuturis viam, utpius Dominus exemplum famulis Se prasbendo, ne onerosus prseceptormPertulit ante ilia quas aliis perferenda mandavit."Ej)ist, Ecc. Smyr. i. Ruinart, p. 31.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.185ward to their own passion. They endthey conquer simply as under His command, andbecause He endured and conquered before them.Their oath of military fidelity is the bond of theirdiscipline; they prevail because they are His, andbecause they are one in Him:" And they stand in glittering ringRound their warrior God and KingWho before and for them bledWith their robes of ruby red,And their swords of cherub flame."The whole process and cause of Christiansduring this long period, the ground of their, accusation,the conduct and principles of the judges,and their judgment, are summed up as in a parablein that scene which passed before Pilate, while thesubsequent day of Pentecost is in the same manneran image of the final result won in these threehundred years. For as the crucifixion of theTruth in the Person of Christ is followed by thedescent of the Holy Ghost forming the Church, sothe persecution and crucifixion of the truth in tengenerations of His people is followed by the empire'spublic recognition of His eternal kingdomof that Body of Christ seen visibly in a council ofits prelates assembling freely from all lands.Take first the seventy years which form theApostolic age. What do we find as the resultwhen S. John, the last apostle, is taken away ?In a large number of cities throughout the Ko-man empire a community has been planted after

186 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.the pattern of that which we have described asarising at Jerusalem, and by the same means, thepower of oral teaching. Every such communityhas at its head its bishop, or angel, who sums upand represents in his own person the people overwhich he presides. This is exactly the picturepresented to us at the close of this period byS. John in the Apocalypse, when he is directedby our Lord personally appearing to him to writeseven letters to as many bishops of cities on theseaboard of the province of Asia. Each, with hispeople, is addressed as a unit. One, u I know thyks, and thy labour, and thy endurance, andhow thou canst not bear those which are evil ;"a second, u Fear not what thou art about to suffer; behold, the devil shall cast some of you intoprison ;" a third, " I have against thee some fewthings, that thou hast there some who hold thedoctrine of Balaam."6 Each has around him hiscouncil of priests, his ministerin deacons, his faithfulpeople. The last apostle is still li ving ; but inall these communities many exist, both of teachersand taught, who have learned Christian doctrine,either from the mouth of an apostle or the comradeof an apostle - a Mark, a Luke, a Silvanus, aClemens. Thus they live mainly upon oral teaching: the voice which went forth from the day ofPentecost is sounding freshly in their ears. Doctrineis in the stage of simple tradition and autho-« Apoc. ii. 2, 10, 14.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.187The writings of the New Testament arecompleted, but being addressed to various partf the Church, are best known to those for whomthey were written. They are not yet collectedand made the common patrimony of the wholeChurch. S. John leaves the earth without performingany such function ; without setting theseal of his apostolical authority upon the NewTestament as a whole ; nay, the authorship ofsome of his own writings, as we now receivethem, will be partially contested after his deathbefore their final reception. Of the absolute num-ber of these Christian communities, and of themultitude they severally embrace, we have no account; we can*form no estimate, save to infer thatthe whole number of the faithful, at the end ofthis period, was very small in comparison with themass out of which they had been drawn. Stillit was a germ with a living force of expansion,ted in every considerable spot of the empire ;and wherever it was planted, a Christianin the full sense of the word, existed, having acomplete spiritual life of its own, possessing thesacraments which insured the beginning and thecontinuance of that life, an order of worship basedon the great central fact which made them apeople, and a ministry charged with the powerto teach and to convey on to their successors thedoctrines delivered * to them.But in the mean time how had the empire

188 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.treated it ? In these seventy years it has tra-versed the seven last years of the Emperor Tiberius,and the whole principates of Caligula, Claudius,and Nero ; the revolutionary crisis in whichGalba, Otho, and Vitellius reigned for an instant,and then the settled time of Vespasian, Titus, Do-mitian, and Nerva. Now, during this period itstreatment by the empire has been a singular reproductionof what passed in the hall of Pilate.For the Jewish religion was one allowed by Romanlaw. The profession of it entailed no penalty.Now the first heralds of the Gospel, asJews, preached their message boldly and publicly,and in doing so it does not seem that Romanlaw would have interfered with them.7 Atthis stage it looked uDon Christians as a sectJews. As no authority of the empire had interferedwith the public ministry of our Lord, so itwould seem to have left the ministry of His disciplesin the first instance free. It is from anotherquarter that opposition arises. The Jew in his jealousanger at the promulgation of a Messiah and aspiritual kingdom which is not after Jewish taste,both because it is a kingdom not of this world, andbecause it raises the Gentile to coinheritance withthe race of Abraham, drags the Christian mission-/ t>ary before the tribunal of the Roman magistrate7 This is what Tertullian calls " sub umbraculo insignissimse re-ligionis, certe licitas," Apolog. 21; and ad JVatioties, i. 11, "Nos quoqueut Judaicse religionis propinquos."

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.189and imputes to him "sedition." Then many aGallio, many a Felix, many a Festus have as itwere unwillingly to enter into and decide thesequestions of the Jewish law. It would seem thatconverts to the Christianfaith in these its earnestdays might long have escaped the notice of themagistrate, as belonging to a Jewish sect, but forthis enmity of the Jews themselves. But as theteachers of the new faith everywhere addressedthemselves first to their countrymen, so everywherethey found these countrymen alive to their progressand bitterly set against it.8 This state of thingsis pretty well expressed by that answer of theEoman Jews to S. Paul when he excuses himselfbefore them for having been compelled to appealto the Emperor Nero: " as concerning this sect,we know that it is spoken against everywhere."9This, however, was Jewish, not Koman, contradiction.So far as everywhere Jewish hatred and jealousycould malign and counterwork the progressof the Christian Faith, and bring suffering on itsteachers, it had been done. But nevertheless withthis exception it would seem that for thirty-fiveyears after the day of Pentecost that Faith hadbeen freely and publicly taught throughout theempire. It was through the malignity of his owncountrymen, stirring up a dangerous conspiracy8 See Justin Martyr, Dial. c. Tryph. 17, who speaks of the Jews asmsending everywhere deputies in order to defame Christians.9 Acts xxviii. 22.

190 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.against him, that S. Paul felt himself compelled to1 to the emperor, and the result of his appwas that he was set free. But in " the year 64 another state of things had arisen. The ruin olarge part of Rome by fire had brought a greatodium upon Nero. Now his wife Poppa3a is saidto have been a Jewish proselyte, he himself tohave been surrounded by Jewish influences, andnothing is more probable than that Jewish hatred,which had tracked the Christians everywhere, pursuedthem especially here, and suggested them tohim both as authors of the conflagration, and asconvenient scapegoats whereon to divert the odiumagainst himself which had arisen from it. Thushe took the opportunity of exposing to shame andtorment, as victims of the popular dislike, and inpopular opinion guilty of " hatred of the humanrace," or of being hated by them, "a vast multitude"10of Christians, who, says the heathen historian,were put to the most exquisite suffering,being wrapt in the skins of wild beasts, and tornto pieces by dogs, or crucified, or clothed in garmentsof pitch and set on fire to illuminate thenight. Thus it is, as decorations of Nero's games,in his gardens of the Vatican, where the obeliskfrom Heliopolis, once the ornament of his circus,now bears witness to the victory of Christ, thatChristians first come before us in the pages of Romanhistorians, just at the middle of the period10 Tacitus, Ann. xv. 44.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.191we are now describing, thirty-five years after theAscension.It may be considered part of this first persecutionthat the two great Apostles - Peter, who hadfounded the Koman Church, and Paul, who afterits first foundation had helped to build it upwere condemned in the last year of Nero, and byhis deputies11 during his absence, to suffer as Christians,the one the death of a Roman citizen by thesword, and the other that of a slave by crucifixion.Thus the two great brethren by enduring togetherthe martyr's death, the highest mark of Christiancharity, sealed their joint foundation of ChristianRome, that like as the Rome which had gainedthe conquest of the world by the strong hand ofviolence, had been planted in the blood of onebrother shed by another, so the Rome which wasto be the centre of Christ's kingdom, and in thewords of S. Ignatius " preside over charity," shoulds th n tlove pourng forth their blood together for theseat of that Christian unity which binds the earthnone.But this persecution by Nero is not transitoryin its consequences. The emperor had judged thatChristians as such professed a religion not allowedby the Roman laws, and were guilty therein of acapital crime. This crime, if technically expressed,11 'O UavXos, (j-aprvpTia-as eVi rwv ovrus TOV K6ff(j.ovS. Clem. Rom. ad Cor. 5.

192 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.would amount to sacrilege and treason ;12 for theycould not acknowledge the Roman gods as gods,nor the emperor as Pontifex Maximus; nor couldthey swear by his genius, which was the oath expressingfidelity to the Roman constitution in itscivil and religious aspect. This was that " hatredof the human race," that is, in other words, of theRoman empire, of which in the eyes of Tacitus andPliny, of Nero now and of Trajan afterwards, theywere guilty as Christians. But the singular thingis this, that the Jew, who was the first to dragthem before the Roman tribunal, who was theiromnipresent, ever-ready antagonist and traducer,though he worshipped one only God, though heabhorred the whole Roman polytheism, though heswore not by the genius of the emperor, was exemptfrom punishment: his religion was recognisedby Roman law and the senate its interpreter,because it was the national and time-honoured re-ligion of a constituent part of the empire. On thesame ground the vilest Egyptian, Asiatic, Africanidol was allowed the worship of those who claimedit as their ancestral god. The Christian Faith wasthe sole exception to this universal tolerance, becauseit was not the religion of a subject nation,because it was new, because, in fine, it rested onprinciples which, if carried out, would sweep away12 Tertull. Apol. 10. " Sacrilegii et majestatis rei convenimur: summahsec causa, immo tota est." Lassaulx says, " die beiden Hauptanklagen,die Religion-verachtung, die Majestats-beleidigung." Fall des Hellenis-mus, p. 11.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.193the whole fabric of polytheism on which the RomanState rested. And the act of Nero had its greatimportance in that it formally distinguished theChristian from the Jewish religion, and took awayfrom it by a legal decision of the State's highestr ty the claim to be considered " licitNero then bestows the crown of martyrdomS. Peter and S. Paul, / and on what Tacitus calls, /even within Rome alone, a vast multitude. Buthe does more than this. On the first appearanceof Christians before the supreme authority he soapplies an existing law to their case as to establishtheir liability under it to capital punishment, andthis liability rests upon them henceforth down tothe time of Constantine. It is by no means alwayscarried out; it is often suspended, sometimes formany years together, according to the character ofthe ruling prince, or the maxims of his government,or the state itself of the empire. But it ishenceforth the legal position of Christians. It isa danger which besets their condition, and may becalled into action at any moment, inwany city of theempire, from any motive of private enmity, cupidity,or passion. It is the legal Roman equivalentand interpretation of their Master's words," You shall be hated of all men for my name'ssake."13"How often, and in how manv instances, it wasd out in this period of seventy yII.13 Matt. x. 22 ; xxiv. 9.O

194 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYK CHURCHno means of telling; but another emperor is namedas a persecutor. Domitian not only put to deathas Christian his cousin, the Consul Flavius Clemens,but, as it would seem, a great many others atEome, in the latter years of his prineipate.14 Domitianand Nero are mentioned as persecutors byMelito when addressing Marcus Aurelius, and byTertullian,15 7 in the time of Severus, 7 though O it wasthe object of both to make the emperors appear tohave been not unfavourable to Christians. But,independent of any general act which would constitutean emperor a persecutor,16 this liability topunishment,17 in virtue of which the confessor ormartyr was brought before the local magistrates,was that under which individual Christians, inmost peaceful times, and in the reign of emperorsgenerally just and moderate, endured their sufferings.The Emperor Tiberius is said by Tertullianmn Kom. writin ust arter Domitian s timomj/es iroAA&f cu/aas KCU /3< £lysvovTo ez/ ^im>. -4^ dw, 6.15 Euseb. Hist. iv. 25; Tertull. 4/wZ. 5.16 In Tertullian's words, " debellator Ghristianorum," Apol.17 Thus a late Protestant writer, Schmidt (Geschichte der Denk- undGlaulemfreiheit, p. 165), remarks of the condition of Christians, " Voll-kornmen gewiss ist, dass unter Domitian eine neue Drangperiode fur dieChristen begann, die sich in Verfolgungen, in Hinrichtungen, und Ver-bamiungen ausserte. (Dio. 67, 14, und die Ausleger.) Damals soil auclider Apostel Johannes nach Pathmos verwiesen worden sein. Erst Nervaliiftete wiederum diesen Druck, indem er den Verhafteten die Freiheitgab, und die Verbannten zuriickberief. {Dio. 68, 1.) Es war dies al)erdoch nur als eine Amnestie^ als ein Gnadenact anziisehen^ nicht als eineAnerlicnnung der UnstrdfiichTieit^vie das schwanhende Verhalterides nichtwinder hochhcrzigen undfreisinnigeti Trajan zur Geniige darthut"wn

'THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 195to have brought before the senate a proposition toallow the Christian Faith as a lawful religion. Hadthis been done, the whole course of Christian historyin these three centuries wonchanged. As it was, every one, in becoming aChristian, accepted the chance thathereby be called upon to forfeit the possession ofwife, children, goods, every civil right, and lifeitself.The end of the reign of the first Antonine, inthe year 161, furnishes us with a second fittingepoch at which we may estimate the growth andposition in the empire of the Christian Faith.During the sixty years which elapse from thedeath of S. John to the accession of Marcus, ¥ theRoman empire is ruled by three sovereigns, whohave each left a fair name and a considerable renownbehind them, and who, compared with mostof those who preceded or who followed them, mayalmost be termed great. Trajan by his militarysuccesses raised to the highest point the credit ofthe Roman arms, by his moderation in civil governmenteffaced the remembrance of Dornitian'scruelties, and gave the Romans perhaps as muchliberty as they could bear. His successor Hadrian,onng great energy, administrative ability, andmoderation of his own to the fear and respect forthe Roman name, which the powerful arm of Trajanhad spread around, was able at once to exercisehis army with unwearied discipline, and to

196 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.maintain the empire at its full tide of power inhonourable peace, while Antoninus crowned theforty years of equable and generally just government-bestowedon the Roman world by Trajanand Hadrian-with a further happy period of morethan half that length, wherein the glory of the empiremay be said to have culminated. ImperialRome never saw again such a day of power, orsuch a prospect of security, as when Antoninuscelebrated the secular games at the completion ofnine hundred years ; and for ages afterwards hisname carried respect, and men looked back on hisreign as on an ideal period of happiness for thosewhom he ruled.One of the most competent observers of ourtime has marked the last ten years of the reign ofPius as the period at which the independent deve-lopment of Graco-Roman _ heathenism terminated,when it had exhaustedall the forms of its own in-"ward life, since the Neoplatonic philosophy whichis the only striking product of intelligence thatarises afterwards, is manifestly due to the antagonismwith Christianity, and is no pure offspringof the heathen spirit.18 From this time forthChristian influences become unmistakable in theiraction upon heathen thought and society. This,then, affords another reason why we should endeavourto trace the progress and extension which theChurch had reached at this point.18 Dollinger, Heidentkum und Judenthum. Vorwort, iv.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.197Now a contemporary of Antoninus declaresthat in his time, that is, about the year 150, therewas no race of men, ' either barbarians or Greeks,none even of Scthian nomads roaming in waggons,or of pastoral tribes dwelling in tents, amongwhom prayers and thanksgivings were not offeredto the Father and Creator of the universe in thename of the crucified Jesus.19 Thus, in aand twenty years the Church had outstripped thelimits of the empire. The germ which in the timeof S. John was rooted in the chief cities, hadspread out thence and increased, taking more andmore possession of the soil in all directions. Stillwe must consider the Christian Church in eachplace of its occupation as a small minority of thepeople : nor is there any reason to doubt the statementmade by Celsus, that at the period whenhe wrote, the middle of the second century, theChristian Faith counted few of the educated, distinuished,and rich amon its adherents ;20 forOrigen, in replying to him, alleges no specific exampleto the contrary. Yet, here too we mustconsider the t/ justice of Origen's c remark.21 thatthese classes are everywhere few in proportionto the poor and ignorant, and that Christianitybeing the day-star arising on every soul tookof all classes alike. "So much, then, as to the19 Justin, Dialog, with Tryphon, 117. Tertullian, 50 years later, adc.Judaos, 7, goes beyond this.20 Kellner, Ilellenismus und Christentlium, p. 85.21 Origen coat. Gels. i. 27.

198 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.Church's material extension: now as to its inter-nal growth.As this period opens, comrades of the Apostlesstill abound in the churches. We know of severalinstances wherein such persons hold eminent rank.At Koine, S. Clement is the third successor of S.Peter ; and S. Irenaaus,22 recording him as sucheighty years afterwards, specially notes that he hadseen and lived with Apostles, and had their preachingstill sounding in his ears, and their traditionbefore his eyes ; at Antioch, S. Ignatius, secondafter the same S. Peter ; in the See of JerusalemS. Simeon, the brother of James, still survives; atSmyrna, S. John's disciple Polykarp is bishop.Many more such S. Irenaeus declares that therewere. This would prepare us for the strengthwith which the principle of authority and traditionwas held, and show how completely the sense of aspiritual government, of cohesion, and continuity ofmoral life, and of a common doctrine and teaching,the foundation of these, prevailed. But we are notleft to inferences, we have the clearest statementson this point about fifteen years after S. John'sdeath. It has been remarked above how in theApocalypse our Lord himself, addressing the sevenchurches, gathers them up in their bishops, and22 Lib. iii. 3. *Eri svavXov rb K7]pvy/j.a T£>V ctTrooToAcoz/ Kal r}jv 7rapd8o(nv(/)0aA/xo?i> exa?j>, ou /i^z/os, en yap iro\\ol eVeAeiTrwro rJre airb ra>i> d?ro-GT&K&V SeSiScry^uez/ot: where ri» Kypvyfjia and ?j TrapaSotris T&V awo(rr6\o)y indicatethe whole body of truth which they communicated to the Church,whether written or unwritten.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.199speaks of them each collectively as of one person.In the year 116, as is supposed, Ignatius still afterforty-eight years bishop of one of the three greatmother churches, all of them Sees of Peter, andtypes and models of church government, whmissions went forth, and the layers of apostteaching were propagated, in his seven extantepistles conveys the same idea as that presentedby those divine words which S. John had heard invision, and was commanded to record, but withmuch greater detail. As he is being led to martyrdom,in the long transit between Antioch andRome, he pours forth the earnestness of one undersentence of death, glowing at the prospect of sheddinghis blood for Christ, and being for ever unitedwith Him. These letters remain as a sample ofnumberless conversations held with the deputationswhich came to meet him on his way, minglingtheir tears at his approaching passion withtheir exultation in his triumph. They are of onetissue throughout. Ignatius dwells with incessantrepetition upon union with God and with Christthrough obedience to the hierarchy of bishops,priests, and deacons, by maintenance of one faith,in one body of the Church, which is whereverChrist is.23 Let us take one instance from hisletter to the Ephesians. After saying that he had" received their whole multitude in the person ofOnesimus, their bishop," he continues : " It is23 B. Ign. ad Smyrn, 1 and 8.

200 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCHthen, fitting that you should by all means glorifyJesus Christ who has glorified you; that by a uniformobedience you may be perfectly joined togetherin the same mind and in the same judgment,and may all speak alike concerning everything,and that being subject to the bishop andthe presbytery, you may be altogether sanctified.am not giving you commands, as if I were anyone; for, though I am in bonds for His name, Iam not yet perfected in Jesus Christ. For now Ibegin to learn, and I speak to you as my fellow-disciples, for I had need to be encouraged by youin faith, exhortation, endurance, long-suffering.But since charity suffers me not to be silent toyou, I have taken on me to exhort you to runtogether all with the mind of God. For JesusChrist, your inseparable life, is the mind of theFather, as also the bishops, placed in their severallimits, are the mind of Jesus Christ. Thereforeyou should run together with the bishop's mind,as indeed you do. So then in your concord andharmonious charity Jesus Christ is sung. Andeach several one of you makes up the chorus ; sothat all being harmonious in concord, you take upthe melody in unity, and sing with one voicethrough Jesus Christ to the Father, that He mayhear you, and perceive by your good works thatyou are members of His Son. It is good for youthen to be in blameless unity, that you may alwayshave fellowship with God." And then he adds:

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.201For if I in a short time have had such familiaritywith your bishop, and that not htual, how much more should I think you happy,who are so fused with him as the Church withJesus Christ, and as Jesus Christ with the Father,that " all things may be accordant in unity. "24This is an incidental passage out of a veryshort letter, in which the speaker is addressingpractical exhortations to the people of a greatchurch, founded by S. Paul about sixty years before,dwelt in by S. John up to about fifteen yearsof the time at which he was speaking. We shouldnot in such a writing expect S. Ignatius to spealwith the scientific correctness of a theologian, noris he completely exhibiting his subject in a treatise; yet here, as it were at the first moment afterthe Apostles have left the earth, we have a pictureof the Church as a world-wide institution, held togetherby a divine unity, which has its seat in thePerson of Christ as the mind of the Father. Itis a composite unity which is contemplated in theimage of a harp with its strings pouring forth one*song-the song of Christ-to the Father. It is aunity wide as the earth ; for the bishops, placedin their several limits, constitute the mind ofChrist, who is Himself the Father's mind. It isthe unity of the diocese, for it is summed up inthe bishop : but it is the unity likewise of thewhole Church, for the bishops are linked together24 S. Ignat. ad Epltes. i.-iv.

202 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR, CHURCHin One whose mind they collectively represent,and that One is He from whose Person their authorityradiates; in "whom, as he says in this sameletter, " the old kingdom was being destroyed, Godappearing j in the form of a man, unto the newnessof eternal life."25 Again, it is not merely an outwardunity of government, but an inward unity ofthe truth held in common, and also held as givenby authority: not truth, as a result of the curiosityof the human intellect, rather truth, as aparticipation in the mind of Christ. Thus theCatholic unity of government is at the same time aunity of belief, which two unities are not, in fact,separable, for their principle is one in the Personof Christ, in respect of whom submission to theRuler is one and the same thing with belief in thetruth revealed by Him, who is King no less thanWord, Word no less than King.We have, then, here the principle of authorityand tradition as seated in the hierarchy, and at thesame time the whole order and unity of the Churchas girdling the world by its chain of the Episcopate,and as possessing the truth and exhibiting itin its quality of an institution. It is before us andat work in its succession of men, in its sacramentswhich they administer,26its truth which is im-25 Ad, Eplies. xix.26 Another point on which S. Ignatius dwells repeatedly is the receivingthe flesh of Christ in the Eucharist: thus he says of the heterodox,ad S-myrn. 6: " They abstain from the Eucharist and prayer,because they do not confess that the Eucharist is that flesh of our

.RTYR CHURCH.203parted by the one and delivered by the other. Itis no vague congeries of opinions held by individualswith the diversity of individuals, but abody strongly organised, and possessing an imperishablelife, the life of its Author. And we haveall this mentioned as fulfilled at the distance ofone life from our Lord's ascension, while indeedhis kinsman and elder in age, S. Simeon, is stillbishop of Jerusalem, and mentioned by one ofwhom a beautiful though insufficiently groundedlegend says that he was that child whom our Lordhad called and placed before His disciples as themodel of those who should enter into His kingdom.He was at least so near in time to Christ that thiscould be said of him. He is the bishop of Antioch;he is on his way !/ to be thrown to the beasts in theColosseum at Rome ;27 he is welcomed on his wayby church after church, and he sees and describesthe bishops, in their several boundaries throughthe earth, as each maintaining the mind of Christin the unity of his Body.Such is the Church merely stated as a facttowards the beginning of the second century.And the trial which in these sixty years theSaviour Jesus Christ which suffered for our sins, which in His goodnessthe Father raised."27 He says, ad Bom. ii. : tfOri T^V eVuncoTiw Supfow o Qsbsis Svcru/ airk avaro\ris Hist. C. Ixv,are at a loss to accountsent to suffer martyrdom at Rome."for the bishopyromexample, and the Bishop of Rome, S. Alexander, was at this time inmm

204 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.Church was going through was well calculated totest her constitution. It is against the"spread offalse doctrine that S. Ignatius in these epistles soconstantly appeals to the unity of the faithfulamong each other.28 He warns them to use onlv »/Christian nourishment, and to abstain from strangefood, which is heresy.29 The Church was thencontinually receiving into her bosom converts atall ages of life, some from the Jews, many morefrom the Gentiles ; among these, therefore, mindsbrought up in Jewish prejudices, and others whichhad run havoc in eastern superstitions anterns of philosophy. In the course of these sixtyyears she probably multiplied many times over innumber ; and the multiplication was rather bythe accession of adults than by the education ofchildren born of Christian parents. "^^ The Churchwas composed of a small minority of the generalpopulation scattered at wide intervals over an immenseempire ; and, so far from being assisted bythe civil power, was under constant persecutionfrom it. Whatever force her spiritual governmentpossessed could be exercised only by the voluntarysubmission of her members. Let us weigh the factthat, under these circumstances, a number of here-sies arose. Some were of Jewish, some of Gentileparentage. But we are not here concerned eitherwith their cause or with their matter: we dwell atpresent only on the fact of their existence. In28 See Epist. ad Magnes. 13. 29 Ad Trail. 6.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.205mber they were many ; in character most dverse; they arose and flourished in different placesHardly anywhere was the Church free from themLet us ask only one question here: by what powerwere they resisted ? The human mind had thenthe fullest liberty of action in Christians. It wasby a free choice-a choice accompanied with danger,o ' and persisted 1 in through " suffering-that cj menbecame Christians. The liberty which men exercisedin becoming Christians they could use furtheragainst Christian doctrine, by innovating ; bymixing it up with other doctrines, with which,perhaps, their minds had been familiar beforetheir conversion; by developing it after their ownfashion. The desire of fame, the self-will of genius,the mere luxury of thought, would offer a continualtemptation to such a course. Many, fromone motive or another, fell into it. The questionwhich we repeat is, what power prevented the oneChurch from breaking up under this process offree thought into fragments? These heresies beganeven while the Apostles were teaching. S.Peter, S. Paul, and S. John speak strongly againstthem. They swarm in the two generations succeedingthe death of S. John. How is it that, athe accession of Marcus Aurelius, Christians ha\ing passed the limits of the empire, and beingfound so far as the wandering tribes of the north,there is still one Church, surrounded, indeed, bya multitude of sects, differing from her and from

206 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.each other, but herself distinguished and unmistakableamong them all ? We think the epistlesof S. Ignatius furnish us with a reply to this ques-tion. As we have seen above, he views the Churchin each place as a community closely bound togetherunder a spiritual government which issummed up in the bishop, while the bishops intheir several dioceses are as closely linked toeach other, and all form one society, wherein isJesus Christ. And these two truths are not separatedIfrom each other, but the unity of thepart is deduced from the unity of the whole, andis subordinate to it. See, first, with what forcehe states the unity of the diocese.30 " Avoid divisions,as the beginning of evils. Follow all ofyou the bishop as Jesus Christ the Father, andthe presbytery as the Apostles, and reverence thedeacons as God's command. Let no one withoutthe bishop do aught of what appertains to theChurch. Let that be deemed a sure Eucharistwhich is under the bishop, or under him"whohas the bishop's authority for it. Wherever thebishop appears, there let the multitude (of thefaithful) be." But this strict unity of the dioceseis derived from that of the whole Church ; ffor he adds as the reason of the foregoing, "justas wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the CatholicChurch."31 This is the first time when the word30 Ad Smyrn. vii.31 Compare with this expression of S. Ignatius that of the Church of

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.207catholic" is known to be used, and it is appliedto the Church as its distinctive character, to con-r o attributes of unity and universalityin connection with the Person of Christ, exactlyas it has been used, an unique term for an uniqueobject, from that day to this. S. Ignatius furtherviews the Church in each place as having onefaith ; and not only so, but the same faith inevery place; one faith at Antioch, one at Rome,one at every city between them, beyond them,around them. Here, then, is a double unity, in-ward and outward. As the double unity of bodyand spirit makes the man, so the double unity ofgovernment and of faith makes the Church. Asneither mind nor body alone make the man, soneither faith nor government alone make theChurch, but the coherence of both. The Incar-nation is the joining a human soul and body withthe Person of the Divine Word ; after which patternthe Church, which is His special creation, isthe joining of one faith and one government ina moral unity. It is by this force, by the samehierarchy everywhere guarding the same faith, bythe principle of authority and tradition planted inthis one living organisation throughout the earth,that the attacks of heresy are everywhere resisted.*Polycarp, fifty " years -fc later, A describing K how after his martyrdom, ^^ r aw ro?sATRxrroAoiS Kal 7ra

208 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.What S. Paul32 lays down in dogma, history exhibitsin fact. A hundred years after his wordare written, the Church has stretched her limitsbeyond the empire, has multiplied incessantly, hasbeen attacked by a crowd of heresies striving toadulterate her doctrine, and has cast them out ofher by this double unity of her faith and her government,and so is one Body and one Spirit. Hervictory lies not in being without heresies, but instanding among them as a contrast and a condemnation.The solidity of internal organisation, and thedefiniteness of the One Faith which animated it,kept pace with the material increase of numbers.At the expiration of this period it is probable thatamong all the contemporaries and immediate disciplesof the Apostles one only of high rank remained,that Polykarp, joint-hearer with Ignatiusof S. John, and to whom in his passage the martyraddressed a letter as well as to his Church ; whoseown letter written at the time of the martr's combat,and commemorating the wonderful patiencetherein shown forth, is yet extant. But in themean time in every Church the transmission of authoritativeteaching passed to those who had grownup themselves in the bishop's council - his presbytery,which Ignatius loved to represent as beingto each bishop what the Council of Apostles was totheir Lord. And as the death of Apostles them-32 Ephes. iv. 4-1G.

THE FIRST AGE OE THE MARTYR CHURCH.209selves had caused no break in this living chain, sothe gradual departure of their immediatwas made up by the careful handing-on of thsame deposit, lodged securely in its receptacle, thesuccession of men, which carried on the teachingoffice of the Church.33In the mean time, what was the attitude ofthe empire to the Christian Faith under Trajan,Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius ? Domitian's reignhad ended in active persecution, to which Nervahad put a stop on his accession.34 But thoughDomitian's edicts had been reversed, like thoseof Nero, one of the most ancient laws of the Romanempire forbad the worship of any god notapproved by «/ the Senate.35 This, / as we have saidabove, was the sword perpetually suspended overthe heads of Christians, without any fresh actionon the part of the emperors. By virtue of this,even when it was forbidden to accuse them, yet ifthey were brought before justice it was forbiddento absolve them.36 And even senators,37 if accused,33 See Eusebius, Hist. iii. 37, who speaks exactly in this sense; andan important passage in Dollinger, Kallistus und Hippolytus, 338-343,on the force of the word irpeafivrepos, as Ecclesias Doctor, one particularlycharged with the magisterium veritatis. See also Hagemann, die Rthislaw.Ecc.E.ILILHist. \. 21, ' assert the existence » of37 See the singular instance given by Euseb. v. 21, in the reign ofCommodus. An informer accuses Apollonius of being a Christian, ata time when the imperial laws made such an accusation a capitaloffence. The accuser is put to death; but Apollonius. who is supposedII.P

210 THE FIEST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.were not exempt from this severity. We findTrajan acting upon this law in the year 111, whenPliny, being governor of Bithynia, brings expresslycase of the Christians before him. And theterms in which he does this show at once the temperof the Roman magistrate in such cases and thestateof the law.have never been present," he says, "atthe trials of Christians, and therefore do not knoweither the nature of their crime, or the degree ofthe punishment, or how far examination should go.And I have been in great hesitation whether agemade any difference, or the tender should not bedistinguished from the strong; whether they shouldbe pardoned upon repentance, or, when once a manhad been a Christian, ceasing to be so should notprofit him; or whether the mere profession withoutany crime, or whether the crimes involved in theprofession should be punished. In the mean time,with regard to those brought before me as Christians,my practice has been this : I asked them ifthey were Christians. If they admitted it, I putthe question a second and a third time, threateningthem with death. If they persevered, I orderedthem to be led away to execution.38 For whateverto have been a senator, having m;Senate, suffers martyrdom.38 Duel jussi (confer Acts xii. 19, The extremebrevity with which the most urbane, kind-hearted, and accomplished ofmen as Mr. Merivale conceives himhaving ordered a number of men and women to be put to death for theprofession of Christianity, is remarkable and significant. Compare it

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 211it was which they were confessing, I had no doubtthat stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy deservedpunishment. There were others of a like infatuation,but as being Roman citizens I directed themto be sent to the city. Presently the crime spreading.' from being1 O under prosecution, i ' as is usual , iseveral incidents happened. An anonymous delationwas sent in to me, containing the names ofmany who say that they are not Christians, norever were. As at my instance they invoked m thegods, and made supplication with frankincense andwine to your image, which I had ordered for thatpurpose to be brought, together with the statuesof the gods, and as moreover they reviled Christ,none of which things, it is said, real Christians canbe induced to do, I thought they might be let go.Others, being accused by a witness, admitted thatthey were Christians, and presently said "that theyhad been, some three years before, some manyyears, and some even twenty, but were no longer.All venerated your image and the statues of thegods, and reviled Christ. But they alleged thatthe utmost of their fault or error was this : Theywere accustomed to meet before dawn on a statedday, and addressed themselves in a certain formwith the bearing of his friend Trajan to S. Ignatius below. As soon asthe saint's confession of " bearing the Crucified in his heart" is specific,Trajan without a word of remark orders his execution. The " ducinn"and bear witness to each other's authenticity. So later the like tone"^ *^^"MJustin Mkrtyr, as will be seen further on.

212 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.to Christ + as to a god, binding themselves by oathnot to any crime, but not to commit theft, robbery,adultery, the breaking of their word, or the refusalto restore a deposit. After this they were wont toseparate, and then reassemble to take a commonand harmless meal. This, however, they had ceasedto do from the publication of my edict forbidding,according to your command, private assemblies.therefore thought it the more necessary to examineinto the truth by putting to the torture twofemale slaves, who were said to be deaconessesamong them. I found, however, nothing but aperverse and immoderate superstition, and so, adjourningthe inquiry, I took refuge in consultingyou. For the matter seemed to me worthy of consultation,specially on account of the number ofthose involved in danger. For many of every age,every rank, both sexes, have been already, andwill be endangered, since the contagion of this superstitionhas spread not only through cities butthrough villages and country. And it seems capableof being arrested and corrected. At all eventsthere is proof that the almost deserted templeshave begun to be frequented, and the long intermittedrites renewed, and victims for sacrificeare found ready, whereof hitherto there were veryfew purchasers. Hence it is easy to form an opi-what a number of persons may be redon be allowed." 3939 Pliny, Ep. x. 97, chiefly Melmoth's translation.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.213To which the emperor replies : u You havepursued the right course, my dear Secundus, inexamining the causes of those delated to, you asChristians. For no universal rule can be laiddown in a certain formula. They are not to besearched after; but if brought before you and convicted,they must be punished. Yet with this condition,that whoever denies himself to be a Christian,and makes it plain in fact, that is, by supplieatingour gods, though he has been in past timesuspected, shall obtain pardon for his repentance.^^^^^^^^ But anonymous delations must not be admitted forany accusation. This is at once the very worstprecedent, and unworthy of our time."A great difficulty in tracing the progress of theChristian Faith in these three centuries is that wepossess nothing like a consecutive secular or religioushistory of them. We only catch glimpses ofwhat passes at intervals. Incidents are recordedwhich, like a flash of lightning, suddenly reveal thelandscape and the actors. Such an incident is thisletter of Pliny to Trajan, and his reply. We havehere the governor of a province before whom Chris-tians are brought as criminals. We find that ifthey acknowledge their faith and persist in pro-fessing it, he sentences them to death. But embarrassedby their numbers, and perplexed also bythe fact, that, save the profession of their faith,there appeared nothing criminal in their conduct,he refers the matter to the emperor. The em-

214 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.peror, no Nero or Domitian, but one renowned forhis justice and moderation, praises what the governorhas done ; pronounces that Christians as suchare guilty of a capital crime, and that Pliny wasright in so interpreting the existing law; that,however, it is not desirable to seek them out;that even when brought before justice they are tobe released if they deny their faith, but that if theypersist in it, they are to be punished with death.Here, then, is the law - an original law ofEome before the Christian Faith began-underwhich the martyrs suffered at different times,throughout every province and city, without anythingwhich could be called a general persecutionon the part of the emperor directed to the destructionof the whole religion. This perpetual liabilityto punishment might be called into action anywherein the empire for various causes. The firstin time, and one of the most constant, was the enmityof the Jews; then the dislike of the heathensto Christians and their ways, which was furthsharpened by local calamities or distress irritatingthe mind of the population, or by the jthe heathen priests and worshippers at the desertionof their temples. Then, again, there was theascription to Christian godlessness, as it was called,that is their refusal to acknowledge the Komangods, of famines, pestilences, and whatever troubledthe popular mind. To these we must add acopious harvest of private grudges, and a host of

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.215calumnies, which seem now almost grotesque, butthen found wide belief. But it was the existenceof such * a law as this, acted on by Pliny before hereferred to the emperor, and confirmed by Trajan, *that gave force and effect to all these causes ofpersecution. And it would appear that when Christianswere brought before the magistrates, as guiltyof the Christian Faith, it was not in the magistrates'power to decline hearing the case, any morethan any other accusation of sacrilege or treason,for it had been determined that Christians were nota mere Jewish sect, and therefore could not in securityworship one God, as the Jews did. It was aruled point that their worship was unauthorised.The practice of Trajan himself was in accordancewith his answer to Pliny.The very ancient and genuine acts of the marrdomof S. Ignatius O state that having o struledwith difficulty through the persecution of Domi-tian, he had carefully governed his church of An-tioch, grieving only that he had not yet reachedthe rank of a perfect disciple by the sacrifice of hislife, for he considered that the confession which ismade by martyrdom brings into closer union withthe Lord. Trajan then havin -*- * V^ E _*-A \^\ff^/ V^»ton at te victories whichgained, and considering that the subjugation of theChristians was all that was wanting to the perfectobedience of his empire, began to threaten themwith the alternative of sacrifice or death. ThenO

216 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.natius fearing for his church caused himself to bebrought before the emperor, and being in the presencewas thus addressed by him. " Who are you,evil spirit, who are zealous to transgress our commands,besides persuading others to come to anevil end?" Ignatius replied, "No one calls thebearer of God an evil spirit, for the demons flyaway from the servants of God. But if you meanthat I am a trouble to these, and so call me evil tothem, I admit it, for having Christ my HeavenlyKing, I continually dissolve their plots." Trajansaid, "Who is a bearer of God?" Ignatius replied," He who has Christ in his breast." Trajan said," We then appear to you not to have gods in ourminds, whom we use to help us against our enemies."Ignatius answered, " You in your errorcall gods the demons of the nations, for there is oneGod who made the heaven, » the v^AXw' earth, x^i^v-i. U.A.JL* and w*&..i.Vsi. the ^-LLV/ sea KJV^t^V*and all that is in them; and one Christ Jesus, theonly-begotten Son of God, of whose friendship mayI partake.'7 Trajan said, " You mean him whowas crucified under Pontius Pilate V" Ignatius answered," Him who crucifies my sin, with its inventor,' and condemns ah1 the error and the maliceof the demons under the feet of those who carryhim in their heart." Trajan said, " You then carrythe Crucified in your heart?" Ignatius replied," Yes; for it is written, I will dwell in them, andwalk in them." Trajan gave sentence: " It is ourcommand that Ignatius, who says that he carries

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.217the crucified one about in him, be taken in chainsby soldiers to the great Eome to become the foodof wild beasts, for the pleasure of the people." Theholy martyr, when he heard this sentence, criedout with joy, "I thank Thee, 0 Lord, who hastthought me worthy to be honoured with perfectcharity towards Thee, and to be bound in ironchains together with Thy Apostle Paul."39So, with great eagerness and joy, through desireof his passion, having commended his churchto God, he set out on that long journey, "fighting,as he says, with wild beasts all the way from Syriato Rome, over land and sea, by day and by night,"a captive under sentence of death, in the handsof soldiers, but receiving at each city a deputationfrom the bishop and people, who came forth tohonour him as their champion. And he has butone anxiety, expressed again and again in thatfervent letter to the Roman Christians, that theyshould not by their prayers intercept his martyrdom.u I entreat you not to be untimely kind tome. Suffer me to be the food of the beasts, sinceby them I may enjoy God. I am God's grain: letme be ground by their teeth, that I may be foundthe pure bread of Christ:"40 and then, presently," I do not command you, as Peter and Paul;" thusgiving an incidental but most powerful witnessthe special relation which those Apostlthe Roman Churc39 Acts of S. Ignatius, Ruinart, pp. 8, 9. 40 Ad Rom. iv.

218 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCHAnd it may be remarked that while he haswords of honour, praise, and affection for the otherfive churches which he addresses, yet in speakingof Rome his heart overflows with emotion. Uponthis church he pours out epithet upon epithet, as" the beloved and enlightened in the will of Himwho has willed all things which are according tothe charity of Jesus Christ our God," whose peopleare " united to every command of His in fleshand spirit, filled undividedly with the grace of God,and thoroughly cleansed from every spot of foreigndoctrine." She is not only the Church "which presidesin the fortress of Roman power," but likewise," worthy of God, and of all honour and blessingand praise, worthy to receive that which she wishes,chaste, bearing the name of Christ and the name ofthe Father, and presiding over charity." What isthe meaning of this last phrase ? As she presidesin the fortress of Roman power, so she presidesover charity. May we thus interpret the mindof the martyr ? God in His Triune Being is Charity; the Holy Spirit, the ineffable embrace of theFather and His Image, their Love, or Delight, orJoy, or Blessedness, or whatever human name wemay dare to give to what is most divine, is charity:by charity God became man; charity is the individualChristian's state; charity makes men one inthe Body of the God-man; charity is the conditionof angels and men in the great kingdom to come,the God-formed kingdom. Thus charity is the dis-

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.219tinctive mark of the Christian religion, that fromwhich it springs, that which it is, that which itpoints to, and in which it will be consummated.When, then, S. Ignatius said of the Roman Church "using1 o the same word in one sentence,41 " that as shepresided over the country of the Romans, so shepresided over charity, does he not with equal delicacyand emphasis indicate her primacy ? she presidesover that in which the Unity of the Churchconsists, in which its truth, its grace, and its holinesscoinhere.The desire of the martyr was accomplished :he reached Rome on the last day of the great:ames, and was thrown in the Colosseum beforethe beasts, which, " according to his repeatedprayers, so entirely devoured him that only thegreater bones remained. These, says the contemporaryaccount, " a priceless treasure," werecarried back to Antioch. Somewhat less thanthree hundred years afterwards S. Chrysosting on his day in his city, thus speaks chim : "It was a divine benefaction to bring' himback again to us, and to distribute the martyr t(the cit ome received his dripping bloodt you are honoured with his relics. - From thattime he enriches your city, and like a erettreasure, drawn upon every day and never fail, es s ount t ppy41 'EKKAfjcriq- '-ffris Kal 7rpo/ca07/Tat eV T(hra> x«"ptou 'Pw/xauw/-iroKaO^fjif** * tT7)S

220 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.natius, blessing all that come to him, sends themhome full of confidence, bold resolution, and fortitude.Not, then, to-day only but every day goto him, reaping spiritual fruits from him. For,indeed, he who comes hither with faith may reapgreat goods. Not the bodies only, but the verycoffins of the saints are full of spiritual grace.For if in the case of Eliseus this happened, andthe dead man who touched his bier broke throughthe bonds of death, how muchmore now. when7 7grace is more abundant, and the energy of theSpirit fuller ?-So, I beseech you, if any one be indespondency, in sickness, in the depth of sin, inany circumstance of life, to come here with faith ,and he will put off all these. "42Before S. Ignatius reached that completion ofhis faith to which he aspired, he was cheered withthe account that his sacrifice had produced itseffect, and peace had been restored to his church ,with the completeness of its body. 43Now in all this-in Pliny's conduct as governor ,in his reference to Trajan, in the emperor's reply,in his treatment of S. Ignatius, and in the restorationof peace afterwards-there is, we conceive, a42 S. Chrysostom, Horn, on S. Ignatius, torn. ii. 600.43 S. Ignatius in the llth sec. of his epistle to the Smyrnseans requeststhem to send a messenger to congratulate the church of Antioch,on elp7iv¬vov(TW, Kal airiAaftov *rb tSiov jJieyaOos, aTroKarecrrddr] avrois rb ISio. The word craven- elbv, or corpusculum, indicates the completenessof a diocesan church with its bishop, the whole Church beingXpioroD, as S. Ignatius had said in sec. 1 of the same epistle, eV tvle/ocA7jo*ia$ avTov.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.221very exact sample of what the position of Christianswas in Trajan's time. His answer ruled thequestion of Eoman law for the following two hundredyears. It declared the profession of Christianityto be illicit and a capital offence; but to callthis law into action, or to leave it suspended as athreat over the heads of Christians, was a matterof expedience. When the latter took place, thechurches were said to be at peace; when the former,a persecution was said to rage; but at any timeand place an individual might suffer; while on theother hand a persecution directed to root out thewhole Christian name was not yet thought of.And this state of things seems to continuethrough Hadrian's principate. In his first year,Alexander, fifth successor of S. Peter at Eome,having been imprisoned under Trajan, suffersmartyrdom. It would seem as if the same handhad struck down about the same time the headsof the two great churches of Eome and Antioch,the first and the third in rank, and perhapsordered the execution of the bishop of Antioch atEome, with that of the Eoman bishop, in order togive greater force to the example.44 Many othermartyrs at Eome and in the north of Italy arefound at this time. It is not at all necessary tosuppose the personal action of Hadrian in these.44 There is some doubt about the time of S. Ignatius's martyrdom.We suppose it to be at the end of Trajan's reign. S. Alexander I. ismartyr, and placed in the canon of the Mass next afternST. MARY S

222 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.After this he was engaged during fifteen years inthose splendid progresses, in which he examinedpersonally every part of his vast empire, from itsnorthern frontier between Carlisle and Newcastleto the Euphrates. While he was so engaged, thegovernors of the various provinces would applythe existing law in the cases brought before them.He would have had to interfere, and that withthe whole weight of the imperial arm, if he wishedto check the course of the law. We have, however,recorded the most interesting fact that when hewas at Athens in the year 126, Christians for thefirst time approached a Roman emperor with apublic defence of their doctrines, and a persecutionis said to have been stopped by the apologieswhich Quadratus and Aristides presented to him.Perhaps the rescript to Minucius Fundanus, proconsulof the province of Asia, which Justin haspreserved, was a result of this. It runs thus:" I have received the letter written to me by yourpredecessor, the noble Serenius Granianus. Andindeed it seems to me that that affair should notbe passed by without a diligent examination, inorder that Christians may not be disturbed, noran occasion of false accusation be opened to informers.If, then, the provincials can presentthemselves openly with their petitions againstChristians, so as to answer before the tribunal,let them do that, and not betake themselves tomere requests and outcries. It would be much

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.223more just that you should take cognisance of thematter, . if _JL JL, anv *_^ Ju_J- J one \^ JLJk V-/ be r^ ^-* willing ¥ "*i**"*-"*-^^to *^-r accuse. *-*»* ^"^ "*^ vfcf^ ^-r 9 If, j*_ .*". m then v "" x^ j*. "any one denounce them, and prove that thedoing anything illegal, sentence them accordingo the gravity of the crime. But, by Hercules, ift be a mere false accusation, punish the informeraccording to its importance."Here would seem to be a considerable modificationof Trajan's rescript. The profession ofChristianity is not taken by itself as a capital offence.Proof must be sriven that something illegalhas been committed. So far it approaches to anact of toleration. It plainly discourages anonymousand malicious attacks. But on the other handit was not difficult to show that Christians didcommit something illegal. Any real accuser bringingthem before the tribunal could prove by theirown testimony that they declared the gods worshippedby the Romans to be demons, while theyrefused to swear by the emperor's genius. Thus,favourable as this decree was to them, it fell farshort of declaring O their reliion to be allowable.And the same emperor who could thus write,whose curiosity made him acquainted with all thereligious sects of his empire, whose temper, as anexceedingly accomplished man, having the widestexperience of men and things, and ruling an empireof the most diverse races with the most variousreligions, led him to an eclectic indifference,and so far toleration of all, yet showed by his per-

224 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.sonal conduct at a later period of his life how hewould treat the profession of the Christian Faithif it thwarted a ruling desire. When, after fifteenyears of incessant travel, study, and observation,he returned to Rome, and had enclosed at Tivolia space of eight miles in circumference, adornedwith copies of the most beautiful temples in hiswide dominion, he offered sacrifices and consultedthe gods as to the duration of his work ; but hereceived for answer that the gods who inhabitedtheir images were tormented by the prayers whichthe widow Symphoros and her seven sons offereddaily to their God.45 If she and her childrenwould sacrifice, they promised to grant all his demands.Upon this Hadrian ordered Symphorosaand her seven sons to be brought before him, andendeavoured by kind words to bring them to sacrifice.She replied, "It was for not consentingto what you ask that my husband Ga3tulius andhis brother Amantius, both tribunes in yourarmy, suffered various tortures, and, like generouschampions, overcame your demons by aglorious death. If their death was shameful beforemen, it was honourable in the sight of the45 So the persecution of Diocletian is said to have arisen from Apollodeclaring that the just who were upon the earth prevented him fromuttering true oracles ; and a like answer was received hy Julian theApostate at Antioch, where the relics of S. Babylas had been translatedby Gallus to Daphne, near a celebrated temple of Apollo. Here Julian,offering in rain a great number of sacrifices to the demon, was at lengthinformed that the body of the saint condemned him to silence, andordered the Christians to remove it. S. Chrys. torn. ii. 560.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.225angels, and now they are crowned with immortallight. They live in heaven, and follow everywherethe Kinor " who VY AAVy reigns X V-/AV! AAkJ there, u.i_i.vy-i- v->« covered withglory by the trophies they have gained in dyingfor Him." Hadrian, stung by this reply, couldnot contain himself, but said : " Either sacrificethis instant to the immortal gods, or I will myselfsacrifice you with your children to these godswhom you despise." " And how should I be sohappy," said Symphorosa, "as to be worthy withhildren to be sacrificed to my God ?" "tell you," said Hadrian, " I will have you sacrificedto my gods." "Your gods," replied she," cannot receive me in sacrifice. I am not a vie-tim for them ; but if you order me to be burntfor the name of Christ my God, know that thefire which consumes me will only increase theirpunishment." " Choose, I tell you," said the emperor; u sacrifice or die." " You think, doubtless,to frighten me," rejoined Symphorosa; "butdesire to be at rest with my husband, whom youput to death for the name of Christ." Then theemperor ordered her to be taken before the templeof Hercules, to be struck in the face, and hung upby her hair. But finding that these torments onlyserved to strengthen her in the faith, he had herthrown into the Anio. Her brother Euenius, /being one of the chief men at Tibur, drew hebody from the water, and buried her in the suburbsof the town.n. Q

226 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MAHTYR CHURCH.The next day Hadrian ordered the seven sonsof Symphorosa to be brought before him. And,seeing that neither his threats nor his promises,nor the exhibition of the most fearful punishments,could shake their constancy, nor inducethem to sacrifice to idols, he caused seven polesto be planted round the temple of Hercules, onwhich they were raised by pulleys. Then Cre-scentius, the eldest, had his throat cut; Julian,the second, was run through the breast; Neme-sius was struck in the heart; Primitivus in thestomach; Justin in the back; Stacta3us in theside ; while the youngest, Eugenius, was cleft to_the middle.The day following the death of these brethrenHadrian came to the temple and ordered theirbodies to be removed, and to be cast into a deephole. The priests and sacrificers of the templecalled this spot the place of the Seven Executed.Their blood stopped the persecution, which wasonly rekindled eighteen months afterwards.46As the rescript to Minucius Fundanus did notprevent the emperor from thus acting, neither wasit an obstacle to such an incident as this occurringin any part of the empire.That it was so likewise in the principate of hissuccessor, of all down to this period the most tranquiland the least persecuting, we have strong andclear evidence in the earliest of the extant apolo-46 Acts of S. Symphorosa, from Dom Ruinart, pp. 23-4.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.227gies, that of Justin Martyr, presented to the emperorAntoninus Pius about the year 150. Hewho would breathe the atmosphere in which theearly Christians lived will find it in this work ofa distinguished convert from heathen philosophy,which is the more interesting as being composedat a moment when the empire seems to havereached its highest point, and the ruler of it wasits most moderate spirit. We may cite a few pass-ges bearing on the condition of Christians.e Emperor Titus JElius Adrianus AntoninusPius Augustus Caesar, and to his sonYerissimus the Philosopher, and to Lucius thePhilosopher, son of Ccesar by birth, and of Piusby adoption, the lover of learning, and to thesacred Senate, and to all the Roman people, inbehalf of those out of every race of men who areunjustly hated and persecuted, I, that am one ofsuch myself, Justin, son of Priscus, and grandsonof Baccheius, natives of Flavia Neapolis, of Palestine,in Syria, offer this address and supplication."Reason dictates that those who are reallypious and philosophers should love and honourtruth alone, declining to follow the opinions ofthe ancients if they be corrupt. For right reasonnot only forbids us to assent to those who areunjust either in practice or in principle, but commandsthe lover of truth to choos tha whijust in word and deed in every way, even beforehis own life, and with death threatening him.

228 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.Now you hear yourselves called on all sidesPious, Philosophers, Guardians of Justice, andLovers of Learning ; but, whether you be suchin truth, the event will show. For we havecome before you, not to flatter you in this address,nor to gain your favour, but to demand ofyou to pass judgment according to strict and well-weighed reason, not influenced by prejudice, norby the desire of pleasing superstitious men, norby inconsiderate passion, nor by the long prevalenceof an evil report, in giving a sentence whichwould turn against yourselves. For, as to us, weare fully persuaded that we can suffer no injuryfrom anyone, unless we be found guilty of somewickedness, or proved to be bad men; and, as toyou, kill us you may, but hurt us you cannot. 47" We ask, then, that the actions of those whoare accused before you may be examined, that hewho is convicted may be punished as an evildoer,but not as a Christian. And, if anyone appearsto be innocent, that he may be dismissed as aChristian who has done no evil. For we do notrequire you to punish our accusers: they are sufficientlyrecompensed by their own malice, andtheir ignorance of what is good. Moreover, bearin mind that it is for vour sakes that we thspeak, since it is in our power to deny when weare questioned. But we choose not to live byfalsehood.48Justin. 1 Apol. 1, 2. « Sec. 7.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.229"And you, when you hear that we are expectinga kingdom, rashly conceive that we meana human one, whereas we speak of that with God,as is evident even from those who are under examinationby you confessing that they are Christians,whilst they know that death is the penaltyof the confession. For if we expected a humankingdom, we should deny in order to obtain ourexpectations ; but, since our hopes are not of thepresent, we do not regard those who kill us, knowingthat death is an inevitable debt to all.49" We adore God only, but in all other mattersjoyfully serve you, confessing that you are kingsand rulers, and praying that you may be foundto possess, together with your royal power, asound and discerning mind. If, however, notwithstandingthat we thus pray and openly layeverything before you, you treat us with contempt,we shall receive no injury ; believing, orrather, being convinced, that every one, if hisdeeds shall so deserve, shall receive the punishmentof eternal fire, and that an account will berequired of him in proportion to the powers whichhe has received from God, as Christ has declaredin those words, 4 To whomsoever God has givenmuch, of him shall be much required.'50"Though death be the penalty to those whoteach or even who confess the name of Christ, weeverywhere accept it, and teach it. And if you49 Sec. 11. » Sec. 17>

230 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MAKTYR CIIUKCH.as enemies meet these words, you can do no more,as we have already said, than kill us, which bringsno hurt to us, but to you, and to all who hateunjustly, and do not repent, the chastisement ofeternal lire."51And his concluding words are :" If now whatwe have said appears to be reasonable and true,honour it accordingly ; but if folly, despise it asfoolish; yet pass not sentence of death against thoseas enemies, who have done no evil. For we tellyou beforehand that you will not escape the futurejudgment of God, if you continue in injustice, andwe shall cry, Let the will of God be done."52Such then is the testimony of a Christian asto the way in which the confessors of his religionAvcre treated; and it is corroborated by that of theheathen philosopher Cclsus, who writes his booksagainst Christianity about this time, and imputesthe secrecy practised by Christians in their teachingand their actions to their attempts to escapethe punishment of death hanging over their heads.53And again having put into the mouth of Christiansthe remark, that if they blaspheme or strikea statue of Jupiter or Apollo, these gods cannot defendthemselves, he subjoins : " Do you not, then,see that your own demon is not merely blasphemedH Sec. 45.62 Sec. (58. Chcvallier's translation, somasXp** \ *> *> f * \ >

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.231but expelled from every land and sea, while you,his consecrated image,54 are chained, and led awayto prison, and crucified; and the demon, or as youcall him, the Son of God, gives you no protection."And in another place, comparing Christians withJews, to whom God had made so many promises :" See," he says, " what good has He done to themand to you ? To them, instead of being lords ofall the earth, not a clod of soil or a hearth remains;65 while of you, if any one still wandersabout in hiding, yet justice pursues him with thedoom of death."However, we know that at this time at leastthe bold words of Justin drew down no punishmentfrom Antoninus, and a rescript of this emperor,dated about two years after the presentationof this first apology, has been preserved, which ismore favourable to Christians than that of Hadrian.It is addressed to that province of Asiawhich contained so many flourishing Christianchurches, and which accordingly was so bitteragainst them. They had written to complain ofthe Christians, * and to accuse them as the causeof the earthquakes which had happened. Theemperor replies : " It was my belief that the godswould take care that such men as you describeshould not escape. For much rather would theyv642e rbv KaQwfftwucvov ucnrep &ya\p. ain

232 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.if they could, punish such as will not worshipthem. Now these men you are annoying, andaccusing their opinion as atheistical, and chargingthem with sundry other things which we cannotprove. Yet it would be serviceable to them toseem to meet their death for such an accusation ;and they surpass you in giving up their livesrather than comply with what you call upon themto do. But as to the earthquakes which have happenedor are happening now, it is not reasonablethat you should mention them, you who lose heartwhen they take place, comparing your conductwith theirs, who have more confidence than you towardsGod. And you indeed in such a time seemto have no knowledge of the gods, and neglect thetemples, and know nothing of worshipping God ;whence it is that you are jealous of those who doworship him, and that you persecute them todeath. Respecting such men various other rulersof provinces wrote to my divine father, and hisreply was, not to trouble such men, except theyappear to be contriving something against theRoman empire. Many too have referred to meabout such, and my reply w^as in agreement tomy father's decision. Now if anyone has an accusationto bring against such a one as such, letthe accused be released from the charge, eventhough he appear 4 to be such, and let the accuserbe punished.7' 5656 Attached to Justin's first Apology.

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.233Here we reach the highest point of tolerationwhich Christians received in the first 130 years.Instead of Trajan's somewhat reluctant order topunish Christians as Christians, when once convicted,instead of Hadrian's decision that somethingcontrary to Roman law must be provedagainst them, Antoninus, while quoting the latter,goes far beyond it, and lays down that asChristians they were blameless, and were only tobe punished in case some hostility to the Romanempire could be proved in their conduct. Moreover,their accuser was to be punished. And thisrescript being repeated to several places, amountedto an assurance that Christians should be left intranquillity during the principate of Pius.Putting ourselves into the position of a Romanemperor at this middle of the second century, letus endeavour to form a notion of what Christianitywould appear to him. In the first place, he whohad all the threads of Roman or ganisation o gathered.oin his hand, would certainly recognise it as a sect *spread throughouthe empire, the Jewish originof which was known to him, and the author as onecrucified by order of a Roman governor underberius.57 Yet he would hardly distinguish accuratelythe Church from the different heresies whicheverywhere sprang up around it, holding more orss of its doctrines and mixing them UD with" See Trajan's remark to S. Ignatius: "You mean him that wascrucified under Pontius Pilate."

234 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.ruptions and abuses.68 And it would scarcely ap-pear to him as a power in the State, either fromits numbers or the influence of the people belongingto it; yet on the other hand it would appearas something not inconsiderable in either of theserespects. Moreover, we may suppose it wouldcome before him as a belief, and not as an institution.It had as yet no public churches.59 A heathenwould say of Christians at this time that theyhad no temples, altars, or statues ;GO no ceremonialworship, for he could not, as a heathen, get admittanceto Christian rites, which moreover werecarried on in private houses, and carefully concealed.The emperor would be well aware thatChristians had rulers of their own ;61 it was assuch that Trajan had fixed upon the bishop thirdin rank among Christian communities for punishmentthe most severe and degrading, to be thrownas food for wild beasts, for the pleasure of the people.But nevertheless, the internal constitution ofthe Church would lie hidden from him : the linkwhich bound together the bishops of the variouslocal communities, and so formed the Catholicismof the Church, would be quite invisible to all outside.Jealous as Trajan was of secret societies, so58 See the curious letter of Hadrian about the Alexandrians, in whichthe Christians spoken of are probably heretics.59 They are first mentioned at Borne in the reign of AlexanderSeverus.60 See Origen c. Cels. vii. 62.»Vho art thou who art zealous to trans-gress our comnisuadinsr others to come to an evil end ?"

THE FIKST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.235that he could hardly tolerate a guild of firemen ina provincial town, he had no suspicion of a societywhich had become even in his time conterminouswith his empire, and was bound together not onlyby the profession of one faith, but by the livinglinks of one government. Nor, fifty years later,could Antoninus have had any such knowledge.The persecution which we have seen arose fromsimpler causes ; the faith of Christians in one Godwho had made heaven and earth, and in one Sonof God who had become Man and redeemed them,and with this, and indeed as part of this, theirsummary rejection, their utter intolerance of allthe heathen gods ; this it was that had drawndown the Roman sword upon them in answer tothe popular cry,62 Away with the godless ! Andagain, their standing aloof from heathen life, theirrefusal to take part in heathen festivals, their withdrawalas far as possible from all public concerns :this was part of the hatred of the human race imputedto them, which made them objects of suspicionfirst, and then, when any special excitementarose, of persecution. These peculiarities also, andthe secrecy with which their worship was necessarilyconducted because it was not allowed, hadled to calumnies concerning them, imputing thegrossest immorality as well as cruelty.The apologies of Quadratus, Aristides, and Justin,were probably the first connected revelation02 Alpe TOVS adeous.

236 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.of the Christian doctrines which the emperor couldhave ; but these would be very far from conveyingto him the character of the Church as an institution.They were intended to obviate the persecutionsarising o from the causes above described, 'to show the purity of Christian morality, the reasonablenessof Christian belief, the fidelity of Christiansentiment to the imperial rule as establishedby a divine providence. They were not in theleast intended to lay before him the ChristianChurch as a whole. Thus Justin, replying to theaccusation that they were expecting a kingdom,says, "You rashly conceive that we mean a humanone, whereas we speak of that with God. "We may then, it seems, conclude with certaintythat Antoninus was only partially aware of whatChristianity was. That discipline of the secret ,which was itself the result of persecution - of theChristian Faith having to make itself a place ina world utterly opposed to it, - became at onceits protection, and the cause of further persecution; of persecution, in so far as it put Christiansunder general suspicion, but of protection, inasmuchas it covered with a veil that complete moralrevolution to which the Christian Faith was tendingfrom the first, and towards which it was continuallyadvancing. Could Trajan have foreseen whatwas apparent under Constantine, his treatment ofChristians would have had no forbearance or hesitationin it, his blows no intermission or doubt-/

THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.237fulness. As it is, up to the time we are nowconsidering, there are no traces of a generasecution against the Christian name organised bythe emperor as head of the State. There are mberless local and individual persecutions startingup in this city and in that, and arising from thefundamental contrariety of Christian belief to theexisting heathen worship and the ordinary heathenlife. Such we have and no more. And so a greathost of martyrs in single combat won their crown.ut the emperor did not set himself to destroy aunity which he did not see.Now as to the character in Christians whichtheir condition in these hundred and thirty yearstended to produce, we can form a clear conclusion.Of the relative proportion of actual martyrs to thewhole mass of believers we can indeed have noccurate notion; but it is plain that all were liableto suffering as Christians in every various degreeup to that ultimate point of witnessing by death.Thus the acceptance of the Christian Faith itselfinvolved at least the spirit of confession, if notthat of martyrdom. A man lived for years, perhapsa whole generation, with the prospect ofsuffering, which it may be never came, or came asthe crown of a long period in which heroic virtueshad been called forth. Thus S. Ignatius had beenmore than forty years bishop of Antioch, and hadcarried his church hardly through the bad timesof Domitian, when he gained at last what he

238 THE FIRST AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.deemed perfect union with his Lord, by beingground under the teeth of lions, as "the purebread of God.'7 What is here expressed with sosublime a confidence by one actual martyr, musthave made the tissue of Christian life in general.Those early disciples of the cross put in the crosstheir victory. The habitual danger which hungabout their life must have scared away the timid,the insincere, the half-hearted. Yet alternationsof peace rapidly succeeded times of suffering.Throughout these hundred and thirty years thereis no long - continued even local persecution.reathing-times of comparative tranquillity come,wherein Christians can grow, propagate, and maturefor the conflict which may at any time arise.Thus while the opposition made to the infant faithis quite sufficient to have destroyed an untruereligion, born of earth or human device, to havescattered and eradicated its professors, it was preciselywhat would favour the real advance of afaith rooted upon a suffering God, and in which3rino; O with Him was made the means of unionwithHim.And here we haltat the accession of MarcusAurelius, as a middle point between the day ofPentecost and the time of Constantine.

CHAPTERXLTHE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.Magnus ab integro sgeclorum nascitur ordJam nova progenies coelo demittitur alto., aderit jam tempus, nonortgnum Jo vis incrementum."THERE is a moment in the history of the Romanempire when it comes before us with the mostimposing grandeur. The imperial rule has beendefinitively accepted by that proud old aristocracyunder which the city of the seven hills was builtup from a robber fortress to be the centre of aworld-wide confederation ; while on their side thenations all round the Mediterranean bow with analmost voluntary homage before the sceptre oftheir queen. If the north be still untameable, ithas learnt to dread the talons of the Roman eagle, O 7and cowers murmuring in its forests and morasses; if the Parthian still shoot as he flies fromthe western Cesar's hosts, he has at least expiatedin the ruin of Ctesiphon the capture of Crassusand the dishonour of Mark Antony. But far morethan this. On the Cresar in his undisputed greatnesshas dawned the real sublimity of the taskwhich Providence had assigned to him ; to mould,

240 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.that is, under one rule of equal beneficence themany tongues and many nations which a courseof conquest often the most unjust had brought toown his sway. And this point of time is whenafter the great warrior Trajan comes Hadrian theman of culture ; in whom seems implanted themost restless curiosity, carrying him with thespeed of a soldier and the power of a prince overevery climate from Carlisle to Alexandria, fromMorocco to Armenia, in order that he may see ineach the good of which so many varying races ofmen are capable, and use them all for his granddesign. To him Rome is still the head; but hehas learnt to esteem at their due value the membersof her great body. The first fifteen yearsof his reign are almost entirely spent away fromRome, in those truly imperial progresses whereinthe master of this mighty realm, when he wouldrelieve himself of his helmet, walks like the simplelegionary,1 bareheaded in front of his soldiers, underthe suns of the south, examining, whereverhe comes, the whole civil and military organisation,promoting the capable and censuring the unworthy,scattering benefits with unsparing hand.York has known him as a protecting genius;Athens blends his name with that of her ownTheseus as a second founder ; wayward Alexan-dria exalts him, at least for the time, as a granter1 The Roman legionary, if he wished to lay aside his helmet, wasonly allowed to go bareheaded.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.241of privileges; the extreme north and utmost southacknowledge alike the unsparing zeal and majesticpresence of their ruler. At that moment Rome * isstill Roman. While the Augustan discipline stillanimates her legions, the sense of the subordinationof the military power to the civil spiritis not wholly lost; her proconspraefects have passed out of those plundering mag-,tes, who replenished in the tyranny of aor two from a drained province the treasures theyhad squandered in a life of corruption at Rome,to the orderly and yet dignified magistrates accountableto the Republic's life-president2 for thegated power. Perhaps the world hadnever yet seen anything at once so great and sobeneficent as the government of Hadrian. Butone thing was wanting to the many-tongued "andmany - tempered peoples ruled by him, that theyshould of their own will accept the worship ofone God, and so the matchless empire receive theonly true principle of coherence and permanencein the common possession of one religion. Andthe thoughtful student of history can hardly restrainhimself from indulging his fancy as to whatmiht then have been the result and into howgreat a structure provnces worthy of being kingdomsmight then have grown by the process 'of a2 Champagny remarks, that the emperors were never in the mind ofthe Romans sovereigns in the modern acceptation of the word, but life-presidents with absolute power.II.R

242 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.unbroken civilisation instinct with the principlesof the pure Christian Faith. Then the northernflood of barbarism and the eastern tempest of afalse religion, which together were to break upthe fabric of a thousand years, might have beenbeaten back from its boundaries, and from themthe messengers of light have so penetrated theworld in all directions that the advance of thetruth should not have been impeded by any greatcivil destruction, but the nations of Europe havedeveloped themselves from their Roman cradle bya continuous growth, in which there had been noages of conquest, violence, and confusion, no relapseinto chaos, no struggle back into an intricateand yet imperfect order, but the serene advancefrom dawn to day.So, however, it was not to be. The time ofprobation in the reigns of Hadrian and AntoninusPius, wherein a sort of toleration had seemed tobe allowed to Christians, passed away, and thebeginning of a far different destiny broke upon theempire. With the accession of Marcus Aurelius thegreat old enemies, the North and the East, awokefrom their trance in fresh vigour. A Parthianwar of four years, a German war of twelve, withpestilence, earthquakes, and famines through alarge part of the empire, try to the utmost thevigour and temper of one of the most uprightsovereigns known to heathenism. Marcus Aureliusmeets both enemies with equal JL courage and

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 243bility, but he dies prematurely, and leaves thrule carried so temperately by four great sove-reigns successively adopted to empire at matage, in the untried hands of the heir of his bloa youth of nineteen, born in the purple. In ththe great Roman was wanting bothStoic greatness and to Roman duty. And it wa fatal error. During thirteen years this son othe most virtuous heathen shows himself the mostvicious of tyrants. At a single bound Rome passesfrom a ruler more j ust than Traj an to a ruler moreabandoned than Nero; and in the palace of MarcusAurelius endures an emperor who has a doubleharem of three hundred victims f who spares theblood of no senator, and respects the worth of noofficer.When a revolution, similar to that which sweptaway Domitian, has removed Commodus, the Romanworld is not so fortunateas to find a secondTrajan to take his place. Three great officers whocommand in Syria, Illyricurn, and Britain, contendfor the prize, and when victory has determined infavour of Septimius Severus, he rules for eighteenyears with a force and capacity which may indeedbe compared with Trajan's, but with a deceit andmorseless severity all his own. At one tinforty senators are slaughtered for the cing looked with favour upon that pretender tthe empire who did not succeed. Nor is th aChampagny, Les Antonins, iii. 311.

24-1 THE SECOXD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.passing cruelty, but the fixed spirit of his reign.The sway of the sword is openly proclaimed. That' is everything is not only acted on, butlaid down as a guiding "princii)le of state tchildren. The unbroken discipline of her legionarieshad hitherto indeed proved the salvation ofthe state ; but this Septimius fatally tampers with,and in so doing sows the seeds of future anarchyand dissolution. *His death in 211 places the empire in thehands of a youth of twenty-three, all but bornin the purple, like Commodus, and his rival intyranny and dissoluteness of every kind. Cara-calla is endured for six years, and being killed bya plot in the camp, is succeeded by his murdererMacrinus. He again, after a year, gives place toa Syrian boy of fourteen, who took at his acces--sion the honoured name of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus,but is known to posterity as Heliogabalus.Once more during a space of four years the crimesof Commodus and Caracalla are repeated, or evenexceeded. Indeed ' in these years from 218 to222 the story of shame and degradation reachesits lowest point. But the soldiers of the praetoriancamp themselves rise against Heliogabalus, massacrehim with his mother, and place on the thronehis cousin Alexander Severus, at the age of four-teen. Now Alexander has for his mother Mam-if not a Christianat least a hearer of Drienwho gives her son from his earliest youth a virtu-

LIBRARY ST. MARY S COLLEGETHE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 245ous education, who surrounds him on the perilousheight of the Roman throne with the arms of herffection and her practical wisdom. Alexandrules for thirteen years, a period equal to thf Commodus, and little less than that of Nero.Younger O than both at his accessiondeath his reign offers the most striking contrastto theirs. Of all heathen rulers he stands forth*as the most blameless. It is a reign which, afterthe obscene domination of Commodus, / Caracalla, *and Heliogabalus, with the savagery between themeptimius Severus immediately preceding itseems like a romance of goodness.admirable in his private life, he rivals Marcus Au-relius in his zeal for the administration of justice,for the choice of good governors, for devotion tothe public service ; and, happier than Marcus Au-relius, on his name rests no stain of persecution." He suffered the Christians to be,"4 are the em-phatic words of his biographer ; concerning whichit has been well remarked that little as this seemsto say, it had been said of no one of his predecessors,though several had not persecuted thChurch.5 And therefore this expression mustm le left them in an entire liberty as toligion. It is indeed the exact contradiction ofwhat, thirty years before, Tertullian had stated respectingthe law in the time of Septimius Severus;4 " Christianos esse passus est." Larnpridius5 Tillemont, Hist. Ecc. iii. 250.

246 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCHfor one of his complaints in pleading for Christianswas, "your harsh sentence ' that we are notallowed to exist,' is an open appeal to bruteforce."6Alexander Sever us, the darling of his people,perished by the hands of some treacherous sol-diers suborned by his successor Maximin; and withhim ends this period of seventy-four years, whichwe will consider together, in order to estimate therogress of the Christian Faith. A time of moreremarkable contrasts in rulers cannot be found.It begins with Marcus Aurelius, and it ends withAlexander Severus, the two most virtuous of heathenprinces ; between them it contains Commo-dus, Caracalla, and Heliogabalus, the three generallyreputed the most vicious ; while the definitivecourse which the history of the empire tookis given to it by another, Septimius Severus, ofgreat abilities and mixed character, who gainedthe empire as a successful soldier, and was true tohis origin in that he established the ultimate victoryof pure force over every restriction of a civil constitution: an African unsparing of blood, who saton the throne of Augustus, and worked out theproblem of government which the founder of theempire had started by preparing the result of Diocletian.6 Apolog. iv. " Jampridem, cum dure definitis dicendo, non licet essevos, et hoc sine ullo retractatu humaniore describitis, vim profitemini etiniquam ex arce dominationem, si ideo negatis licere quia vultis, nonquia debuit non licere."

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.247The rule of Commodus and his successors fullyrevealed the fatal truth, that the five princes whofrom the accession of Nerva had governed as ithey were really responsible to the senate, hadonly been a fortunate chance; that this time ofprosperity rested upon no legal limitation of rightsbetween those things wont to exist only in severance,7the sovereign's power and the subject'sfreedom ; that it was no result of a constitutionwhich had grown up under a mutual sense ofbenefit arising from authority exercised consci-entiously, and obedience cordially rendered. Theage which Tacitus8 at its commencement hadcalled "most blessed" was indeed over, and assoon as the second Aiitonine left the scene, a stateof things ensued in which tyranny and crueltywere as unchecked as under Nero or Domitian attheir worst. It became evident that all had dependedon the sovereign's personal character.From Marcus to Commodus the leap was instantaneous; and so, again, afterwards the shortlivedserenity and order of Alexander's rulepassed at his death into a confusion lasting formore than forty years, which threatened to breakup the very existence of the empire.But in Rome from the accession of Commodus1in 180 to the death of Heliogabalus in 222 we finda profound corruption of morals, an excess of7 " Res olim dissociabiles, princmatum muno statim

248 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.cruelty, and a disregard of civil rights, which couldscarcely be exceeded., Tacitus, at the beginning ofTrajan's reign, burst forth into indignation at thethought that it had cost Eusticus and Seneciotheir lives, in Domitian's time, to have praisedThrasea and Helvidius Priscus, and that theirvery writings had been publicly burned, as if thatfire could extinguish the voice of the Eoman peo-e, the liberty of the senate, and the conscienceof mankind, " Truly great," he cried, " was thespecimen of patient endurance which we exhibited."9What words, then, would he havefound to express the degradation of servile spiritin that selfsame city a hundred years later, whenPlautianus, the favourite minister of SeptimusSeverus, at the marriage of his daughter with Ca-racalla, caused a hundred persons of good family,some of them already fathers, secretly to be madeeunuchs, in order that they might serve as chamberlainsto the imperial bride.10 Or to take anotherexample ; as Quintillus, one of the chiefs ofthe senate, both by birth and by the employmentswhich he had held, a man of advanced yearsand living retired in the country, was seized inorder to be put to death, he declared that his onlysurprise was that he had been suffered to live solong, and that he had made every preparation for9 Agricola, 2.10 See Dollinger, Hippolytu* und Kalli&tus, p. 187, who quotes fromDio Cassius, 1. 75, p. 1267, Reimar. This was A.D. 203.

THE SECOXD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 249his burial. A third incident will show both thesort of crimes for which men were punished, theprotection given by the law to the individual, andpirit and temper of the senate. It had con-emned Apronianus, proconsul of Asia, witgivino- him a hearing, because his nurse hthat he was one day to reign, concerningwhich he was reported to have consulted a magician.Now, 7 in reading C the informations laid

250 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.at this very moment encouraged the martyrs to beconstant, with the reflection that there was no onewho might not, for the cause of man,suffer whatever nature would most shrink fromsuffering in the cause of God. " The times welive in are proofs," he cried, " of this. How manyand how great are the instances we have seen, inwhich no height of birth, no degree of rank, nopersonal dignity, no time of life, have saved menfrom coming to the most unexpected end, for someman's cause, either at his own hands, if they stoodagainst him, or if for him, by the hands of hisadversaries."12It was a time at which the extremes of recklesscruelty, of profuse luxury, of shameless dissoluteness,met together ; in which women wereforbidden by an express law to expose themselveson the arena as gladiators; in which, when theemperor Severus would legislate against adultery,a memorial was handed to him with the names"of three thousand persons whom his law wouldtouch.13 Such was the character of the time which"followed at once on the empire's golden age; thetime in which the Church of God was lengtheningher cords and strengthening her stakes, and buildingup her divine polity amid the worthlessness ofthe world's greatest empire, and the instability ofall earthly things.12 Tertullian, ad Marty res, 4 : about A,D, 196.13 Dio, quoted by Dollinger, ut supra,

TPIE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYE CHURCH.251II. In the last review which we took of hermaterial progress we said that to the eye of PAnt PP mmultitude as a power in the state. But beforethe end of the seventy-four years which we arehere considering as one period, it was otherwise.Already in the reign of Commodus, Eusebius statesthat the word of salvation was bringing to theworship of the one God men out of every race, sothat in Kome itself many distinguished for wealthand rank embraced it with their whole families.14few years later, when Tertullian writes his apology,he makes the heathen complain " that the state isoverrun with us, that Christians are found in thecountry, in forts, in islands; that every sex andage and condition and rank come over to them."15And again; " we are of yesterday, and have alreadyfilled every place you have, your cities, islands,forts, boroughs, councils, your very camps, tribes,corporations, the palace, senate, and forum. Yourtemples only we leave you. For what war shouldwe not be equal, we who are so ready to be slaugh-tered, if our religion did not command us ratherto suffer death than to inflict it." Elsewhere hespeaks of Christians as "so great a multitude ofmen as to be almost the majority in every city."Now make whatsoever allowance we will for Ter-tullian's vehemence, such statements, laid beforeu Euseb. Hist. v. 21.15 Tertullian; Apol. i, 37 : ad Scap. 2

252 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.adversaries, if they had not a great amount oftruth in them, would bring ridicule on his causerather than strengthen it. Tertullian besides wroteat the time of the general persecution set on footby Septimius Severus against the Christian Faith,which itself was a proof of what importance it hadassumed. We may perhaps put the first4twentyyears of the third century as the point at which,having passed through the period when it wasembraced by individuals with a several choice, itwas become the faith of families, and one steponly remained, that it should become the faith ofnations.16Let us consider a moment the mode of its in-crease. It was twofold. The plant of which aroot was fixed by the Apostles and their successorsin each of the cities of the empire grew, gatheringto itself in every place the better minds of heathenism,and exercising from the beginning amarked attraction upon the more religious 0 sex andupon the most down-trodden portion of society ;women were ever won to it by the purity whichits doctrines inculcated, slaves by its tender charity: it gave a moral emancipation to both. Ifwe possessed a continuous and detailed history ofthe Christian Faith in any one city, say Rome, orAlexandria, or Antioch, or Ephesus, or Carthage,or Corinth, for the first three centuries, what awonderful exhibition of spiritual power and mate-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^I^^H16 De Rossi, ArcJieoL Cristiana, 1866, p. 33, makes this estimate.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.253rial weakness it would offer. By fixing the mindon Christianity as merely one object, as'an astraction, we lose in large part the sense of themoral force to which its propagation bears witness.It was in each city a community,17 which had itscentre and representative in its Bishop, which hadits worship, r discipline, and rule of life presidedover by him; its presbytery, diaconate, and deaconesses; its sisterhoods and works of charity,spiritual and temporal : a complete governmentand a complete society held together by purelyspiritual bonds, which the state sometimes ignored,not unfrequently persecuted, but neverSuch was the grain of mustard-seed, from north tosouth, from east to west, in presence of the poli-tical Roman, the sensitive and lettered Greek, thesensuous African, the volatile and disputatiousAlexandrian, the corrupt Antiochene. It had onesort of population to deal with at Rome, quite anotherin the capital of Egypt, a third at Ephesus,which belonged O to the great CO goddess Diana, 7and thestatue which had fallen down from heaven, a fourthat Carthage, where the hot Numidian blood camein contact with the civilisation of Rome, a fifth atCorinth, the mistress of all art and luxury. Andso on. JNow in each and all of these cities anda hundred others the divine plant met with various-*- *17 From a passage in the account of the Martyrs of Lyons, A.r>. 177(Euseb. Hist. v. i 1, p. 201,1. 3), it appears that the word "Church" wasonly given to a mother or cathedral church by writers of that time.

254 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.soils and temperatures; but in them all it grew.It had its distinct experiences, encountering manya withering heat and many a stormy blast, andwatered full oft with blood, but in them all theseed, dropped so imperceptibly that the mightiestand most jealous of empires was unconscious ofwhat was cast into its bosom, became a tree. Itwas an organic growth of vital power. Christianity,during the ten ages of persecution, is theupspringing of several hundred such communities,distinct as we see here, and as described above byS. Ignatius, but at the same time coinherent, aswe saw in the beginning, and as we shall findpresently. As, then, all the cities of the Romanempire had a secular political and social life, anda municipal government of their own, so had theChristian Faith in each of them a correspondinglife of spiritual government and inward thoughtand if we had the materials to construct the his-tory of this Faith in any one, it would give us awonderful insight into the course of that prodigiousvictory over the world which the whole resultpresents. We cannot do so. The data for itnot exist, and because they do not, we alludto this first mode of growth made by thChristian Faith.Its second mode was thus. The ApostolicalChurches, as they severally grew, scattered fromtheir bosoms a seed as prolific as their own. Theysent out those who founded communities such as

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.255their own. Thus the Christian plant was communicatedfrom Rome to all the west. With everyf years it crept silently over the vast regionsof Gaul and Spain, advancing further west andThis extension was not a chance springingf Christians in different localities. It alwk place by the founding18 of sees, with the authority, after the apostolic model. If thnan colonia had its rites of inaugurawas a transcript of the great city, its senate and itsforum, so much more the Christian city had itsprototype and derived its authority from the greatcitadel of the Faith, wherein Peter's prerogative wasstored up,19 and whence it had a derivation widerin extent and more ample in character than thatof Rome the natural city. But we will take fromanother quarter what is as perfect a specimen ofthis extension as anv that can be found. In theof Alexandria, the centre of intellectuaand commercial life to all the East and the wholeGreek name, S. Peter set up the chair of his discipleMark. There the evangelistaught and therein due time suffered. Dragged by an infuriatedpopulace through the streets he thus gave up his(iii, 3. 3)Ka oiKoSo/^o-cwTes the Church of Eome, and of the Church of(ibid, iv.) as reee^eAtw/ie^ VTTO TlavXov.nn* ^417 as a fact well known to them: " Scientes quid Apostolic^ Sedi,cum omnes hoc loco positi ipsum sequi desideremus Apostoli ma quo ipse episcopatus et tota auctoritas nominis hujus emersit." Cou-stant, Eput. Rom. Pontif. 888.

256 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.soul. But the plant which he so watered with hisblood was of extraordinary vigour. It not onlygrew amid the intensest intellectual rivalry ofGreek and Jew in the capital, but likewise incourse of time occupied the whole civil governmentwhich obeyed the prefect of Egypt, FromAlexandria, Egypt and the Pentapolis of Gyrenederived their Christian faith and government; andso powerful was this bond that the bishop of thecapital exercised control over all the bishops ofthe civil diocese, as it was then termed. He wasin power a patriarch long before he had that name,or even the name of archbishop. How great andstrict this rule was we may judge from an incidentpreserved by Photius,20 which occurred inthe very last year of the period we are considering,in 235. Heraclas, bishop of Alexandria, a formerpupil of Origen, had inflicted upon that greatwriter a second exulsion from the Church for hiserroneous teaching. Origen on his way to Syriacame to the city of Thmuis, where bishop Am-moiiius allowed him, * in J.J-J- spite KJ t of the abtioned censure of Heraclas, to preach. When Heraclasheard this, he came to Thmuis and deposedAxnmonius, and appointed in his stead Philippusas bishop. Afterwards, on the earnest request ofthe Deoule of the city, he restored Ammonius tonice of bishou, and ordained that he and20 Photius, ffwaytoyal KO.} aiToSe'il-eis, quoted by Dollinger,iuid KalUstus, p. 264, 5.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 257Philippus should be bishops together. The latter,however, voluntarily gave way to Ammonius, andsucceeded him at his death. Such, ninety yearsbefore the Nicene Council, which recognised andapproved these powers of the bishop of Alexandria,as being after the model"of those exercisedby the bishop of Rome,21 was his authority by thenatural force of the hierarchic principle which builtup the Church. And so little were these Christiancommunities, which we have seen so complete intheir own organic growth, independent of the bich held the whole Church together, and ofwhich the authority of the Egyptian primate wasitself a derivation.These, then, were the two modes in which theChristian Faith pursued and attained its orderlyincrease; as a seed it grew to a plant in each city,and as a plant it ramified, or as Tertullian says,carried "the vine-layer of the faith"22 from cityto city, from province to province. In the meantimethe last disciples of the Apostles, those whofrom the especial veneration with which they wereregarded as teachers of the Faith and " secondlinks in the chain of tradition," were termed Presbyters,23had died out. S. Poly carp, at the timeAtffyHal Tle^TaTrJAei, ware rb^ ?AAe|a^S/}¬ms tTrtaKOTrov Travrwv rovrw e%ei^ TT/^Qovaiav, eVeiS^ /cat rw eV fPa5^u?? Arancavy roi>ro vvvyQes forty. See Hagemann,rfid Romisclie Kirclid^ 59G-8.22 " Traducem fidei et semina doctrine." De P,Hipp. n. Kail. p. 338-343, for the meaning of this wordin with it a special magisterium fidei.II.S

258 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.of his martyrdom in 167, was probably the soleremaining one, though his pupil S. Irenosus hadknown others. When the latter, upon the martyrdomof S. Pothinus in 177, is raised to thegovernment of the See of Lyons, we may considerthat no one survived in possession of that greatpersonal authority which belonged to those whohad themselves been taught by Apostles ; and soat the third generation from the last of these theChurch throughout the world stood without anysuch support, simply upon that basis of the traditionand teaching of the truth, and of the successionof rulers, on which the Apostles had placedit, to last for ever. Now in this position it hadalready, throughout the whole course of the secondcentury, been violently assaulted by a family ofheresies, which growing upon one root-a naturalphilosophy confusing the being of God with theworld-burst forth into an astonishing variety ofoutward forms. Gnosticism completely altered anddefaced Christian doctrine under each of the fourgreat heads, the Being of God, the Person ofChrist, the nature of man, the office and functionof the Church. Into the Godhead it introduceda dualism, recognising with the absolute good an" Presbyteros" was added as a title of honour to the name of Bishop,In S. Irenseus the same persons have as Bishops the succession of theApostles, as Presbyteri " the charisma of the truth." Papias marks theAsiatic Presbyteri as those who had heard of S. John; and Clement ofAlex, speaks of Presbyteri who, occupied with the office of teaching, anddeeming it diverse from that of composition, did not write. Ecloga xxvn.p. 996,

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.259absolute evil represented by matter: it denied thereality of the Incarnation ; it made the body aprinciple of evil in man's nature: but we will herelimit ourselves to the characteristic and formalprinciple of the system from which it derived itsname, to Gnosis as the means of acquiring divinetruth. Now the Christian religion taught that re-vealed truth was to be attained by the individualthrough receiving, upon the ground of the divineveracity, those mysterious doctrines superior butnot contrary to reason which it unfolded; and thatthe communication of such doctrines might continueunimpaired and unchanging, it taught thatour Lord had established a never-failing authoritycharged with the execution of this office, andassisted by the perpetual presence of His Spiritwith it to the end. But the Gnostics admittedonly in the case of the imperfect or natural manthat faith was the means for acquiring religioustruth; to the spiritual, the proper gnostic, gnosisshould take the place of faith: for to many a hea-then, accustomedunlimited philosophical speculation,the absolute subjection of the intellect todivine authority, required by the principle of faith,was repugnant. Now this Gnosis was in their mindnoted upon faith, but eitherLC science, or a supposed mtuiticth, which was not only to replace faith "the whole moral life, inasmuch as the completsto be wrought by

260 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.it. And thus instead of an external authoritythe individual reason was set up as the higheststandard of religious truth, the issue of which couldonly be rationalism in belief and sectarianism inpractice.This formal principle of Gnosticism when dulycarried out would deny the idea of the Church, itsdivine institution, its properties and prerogatives.For the gnostic mode of attaining divine truth, asabove stated, contains in it such a denial. Besidesthis, the gnostic doctrine that matter was theseat of evil, destroyed the belief that Christ hadassumed a body : the gnostic doctrine that thesupreme God could enter into no communion withman made their JEon Christ no member of humansociety, but a phantom which had enlightened theman Jesus, and then returned back to the " Light-realm." Not being really the Son of God, he couldhave no Church which was his body : not reallyredeeming, for sin to the gnostic had only a physical,not a moral cause, he was but a teacher,and therefore had created no institution to con°vey grace; which, moreover, was superfluous, forwhatever elements of good human nature had werederived from creation and not from redemption.Nor was such an universal institution wanted, / sincenot all men but only the spiritual were capable ofbeing drawn up to the Light-realm. The Gnostictherefore required neither hierarchy nor priesthood,since the soul of this system was the gnosis

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.261of the individual. For this a body enjoying infallibilitythrough the assistance of the Holy Ghostwas not needed. It was enough for enthusiastsand dreamers to pursue their speculations withoutany limit to free inquiry, save what themselveschose to impose as the interpretation of such scripturesas they acknowledged, or as the exhibitionof a private tradition with which they held themselvesto be favoured.Lastly, the idea of Sacraments, as conveyinggrace under a covering of sense, would be superfluousto the gnostic, inasmuch as the spiritualelements in man belong to him by nature, and arenot communicated by a Redeemer, and would berepulsive to him because matter is a product ofthe evil principle, and cannot be the channel ofgrace from out the Light-realm.23My purpose here has only been to say just somuch of Gnosticism as may show how the wholeChristian truth was attacked by it, and especiallythe existence and functions of the Church.And this may indeed be termed the first heresyin that it struck its roots right up into Apostolictimes. Irena3us, Eusebius, and Epiphanius accountSimon Magus to be its father, and the father ofall heresy. As such it is not without significancethat he encountered the first of the Apostles inamaria, endeavouring to purchase from him the23 I am indebted for the above sketch of Gnosticism mSclrwane, Dogmengeschichte der vornicdnischeti Zeit, p. 648-51.

262 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.gifts of grace and miraculous power, and that helikewise afterwards encountered him at Eome. Tothis the first manifestation of Gnosticism succeedheretical doctrines concerning the Person of ourLord, which sprung out of Judaism; but no soonerare these overcome than Gnosticism in its later"*forms spreads from Syria and Alexandria over the empire, everywhere confronting the Church,seducing her members, and tempting especiallyspeculative minds within her. A mixture itselfof Platonic, Philonic, Pythagorean, and Parsic philosophy,affecting to gather the best out of allphilosophies and religions, in which it exactly representedthe eclectic spirit of its age, arrayingitself in the most fantastic garb of imagination,but at the bottom no dubious product of the oldheathen pantheism, it set itself to the work, whileit assumed Christian names, of confusing and distractingChristian truth. From the beginning ofthe second century it was the great enemy whichbeset the Church. It may, then, well represent tous the principle of heresy itself, and as such letus consider on what principles it was met by theChurch's teachers."Now to form a correct notion of the danger towhich the Christian people at this time was exposed,we must have before us that it was containedin several hundred communities, each ofthem forming a complete spiritual society and government.These had arisen under the pressure

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.263of such hostility on the part of the empire thatit is only in the time of the last emperor duringthis period, Alexander Severus, that churches areknown to have publicly existed at Borne.24 For avery long time all meetings of Christians and allcelebration of their worship was secret. It is obviouswhat an absolute freedom of choice on thepart of all those who became Christians this factinvolved. Nor did that freedom cease when theyhad been initiated into the new religion. Theirfidelity to the Christian faith was all through theirsubsequent life solicited by the danger in which asChristians they stood. Only a continuous freedomof choice on their part could maintain it. Andnot only did every temporal interest turn againstit, but in the case at least of the more intellectuaconverts the activity of thought implied in theirvoluntary acceptance of a new belief served as amaterial on which the seductions of false teachersmight afterwards act, unless it was controlled byan everliving faith, and penetrated by an activecharity. The more these Christian communitiesmultiplied, the more it was to be expected thsome of them would yield to the assaults of falteachers. It is in just such a state of thingsthat a great dogmatic treatise was written againstnosticism by one who stood at only a single re-from the Apostle John, being the discipl>nt, Hist, des Emp. iii.Matt. torn. iii. p. 857 c.m

264 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.his disciple Polycarp. Iremeus, by birth a nativeof lesser Asia, enjoyed when young the instructionsand intimate friendship of the bishop of Smyrna.In his old a^e O he delighted o to remember howPolycarp had described his intercourse with John ,and with those who had seen the Lord: how herepeated their discourse, and what he had heardfrom them respecting the teaching and the miraclesof that Word of life whom they had seenwith their own eyes. "These things," says Irenaeus ," through the mercy of God I then diligentlylistened to, writing them down not on paper, buton my heart, and by His grace I ruminate uponthem perpetually."25 Later in life he left Smyrna ,and settled in Lyons, of which Church he was apresbyter when the terrible persecution of 177broke out there. Elected thereupon to succeeda martyr as bishop, he crowned an episcopate oftwenty-five years with a similar martyrdom. Hewrote, as he says, during the episcopate of Eleu-therius, who was the twelfth bishop of Rome fromPeter, and sat from 177 to 192. After describingat length the Gnostic errors concerning the divinenature, he sets forth in contrast the unity of thetruth as declared by the Church in the followingwords :" The Church, though she be spread abroadthrough the whole world unto the ends of the earth ,has received from the Apostles and their disciples25 Frag. Epist. ad Florin, torn. i. p. 340.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.265faith in one God ;" and he proceeds to recite hercreed, in substance the same as that now held :then he adds, dwelling with emphasis on the verypoint which I have been noting, the sprinklingabout, that is, of distinct communities so widelydispersed, which yet are one in their belief."This proclamation "and this faith the Churchhaving received, though she be disseminatedthrough the whole world, carefully guards, as theinhabitant of one house, and equally believes thesethings as having one soul and the same heart, andin exact agreementhese things she proclaims andteaches and hands down, as having " one mouth.For, though the languages through the world bedissimilar, the power of the tradition is $ne andthe same. Nor have the churches founded iny otherwise believed or otherwise handeddown, nor those in Spain, nor in Gaul, nor in theEast, nor in Egypt, nor those in the middle of theworld. But as the sun, " God's \^ V/V'l- KJ creature, ^J. V> 14) U l«l. *"- V^« in all theworld is one and the same, so too the proclama-Lon of the truth shines everywhere, and lights allmen that are willing to come to the knowledge cthe truth. Nor will he among the Church's rulerswho is most powerful in word say other than this,)r no one is above his teacher :26 nor will he thais weak in word diminish the tradition, for thFaith being one and the same, neither he that cai26 He seems to refer to Matt. x. 2i: OVK eart [j.u6r)TT]S UTTC/J rbv SiSda" '

266 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.say much on it has gathered too much, nor he thatcan say little is deficient."Against the gnostic claim to possess a privatetradition, in virtue of which each of them " depravingthe rule of the truth was not ashamed topreach himself," he sets forth the one original traditionwhich the Apostles,?7 only u when they hadt been invested with the power of the HolyGhost coming down on them, and endued withperfect knowledge," delivered to the churchesfounded by them. " And this tradition of theApostles, manifested in the whole world, may beseen in every church by all who have the will tosee what is true, and we can give the chain ofthose who by the Apostles were appointed bishopsin the churches, and their successors down to ourtime, who have neither taught nor known anysuch delirious dream as these imagine. For, hadthe Apostles known any reserved mysteries, whichthey taught to the perfect separately and secretlyfrom the rest, assuredly they would have deliveredthem to those especially to whom they intrustedthe churches themselves. For very perfect andir reprehensible in all respects did they wish those28to be whom they left for their own successorsdelivering over to them their own office of teaching,by correct conduct on whose part great advan-27 S. Irenseus, lib. iii. c. 2; lib. iii. c. 1.28 " Quos et successores relinquebant, suum ipsorumtradentes."

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.267tae would accrue, 7 as from their fall the utmostcalamity. But since it were very long, in a volumelike this, to enumerate the succession of all thechurches, we take the church the greatest, themost ancient, and known to all, founded andestablished at Rome by the two most gloriousApostles Peter and Paul, and pointing out thtradition which it has received from the Apostles,and the faith which it has announced to men,reaching down to us by the succession of itsbishops, we confound all those who form societiesother than they ought, in any way, whether forthe sake of self-fancied doctrines, or throughblindness and an evil mind. For, with thischurch, on account of its superior principate, itis necessary that every church agree, that is, thefaithful everywhere (every church) in which bythe (faithful) everywhere, the apostolic traditionis preserved." The blessed Apostles, then, having foundedand built up the church, committed to Linus theadministration of its episcopate.. . . Anencletus sue-ds him, from whom in the third place from thApostles Clemens inherits the episcopate. ... Hsucceeded by Evaristus ; Evaristus by Alexander,who is followed by Xystus sixth from the Apostles.Then Telesphorus, who was gloriously martyt Hyginus; then Pius; after whom AnicetSoter followed Anicetus; and now in the twelfthdegree from the Apostles Eleutherius holds thei.

268 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.place of bishop. By this order and succession thetradition from the Apostles in the Church and theteaching of the truth have come down to us. Andthis proof is most complete that it is one and thesame life-giving Faith which has been preserved inthe Church from the Apostles up to this time, andhanded down in truth. . . . With such proofs, then,before us, we ought not still to search among othersfor the truth, which it is easy to take from theChurch, since the Apostles most fully committedunto this, as unto a rich storehouse, all which isof the truth, so that everyone, whoever will, maydraw from it the draught of life. For this is thegate of life : all the rest are thieves and robbers.They must therefore be avoided ; but whatever isof the Church we must love with the utmost diligence,and lay hold of the tradition of the truth.For how ? if on any small matter question arose ,ought we not to recur to the most ancient churchesin which the Apostles lived, and take from them onthe matter in hand what is certain and plain. Andsuppose the Apostles had not even left us writings,ought we not to follow that order of traditionwhich they delivered to those to whom theyintrusted the churches ? To this order manybarbarous nations of believers in Christ assent,having salvation written upon their hearts by theHoly Spirit without paper and ink, and diligentlyguarding the old tradition."2929 S, Irenams, lib. iii. c. 3, 4.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.269This capital point of the ever-living teachingoffice he further dwells on :" The Faith received in the Church we guardin it, which being always from the Spirit of God,like an admirable deposit in a good vessel, * isiyoung* J O itself, 7 and makes young */ O the vessel inwhich it is. For this office on the part of God30 isintrusted to the Church as the breath of life wasgiven to the body, in order that all the membersreceiving may be quickened, and in this is placedthe communication of Christ, that is, the HolySpirit, the earnest of incorruption, the confirmationof our faith, and the ladder by which we ascendto God. For,"says he, in the Church God hasplaced Apostles, Prophets, Teachers, and all the remainingoperation of the Spirit; of whom all thoseare not partakers who do not run to the Church,but deprive themselves of life by an evil opinionand a still worse conduct.For where the Churchis, there also is the Spirit of God : and where theSpirit of God is, there is the Church and all grace :but the Spirit is Truth. Wherefore they who arenot partakers of Him are neither nourished untolife from the breasts of the mother, nor receivethat most - pure fountain which proceeds from theBody of Christ, but dig out for themseterns from earthly ditches, and from the filthdrink foul water, avoiding the Faith of the Churchlest they be brought back, and rejecting the Spirit30 " Hoc enim Ecclesice creditum est Dei munus."

270 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.that they may not be taught. So estranged fromthe truth they deservedly wallow in every error,tossed about by it, having different opinions onthe same subjects at different times, and neverholding one firm mind, choosing rather to besophists of words than disciples of the truth; forthey are not founded upon the one rock, but onthe sand, which has in it a multitude of pebbles."31And he elsewhere contrasts the certaintywithin, and the uncertainty without, this teachingpower :"The said heretics, then, being blind to thetruth, cannot help walking out of the track intoone path after another, and hence it is that thevestiges of their doctrine are scattered about withoutany rule or sequence. Whereas the road ofthose who are of the Church goes round the wholeworld, because it possesses a firm tradition fromthe Apostles, and gives us to see that all have oneand the same faith, where all enjoin one and thesame God the Father, believe one disposition ofthe Son of God's incarnation, know the same giftof the Spirit, meditate on the same precepts, guardthe same regimen of ecclesiastical rule, await thesame advent of the Lord, and support the samesalvation of the whole man, body and soul alike.Now the Church's preaching is true and firm, inwhom one and the same way of salvation is shownsi Lib, iii. c. 24.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.271through o the whole world. For to her is intrustedthe light of God; and hence the wisdom of God,by which He saves all men, ' is sung at her enance,acts with confidence in h ,laimed on her walls, and speaks ever in the gatthe cywhere the Church prolaith truth: she is the seven-branched candlestickbearing Christ's light."32It has been necessary to give at considerablelength the very words of S. Irenasus, because theyare stronger and more perspicuous than any summaryof them can be, and because they exhibit acomplete answer not to this particular heresy only,but to all heresy for ever. Such an answer, comingfrom one who stood at the second generation ofrom S. John, Mis of the highest value. Thus hemeets the gnostic principle that divine truth isacquired by the individual through some processof his own mind, which in this particular case istermed gnosis, but which may bear many othernames, by appealing to an external standard, theRule of Faith in the Church from the beginning,which by its unity points to its origin and lineagefrom the apostles and Christ. And this serves tobring out the central idea which rules his wholemind, that " where the Church is, there also is theSpirit of God ; and where the Spirit of God is, thereis the Church and all grace : but the Spirit isTruth." The deposit of which " he spoke is not a32 Lib. v. c. 20.

272 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.dead mass, or lump of ore, requiring only safe custody,but a living Spirit dwelling in the Church,the source within her of unity, truth, and grace,using her teaching office, which is set up in herepiscopate, for the drawing out and propagationof the deposit from the double fountain of Traditionand Scripture, for these her teachers assuch have a divine gift of truth.33 It is thus thathe expands without altering the doctrine of his*teacher Polycarp's fellow - disciple, "Where JesusChrist is, there is the Catholic Church."34 Andfrom it he proceeds to what follows necessarily onsuch a conception, that this Church must have avisible point of unity. As then he appeals to thechurches founded by Apostles as the principalcentres of living tradition, so before yet one ofthese churches had fallen into possession ^ * of heretics,35before yet there was any disagreement betweenthem, he singles out one for its superiorprincipate, on account of which it was necessaryfor every church to agree with it, which hegrounds on its descent from S. Peter and S. Paul,giving every link in the chain of succession duringthe hundred and ten years which had elapsedbetween their martyrdom and his own episcopate.He sees an especial prerogative lodged in.33 " Qui cum episcopatus successione charisma veritatis certum se-cundum placitum Patris acceperunt." iv. 26, 2; and 5, " ubi igiturcharismata Domini posita sunt, ibi discere oportet veritatem, apud quosest ea quse est ab apostolis ecclesise successio."34 S. Ignatius, quoted above, p. 206. K Schwane, p. 6G1.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 273that church as the means of securing the wholeChurch's organic unity; and this prerogative isthat it is among churches what S. Peter anPaul were among Apostles ;36 as the first genetern council expressed it, "in it the Apostlt daily, and their blood without intermission bwitness to the glory of God."37as the conception expressed by Irenaeus,with the greatest emphasis and continual repetition,in order to refute heresy, is that all truthand grace are stored up in the one body of theChurch ; to which his doctrine of the Roman Primacyis as the keystone to the arch. For everythingin his view depends on the unity, the intrinsicharmony, of the truth which he is describing aslodged in the episcopate : the means thereforeof securing that unity are part of its conception.Accordingly, to see in its due force his statementthat every church must agree with the RomanChurch, it must not be severed from the contextand taken by itself, but viewed in connexion withthe argument as part of which it stands. If theChurch is to speak one truth with one mouth,which is his main idea she must have an oranicprovision for such a result, which he places in thenecessary agreement of all churches with one"36 Hagemann, p. 622.37 Letter of the Synod of Aries to Pope Sylvester: « Quoniam re-cedere a partibus istis minime potuisti, in quibus et Apostoli quotidiesedent, et cruor ipsorum sine intermissione Dei gloriain testatur." Mansi,Concilia, ii. 469.II.T

274 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.and this is his second idea, subsidiary to the first,and completing it.Irenasus by birth and education represents inall this the witness of the Asiatic churches ; asbishop of Lyons, the churches of Gaul.A few years after Irena3us, Tertullian in a professedtreatise against heresy lays down exactlythe same principles. With him, too, the main ideais the possession of all truth and grace by the oneBody which Christ formed and the Apostles established.This he thus exhibits :" We must not appeal to the Scriptures, nortry the issue on points on which the victory iseither none, or doubtful, or too little doubtful.For though the debate on the Scriptures shouldnot so turn out as to place each party on anequal footing, the order of things requires thatthat question should be first proposed which isthe only one now to be discussed, To whom doesthe Faith itself belong ? Whose are the Scriptures? From whom and through whom, whenand to whom, was that discipline by which menbecome Christians delivered? For wherever thetruth of that which is the Christian discipline atonce and faith be shown to be, there will be thetruth of the Scriptures, of their exposition, h and ofall Christian traditions. Our Lord Jesus Christ(may He suffer me so to speak for the present) ,whoever He is, of whatever God the Son, of what-, ,ever substance God and Man, of whatever reward

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.275the promise*, Himself declared so long as Hon earth, whether to the people openly, or to thlisciples apart, what He was, what He had bwhat will of the Father He administered, whduty of man He laid down. Of whom He hadattached to his own side twelve in chief, the destinedteachers of the nations. One of these havingfallen off from Him, He bade the other eleven, onhis departure to the Father after the resurrection,go and teach the nations, who were to be baptisedinto the Father, into the Son, and into the HolyGhost. The Apostles then forthwith, the meaningof their title being the Sent, assuming by lot Matthiasas a twelfth into the place of Judas, by theauthority of the prophecy in the psalm of David,when they had obtained the promised power ofthe Holy Ghost for miracles and utterance, firstthrough Judea bore witness to the Faith in ChristJesus, and established churches, thence proceedinginto the world promulgated the same doctrine of thesame Faith to the nations, and thereupon foundedchurches in every city, from which the other churchesthenceforth borrowed the vine-layer of the Faithand the seeds of the doctrine, and are daily borrowingthem that they may become churches. AndLs cause they are themselves apostolical, as being the offspringThe whole kind must be classed underits original. And thus these churches so manyand so great are that one first from the Apostles,

276 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.whence they all spring. Thus all are the first,and all apostolical, while all being the one proveunity: whilst there is between them communicationof peace, and the title of brotherhood, andthe token of hospitality.38 And no other principlerules these rights than the one tradition of thesame sacrament/'39Here is the summing up of what Irenasus hadsaid with the force, brevity, and incisiveness whichcharacterise Tertullian. Further on he rejects anyappeal on the part of heretics to scripture :" If the truth be in our possession, as many aswalk by the rule which the Church has handed^^down from the Apostles, the Apostles from Christ,and Christ from God, the reasonableness of ourproposition is manifest, which lays down that here-tics are not to be allowed to enter an appeal toscriptures, since without scriptures we prove themto have no concern with scriptures. For if theyare heretics, they cannot be Christians, inasmuchas they do not hold from Christ what they followby their own choice, and in consequence admitthe name of heretics.40 Therefore not being Chris-tians, they have no right to Christian writings. Towhom we may well say, Who are you ? when did38 Tertull. de Prase. 19, 20.39 The word here stands evidently for the whole body of Christiantruth, rites, and discipline, the communication of which was a sacra-mentum.40 That is, he opposes the word choosers to the word Christians;the one signifying those who believe what they choose, the other thosewho believe what Christ taught.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.277you come? and whence? What are you, who arenot mine, doing in my property ? By what rightdost thou, Marcion, cut down my wood ? By whatlicense dost thou, Valentinus, turn the course of mywaters ? By what poweremove my landmarks ?This is my possession : how are you sowing it.and feeding on it at your pleasure? It is mine, Irepeat: I had it of old; I had it first: I have theLoned title-deeds from the first proprietors.I am the heir of the Apostles. According to th11, according to their trust, according to thoath I took from them, I hold it. You, assuredly,4they have ever disinherited and renounced, asaliens, as enemies. But why are heretics aliensand enemies to Apostles, save from difference ofdoctrine, which each at his own pleasure has eitherbrought forward or received against Apostles ?"41Thus Tertullian adds the witness4of the Africanchurch to that of the Asiatic and Gallic churchesin IrenaBus.We have noted the great church of Alexandriaas a most complete instance of the growth wherebyfrom the mother see the hierarchy took possessionof a land. But the principle of such growth wasthe ecclesiastical rule, and its strength the energywith which that rule was preserved. This rulewas twofold : the rule of discipline, or outwardregimen, what we now call a constitution; and therule of Faith. What the church of Alexandria41 De Prcescrip. 37.

278 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.was in discipline has been seen above: and nowjust at this time we have in the first great teacherof this church, who has come down to us, themost decisive exhibition of this rule as a defenceagainst this same gnostic heresy. " As," saysClement, aa man like those under the enchanment of Circe should become a beast, so whoeverhas kicked against the tradition of the Church,and started aside into the opinions of human heresies,has ceased to be a man of God, and faithfulto the Lord." . . . " There are three states of thesoul, ignorance, opinion, knowledge. Those whoare in ignorance, are the Gentiles; those in knowledge,the true Church; those in opinion, the adherentsof heresies." . . . " We have learnt thatbodily pleasure is one thing, which we give to theGentiles; strife a second, which we adjudge toheresies; joy a third, which is the property of theChurch." Again, he speaks of those who " notusing the divine words well, but perversely, neitherenter themselves into the kingdom of heaven, norsuffer those whom they have deceived to attainthe truth. They have not indeed the key to theentrance, but rather a false key, whereby they donot enter as we do through the Lord's tradition,drawing back the veil, but cutting out a side way,and secretly digging through the Church's wall,they transgress the truth, and initiate into rites oferror the soul of the irreligious. For that theyhave made their human associations later than

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.279the Catholic Church, it needs not many words toshow." Then, after referrino; ^^^ to X/ ^-^ the V Jt-*. ~*t-J origin ^-^ -»"

280 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.surpassing all other things, and having nothingsimilar or equal to itself."43One other writer remains, the larger part ofwhose life falls within this period, greater in renownthan either of the foregoing ; and into whateverparticular errors Origen may have fallen, hedid not swerve from their doctrine as to the modeof meeting error itself. " Since," says he, " thereare many who think that they hold the tenets ofChrist, while some of them hold different tenetsfrom those who went before them, let the ecclesiasticalpreaching as handed down by the orderof succession from the Apostles, and maintainedeven to the present time in the churches, be pre-served : that alone is to be believed as truth whichin nothing is discordant from the ecclesiastical andapostolical tradition."44 And the ground for sucha principle he has given elsewhere :" The divine words assert that the wholeChurch of God is the Body of Christ, animatedby the Son of God, while the limbs of this Bodyas a whole are particular believers: since as thesoul quickens and moves the body, whose natureit is not to have the movement of life from itself,so the Word moving CD to what is fitting, O / and workingin, the whole body, the Church, moves likewise« Clem. Alex. Strom, vii. 16, p. 890-894 ; 17, p. 897-900. The sections15-17, p. 886-900, treat of the spirit and conduct of heresy.« De Principiis, pref. p. 47. See also on Matt, torn, iii. 864, apassag equally decisive.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.281each member of the Church, Jwho does nothingwithout the Word."45The four great writers, then, of this period,Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement, and Origen, none ofthem indeed from Kome, but representing thees of Asia, Gaul, Africa, and Egypt, exconcur in the principle by which they reheresy, the propagation, that is, of the rule ofFaith in its purity and integrity, by those whopossessed the succession of the Apostles and theiroffice of teaching, in which lay a divine gift ofthe truth.But to those who proceeded from this basis itwas a further labour to set forth the true know-ledge against the false. And we may trace thefollowing results of heresy, quite unintended byitself, in its operation on the Church.1. In the first place, S. Augustine continuallyremarks that the more accurate enucleation oftrue doctrine usually proceeded from the attacksof heresy; and this happened so continually thatit seems to him a special instance of that law ofdivine Providence which educes good from evil." If the truth," says he, " had not lying adver-saries, it would be examined with less carefulness,"and so "a question started by an opponentbecomes to the disciple an occasion of learning. "4GAnd he observes that "we have found by experiencethat every heresy has brought into the45 dont. dels. vi. 48, torn. i. 670. *" De Civ. Del, xvi. 2.

282 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.Church its own questions, against which the divineScripture was defended with greater care than ifno such necessity had existed."47 Thus the doctrineof the Trinity owed its perfect treatment tothe Arian assault on it; the doctrine of penanceto that of Novatian ; the doctrine of baptism tothose who wished to introduce the practice of re-baptising; even the unity of Christ was broughtout with greater clearness by the attempt to rendit, and the doctrine of one Catholic Church diffusedthrough the whole world cleared from itsobj ectors by showing that the mixture of evil menin it does not prejudice the good. ;s And he illustrateshis meaning by a very picturesque image:" When heretics calumniate, the young of the flockare disturbed; in their disturbance they inquire;so the young lamb butts its mother's udder till itgets sufficient nutriment for its thirst."49 For thedoctors of the Church being called upon for ananswer supply the truth which before was latent.And there is no more signal instance of the greatwriter's remark than himself; for the attacks ofthe most various heresies led him during fortyyears of unwearied mental activity into almostevery question of theology.The gnostic heresy, then, presents us with thefirst instance of a law which will run all throughthe Church's history. Peter the first Apostle47 De dono persev. 53. 48 Enarr, in Ps. 54, torn. iv. 513.49 Serin. 51, torn, v. 288.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.283meets and refutes Simon Magus, the first propagatorof falsehood, who receives divine sacramentsand then claims against the giver to be " the greatpower of God." This fact is likewise the symbolof a long line of action, wherein it is part of thedivine plan to make the perpetual restlessness oferror subserve the complete exhibition of truth.The Gnostics denied the divine monarchy; at oncemutilated and misinterpreted Scripture ; claimedto themselves a secret tradition of truth. We oweto them in consequence the treatises of Irenseus,Tertullian, and Clement, and a written exhibitionof the Church's divine order, succession, and unity,as well as a specific mention of the tie which heldthat unity together; and the mention of this tieat so early a period might otherwise have beenwanting to us. But these three writers do butrepresent to us partially an universal result. Thedanger which from gnostic influence beset all thechief centres of ecclesiastical teaching marks thetransition from the first state of simple faith tothat of human learning, inquiry, and thought,turned upon the objects of Christian belief. TheGnostics had a merit which they little imaginedfor themselves._They formed the first doctorsof post-apostolic times. Irenasus, Tertullian, andClement are a great advance upon the more simpleand external exhibition of Christianity which wefind in the apologists. In them the Church is preparingto encounter the deepest questions moved

284 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.against her by Greek philosophy. They are herfirst champions in that contest with Hellenic culturewhich was a real combat of mind, not a meremassacre of unresisting victims, and which lastedfor five hundred years.2. Secondly, when the gnostic attack began,the canon of the New Testament was still unfixed.Nothing can be more certain than that the Apostlesdid not set forth any official collection oftheir writings, and that no such collection existedshortly after their death. This fact most plainlyshows that the Christian religion at their departuredid not rest for its maintenance upon writings.Not only had our Lord written no word Himself,but He left no command to His Apostles to write.His command was to propagate His Gospel andto found His kingdom by oral teaching ; and Hispromise was that the Holy Ghost should accompany,follow upon, and continue with, this theiraction. What we find is, that they did this, andthat the writings which besides they left, beingfrom the first kept and venerated by the severalchurches to which they were addressed, graduallybecame known through the whole body of theChurch. With the lapse of time they would becomemore and more valuable. Moreover, " / whenthe Gnostics set themselves to interpolate andcorrupt them, and to fabricate false writings, theneed of a genuine collection became more and moreurgent. It is from the three writers above men-

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.285tioned, 7 towards the end of the second century, «/ 'that we learn that such a collection existed, informing which these principles were followed :only to admit writings which tradition attested tospring from an Apostle or a witness of our Lord'slife,50 among whom Paul was specially counted:secondly, only such writings as were attested bysome church of apostolical foundation: and thirdly,only such writings the doctrine contained in whichdid not differ from the rule of faith orally handeddown in the churches of apostolic origin, or in theone Catholic Church, « excluding W^L^WJL l^V**-J-.I-JL.r all such as wereat variance with the doctrine hitherto received.Thus in the settlement of the Canon authority aswell as tradition intervened; an authority whichfelt itself in secure possession of the same HolySpirit who had inspired the Apostles, and of thesame doctrine which they had taught.5 iWith the reception of a book into the Canonof Scripture was joined a belief in its inspiration,which rested on what was a part of oral tradition,that is, / that the Apostles X as well in their oral asin their written teaching had enjoyed the infallibleguidance of the Holy Spirit. It is evident thatsuch a tradition reposes, in the last instance, uponthe authority of the Church.52If by means of the gnostic attacks the Canon50 S. Mark's Gospel would be referred to S. Peter, and S. Luke'swritings to S. Paul.51 See Schwane, p, 779-80. & Schwane, p. 783-4,

286 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.of the New Testament, as we now possess it, wasnot absolutely completed, it had at least advanceda very great way towards that completion, whichwe have finally attested as of long standing in aCouncil held at Carthage in 397.53. Another result of the gnostic attack wasthe setting forth the tradition of the Faith, seatedand maintained in the apostolic churches, as therule for interpreting Scripture. The Gnostics intwo ways impeached this rule, by claiming a privatetradition of their own, and by interpretingsuch scripture as they chose to«-acknowledge aftertheir own pleasure. Irenceus, Tertullian, and Clementfound an adequate answer to both errors byshowing that the Faith which the Apostles had setforth in their writings could not contradict theFaith which they had established in the Church.These were two sources of the same doctrine; butit is by the permanent connection and interpene-tration of the two that the truth is maintained;and that which holds both together, that whichutters and propagates the truth which they jointlycontain, is the Teaching office, the mouth of theChurch. Hence the force of the appeal in Irenaeusto the succession of the episcopate, and to the divinegift of truth which the Apostles had handeddown therein with their teaching O office. HenceTertullian's exclusion of heretics from the rightto possesscriptures which belong only to the53 " Quia a patribus ista accepimus in ecclesia legenda." n. 47.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.287Church. Hence Clement's description of the onlytrue Gnostic, as " one who has grown old in thestudy of the Scriptures, while he preserves theapostolic and ecclesiastical standard of doctrine."54For neither in founding ^_ churches, _/_- _-- -- -« nor in teachingorally, nor in writing, did the Apostles exhaustor resign the authority committed to them.55 Theauthority itself, which was the source of all thistheir action, after all that they had founded,taught, or written, continued complete and entirein them, and was transmitted on to their successors,for the maintenance of the work assigned toit. It is this perpetual living power which Ire-naaus so strongly testifies,56 to which he attachesthe gift of the Spirit, not scripture, nor tradition,but that which carries both scripture and traditionthrough the ages, which is "as the breath of lifeto the body, which is always from the Spirit ofGod, wherein is placed the communication ofChrist, which is always young, and makes youngthe vessel in which it is."57 The writings o whichthe Holy Ghost has inspired, and the tradition ofthe Faith which He has established, would besubject, the one to misinterpretation, the other toalteration and corruption, without that particularpresence of His, in which consists the divine gift54 Stromata, vii. c. 16, p. 896.55 See Kleutgen, Tlieologie der Vorzeit, iii. 957 ," Schwane, vol. i. 3.56 L. iv. 26. 2, p. 262. " Quapropter iis qui in Ecclesia sunt presby-teris obaudire oportet," &c.57 L, iii. 24, p. 223.

288 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCHof truth, the teaching office, "the making disciplesall nations."4. And the action of heresy, which was soeffective in bringing out the function of theteaching church, was not without force in extendingand corroborating the function of theruling church. The first synods of which wehave mention are those assembled in Asia Minortowards the end of the second century againstthe diffusion of Montanism.58 But what throughthe loss of records has been mentioned only inthis one case must have taken place generally,since it is obvious that as soon as erroneous doctrinesspread from one diocese to another, theywould call forth joint action against them. Sincethen heresies have been the frequent, almost theexclusive, cause of councils. The parallel isfruitful in thought, which is suggested betweenthe action of error in eliciting the more preciseexpression of the truth which it abhors, and itsaction in strengthening the governing power ofthe body which it assaults. In the one case andin the other the result is that which it least desiresand intends ; heresy, disbelieving and disobeying,is made to perfect the faith and build upthe hierarchy.Now to sum up our sketch of the internalhistory of the Christian Faith in the seventy-fouryears which elapse from the accession of Marcus58 Schwane, p. G83.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.289Aurelius to the death of Alexander Severus. Atthe first-named date we find that it had spreadbeyond the confines of the Roman empire, andtaken incipient possession of all the great centresof human intercourse by founding its hierarchyin them. At the second date it has subdued thepowerful and widespread family of heresies whichthreatened to distort and corrupt its doctrines,and has clone this by the vigour of its teachingoifice, which combined in one expression the yetfresh apostolic tradition stored up in its churches,and the doctrine of its sacred scriptures ; while ithas well-nigh determined the number and genuinenessof these, severing them off from all otherwritings. The episcopate in which its teachingoffice resides appears not as a number of bishops,each independent and severed, and merely governinghis diocese upon a similar rule, but with abond recognised among them, the superior prin-cipate of the Roman See. That is, as the teachingoffice itself is in them all the voice of livingOteach-ers, so its highest expression is the voice of theliving Peter in his see. And this bond as discernedrecognised by the Asiatic disciple of S.>, the bishop of the chief city of Gaul,trong that he uses for it rather the term denoting Ophysical necessity than moral fitness :59 as if h59 Observed by Hagemann, p. G18, referring to the words of S.Irenteus, " ad hanc enim Ecclesiam propter potior m T)rmtiecesse est omnem convenire Ecclosiam," &c. It must be rememberedthat the proper word for the power which held together the wholeII.U

290 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.would say: As Christ has made the Church, it mustagree from one end to the other in doctrine andcommunion with the doctrine and communion ofthe Church in which Peter, to whom He has committedHis sheep, speaks and rules. And so powerfulis the derivation of this authority that he whosits in the place of Mark, whom Peter sent, punishesdegradation a bishop who disregards his sentencein the case of a great writer, the brightestgenius of the Church in that day. And when welook at the spiritual state of the world at thecommencement of the third century, we find thatChristianity, having formed and made its place inhuman society, is penetrating through it more andmore in every direction. It is then that we discernthe first beginnings of that great spiritualcreation, in which Reason has been applied toFaith under the guidance of Authority, which theChristian Church, alone being in possession ofthese three constituents, could alone produce, andhas carried on from that day to this. Alexandriawas at this time the seat of a Jewish religiousphilosophy; it had just become the seat likewiseof a heathen religious philosophy; there waswithin its church a great catechetical school, inwhich the Faith as taught by the apostolical andecclesiastical tradition according to the scripturesRoman empire was Principatus, the very word used by S. Augustine toexpress the original authority of the Roman See : " Romans Ecclesia,in qua semper apostolicte cathedne vigvit prineipatvt." Ep. 43.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 291was communicated. It was to be expected thatits teachers, such men as Pantaenus, Clement, andOrigen, would be led on from the more elementarywork of imparting the rudiments of the Faith tothe scientific consideration of its deeper mysteries;and even the sight of what was going on aroundthem among ^"-^^ Jews and Greeks would invite thto attempthe construction of a Christian rel o W^fphilosophy.Moreover Gnosticism, of which Alexandria was "the chief focus, had raised the question of the unit}'and nature of the Godhead, and professed a falsegnosis as the perfection of religion. By this alsothoughtfulOminds were led to consider the truerelation of knowledge to faith, and hence to attemptthe first rudiments of a Theology, the Scienceof Faith.To refute heathenism both as a Philosophy andas a Religion, and to set forth Christianity as theabsolute truth, was the very function of such menas Clement and Origen; and the former in hiswork entitled The Pedagoguexhibits the conductof life according to the principles and doctrines ofChristianity; while his Stromata, or Tapestries, exhibitthe building up of science on the foundationof faith.60 We can hardly realise now the difficultieswhich beset his great pupil Grip-en, when,carrying on the master's thought, he endeavouredto found a theology. The fact that he was among60 See Kuhn, Einlcitung in die kathotisclie Dogmatik, i. 345-G.

292 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.the first to venture on such a deep, is the best excusethat can be made for those speculative errorsinto which he fell.III. And now we turn to the conduct of theempire towards this religion which has grown upin its bosom.At once with the accession of Marcusa temper of greater severity to Christians is shown.The sort of toleration expressed in the rescript ofius to the province of Asia is withdrawnew law about them is enacted, for none is needed,but the old law is let loose. The almost sublimeclemency of Marcus towards his revolted generalCassius, his reign of nineteen years unstained withsenatorial blood, and the campaigns prolongedfrom year to year of one who loved his philosophicstudies above all things, and yet at the callof imperial duty gave up night and day to therudest toils of a weary conflict with barbaroustribes on the frontier, have won for him immortalhonour : his regard for his subjects in general hassometimes given him in Christian estimation theplace of predilection among all princes ancient andmodern.61 It is well, then, to consider his bearingtowards Christians. Now among his teachers wasthat Juiiius Rusticus, grandson of the man whoperished for the sake of liberty in Domitian's time,and in his day no doubt a perfect specimen of the61 Guizot ranks Marcus Aurelius with S. Louis, as the only rulerswho preferred conscience to gain in all their conduct.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.293Roman gentleman and noble, ft a W blending N-'A^^-LA-V-^L-l-AJ.w- of allthat was best in Cicero, Laalius, and Cato, whomMarcus made Prefect of Rome, and to whom whenbearing that office he addressed a rescript containingO the words, / " to Junius Rusticus, * Prefectof the city, our friend." And what this friend ofMarcus thought on the most important subjectswe may judge from the sentiments of anotherfriend and fellow - teacher of the emperor, Maxi-mus of Tyre, who has left written, "how Godrules a mighty and stable kingdom having for its-limits not river or lake or shore or ocean, * but theheaven above and the earth beneath, in whichimpassive as law, bestows on those who obey himthe security of which He is the fountain : and thegods his children need not images any more thangood men statues. But just as our vocal speechrequires not in itself any particular characters,yet human weakness has invented the alphabeticalsigns whereby to give expression to its remembrance,so the nature of the erods needs not im-ages, but man, removed from them as far as heavenfrom earth, has devised these signs, by wiiich togive them names. There may be those strongenough to do without these helps, but they arerare, and as schoolmasters guide their scholars towrite by first pencilling letters for them, so legislatorshave invented these images as signs of thedivine honour, and helps to human memory. ButGod is the father and framer of all things, older

294 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCHthan heaven, superior to time and all fleeting nature,legislator ineffable, unexpressed by voice,unseen by eye; and we who cannot grasp hisessence rest upon words and names, and forms ofgold, ivory, and silver, in our longing to conceiveHim, giving to His nature what is fair among ourselves.But fix Him only in the mind; I care notwhether the Greek is kindled into remembranceof Him by the art of Phidias, or the Egyptian bythe worship of animals, that fire is his symbol tothese, and water to those ; only let them understand,let them love, let them remember Himalone."62I doubt not that Junius Rusticus was familiarwith such thoughts as these, and as a matter ofphilosophic reflection assented to them. And nowlet us study the scene which was enacted in hispresence and by his command.63" At a time when the defenders of idolatry hadproposed edicts in every city and region to compelChristians to sacrifice, Justin and his companionswere seized and brought before the Prefectof Rome, Rusticus. When they stood beforehis tribunal, the Prefect Rusticus said: Well, beobedient to the gods and the emperor's edicts.Justin answered: No man can ever be blamed orcondemned who obeys the precepts of our SaviourJesus Christ. Then the Prefect Rusticus asked: In62 Maximus Tyrius, diss. 17, 12; Reiske, and diss. ii. 2. 10.03 Acta Martymm sincera, Ruinart, p. 58-GO.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.295what sect's learning or discipline are you versed?Justin replied: I endeavoured to learn every sortof sect, and tried every kind of instruction; but atlast I adhered to the Christian discipline, thoughthat is not acceptable to those who are led by theerror of a false opinion. Eusticus said: Wretch,is that the sect in which you take delight? Assuredly,said Justin; since together with a right belieffollow the example of Christians. What beliefis that, I pray ? said the Prefect. Justin replied:The right belief which we as Christians join withpiety is this, to hold that there is one God, theMaker and Creator of all things which are seenand which are not seen by the body's eyes, andto confess one Lord Jesus Christ the Son of God,foretold of old by the prophets, who will alsocome to judge the human race, and who is theherald of salvation and the teacher of those whoearn of Him well.I indeed as a man amand far too little to say anything great of His infiniteGodhead: this I confess to be the office ofprophets, who many ages ago by inspiration foretoldthe advent upon earth of the same whomhave called the Son of God." The Prefect inquired where the Christiansmet. Justin answered : Each wherecan.Do vou suppose that we are accustomed allto meet in the same place ? By no means, since ththe Christians is not circumscribed by, but being invisible fills heaven and earth,

29GTHE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.and is everywhere adored, and His glory praisedby the faithful. The Prefect said : Come, tell mewhere you meet and assemble your disciples. Justinanswered : For myself I have hitherto lodgednear the house of a certain Martin, by the Timio-tine bath. It is the second time I have come toRome, and I know no other place than the onementioned. And if anyone chose to come to me,I communicated to him the doctrine of truth. Youare, then, a Christian,' said Eusticus. Assuredly ,said Justin, I am."" Then the Prefect asked Charito: Are you tooa Christian ? Charito replied: By God's helpam a Christian. The Prefect asked the womanCharitana whether she too followed the Faith ofChrist. She replied : I also by the gift of Godam a Christian. Then Eusticus said to Evelpistus:.LAnd who are you ? He replied: I am Caesar'sslave, but a Christian to whom Christ has givenliberty, and by His favour and grace made partakerof the same hope with those whom you see.The Prefect then asked Hierax whether he tooiwas a Christian; and he replied : Certainly I ama Christian, since I worship and adore the sameGod. The Prefect inquired: Was it Justin whomade you Christians? I, said Hierax, both wasand will be a Christian. Pa?oii likewise stood be-fore him and said: I too am a Christian. Whotaught you ? said the Prefect. He replied: I receivedthis good confession from my parents. Then

UBH4RY *""- I M1LIEGETHE SECOXD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.297Evelpistusaid: I also was accustomedhear withgreat O delight O Justin's discourses, * but it was frommy parents that I learnt to be a Christian. Thenthe Prefect : And where are your parents ? InCappadocia,^^^^ ^^^BF said Evelpistus. The Prefect likewiseasked Hierax where his parents were, and Hieraxreplied: Our true Father is Christ, and our motherthe Faith, by which we believe on Him. But myearthly parents are dead. It was, however, fromIconium in Phrygia that I was brought hither.The Prefect asked Liberianus whether he too wasa Christian and without piety towards the gods.He said: I also am a Christian, for I worship andadore the only true God." Then the Prefect turned to Justin and said:You fellow, who are said to be eloquent, and thinkyou hold the true discipline. If you are beatenfrom head to foot, is it your persuasion that youwill go up to heaven ? Justin answered : I hopeif I suffer what you say, that I shall have whatthose have who have kept the commands of Christ.or I know that to all who live thus the divinegrace is preserved until the whole world have itsconsummation. The Prefect Eusticus replied : Itis, then, your opinion that you will go up to heaven.to receive some reward ? I do not opine, said_ *JL ?Justin, « but ^/ V-l

298 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.gods. Justin replied : No one of right mind desertspiety to fall into error and impiety. ThePrefect Rusticus said: Unless you be willing toobey our commands, you will suffer torments withoutmercy. Justin answered : What we most desireis to suffer tormentsfor our Lord Jesus Christand to be saved : for this will procure for us salvationand confidence before that terrible tribunalof the same our Lord and Saviour, at which bydivine command the whole world shall attend.The same likewise said all the other martyrs, adding: What thou wilt do, do quickly; for we areChristians and sacrifice not to idols." The Prefect hearing this pronounced the followingsentence: Let those who have refused tosacrifice to the gods, and to obey the emperor'sedict, be beaten with rods, and led away to capitalpunishment, as the laws enjoin. And so the holymartyrs praising God were led to the accustomedace, and after being beaten were struct with theaxe, and consummated their martyrdom in theconfession of the Saviour. After which certain ofthe faithful took away their bodies, and laid themin a suitable place, by the help of the grace of ourLord Jesus Christ, to whom be glory for ever anever."As the pillars of Trajan and Antonine faithfullyrecord the deeds of those whose names theybear, and stand before posterity as a visible history,so, I conceive, the judgment of Ignatius by

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.299Trajan, and that of Justin by Eusticus, unde as it were of Marcus Aurelius and in hisnbody to us perfectly the mind and conductthose great emperors towards Christians. Thmarble of Phidias could present no moresculpture, the pencil of Apelles no more breathingpicture, than the simple transcription of the judi-d si veil above. In the mind of Mthe jealousy of the old Eoman for his country'sworship joined with the philosopher's dislike ofChristian principles to move him from that moreequable temper which dictated the later moderationof his immediate predecessor. It scarcelyneeded the spirit which ruled at Eome to kindlepassionate outbreaks against Christians in the variouscities of the empire. We have just seen theimpassive majesty of Eoman law declaring at theof power that to be a Christian is a catal crime. If we go at the same time to Smythpopulace are demando that an agfed man venerable through the whfor his innocent life and his virtues, be castto the lions, because he is " the teacher of impietythe father of the Christians, the destroyer ofgods, who has instructed many not to sthem or adore them."er scene amono-othe deeds of men is preserved to us, as describedby his own church at the time, than thmartyrdom of Polycarp, as after eighty-six yearf Christian service he stood bound at the st

300 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.efore the raging multitude in. the theatre, anduttered his last prayer : " I thank thee, 0 Godof angels and powers, and all the generation ofthe just who live before thee, that thou hastthought me worthy of this day and hour to receivea portion in the number of thy martyrs, inthe chalice of thy Christ." Ten years later, in thegreat city of Lyons a similar spectacle was offeredon a far larger scale. The Bishop Pothinus, morethan ninety years old, is carried before the tribunal,uthe magistrates of the city following him,and all the multitude pursuing him with cries asif he were Christ.'7 But the triumph of the bishopis accompanied by that of many among his flock,of whom while all were admirable, yet the slaveBlandina, poor and contemptible in appearance,surpassed the rest. " She was exposed to thebeasts raised as it were upon a cross, and sopraying most contentedly to God, she inspiredthe utmost ardour in her fellow combatants, whowith the eyes of the body saw in this their sister'sHim ho had been crucified for them into persuade those who should beHim that whoever suffers for the < olory J "/ of Christshall obtain companionship with the living God."64Since the wild beasts refused to tonch her, Blan-dina and the survivors among her fellow-suffererswere remanded to prison, in order that the pleasureof the emperor might be taken, one of themc4 Ruinart. p. G7.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MAKTYR CHURCH.301ins: o a Roman citizen. For this persecution -«-hadarisen without any command of his, and the punishmentswere inflicted in virtue of the ordinary law.After an interval, as it would seem, of \-/JL two U V/ months JLAAVy J-JL l^A-LtO*a rescript was received from Marcus Aurelius whichordered that those who confessed should be punishedignominiously, those who denied, be dismissed." And so at the time of our great fair,when a vast multitude from the various provincesflock thither, the governor ordered the most blessedmartyrs to be brought before his tribunal, exhibitingthem to the people as in theatric pomp; andafter a last interrogation those who were Eomaiicitizens were beheaded, and the rest given to thewild beasts."65 But Blandina, after being everyday brought to behold the sufferings of her com-- pardons, " the last of all, like a noble mother whohad kindled her children to the combat, and sentthem forward as conquerors to the king, - waseager to follow them, rejoicing and exulting overher departure, as if invited to a nuptial banquet,not cast before wild beasts. At length, afterscourging and tearing and burning, she was putin a net and exposed l to the bull. Tossed a^ain Oand again by him, yet feeling now nothing wwas done to her, both from the intensity of hwith which she grasped the rewards of faith, andfrom her intimate intercourse in prayer with Christ,the end she had her throat cut, as a victim, whil65 Ruinart, p. G8.

302 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.the heathen themselves confessed that never hadthey seen a woman who had borne so much andso long."66These three scenes of martyrdom at Koine, atSmyrna, and at Lyons, will give a notion of thegrounds upon which Eusebius asserts that in thereign of Marcus Aurelius innumerable martyrs suffered67throughout the world through popular persecutions.Respecting the following reign of Corn-modus he says, on the contrary, that the Churchenjoyed peace, for while the law which consideredChristianity an illicit religion had not been revoked,it was made capital to inform against anyone as Christian; and yet if the information toolplace, and the crime was proved, the punishmentof death ensued, as in the case of the senator Apol-lonius recorded by him.68 This state of thingswould seem to have lasted about seventeen years,until the year 197, when Severus, some time afterhis accession, became unfavourable to Christians.And it brings us to Tertullian, whose writings arefull of testimonies to the sufferings endured byChristians for their Faith. For some time thesesufferings would seem to fall under the same sortof intermittent popular persecution, which we have, seen prevailing in the time of Marcus: but in theyear 202 Severus published an edict forbiddingany to become Jews or Christians. And forth-C6 Ruinart, p. 69.67 Hist. V. i. fj.vpia5a.s [AapTvpow Stairpfyai iw Aac8 Ib. V. 21.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.303with a persecution broke out so severe and terrible,that many thought the time of Antichristwas come. It was no longer the mere action ofan org l law against all thorised reli ,but an assault led on by the emperor himself, wiidirectly th mp pow r t C s-t as a wh It raged especially at Alexd . where the mast f the cat hetwrites : " we have before our eyes every day abundantinstances of martyrs, tortured by fire, impaled,beheaded : they are superior to pleasure ; theyconquer suffering ; they overcome the world."69Then it was that Origen, a youth of seventeen,desired to share the martrdom of his fatherLeonides, and that seven whom he had himselfinstructed, gained this crown. Then itwas that the slave Potanmena, in the bloom ofyouth and beauty, not only rejected every blandishmentof corruption, but suffered the extremesttorture of fire to preserve her innocence and faith,and gained at Alexandria such a name as St. Lawrenceafterwards gained o at Rome. So at Carthage OPerpetua and Felicitas, young mothers, with theircompanions repeated the example of those whomwe have seen suffering at Lyons; in which city asecond persecution as vehement as the first breakingout numbered Ireneeus with his predecessorPothinus, his people in this case as in the otheraccompanying the pastor's sacrifice with their own.69 Clem, Alex, Strom, ii. c. 20, p. 494.

304 THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.This state of suffering continued during the life ofSeverus for nine years : and splendid examples ofChristian championship were shown in all thechurches.70 It is only with the accession of Oa-racalla that peace is restored, and then ensues aperiod of comparative repose : that is, while theordinary law against the Christian Faith as anillicit religion still continues, it is understood thatthe emperor does not wish it to be put in action.In such intervals that Faith, strengthened by theconflicts it had undergone, and admired by thosebefore whose " eyes it had enabled its adherents tobrave and endure every sort of suffering, sprungup and shot out with redoubled vigour, and theseed which the blood of the martrs had shedabroad found time to grow.The suminary of the seventy-four years is this.From 161 to 180 there are nineteen years of irregularbut severe persecution, followed by seven-teen, from 180 to 197, wherein the denouncing ofChristians is forbidden, though if brought to trial,they are punishable with death. Five years succeed,from 197 to 202, in which the favour of Severusseems lost, and the state of intermittent persecutiontakes effect.Then breaks out a ereneralpersecution, set on foot by the emperor himself,and we may judge if he who slaughtered his senatespared Christians. This lasts for nine years untilhis death in 211, whereon a time of peace returns,"° Euseb. Hist. vi. 1.

THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.305which is most complete during the reign of Alexander,but continues more or less from 211 to theend of his reign in 235.11 a review of the whole period it is evidentthat the Church has passed from its state of concealmentinto almost full light. The fiery trialwhich it met at the beginning of the third centuryfrom the hand of Severus is the best proof that canbe o sfiveii how o oreatlv "/ it had increased, ' how it couldno longer be ignored or despised; how its organisationwhich was hidden from Trajan was at leastpartially revealed to Severus, and how he saw andattempted to meet the danger which the earlieremperor would have tried to stamp out, had hedivined it. But it is evident also * that in propor-tion as the Christian Faith had grown, the heathenempire had been shaken in *its foundations. Itsperiod of just government was over; its imperialpower was to fall henceforth into the hands of adventurers,,with whom it would be more and morethe symbol of force alone, and not of law: hforth thev would seldom even in blood be Rd more seldom still in principles. Marcus waswell nigh the last zealot for the Jupiter of th( apitol: within a generation after him Heliog11 think of a fusion of all religions in his god tlsun, and Alexander Severus of a rel giouscretism wherein Orpheus, Abraham, « and Christtestify together to the divine unity.71 Xor is thisII.71 Cliampagny, les Afitomns, iii. 32G, 338.X

306 THE SECOXD AGE OF THE MAKTYR CHURCH.a fancy of the prince alone. All the thinking mindsof his time have become ashamed of Olympus andits gods. The cross has wounded them to death.A new philosophy-the last fortress into which retreatingheathenism throws itself-while it breaksup Roman life, prepares the way for the ChristianFaith which it strenuously combats. The EmperorSeverus, fixing the eye of a statesman and a soldieron that Faith, contemplates its grasp upon society,and decrees from the height of the throne a generalassault upon it; while his wife encourages awriter72 to draw an ideal heathen portrait as acounterpart to the character of Christ, tacitly subtractingfrom the gospels an imitation which is tosupply the place of the reality. The time was notfar distant when Origen would already discern andprophesy the complete triumph of the religion thusassailed; and if Celsus had objected, that were allto do as Christians did, the emperor would be deserted,and his power fall into the hands of themost savage and lawless barbarians, would reply:" If all did as I clo, men would honour the emperoras a divine command, and the barbarians drawingnigh to the word of God would become most law-loving and most civilised; their worship would bedissolved, and that of the Christians alone pre-vail, as one day it will alone prevail, by means72 Philostratus in his Life of Apollonlus of Tyana, wrquest of the empress Julia Domna. See Kellner, Hellenisttenthwm, c, v. s. 4, 81-4,

"THE SECOND AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 307of that Word gathering to itself more and moresouls."73But before such a goal be reached, many amart} crown s yet t morethan barb lawl c tbe overcome.73 Orig. c. Cels. viii. 68, torn, i. p. 793.

CHAPTERXIITHE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH"Rex pacificus magnificatus est, cujus vultuin desiderat universa terra."THE third century is that during which the ChristianChurch was making its way into every relationof life, and taking possession of human society.During this period it advances into full light, andbecomes a manifest power. In the second centuryCelsus had attacked it as disclosed only to theyearning hearts of slaves, and fostered by the devotionof the weaker sex. At the distance of threeOgenerations OrigeiiOanswered him,'but the religionOwhich he defended already stood avowed alike beforethe inquiring . gaze of philosophers, the corruptcrowds of cities, and the jealous fear of rulers.Even in Rome, the sceptered head of idolatry,whose nobles the great political traditions of theircity, and whose populace their sensualife, havingits root in a false worship, made the most difficultto convert, the hated faith is known to have hadpublic churches by the time of Alexander Severus,two hundred years after its first rise.1 And much1 Churches in private houses, under cover of that great liberty whichinvested with a sort of sacred independence the Roman household, it hadfrom the beginning: the church of 8. Pudentiana in the house of thesenator Pudens still guards the altar on which S, Peter offered.

LIBRARY ST. MARY STHE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.309more everywher else it had planted its foot openlyon the soil of the empire. It is time, then, to viewthe Church as an institution4offering the strongestcontrast to the empire itself, to the barbarismwhich surrounded the empire, and to the sectarianismwhich was everywhere aspiring to counter-work and supplant that entire body of truth onsome portion of which nevertheless it was all thetime feeding.1. And first the empire during this centurypresents itself to us in a most unwonted aspect.Septimius Severus having destroyed the rivalswho competed with him for what was now becomethe great object of a successful"general's ambition,based his power avowedly on the sword. Thesecret of empire which he transmitted to his chil-dren was to foster and indulge the army, and todisregard all else. The senate, the representativeof legal power, he despised and decimated. Hedied in 211, not before his eldest son had alreadylifted his hand against him, and the four princesof his house all perished by the sword, one by thehand of a brother, the other three by revolted soldiers.In the seventy - three years which elapsefrom his death to the accession of Diocletiantwenty-five emperors are acknowledged at Rome,m wenty-three come to an end by violentdeaths, almost always by insurrections of soldiers,under instigation of ambitious officers. Besidesthese, eight associates of the empire, and nineteen

310 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.generals who during the reign of Gallienus assumethe purple in various provinces, are all slain.During eighty-two years Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus,and Marcus, all at a mature time of life,adopted by the actual ruler to succeed, had governeda stable empire : but now it passes withina shorter period of time, the term of a single humanlife, nay a term in one case embraced by a singlereign,2 into twenty-five different hands. And indeedit seemed after the capture of the EmperorValerian by the Persians, as if that great confederacy,which had just celebrated the thousandthanniversary of the imperial city's foundation, wasabout to break up and be resolved into its componentparts. At one moment two great princesses,Victoria and Zenobia, worthy even by theavowal of Romans to wear the Roman diadem,were on the point of establishing the one an empireof the Gauls in the West, the other an empireof the East embracing just those countries whichAntony had ruled with Cleopatra at his side. Asuccession of great generals, all from the provinceof Illyricum, at last saves the empire and reassertsits unity. But the forty-nine years following themurder of Alexander Severus are filled by thestruggles of twenty sovereigns and nineteen pretendersto sovereignty, scarcely any of whom reignso much as five years. Many of them are rulersof great"ability and remarkable energy. Claudius,2 The reign of Louis XIV.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 311Aurelian, Probus, and Car us, and perhaps Deciusrequired but happier circumstances to be emperorswhose fame would have matched that of Trajan orHadrian : but their short tenure of power, occupiedwith the vast effort to restore unity and beatback the barbarian, prevented their doing morethan preserve the imperial power and the empireitself. This whole time, then, in civil society wasone of fluctuation, anxiety, disaster, alarms frombeyond the frontiers and anarchy within them.The Roman peace seemed departing, and the majestyof the empire irreparably violated. Mencould not tell what the morrow would bring forth.The fairest cities of the Roman world, Alexandriaand Antioch, narrowly escaped perishing throughinternal discord or hostile surprise. Greece andAsia Minor, after reposing for centuries under thesafeguard of the Roman name, found themselvesswept through and desolated by barbarian hordes.Italy itself was in imminent danger of the samelot. Towards the end of this period the senateby the election of Tacitus seems to make whatmay be termed its final effort to assert itself asthe depository of legitimate power, the representativeof civil society: and this time of confusionissues in a rejection of any such claim, and the'establishment of unlimited despotism in the empireas reconstituted by Diocletian. To these straits,then, the first great and haughty enemy of theChristian Church was reduced, so that the power

312 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.which a century before could look down withproud indifference on the sufferings of Christiansnow seemed to tremble for its own existence. Andin such a condition of human society the great advanceof the Church was carried on.2. But beyond the empire to the north, advancingupon it like the multitudinous waves ofthe ocean on an exposed coast, lay the ever-battlinglegions of the northern tribes in their threegreat divisions of the Teutonic, Slavic, and Finnishraces. If Roman society suffered throes of distress,its condition was peace compared with theinstability which may be said to have been thevery life of these tribes. Once at least in everycentury they gather themselves up for a concentratedeffort against the empire whose rich civilisationlies stretchedout before them as a continualiprey. After the failure of Arminius to constructa German kingdom, and of Marobod to constructa Suevian, in the time of Augustus, Decebalus, inthe time of Trajan, makes another effort in behalfof his Dacians. But here the great Roman generalforces barbarism to retreat, and plants a freshcitadel in its very stronghold by establishing aprovince north of the Danube. Then there iscomparative tranquillity for sixty years. It seemsas if these two generations were offered by divineProvidence to the empire yet in its unbrokenstrength as a time for its pacific conversion, whichif it had accepted, the eruption of the northern

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 313nations might for ever have been kept back bythe unity which religious conviction would havebestowed on civilisation, and the fresh and livingforce which it would have imparted to society notyet exhausted by despotic power. But with MarcusAurelius the empire turns definitively away.A new religious revolution under Odin in Scandi-navia had wakened up with redoubled force thedestroying energy of barbarism. * The Goths had-^-migrated from Sweden to the Black Sea; all thetribes in the interval had been displaced anddashed upon each other by this removal. Thewar of the Marcomans occupied during eighteenyears, from 162 to 180, the whole forces of theempire ; Rome was obliged even to arm its slaves,and Italy feared an invasion more terrible thanthat of the Cimbri, which it cost Marcus Aureliushis life to avert.Again, during the captivity of Valerian, anothergrand assault of the northern tribes takesplace. The Franks attack western, the Alamanseastern Gaul; they pass the Alps and advance toRavenna, while Alamans and Sarmatians throwthemselves upon Pannonia, and the Goths seizeupon Thrace and Greece. The emperors Claudius,Aurelian, and Probus are the saviours of Romefrom this new flood. Of the last of these it isrecorded that he dealt successively with Franks,Bmmindians, « Alamans, ^L_ _J^Jkl^UA,.l_J tVJL-LK^* Vandals, C t-L JL Vi-Clf J-O » the Bastarna*,and the whole barbarian brood : and sevent cities

314 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.raised from their ruins, and fortifications repairedupon a line of fifteen hundred miles, were thefruits of his victories.3So much for the north: while on the east thePersian empire, hereditary foe of the Roman name,had found a new and more vigorous master in therace of the Sassanidip, who took the religion ofZoroaster to reanimate the national spirit. Ardes-chir claimed once more the whole realm which*Cyrus and Darius had ruled. Henceforth the Romanshad a neighbour more than ever threateningtheir eastern frontier, and never to be wholly sub-dued, until the empire of Mohammed arose to detacha great part of their dominion, and to movewith redoubled force upon what remained.To the south of the Roman provinces in Africawere tribes at least as savage as those of the north.Thus the whole empire was enringed with enemies: on the east an opposing civilisation andreligion; on the north and south barbarian tribesin perpetual confusion and conflict with each other.Such was the great realm of disorder which surgedand heaved to the north and south of the empire;and such the second great enemy which in futuretimes was to occupy the Christian Churc * Clld the strongest contrast to thmoral polity of peace and goodwill, of loyal submission,patient endurance, and heroic fortitude,which was spreading daily in the empire.3 Am, Thierry, Tableau de VEmpire Romain, p. 412,

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.3153. But there was yet another enemy within themp tself, which from the beginning trackedthe footsteps of the Church, grew with itand everywhere attempted to dissolve its organisationand weaken its influence. The whole secondcentury is occupied with the rise and tangledgrowth of the Gnostic sects. But these were notalone. From the very time of the Apostles we findthe evidence of a number of sects, rising and fall-ing, preying on and devouring each other, nonewithout some portion of Christian truth, on whichit feeds, blended with Jewish, * Greek, \^ A V\^JL**ft Oriental \^S J. AV/AJL WVM+Egyptian, Libyan notions, prejudices, and errors ;domiciled in various parts of the empire in accordancewith the national or local character whichthey represent. They reproduce with a Christiancolour the sects and the sect-life of the Greekschools of philosophy. As the wheat has its prcweed, which springs up hi the midst of it ancounterfeits it, so error, everywhere gathering roundsome portion of truth, forms itself into an anta-gonistic life. The force and truth of the ChristianChurch were shown not in the absence of theserivals, but in its triumph over their variety, in itsremaining one whilst they diverged endlessly fromthat unchanging original type, in its continuousm growth whilst they rose and fell,domineeredcertain times and places, and thdisappeared. In this its course the Church hadto master very great difficulties, which were in-

316 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.herent in the manner of its rise. It had to remainone society in spite of the isolation and.self-government of its local portions. It possessedin each place but a feeble minority of memberscompared with the mass of unbelievers. Againstits assimilating power was ranged the force ofnational feelings which underlay the Roman authoritythroughout the whole empire. It had todeal entirely by moral means with the full libertof error to which its adherents were exposed.Lastly, it had to do all this amid the continualstrain of threatened or actual persecution, a statewhich at its best was one of insecurity, and whichany local trouble, the ill-will of a mob, the greedor ambition, or fear of provincial rulers, not tospeak of the imperial state-policy, might turn intothe pressure of severe suffering.In the face of such difficulties, if the ChristianChurch continued one in its doctrine, organisation,and manner of life, such unity was assuredly theproof of a divine power residing * it.I shall now proceed to show by the testimonyof eye-witnesses that such unity was its distinguishingcharacteristic."Now there was not a race or a reliion in allthis Roman empire, endless as the races and religionscomprehended in it were, out of which individualswere not drawn into the bosom of the onegreat Christian society; and yet within this therewas a perfect union of all hearts and minds in the

THE THTKD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.317conviction that the multitude so collected was onepeople apart from all other peoples. And this convictionis itself the great marvel. How was itwrought ? For it was an utterly new thing uthe earth. The union of race,lanuae,and lolity,with whichwas usuallyoven, had been hitherto the bond of suenations as had as yet existed. The great city itself__had sprung up and flourished by the strict unionof these four things. After its career of foreignconquest had substituted for the government ofa city the great Roman confederation, it had indeed,like the preceding world - empires, in factdisregarded all these, being supported by a forceindependent of them all. But that force was materialpower. The great statue was of iron. Itwas a novelty unheard of as yet among the gentilesand unimagined by poet or philosopher, tocreate a polity which, disregarding sameness ofrace, of language, and of locality, should exist andmaintain itself throughout the whole earth solelyby the force of faith and charity.Such was the idea of Christians about them-selves from the beginning. The idea preceded thefact. The prophets foretold it; the Apostles proclaimedit :4 let us observe the fulfilment of theprophecy and the proclamation. We will talstand in the middle of the third century, when« Zach. ii. ]], Is. ii. 2, Mich. iv. 1, compared with Titus ii. U and1 Tct. ii. y.

318 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.seven full generations have passed since the day ofPentecost. In this time a people has been formed.Already a hundred and fifty years before an eyewitnessamong themselves had observed the natureof this people. " Christians are not distinguishedfrom other men either by country, or bylanguage, or by customs: for they have no citiespeculiar to themselves, nor any language differentfrom others, nor singularity in their mode of life..... But they dwell both in Greek and in barbarouscities, as the lot of each may be, followinglocal customs as to raiment and food, and the restof their life, but exhibiting withal a polity of theirown, marvellous and truly incredible. They dwellin their own country, but it is as sojourners; theyshare in everything as citizens, yet suffer everything as strangers. Every foreign land is to thema country, and every country a foreign land. . . .In a word, what the soul is in the body, that Christiansare in the world. The soul is diffused throughall the limbs of the body, and Christians throughall the cities of the world. . . . The soul is shutwithin the body, of which it' is the bond, andChristians are like a garrison in the world, whichthey hold together."5Here a writer, calling himself a disciple ofApostles, describes to us, at the beginning of thesecond century, what the apostolic age of seventyyears had wrought. He puts his finger just upon6 Ep. ad Diognetmi, 5, G.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.319the marvel which we are contemplating. Fiftyyears later, at the moment the empire was culminatingo under the serene rule of Antoninus, ' aconvert from heathenism, a philosopher who hadspent his life in examining all the sects and racesof the empire, and who afterwards became a martyr,said of Christians that being " quarried outof the side of Christ, they were the true Israeliticrace," "altogether being called the body, for bothpeople and church, being many in number, arecalled by one name as one thing ;" they are infact " as one man before the Maker of all things, O 7throughOthe name of His first-born Son'" the High-Opriest gathering up first in the prophetical visionand then in the real fact " the true high-priestlyrace"6 in His own Person. Thus Justin pointedout this conception of the Christian people to theJew of his time as both foretold in prophecy andexhibited " in fact. The longer that such a peopleas this endured, the greater would be the marvel.A hundred years after this, Origen uses thesame language and points to the same marvel.He had in the year 249, at the entreaty of a friendand pupil, set himself in the maturity of life, andof a renown which filled the Church as no man'sbefore had filled it, to answer the attack of a hea-ithen philosopher, Celsus, upon Christianity. He6 S. Justin Martyr, Tryphon, sec. 135, 42, 116; where he refers to andexplains the vision of the high-priest Jesus in the prophet Zachariasin. " ". 1. -

320 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.was writing just at the end of the longest periodof peace which is found during those three centuries.From the death of the Emperor SeptimusSeverus in 211 to that of the Emperor Philip in.this year 249, there * had been, with the exceptionof a short attack from Maximin, to which his deathput a stop, no general persecution of Christians.Thus thirty-eight years had passed of such tranquillityas it was ever in those times the lot ofChristians to obtain. The mother of one emperorhad been Origen's disciple, and the emperor actuallyreigning was a Christian, however unworthyof such a profession. Now in this work Origeiispeaks of the superiority of the Christian churchesin each several place, as, for instance, at Athens,Corinth, Alexandria, to the heathen assemblies,and of the Christian rulers to the heathen. Heputs it as a mark of divine power that God sendingHis Son, " a God come in human soul and bodyshould have established everywhere churches offer-ins: O the contrast of their polity JL */ to the assemblies ofthe superstitious, the impure, and the unjust. Heconsiders that Christians do a greater benefit totheir country than all other men by teaching thempiety to the one God, and "gathering up into acertain divine and heavenly city those who havelived well in the smallest cities."8 " We," he says,u knowing that there is in each city another fabricT 7 '-%c « 1/iOV *.1iii. 29.8 Ibid. viii. 71Cont. Cels

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 321of a country, founded by the word of God, callthose who are powerful in word and of a virtuouslife to the government of churches: we do notaccept the covetous to such a place, but force itagainstheir will upon those who in their moderationwould decline taking on them this generalcare of the Church of God."9"And the compulsionthus exercised is that "of the great King, whomwe are persuaded to be the Son of God, God theWord." But this other form of country which hesaw in each city is "the whole Church of God,which the divine scriptures assert to be the Bodyof Christ, animated by the Son of God, while thelimbs of this Body are particular believers; for asthe soul quickens and moves the body, whose natureit is not to have the movement of life fromitself, so the Word moving to what is fitting, andenergising in the whole Body, the Church, moveslikewise each member of it, who does nothingwithout the Word."10 And he completes this viewin another beautiful passage wherein he describesChrist as the high-priest Aaron, who has receivedupon his single body the whole chrism, from whomit flows down upon his beard, the symbol of thecomplete man, and on to the utmost skirt of hisraiment. Every one who partakes of Him, partakeslikewise of his chrism, because Christ is thehead of the Church, and the Church and ChristII.9 Cont. Cels. viii. 75.10 Ibid. vi. 48, p. 670.Y

322 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.one Body.11 We have here in Origen's thoughtone and the same divine power, proceeding forthfrom the Incarnation, which forms first the Bodyof the Lord, and then gathers into this Body everyindividual as a copy of the Christ. The heathenscoffer had objected : why send forth one spiritinto one corner of the earth? It was needed tobreathe that spirit into many bodies, and to sendthem forth into all the world. Nay, replied Origen," the whole Church of God-animated by the Sonof God as the soul quickens and moves the body-was enough. It needed not that there should bemany bodies and many souls, like that of Jesus, inthe way you suppose, for the one Word as the sunof righteousness rising from Judea was sufficientto send forth rays that should reach every soul thatwould receive him." He has done far more thanyou suggest: every member of that one Body hasreceived according to his measure a due portion ofanointment: after the model of the Christ, theytoo are Christs; " so that beginning in the bodyHe should dawn in power and in spirit upon theuniverse of souls which would no longer be destituteof God."In Origen's mind, then, the greatness of theKing lies specifically in this, that out of confusionHe draws unity, out of those who were no peopleHe forms a people, out of nations and tribes atenmity He moulds an indivisible kingdom, and» Cont. Cels. vi. 79, p. 692.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.323from His own Body a Body which shall embrace auniverse of souls, ' instinct with one life, and thatHis own. This was Origen's view of the workand triumph of Christ, as he saw it before him, atthe eve of the great Decian persecution in 249.Origen was writing this at a moment of greatinterest. It was the last year which precededthose two * generations, in the course of which fivegreat persecution should be directed by the emperorsagainst the Church. He was then a manof sixty-four. The son of a martyr, he had whena youth of eighteen beheld his father imprisonedfor the faith, and had encouraged him to suffer theloss of all his goods, and death itself, without regardingthat large family which must be left inpenury, of whom Origen was the eldest. He wasburning himself to share his father's sufferings.n the persecution of which this was the obius tells us that seven of his disciulestyrs: and, lastly, he was to undergo suchties himself in the persecution of Decius, then onthe eve of breaking out, that he is believed to havelied of their results. Now it is in this work thhe speaks of the remarkable providence of God inpreserving Christians, who by their religion werebound not to defend themselves, against the attacksof their enemies, for God, he says, had fought forthem, and from time to time had stopped thosewho had risen up with the purpose of destroyingthem. Few and easily numbered were those who

324 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.hitherto had suffered death for the Christian Faith,samples chosen by God as champions to encouragethe rest, while He prevented their whole nationfrom being rooted out : for it was His purposethat this nation should be firmly rooted and con-solidated, and the whole world be filled with itssaving doctrine and discipline.12 Thus it wasHis will alone that He scattered every plot directedagainst them, so that neither emperors, nor localgovernors, nor the people should be able to indulgetheir wrath beyond a certain point. Origen,when he thus wrote, could look back on a periodof thirty-eight years, during which, with the exceptionof the severe but passing storm raisedthe Emperor Maximin, peace had reigned: yearswhich * he had himself employed in unwearied la-bours of teaching, writing, and converting; inwhich he had directed and advised an emperor'smother, and seen a Christian emperor; in whichhe had witnessed a wonderful increase of the Christianpeople, and indeed of this increase his wordsabove cited convey a faithful picture. He knew12 K(*)\vovros rov ®eov rb Trap $Kr0\efM$r)Vai avr&V eOvos' ffwrrijycu yap avrbej8ov\¬To Kal 7rA7jpoj0^ai Traaxu' rfyv 7?)^ ri]S (rwrypiov ravrqs /ecu eucre5i5ao-Ka\ias. Cbw#. Cels. iii. 8. It must be remembered that Celsus in thepassage to which this is an answer had asserted that the Christians hadarisen out of the Jews through a sedition; which makes the train ofthought pertinent. For Origen is contrasting the losses which occurthrough exterminating i wars, such as a sedition, or civil war, excites,with the losses to the Christian body through martyrdom. The com-parison therefore lies between the whole number of Christians vieweden masse and the martyrs. Lasaulx remarks that this was written beforethe Decian persecution.

TPIE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.325not the fearful trials which were to be encounteredbefore that triumph of the truth which he alreadyanticipated should be attained : or that God wasabout to accept from the grayhaired man the sacrificewhich the impetuous youth had affronted with-out success. For scarcely has he written this bookwhen he has to fly for his life before the edict ofDecius, who will attempt to destroy the Christianreligion, and to whose anger Pope S. Fabian fallsa victim. Amid great peril after long delay thenext Pope Cornelius is chosen. And now for thefirst time a new danger from within assaults theChurch. Novatian, a Roman presbyter of greatrepute, attempts after the due election and consecrationof Cornelius to usurp his place, and todivide the one flock of Christ. Under circum-stances so wholly altered from those in whichOrigen above was writing, we come to our nextwitness, the man in all the Western Church themost renowned, as Origen was in the Eastern.For it was on occasion of the first antipope, aneffort, * that U_LLt_AJ U is, XkJ* withinthe See of Peter itself to armthe episcopal power at its very source against itself,to set an altar up against the legitimate altar, andto divide the sacraments of the Church from the-Bride whose dowry they are, that S.. Cyprianwrote his treatise on the Unity of the Church." It was for the purpose of reminding his brethrenthat unity is the first element of the Christianstate, and that those who break off from the

326 - THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.principle of unity, which is lodged in the episcopate,even though they be confessors and martyrs,have no portion in the hopes of the gospel."13This definite purpose, so unlike that state of leisureand tranquillity in which Origen answeredby thought and learning a speculative attack, willaccount for the very remarkable precision and forceof S. Cyprian's language."The enemy," he says, "detected and down-fallen by the advent of Christ, now that light iscome to the nations - seeing his idols left-hasmade heresies and schisms, wherewith to subvertfaith, to corrupt truth, and to rend unity."Butthis will all be in vain if men will look to theHead, and keep to the doctrine of the Master. Forthe truth may be quickly stated.14 "The Lordsaith unto Peter: I say unto thee that thou artPeter, and upon this rock I will build my Church,and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdomof heaven, and whatsoever thou shalt bindon earth shall be bound also in heaven, and whatsoeverthou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed inheaven. To him again, after His resurrection,He says : Feed my sheep. Upon him, being one,He builds His Church ; and though He gives toall the Apostles an equal power, and says : As myFather sent Me, even so send I you ; receive ye13 Preface to the Oxford edition of S. Cyprian's treatise on the Unityof the Church.14 De Unitate, iii. Sec.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.327the Holy Ghost: whosesoever sins ye remit, theyshall be remitted to him, and whosesoever sins yetain, they shall be retained;-yet in order toI I a jja " ^ j t , i. j " j l^t_J_J»JLU V * as by His own authority soplaced the source of the same unity as to bone. Certainly the other Apostles also werewhat Peter was, endued with an equal fellowshipboth of honour and power ; but a commis made from unity, that the Church may be sbefore us as one: which one Church in the Canticleof Canticles doth the Holy Spirit design andname in the Person of our Lord: My dove, myspotless one is but one ; she is the only one of hermother, elect of her that bare her." He who holds not this unity of the Church,does he think that he holds the faith ? He whostrives against and resists the Church, is he assuredthat he is in the Church ? For the blessedApostle Paul teaches this same thing, and mani-ts the sacrament of unity thus speaking: ThBody and one Spirit, even as ye are cHope of your calling ; one Lord, one FaithBaptism, one God. This unity firmlywe hold and maintain, especially we bishops, pre-n the Church, in order that we ine the Episcopate itself to be oneno one deceive the brotherhood byfalsehood ; no one corrupt the truth of our faithby a faithless treachery. The Episcopat ,f which a part is held by each without divi

328 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.of the whole. The Church is likewise one,*thoughOshe be spread abroad, and multiplies with the in-crease of her progeny : even as the sun has raysmany, yet one light, and the tree boughs many, yetits strength is one, seated in the deep-lodged root ;and as, when many streams flow down from onesource, though a multiplicity of waters seems tbe diffused from the bountifulness of the overflow-ing abundance, unity is preserved in the sourceitself. Part a ray of the sun from its orb, and itsunity forbids_this division of light; break a branchfrom the tree, once broken it can bud no more ;cut the stream from its fountain, the remnant willbe dried up. Thus the Church, flooded with thelight of the Lord, puts forth her rays through thewhole world, with yet one light, which is spreadupon all places, while its unity of body is not infringed.She stretches forth her branches overthe universal earth, in the riches of plenty, andpours abroad her bountiful and onward streams ;yet is there one head, one source, one mother,abundant in the results of her fruitfulness.-" It is of her womb that we are born; ournourishing is from her milk, our quickening fromher breath. The Spouse of Christ cannot becomeadulterate; she is undefiled and chaste; owningbut one home, and guarding with virtuous modestythe sanctity of one chamber. She it is who keepsus for God, and appoints unto the kingdom thesons she has borne. Whosoever parts company

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.329with the Church and joins himself to an adulteress,is estranged from the promises of the Church. Hewho leaves the Church * of Christ, attains not toChrist's rewards. He is an alien, an outcast, anenemy. He can no longer have God for a Fatherwho has not the Church for a mother. If anyman was able to escape who remained without theark of Noah, then will that man escape who is outof doors beyond the Church. The Lord warns usand says: He who is not with Me is against Me,and he who gathereth not with Me, scattereth.He who breaks the peace and concord of Christ,sets himself against Christ. He who gathers elsewherebut in the Church, scatters the Church ofChrist. The » Lord says: I and the Father are one;and again of the Father, the Son, and the HolyGhost it is written: And these three are one. Anddoes anyone think that oneness, thus proceedingfrom the divine immutability, and cohering in heavenlysacraments, admits of being sundered in theChurch, and split by the divorce of antagonistwills ? He who holds not this unity holds not thelaw of God, holds not the faith of Father and Son,holds not the truth unto salvation." This sacrament of unity, this bond of concordarably cohering, is signified in the place inthe Gospel where the coat of our Lord JesusChrist is in nowise parted or cut, but is receivea whole garment, by them who cast lots whorather wear it, and is possessed as an in-

330 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.violate and individual robe. The divine scripturethus speaks : But for the coat, because it was notsewed, but woven from the top throughout, theysaid«one to another, Let us not rend it, but castlots whose it shall be. It has with it a unity de-;ni>' from above, as coming, that ia, from heavenand from the Fatherwhich it was not for thereceiver and owner in anywise to sunder, but whichhe received once for all and indivisibly as one unbrokenwhole. He cannot own Christ's garmentwho splits and divides Christ's Church. On theother hand, when on Solomon's death his kingdomand people were split in parts, Ahijah the prophet,meeting King Jeroboam in the field, rent his garmentinto twelve pieces, saying: Take thee tenpieces; for thus saith the Lord: Behold, I willrend the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon,and will give ten tribes to thee ; and two tribesshall be to him for my servant David's sake, andfor Jerusalem, the city which I have chosen, toplace my name there. When the twelve tribesof Israel were torn asunder, the prophet Ahijahrent his garment. But because Christ's peoplecannot be rent, His coat, woven and conjoinedthroughout, was not divided by those to whomit fell. Individual, conjoined, coentwined, itshows the coherent concord of our people whoput on Christ. In the sacrament and sign ofHis garment, He has declared the unity of HisChurch.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.331" Who, then, is the criminal and traitor, who soinflamed by the madness of discord, as to thinkaught can rend, or to venture on rending God'sunity, the Lord's garment, Christ's Church? HeHimself warns us in His Gospel and teaches, saying:O And there shall be one Fold and one Shep- " J- ^herd. . . . Think you that any can stand and livewho withdraws from the Church, and forms forhimself new homes and different domiciles ? . . . Believershave no house but the Church only. Thishouse, this hostelry of unanimity, the Holy Spiritdesigns and betokens in the Psalms, thus speaking:God who makes men to dwell with one mindin ahouse. In the house of God, in the Church ofChrist, men dwell with one mind, and perseverein concord and simplicity." To this he adds :" There is one God, and one Christ, and HisChurch one, and the Faith one, and one thepeople joined into the solid unity of a body bythe cement of concord. Unity cannot be sundered,nor can one body be divided by a dissolution ofits structure, nor be severed into pieces with tornand lacerated vitals. Parted from the womb no-"thing can live and breathe in its separated state:loses its principle of health;" for " charity willever exist in the kingdom; she will abide evermorein the unity of a brotherhood which entwinesitself around her."And he is more specific still; for this "oneChurch is founded by the Lord Christ upon Peter,

332 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CPIURCH.having its source and its principle in unity," " onwhose person He built the Church, and in whomHe began and exhibited the source of unity."15Certainly if any idea has ever been put forthclearly and definitely, it would seem to be theidea of organic unity here delineated by Cyprian,as necessary not merely to the well-being but tothe essence of the Church. Nor does one seewhat words he could have found more expresslto reject the notion that the individual bishis diocese was the unit on the a

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.333one web consists. For Unity, Truth, and Grace,viewed as attributes of the Church, are blendedtogether in the light and warmth of the sun, inthe sap which vivifies every branch of the tree ,and gives it fruitfulness from the root, in the fountainof water, under which image our Lord has sooften summed up His whole gift to man, in theflock which the Shepherd has chosen, and forwhich He cares, in the house where the masterdwells and collects his family, in the one robewhich encompassed and contained the virtue ofthe Wearer, in the prolific womb which givesbirth to the whole sacred race. The force oflese images lies in their unicity : pluralitywould not modify, but destroy them. Yet eventhese symbols are surpassed by that argumentfrom the divine Unity which he sets forth as thetype and cause of the Church's unity. Fromcreated likenesses-the fairest and choicest whichAthe world presents-he passes to the uncreatednature, and from the divine immutability, wherewiththese three, the Father, / the Son, I and theHoly Ghost, the divine Exemplar of Unity, Truth,and Grace, are one, deduces the Unity of theChurch their dwelling-place.I Cyprian, »/ JL then, cannot sever the Church of hisheart, the Church for which he lived and died,from Unity, or from Truth, or from Grace: andthis Church is to him founded on the Primacy ofPeter, and developed from his person. The one

334 THE THIRD AGE OE THE MARTYR CHURCH.Episcopate, whose golden chain he looks upon assurrounding the earth in its embrace, " of which apart is held by each without division of the whole,"wherein therefore joint possession is dependent onunity, would have no existence without the bondof the Primacy, from which it was developed andwhich keeps it one. Take away this, and the officeof each bishop is crystallised into a separatemass, having no coherence or impact with its like:bishops so conceived*would hold indeed a similaroffice, but being detached from each other wouldnot hold joint possession of one Episcopate. Separatecrystals do not make one body; nor a heapof pebbles a rock. But it was a Kock on whichChrist built and builds His Church, that Rockbeing O His own Person, ' from which He communi-cated this virtue, wherein the cohesion and impactof the whole Episcopate lies, to the See of himwhom He constituted His Vicar. Finally, Cypriancontrasts pointedly the people of Christ which cannotbe rent with the twelve tribes of Israel, whichwere torn asunder : as if he would beforehandrepudiate that parallel between the Synagogue andthe Church, in the question of unity, which hasbefore now been resorted to as a refuge by mindsin distress, who failed to see the tokens of theBride of Christ in the community to which theybelonged.In Origen and in Cyprian we put ourselvesback into the middle of the third century. In the

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.335words of the latter we see portrayed to the lifethat idea which had filled the hearts of Christiansthrough O seven generations oof labours and sorrowsfrom the day of Pentecost down to his time. Butwhence arose this perfect union of all hearts andminds in the early Christians, who were penetratedwith the conviction that the Church was the homeof truth and grace ? We may answer this questionthus: No catechumen was received into the foldwithout a clear and distinct belief in that articleof the earliest creed, and part of the baptismalprofession, u the Holy Catholic Church." A newword was made to express a new idea, the gloriousand unique work of that ever-blessed Trinity whomthe creed recited:the Home and House in whichthe Triune God, whom the Christian glorified, byindwelling made the fountain of that grace andthat truth which God had become Man in orderto communicate. The catechumen's baptism intothe one Body was the foundation of all the hope inwhich his life consisted;16 the integrity, duration,sanctity of that Body being component parts ofthe hope. And with regard at least to all gentileconverts this precise and definite catechetical instructionwas reinforced by the new sense whichat their conversion was impressed on them of theeathenism out of which thev were then taIn how many of them was the remembrance oftheir past life connected with the guilt of deedsr16 rfj yap e\7ri5t eac

336 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCHand habits which, their new Christian consciencetaught them to regard as fearful sins. Nay, thenotion of sin itself-as a transgression of the eternallaw and an offence against the personal Majestyof God-was a Christian acquisition to thecorrupted heathen. Thus the passage into theone Body and the divine Kingdom was contemporaneousin their case with a total change of themoral life. It is Cyprian, again, who has givenus a vivid account of this change, which took placeat a time of mature manhood in his own life, andwhich will serve as a graphic sketch of what hadhappened to the great mass of adult converts besideshimself.Let us suppose a man forty-five years of agespeaking: "For me, while I yet lay in darknessand bewildering night, and was tossed to and froon the billows of this troublesome world, ignorantof my true life, an outcast from light and truth,I used to think that second birth, which divinemercy promised for my salvation, a hard sayingaccording o to the life I then led: as if a man couldbe so quickened to a new life in the laver of healingwater as to put off his natural self, and keephis former tabernacle, yet be changed in heart andsoul. How is it possible, said I, for so great aconversion to be accomplished, so that both theobstinate defilement of our natural substance, andold and ingrained habits, should suddenly andrapidly be put off; evils whose roots are deepty

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.337seated within? When does he learn frugality, towhom fine feasts and rich banquets have become ahabit? Or he who in gay sumptuous robesters with srold and purple, when does he redimself to ordinary and simple raimen rwhose bent is to miblic distinctions and ht bear to become a iDrivate and unnoticedman; while one who is thronged by a phalanx ofdependents, and retinued by the overflowing attendanceof an obsequious host, thinks it punishmentto be alone. The temptation still unrelaxed ,need is it that, as before, wine should entice, prideinflate, anger inflame, covetousness disquiet, crueltystimulate, ambition delight, and lust lead headlong." Such were my frequent musings; for whereasI was encumbered with the many sins of my pastlife, which it seemed impossible to be rid of, so Ihad used myself to give way to my clinging infirmities,and, from despair of better things, to humourthe evils of my heart, as slaves born in myouse and my proper offspring. But after thatlife-giving water succoured me, washing away thestain of former years, and pouring into my cleansedand hallowed breast the light which comes fromheaven, after that I drank in the heavenly Spirit,and was created into a new man by a second birth,then marvellously what before was doubtful be-came plain to me, what was hidden was reveawhat was dark began ^^ «^* -"--»* to ^ \^f shine, r^-f* *. -L A .I. vy *what was difficultnow had a way and means, what had seemedii.z

F338 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.impossible now could be achieved, what was inme of the guilty flesh now confessed that it wasearthy, what was quickened in me by the HolyGhost now had a growth according to God. Thouknowest well, thou canst recollect as well as I,what was then taken from me, / and what was given Oby that death of sin, that quickening power ofholiness. Thou knowestj I name it not; over myown praises it were unwelcome to boast, thoughthat is ground never for boasting but for gratitude,which is not ascribed to man's virtue but isconfessed to be God's bounty; so that to sin nomore has come of faith, as heretofore to sin hadcome of human error. From God, I say, fromGod is all we can be; from Him we live, from Himwe grow, and by that strength which is from Himaccepted and ingathered we learn beforehand, evenin this present state, the foretokens of what is yetto be. Let only fear be a guard upon innocency,that that Lord who by the influence of His heavenlymercy has graciously shone into our hearts,may be detained by righteous obedience in the hostelryof a mind that pleases Him; that the securityimparted to us may not beget slothfulness, nor theformer enemy steal upon us anew." 1CAdd to this that Christians were marked out_ *as " one Body by the Jewish and heathen persecu-tion which tracked them everywhere. But thesects were not persecuted. The various schools of"16 Ep, 1, Oxford translation.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.339the Gnostics all agreed in this, that it was not ne-cessary or desirable to suffer martyrdom for thfaith. Their view was, that they couldwith their minds whatever they pleased, thoughan enemy might force them by threats of sufferingto utter with the mouth what they abhorred; andwith this convenient distinction they escaped imprisonment,poverty, bereavement, and death. Butthe Christian was bound-when the fitting circum-stances came-to repeat the confession of his Lordbefore Pilate. Joined therefore to his baptismalbelief, and to the utter change of life involved inhis conversion, was the bond of common sufferingwhich held together Christians as one Bodythroughout the world : whence an old martyrbishop said: u The Church, for that love which sheears to God, in every place and at every timesends forward a multitude of martyrs to theFather, whereas all the rest not only have nothing among themselves to show, but deemnot even such a witness necessary."17Moreover, as WNJ a t^ fourth JLV^ 1^-L U-UL cause, V>CAJ \A kJ \s*the historic originof their name and belief led them up to that dayof Pentecost when the descent of the Spirit of Godconstituted the formation of that body in belongingto which was all their hope and trust; withthe existence of which their faith was identified;in the communion of which their charity was engendered.As the birth and the life and the pas-17 S. Irenasus, lib. iv. 33 g.

340 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.sion of Christ were that subject-matter on whichtheir whole faith grew, so the creation of theirexistence as a people was a definite act in whichthe Redeemer showed Himself the Father of HisRace, creating them as His children and generatingthem by His Spirit. The loving thought of Christiansin every age ran along this line to its source.Nature herself presents us with an image of whatthis idea of the Church was to them. As the greatriver whose water is the symbol of blessing and thebearer of fertility leaps down a giant birth fromits parent lake, ever blazing under the splendourof a tropical sun, yet ever fed by sources springingfrom snow-crowned mountains, and changes inits course the desert into earth's fruitfulest reoion, O /so the river of God, welling forth on the day ofPentecost from the central abyss of the divine love ,bore down to all the nations the one water of salvation,and wheresoever it spread, the desert re-treated, and the earth brought forth corn and winein abundance. And the idea of this divine streamwas from the beginning as deep as it was clear inevery Christian heart. It is one of a very fewdoctrines, such as the unity of the Godhead ,whereof indeed it is the image and the result,of which there is not only an implicit belief buta definite consciousness from the first. For the*thought of the kingdom is inseparable from thatof the king: and he could be 110 divine Sovereignwhose realm was not one and indivisible:and that

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.341this realm should break in pieces and consume allother kingdoms,18^^ v^ \_y j-JL^K-/* but itself stand for ever, was thetrust on which the whole Christian life of enduranceand hope was built.The Christian society through its whole struc-ture was marked with the seal of that great act onwhich it grew, the assumption of human nature bya divine Person. Its whole government, its wholeworship, and the whole moral and spiritual beingof its people radiate from that Person as King, asPriest, and as Prophet. Take first the characterof the individual Christian. It is in all itsgradations,O /in that marvellous rangeOof the samebeing which stretches from the highest saint maturedin acting and suffering to the most imperfectpenitent received into the bosom of the one mother,a copy, more or less resembling, of our LordHimself. Pie, * the divine Image, O / is the original Ofrom which every Christian lineament is traced,and every one of His race repeats Him in somedegree. Every virtue is such as a transcript ofsome portion of His character ; and the whole lifeof the individual resolves itself into an imitation ofHim. Thus He is the Prophet not only declaringthe whole divine will to men, but leading them init by His own example. The divine Painter is butrepresenting in every one of His children a copyin some sort of that life, which He set forth in18 Dan. ii. 44. Compare Apoc. i. 9. 6 aSeA^bs tifuav Kal ffvyKoiwvbs eVTTJ &\tyei KOI eV rfj ;8acriAej'a Kal viropovfj 'Irjdov Xpiorov.ST. MASY S COLLEGE

342 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.full in the thirty-three years : a thought which wehave seen Origen expressing in the chrism whichdescended from the head of Aaronskirt of his raiment.to the utmostut likewise in His Priesthood a parallel derivationensues. First He multiplies Himself inHis Apostles : they again in the Bishops whomthey create ; while each of these communicateshimself in his priests. A triple transfusion sufficesto form the whole hierarchical order. Nothing o canbe conceived more simple, yet nothing more efficientsupposing that He is what He proclaimed Himselfto be. The victim which He appoints to beoffered by this priesthood is Himself, and His Bodyso offered is the food, 4 the U-LJLV-/ life, -1_-LJ.\_S* and the bond of thewhole spiritual Body thus created. That Personwith which He took the manhood is the centre of-all this worshi, of which the manhood so takenis the instrument. Thus it is that His secondoffice of Priest, bound up so entirely with Himself,is yet communicated through His divine man-hood to the whole Body which He forms. And thisorder remains through all ages, as intimately con-nected with his Person now, as eighteen centuriesago, and as it will be when all the centuries tocome are evolved.One office remains ; His office of King. Andhere, again, the jurisdiction which He created forHis kingdom springs from His Person, and that notonly in its origin but in its perpetual derivation.

THE THIKD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.343He was Himself19 the Apostle : as such He firstmultiplied Himself in the Twelve, whom fromHimself He named Apostles. His public life onearth is an image of the whole mission or governmentwhich He would set up after His ascension.He lives with the Twelve : He teaches them : Heis their Instructor, Father, and Friend. WhenHis Apostles afterwards created Bishops, this formof our Lord's life on earth was exactly reproducedin the earliest dioceses. Thus S. Mark went forthfrom the side of Peter, and the mode of his living,and the family which he drew around him at Alexandriawas after this pattern. He, the Bishop, is theimage of Christ, and his twelve presbyters of theApostles. This model is continually set forth byS. Ignatius as a divine command and institution,he being himself the occupant of the great MotherSee of the East, the third See of Peter, and thatwherein he first sat.20 Thus the canonical life wasformed by the exactest imitation of our Lord'spublic life, and its reproduction throughout thevarious dioceses formed the Church. Such wasthe life which S. Augustine afterwards practisedand reduced to rule : and those who planted the19 Karai/o^o-are rbv a.ir6ffTO\ov Kal apxiepsa TIJS b[io\oyias ^wv 'Xpicrrbvrow. Heb. iii. 1. "29 Thus S. Gregory the Great wrote to Eulogius, Patriarch of Alexandria,that the three original patriarchal Sees were all Sees of Peter:" Cum multi sint Apostoli, pro ipso tamen principatu sola ApostoloruuE. mirn

344 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.Christian Faith throughout the north, Apostles tonew and barbarous races, had this model beforethem. The diocese was first a family, in which theBishop as a father presided over his priests, andsent them forth to their work. The Eucharist whichhe consecrated was from the beginning dispensedfrom his church to all his flock. The diocese,then, in its earliest form was an image of our Lord'sintercourse with the Twelve, wherein the Bishoprepresents Him, and the priesthood His Apostles.But the whole Church in its episcopate or massof dioceses 110 less represented that His public life.For as He was the Head, the Living Teacher andGuide of His Apostles, and as He came to establishone Kingdom, and one only,21 wherein the Twelverepresented the whole Episcopate, and containedin themselves its powers, so the Primacy which Hevisibly exercised among them, He delegated, whenHe left them, to one of their number. Peter, whenhe received that commission to feed His sheep,took the place on earth of the great Shepherd, andin him the flock remains one. .Thus the double power which expresses thedivinely-established government of the Church, thePrimacy and the Episcopate,as close a transcript_of the Lord's life on earth with His Apostles asthe diocese taken by itself. In His intercoursewith His Apostles He is the germ of the Bishopwith-his priests; in His Vicariate bestowed upon21 Kypvcrcrw T£> svayysXLov TTJS j8a

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.345Peter He repeats or rather continues His visibleHeadship on earth..But spiritual jurisdiction is the expression ofChrist's sovereignty on earth, and in the orderjust described it is linked with His Person asstrictly as the worship exercised by means ofHis Priesthood, and the spiritual character whichevery one of His children bears. Surely no kingdomhas ever been so contained in its king, nofamily in its father, no worship in its object, as theChristian kingdom, family, and worship, which togetheris the Church. Is it, then, any wonder thatall Christian hearts from the first were filled withthe blessing of beloii2;in£ to such a creation asCf O Othis, in which to them their Eedeemer lived andreigned, penetrated them with His own life, andgathered them in His kingdom ? Are not the wordsof S. Cyprian just what we should expect thoseto utter who overflowed with this conviction ? Atthe same time that Cyprian was. so writing, Diony-sius, the Archbishop of Alexandria, addressed No-vatian the antipope in these words: u It was betterto suffer any extremity in order not to divide theChurch of God. And martyrdom endured to pre-vent schism were not less glorious than that enduredto refuse idolatry, but in my opinion moreso. For in the one case a man suffers martyrdomfor his own single soul, but in the other for thewhole Church."2222_S. Dionys. Alex. Ep. 2. Gallandi, iii. 512.

346 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.But let us trace the chronological sequencein history of that great institution, the real aswell as logical coherence of which has just beenset forth. The Church was a fact long before itstheory became the subject of reflection. It cameforth from the mind of the divine Architect andestablished itself among men through His power;and it is only when this was done that the creativethought according to which it grew could bedelineated.The fact, then, exactly agrees with the theory,and history here interprets dogma.It is during the great forty days that our Lordfounded the Primacy, when He made S. John andthe rest of the Apostles sheep of Peter's fold. Theperiod of thirty-eight years which follows is thecarrying into effect His design in the first stage.The Church grows around Peter. First in Jerusalemhe forms a mass of disciples ; then for acertain number of years at Antioch. In the secondyear of Claudius, the thirteenth after the Ascension,he lays the foundations of the Roman Church.In the sixtieth year of our era he sends forth, Mark to found the Christian society in Alexandria.Thus he takes possession of the threegreat cities of the empire, of east, west, and south.In the mean time the labours of S. Paul and theother Apostles, in conjunction with those of Peterand in subordination to them, plant the Christianroot in a great number of cities. As S. Paul toils

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.347all round the northern circuit of the empirethrough Asia Minor, Macedonia, Illyricum, to Spainhis work has a manifest reference to the work ofPeter in the metropolis of the east, of the south,and of the west. In the latter he joins his elderbrother, and the two Princes of the Apostles offerup their lives together on the same day in thatcity which was to be the perpetual citadel of theChristian Faith, the immovable Eock of a divineCapitol. Thus was it Peter, " from whom thevery Episcopate, and all the authority of this titlesprung,"23 and what Pope Boniface wrote in 422is a simple fact of history: that " the formation ofthe universal Churchrat its birth took its besln- Oning from the honour of blessed Peter, in whoseperson its regimen and sum consists. For fromhis fountain the stream of ecclesiastical disciplineflowed forth into all churches, as the culture ofreligion progressively advanced."24 Thus the wholeinitial movement was from above downwards, andS. Cyprian was not only enunciating dogma butspeaking history when he wrote that the Lordbuilt the Church upon Peter. In one generationthe structure rose above the ground, and durinp;all that time S. Peter's hand directed the work.Just at the end of this time, on the point ofbeing thrown into prison, whence he only emerged23 Answer of Pope Innocent I. to the Council of Carthage in 416,among the letters of S. Augustine.24 Constant. Epist. Rom. Pontif. p. 1037.

348 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.to martyrdom, Paul was at Rome with Peter, andhe describes in imperishable words the work whichhad been already accomplished. Again it is notonly dogma but history, not only that which wasalways to be but that which already was, whichhe set forth as it were with his dying voice: theone Body, and the one Spirit, the one Lord, oneFaith, and one Baptism, as there is one God. Thatody in which Apostles, Prophets, Evangelists,Pastors*and Teachers were fixed, that the visiblestructure might grow up to its final stature, inwhose accordant unity was the perpetual safe-O guard against O error. When Paul so wrote,25 7 theBody was formed, and its headship was incontest-ably with Peter. He had 110 need to remind themof the man with whom he was labouring, of whosework the whole Church from Rome to Antioch andAlexandria was the fruit. But he places the maintenanceof truth, and the perpetual fountain ofgrace, in the unity of the Church, which was beforethose to whom he wrote an i accomplished fact.Two generations pass and the aged S. Ignatius,on his way to martyrdom, attests the same fact.uWhere is Jesus Christ," he says, "there is theCatholic Church." The King is in His Kingdom; the Master in His House; the Lord in HisTemple. The bishops throughout the world inseparablylinked together are His mind: and thepresidency of charity, which is the inner life of25 Ephes. iv., written during S. Paul's imprisonment at Borne.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.349all this spiritual empire, is at Rome. S. Ignatiusand the author of the letter to Diognetus writejust after the expiration of the apostolic period;and they both regard Christians as one massthroughout the world, living under a divine formof spiritual government. No one who studiestheir words can doubt that the one Body and theone Spirit were as visible to their eyes and as dearto their heart as to S. Paul.We pass two generations further and S. Ire-naeus repeats the same testimony. The intervalhas been filled by incessant attacks " of heresies,and the Bishop of Lyons dwells upon the factthat the Church speaks with one voice throughall the regions of the earth as being one House ofGod, and that the seat of this its unity is in thegreat See founded by the Princes of the Apostlesat Rome. He reproduces at great length thestatements of S. Paul that the safeguard of truthlies in the one apostolic ministry, for whichruns up to the fountain-headvin Rome. It is inthe living voice and the teaching office of theChurch"that he sees a perpetual preservativeagainst whatever error may arise. Thus it hasbeen up to his time, and thus it will ever be.Another period of seventy years runs on, anwe come to the just-cited testimony of Cypriaiwho therefore said nothing new, nor anytlaggerated; but when the truth was assailed in itsvery citadel, he spoke out and described whereinRARY ST. /,U2Y'S CGLL££

350 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.its strength lay. He gathers up and gives expressionto the two hundred and twenty yearsbetween the day of Pentecost and his own time.Here are the creative words of our Apostle andHigh-priest explained and attested and exhibitedas having passed into fact by four witnesses, firstS. Paul, then S. Ignatius, thirdly S. Irena3us,fourthly S. Cyprian. Between all the five thereis no shadow of divergence, between the Masterwho designed the building and the servants whodescribed its erection ; between the Prophet whoforetold and the historians who recorded. Theone said, Upon this rock I will build my Church;the others pointed out that the work was accomplished.The original and fundamental conception ofall this work is expressed by S. Matthew andS. Mark when they speak of our Lord at His firstgoing forth as " proclaiming the gospel of thekingdom.'' His three years' ministry is thegerm and type of the perpetual mission whichHe founded. It was to be from first to last awork of personal ministry, beginning from above,not spreading from below: its power and virtuedescending from Him through those whom Hechose, the people being the work of the Prince,their government a delegation from Him, as theirmoral condition lay in following Him, and theirlife and support in feeding on Him. And He declaredthat the original conception should be car-

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.351ried out to the end, and that " the gospel of thekingdom" should be proclaimed through the wholeworld as a witness to all nations, until the consummationshould come.26The chief events of the third century broughtout more and more the unity of the Church andthe Primacy of S. Peter's See as the power withinthe Church by which that unity is produced andmaintained.*With this century the great persecutions begin.That of Septirnius Severus arose in the year202. Now a persecution which assaulted the massof Christians was the occasion of fall and apostasyto some, of martyrdom to others. Hence the questionbecame urgent how those should be treatedby the Christian society who through fear of sufferinghad failed to maintain the confession of theirfaith. It was necessary-to lay down more dis-tinctly rules as to what crimes should be admittedto penance, and what that penance should be. Thepractice here involved doctrine ; it raised immediatelythe question of the power which the societyitself had to grant pardon, and to receive the guiltyback into its bosom. And here the authority ofthe chief Bishop was at once called out. We findas a matter of fact Pope Zephyrinus in the first26 This text is continually used by S. Augustine against the Dona-tists, as containing an express divine prophecy that the one CatholicChurch should continue to the end of the world. The Gospel of theKpoles apart.

352 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.years of this century determining the rules ofpenance, and a small party of rigid disciplinarians,among whom Tertullian was conspicuous, who consideredhis rules as too indulgent. It is in the vehementamhlet with which Tertullian assails thePope that we have one of the earliest expressionsof the great authority claimed by him. " I hear,"he exclaims, " that an edict has been set forth, anda peremptory one. The Pontifex Maximus, in sooth,that is, the Bishop of Bishops, issues his edict : Ipardon to those who have discharged their penancethe sins both of adultery and of fornication."27Twenty years later Pope Callistus carried the indulgenceyet further, receiving to penance thosewho had committed murder or idolatry.28 Oncemore, after a period of thirty years, the breakingout of the Decian persecution raised afresh thequestion of admitting great sinners to penance "and the actual discipline of the Roman Church, asestablished under Zehrinus and Callistus, is set.forth in a letter to Cyprian by Novatian, then oneof the most esteemed presbyters of that church.By the discipline which these facts attest it is determinedthat the Church has lodged in her thepower of pardoning any sin whatsoever accordingto the rules of the penance which she imposes.And it is the Roman Church which herein takes27 De Pudicitia, § 1. See Hagemann, p. 54.28 He is so represented by Hippolytus, PhttosopJvumen, lib. ix. p. 209See Hagemann, p. 59.

.THETHIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 353theoguidance. She maintained the ancient faith Jy, and discipline, yet tempered with thaconsideration which the full possession of thtruth alone bestows.29 Thus she received backwithout hesitation those who returned from heresyor schism, as well as those who had fallen in theconflict with persecution.For another question of great importance whichher guidance determined was that concerning therebaptisation of heretics ; and in this she wentagainsthe judgment of Cyprian with his council,of Firmilian, and of other bishops. It had beenthe custom that those who had received baptismamong heretics, provided it was with the properrite, should, when they sought admission into theChurch, be received only by an imposition ofhands, not by the iteration of baptism. Andthough Cyprian and a great majority of Africanbishops, through their horror of schism andheresy, wished to modify this rule, and to insistthat baptism given outside the Church was invalid,Pope Stephen resisted, and maintained theancient rule, with the decision that nothing savewhat had been handed down should be done..m comtatumnos adversus improbos modo supervenerunt repentina subsldia: sed antiquahsec apud nos ^f severitas, antiqua fides, disciplina legitur antiqua;Qmunao,* " .nisi iamfidei de temporibus illis mutuatus fuisset: quari m laudiimdegenerem fuisse maximum Crimea est." IJpist. Cleri Eprian. 31.II.AA

354 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.It is evident that the question of penance andthat of rebaptisation touched the whole Christiansociety, arid here accordingly we find the superiorPrincipate of the Roman Church exert itself. Infact, the right decision as to both these questionsinvolved the right conception of the Church herself,her \ constitution, power, and prerogatives.The rigorism30 with which some had endeavouredto exclude certain sinners from the * faculty of re-ceiving penance, and the view which led them toconfine the validity itself of baptism to its receptionwithin the one Church, led when fully developedin the following century to the obstinateschism and heresy of the Donatists. These dan-gerous tendencies were resisted, when they firstappeared, by the Roman See, and we owe to suchresistance the application by Tertullian to the Popeof the title of " Pontifex Maximus" and " Bishopof Bishops," about the year 202, as the expressionof the power which he then claimed and exercised.Another question likewise touching the wholeChristian society, which the Roman Pontiff hadalready decided against the practice of the influentialand ancient churches of Asia Minor, / wasthe time of holding Easter. Pope Victor insistedthat the practice of the Roman Church must befollowed, which kept the day of the Crucifixioninvariably on the Friday, and that of the Resurrectionon the Sunday, and not the Jewish practice of30 Hagemann, p. 77.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.355the Asiatics, which took the 14th and the 16th daysof the month Nisan, on whatever days of the weekthey might fall, for that purpose. And here in theperemptory tone of Pope Victor, and in the threatof excommunication which he issued, the consciousnesswas shown that the right to determinelay with him, while subsequent times justified hisjudgment and followed it. Nor was it of littleimportance that the greatest festival of the Churchshould be celebrated by all her children both onthe same day and in the same spirit.We have then now traced up to^the end of thethird century the innerconstituenpies of that great institution, whichevery language, tribe, and religion in the empireor beyond it had formed and welded together onepeople, the bearer of that Truth and that Gracewhich h the Son of God in assuming *- + manhood hadconveyed to the world. It remains rapidly to reviewthe relations of the empire with this peopleduring seventy- eight years, from the death of AlexanderSeverus in 235 to the edict of toleration313.II. The seizure of the empire by Maximin wasaccompanied by a violent attack upon Christians iwhom Alexander was held to have favoured. Itis on this occasion that we learn from Drien31, ,.that churches were burnt, and thus their existenceas public buildings is attested. The clergy were31 In Matt. torn. iii. 857 c.in

35GTHE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.especially threatened, and amongst them Ambro-sius, the friend of Origen, and Origen himself.But Maximin after reigning three years with extraordinarycruelty was slain by his own soldAnd then during eleven years a period of comparativetranquillity for Christians ensued.It is with the accession of Decius that theseverest trials of the Church commence. In the"sixty-four years which elapse from this to the edictof toleration, the force of the empire is five timesdirected by its rulers against the Christian name.The cause of this is disclosed to us by S. Cyprianmentioning incidentally the very words of thatemperor whose name is associated with the bitteresthatred to Christians. He praises Pope Cornelius,32who when Pope " Fabian's place, that is," hesays, " the place of Peter and the rank of the sacerdotalchair was vacant," " sat fearless in that chairat Rome at the moment when the tyrant whohated God's priests uttered every horrible threat,and with much more patience and endurance heardthe rise of a rival prince than the appointment ofGod's priest at Rome." But why should Deciusregard with such dislike the nomination of a RomanBishop? Why, but that the emperors had32 " Cum Fabiani locus, id est, cum locus Petri et gradus cathedra*BBcerdotalis vacaret." Epist. lii. p. 68. " Sedisse intrepiduin Romas insacerdotal! cathedra eo tempore cum tyrannus infestus sacerdotibus Deif anda atque inf anda comminaretur, cum multo patientius et tolerabiliusaudiret levari adversus se reinulum principem quain constitui Romas Deisacerdotem." Ibid. p. 69.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH. 357 X7now come clearly to discern the organisation ofthe Church as a visible kingdom Sfc \_-t\-J-l-AA of ^/A Christ, X_/ * A -L AK^ t_,» at thehead of which the Roman Bishop stood. Thatgdom, O / the whole moral and religious O doctrineof which, together with the life founded upon it,they felt to be in contradiction with the heathenlife and the maxims of polity on which from timeimmemorial the empire had been based, that kingdomDecius saw to be summed up and representedin him who held, to use the words of Cyprian«/" Peter's place." With that religious associationwhich Decius saw extending round him on everyside, and gradually drawing into its bosom thebest of the two sexes, there was no way of dealingbut either to yield to those new maxims which itset forth, or to destroy it. In proportion as theemperors were zealous for the worship of the Romangods, and instinct with the old discipline ofthe state, they inclined to the latter alternative,and none more decisively than Decius, who pridedhimself on following the spirit of Trajan. Thepersecution which he set on foot reached and slewPope Fabian, and caused the election of a succes-sor to be deferred for sixteen months. When atthe end of that time Cornelius was chosen, Cyprian>raises him" as to be reckoned among O the gloriousr">confessors and martyrs, who sat so long awaitinghis butchers, ready either to slay him withword, or crucify him, or burn him, or teaIs body with any unheard-of ]

358 THE THIRD AGE OE THE MARTYR CHURCH.punishment."33 Decius indeed was slain by theGoths in battle after less than two years' reign,but the persecution was renewed by Gallus, andagain by Valerian, so that in ten years no less thanfive Pontiffs, holding that place of Peter, Fabian,Cornelius, Lucius, Stephen, and Sistus, offered uptheir lives for the faith. Then it was that the tenyears' noble episcopate of S. Cyprian after manyminor sufferings ended in martyrdom: and thentoo the deacon Laurence wore out in the agony offire all the malignity of the enemy, and gained hisalmost matchless crown.34The state of things which immediately precededthis grand attack of the empire on theChurch is thus described by Cyprian in the intervalwhich followed the persecution of Deciusand preceded that of Gallus; and the words of onewho not only taught but died for his teachingcarry with them no common force. " As longrepose had corrupted the discipline which had33 Epist. Hi. p. GO.34 Compare with the savageness of the Prefect of Rome in torturingS. Laurence the following incident which occurred five years later.Valerian had been captured by the Persian monarch, and his son theEmperor Gallienus bore the reproach with great tranquillity. In thegreat o festival which he held at Rome about 263, * to commemorate thevictory of Odenatus over Sapor, some revellers mixed themselves withthe pretended Persian captives, and examined their faces closely. Whenasked what they meant, they replied. " We are looking for the emperor'sfather." The jest so stung Gallienus that he had them burnt alive.Weiss, Lehrbueh der Weltgescliiclite, ii. 224, It was for showing himthe Church's spiritual treasures, the poor, the helpless, and the suffering,instead of the coveted gold and silver, that the Prefect burnt S. Laurencealive.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.359come down to us from God, the divine judgmentawakened our faith from a declining, and if I mayso speak an almost slumbering state; and whereaswe deserved yet more for our sins, the most mercifulLord has so moderated all, that what haspassed has seemed rather a trial of what we werethan an actual infliction. Everyone was applyinghimself to the increase of wealth, and forgettingboth what was the conduct of believers under theApostles, JL and what ought to be their conduct inevery age, they with insatiable eagerness for gaindevoted themselves to the multiplying of possessions.The priests were wanting in religious de-votedness ; the ministers in entireness of faith;there was no mercy in works, no discipline inmanners. Men wore their beards disfigured, andwomen stained their complexion with a dye. Theeyes were changed from what God made them,and a lying colour was passed upon the hair. Thehearts of the simple were misled by treacherousartifices, and brethren became entangled in seductivesnares; ties of marriage were formed withunbelievers; members of Christ abandoned to theheathen. Not only rash swearing was heard, buteven false; persons in high place were swollenwith contemptuousness ; poisoned reproaches fellfrom their mouths; and men were sunderedunabating quarrels. Numerous bishops, who oughtto be an encouragement and example to others,despising their sacred calling, engaged themselves

360 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.in secular vocations, relinquished their chair, desertedtheir people, strayed among foreign provinces,hunted the markets for mercantile profits ,tried to amass large sums of money, while theyhad brethren starving within the Church, took possessionof estates by fraudulent proceedings, andmultiplied their gains by accumulated usuries. "35Such was the end of the long peace which succeededthe persecution of Septimius Severus, andyet it was followed at once by that ten years' con-flict which if stained with apostasies at first, soonbecame rife in martyrdoms. And as the formerrelaxation seems to prove that the third centuryamong Christians was no ideal time in which moralcorruptions and abuses did not largely exist, sothe improvement which .trial and suffering atonce produced, calling forth some of the greatesttriumphs which the Faith has ever known, seemsto indicate that the divine power of the Churchlies not in forming a community free from imper-fections, or even secured from scandals, but inbuilding up a portion of her children to sanctity.At all times the wheat and the chaff lie toetheron her threshing-floor,Oiand the flail of sufferinwinnows them. But those who seek for a time"when all professing believers were saints, will findit neither when the Apostles taught nor afterwards.*The Emperor Valerian, after being during four. . 35 De Lapsis, iv. p. 182-3, Oxford translation.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.361years more kindly disposed to Christians than anreceding emperor, and after filling his palace withthem, was instigated by an Egyptian magician intobecoming a most bitter persecutor.36 This wasended in less than three years through his captureby the Persian monarch, when his son Gallienustored the sacred places to the Christians, andordered the bishops not to be disturbed.37 Theempire during the following eight years seemedthrough the supineness of Gallienus to be on thepoint of dissolution ; it is the time when nineteencommanders in various provinces assume the purple,and successively perish. At last Gallienus isput out of the way by a council of officers, andthe empire is restored by Claudius and by Au-relian. The latter, after being for some yearsfair to Christians, ^^"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i ends by persecuting them. Buthe too is speedily removed by death. It is remarkablethat all these persecutions, by Maximin,by Decius, by Gallus, by Valerian, and by Au-relian, are of short duration : none of them con-tinue more than three years. After Aurelian'sdeath in 275 a whole generation a ensues in whichChristians by the ordinary operation of the empire'slaws, according to which their religion wasillicit, were liable to suffer much in individualcases. Thus it is in a time not reckoned persecuting,shortly after Maximianus had been madehis colleague in the empire by Diocletian, that36 Euseb. Hist. 1. vii. c. 10. ST n, I. vii. c. 13.

362 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.one of the most merciless acts of tyrannical crueltytook place, which gave an occasion for severalthousand men at once to offer up their lives. Unresistingvictims, yet brave soldiers with arms intheir hands, they endured two decimations, andwhen remonstrance had proved in vain, piled theirarms, and let themselves be massacred to the lastman rather than violate their conscience. The placewhere they suffered took the name of their heroiccaptain, Maurice; the churches of that Alpine valleyto this day bear witness by his figure over theiraltars to that most illustrious act of Christiansacrifice : and beside the place of their reposerises still a monastery which for thirteen hundredand fifty years has guarded the sepulture of alegion of martyrs, and is become one of the mostancient Christian houses of prayer.It cannot be doubted that in the last twenty-five years of the third century the number ofChristians was being largely increased, and moreoverthey were daily gaining the higher ranks ofsociety. Diocletian had reigned for eighteen years,and seemed effectually to have stopped that incessantsuccession of soldiers gaining the throne byassassination and yielding it in turn to their assassins,which for fifty years threatened to destroythe state. At such a moment it was that Diocletian,belying all the past conduct of his life, letloose against the Christian Church the last, thefiercest, and the longest of the heathen persecutions.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.363It was in truth scarcely less than the rendingin pieces the whole social framework when a proclamationof the Emperors Diocletian and Maxi-mian, in the year 303, declared that the ChristianFaith should cease to exist. How entirely thatfaith had now penetrated all ranks was shown inDiocletian's own household, wherein his mosttrusted38 chamberlains, beloved as his children,were cruelly tortured because they refused toworship the heathen gods, while his wife Priscaand his daughter Valeria purchased immunity forthe present by compliance. We have the emperordescribed by an eye-witness of those times ashimself sitting in judgment,39 and"putting men tothe torture of fire. The same power was delegatedto the governors throughout the provinces. " Itwas," says Eusebius, "the nineteenth year of Diocletian'sreign, in the month of March, when thefestival of the Lord's Passion was drawing O near, /that imperial edicts were everywhere published,ordering the churches to be levelled, the scrip-tures to be burnt, those of rank to be deprived ofit, the common people, if they remained faithful,to be reduced to slavery. This was the first edictagainst us ; another soon came enjoining that allalive.m(Hist. viii. 6)mberlain Peter, who, says39 " Diocletianus ... excarnificare omnes sues protenus ccepit. Sedebatipse atque innocentes igne torrebat, . . . Omnis sexus et eetafcis homines adstionem nm iltitudo, sed gre-m circum Lactant, 14, 15.

364 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.those who ruled the churches should first be imprisoned,and then by every means compelled tosacrifice."40 Lactantius adds that every action atlaw was to proceed against Christians, while theyshould not be allowed to claim the law for anvwrong inflicted, or spoliation suffered, or dishonourdone to their wives.41 Many in consequenceof these edicts suffered willingly terrible torments:many others at first gave way. What these tormentswere Eusebius describes: some were beaten;some torn with hooks.42 " It is impossible to sayhow many and how great martyrs of Christ mightbe seen in every city and country." A man of thehighest rank in Nicomedia from an impulse of zealwhen the edict first appeared tore it down: he wasseized, and not merely tortured but slowly roastedalive,43 which he bore with unflinching patience,joyousness and tranquillity tThe emperors polluted the provinces subjectto them, by the slaughter of men and womenwho worshipped God, as if it had been in a civilwar, with the exception of Constantius,44 whoruled the Gauls and Britain, and preserved hissoul pure from this stain. But it was so muchworse than a war in which the conquered have40 Eusebius, Hist. viii. 2.41 Lactantius, de Morte Persecutorum, 1342 Euseb. viii. 4.43 modo extortus sed etiamcum admirabili patientia, postremo exustus est." Lact. de Nort. P(13; Euseb. viii. 5.44 Euseb, de Vita Constant. 1. i. 13.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.365only to suffer servitude or at most death, whereasin this case what was committed aainst those whorefused to do wrong passes all description. Tused against them every imaginable torture, andthought it little to slay those whom they hated,unless by cruelty having first exposed their bodiesto mockery. If they could persuade, by terror,any to violate the faith to which they were bound,and to agree to the fatal sacrifice, these theypraised and with their honours destroyed, but onthe others they exhausted the whole ingenuity oft heir butchery, calling them desperate as disregardingtheir own body.45 For two years thewhole Roman world ruled by Diocletian, Maxi-mian, and Galerius was exposed to this misery:when on the retirement of Diocletian and Maxi-mian in 305 Galerius became the chief emperor,the persecution continued in all its intensity, savein the territory subjecto Constantius. " It is impossibleto describe the individual scenes whichtook place throughout the world. The severalgovernors having received their commission carriedit out according to their own ferocity. Somerough excess of fear did more than their orders;some were inspired by personal enmity; " some bynatural cruelty; some sought to advance themselves;some were precipitate in the work of destruction,as one in Phrygia,"46 where, says Euse-45 Lactant. Livin. Institut. 1. v. 9. Gallandi, torn. iv. 313-4.« Ib. 1. v. 11.

366 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.bius, the soldiers surrounded a Christian t wunit it with all its inhabitants, " men, women, anchildren calling upon the name of Christ, the Godof all."47 " And in devising various kinds of torturesthey aim at gaining a victory. They are wellaware that it is a struggle between champions.myself saw in Bithynia a governor beside himselfin joy, as if he had subdued some barbarousnation, because one who for two years had withgreat virtue resisted was seen to fail. I They inflicttherefore exquisite pains, only avoiding to putthe tortured to death, as if it were only deaththat made them blessed, and not likewise thosetorments which in proportion to their severityproduce a greater glory by the virtue which theyexhibit."48Eusebius declares that such cruelties were perpetratednot for a short time, but during severalyears ; that ten, twenty, thirty, sixty, and as manyas a hundred men, women, and children would beslain in a day by various tortures. " When I wasin Egypt myself I saw a crowd in one day, somebeheaded, some burnt; with my own eyes I beheldthe marvellous ardour, the truly divine virtueand alacrity of those who believed in Christ._ »Scarcely was sentence passed against the first,when a fresh number hastened before the tribunal,professing themselves Christians: with joy, gaiety,and smiles they received the award of death, sing-"47 Euseb. Hist. viii. 11, *8 Lactantius, as above.

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.367ing hymns, and returning thanks to their lastbreath."49"Among those distinguished for their learningin all Grecian studies, and for the universal honourin which they had been held, Eusebius mentionsespecially a bishop of Thmuis named Phileas.While he lay in prison under sentence of death,which was afterwards executed by beheading, hewrote a letter to his people, detailing the scenesin which he bore a part. This letter the historianhas happily preserved for us. " " Inasmuch,"e says, uas the holy scriptures presented uswith so many fair ensamples and lessons, theblessed martyrs who are with me felt no hesitation.They fixed their mind's eye steadily uponthe God of all, formed the conception of deathsuffered for piety's sake, and clung firmly to thatto which they were called. For they knew thatour Lord Jesus Christ had become man for oursakes in order to cut up all sin by the root, andto supply us with food on that journey by whichwe enter into eternal life. For He thought it notrobbery to be equal with God, but emptied HimIf by taking the form of a slave, and being foundin fashion as a man humbled Himself to death,d that death the cross. Hence it was that thtyrs, bearing Christ within them, in their zeathe greatevery suffering andthe various inventions of torture not once, but49 Hist. viii. 9.

368 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.some of them a second time, and all the threatsof their guards, which did not stop with words intheir zeal to overcome them, without their resolutionbeing broken, because perfect charity castsout fear. What words can I find to enumeratetheir virtue and their endurance in each particulartrial? Since they were left exposed to anyone'soutrage, some being struck with clubs, others withrods, others with scourges, some with lashes, somewith ropes. The sight of the tortures presentedevery variety, but great suffering throughout.These with hands bound behind them were distendedon the wood, and had every limb stretchedby machinery ; and thus their tormentors by commandattacked the whole body, tearing them noton the sides alone as murderers are treated, but onthe stomach, the knees, and the cheeks. Otherswere hung by one hand from the portico, and thistension of the sinews and limbs caused a moreterrible pain than any. Others were bound topillars face to face, the feet not reaching theground, but the weight of the body tightening thebonds, and this they suffered not during the timeof examination only, or while the governor wasengaged with them, but almost the whole dav. "/For when he went to others, he left his officerswatching over these, to see if the extremity oftorture should cause any to give way : and hecharged them to be bound without mercy, butwhen at their last gasp to be let down and dragged

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.369along the ground. For he said that no accountat all was to be taken of us, but we were to beboth reputed and treated as non-existent. Thislast was a second torture which they superaddedto their blows. There were those also who aftertheir tortures were put in the stocks with theirfeet distended to the fourth hole, where they mustneeds lie down, not being able to hold themselvesup through their wounds gaping over the wholebody. Others flung on the pavement lay therethrough the repeated violence of their racking,the many signs of suffering over their body presentinga more fearful spectacle to those wholooked on than the racking itself. Thus treated,some died under the torture, putting their adversaryto shame by their endurance; some shut up inprison half-dead, after a few days expired throughthe extremity of their pains; the rest having treatmentapplied became still more resolute throughthe time spent in prison. And so when the choicewas presented to them either to touch the abominablesacrifice, and depart unmolested, gainingby this course an execrable deliverance, or,t sacrificing, to receive sentence of death, without any doubt they joyfully went to deaththey knew what the sacred writingsthat sacrifices to other gods shall be rooted out,d ' thou shalt have no other gods -^^^^^"- but me.' "50This may suffice as a specimen of what wasII.50 Euseb. Hist. viii. 10.

370 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.done during a course of years throughout thedominion of Galerius, " Maximin, -4^1 JL t^J^.A.J.A-U.J.J^J.* and Maxentius.It is in this persecution especially that the virginmartyrs suffered the extremity of the heathenmalignity in the threatened loss of that puritywhich they valued more than life. And here afellow-Christian at Alexandria disguising O O himselfas a soldier was to S. Theodora the guardian whichher anel himself became to S. Anes at Rome. Inthis persecution also S. Vincent repeats in Spainthe trial and the triumph of S. Laurence at Rome.The authentic account of his martyrdom showsthe utmost point to which the most ingenious andthe most ferocious cruelty could reach on the oneside, and the most enduring patience on the other.But the numberless details concerning the sufferingsof this time preserved to us show that it wasindeed a conflict prolonged during eight years,in which the Roman state put forth the utmoststrength which unlimited power guided by unhesitatingcruelty could exert to destroy the ChristianChurch and name.At the end of this time the conflict was terminatedby the Emperor Galerius, the chief moverof the whole persecution, being struck by a mortaldisease, in which reduced to impotence by his sufferingshe withdrew his edicts against the ChristianFaith. One after another the persecuting emperorsare taken away by death. Constantine inheritinghis father's justice towards Christians, and

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MABTYR CHURCH.371preserving them in his own territory from theseoutrages, gradually appears as their champion. Itis when advancing to Rome against Maxentius thathe sees in the Cross the token of victory over allenemies : enrollin it on his banner he rules withLicinius the Roman world, an4 by a decree issuedat Milan in 313 assures to all Christiansthe freeexercise of their religion.In the year 64 Nero had declared by initiatinga persecution against Christians that their religionwas illicit, and fell under the ban of the old Romanlaws which"forbade the exercise of any wor-ship not approved by the senate. From that timedown to the edict of Constantine no Christian couldstand before a Roman tribunal plainly avowing hisfaith in one God and one Christ without incurringthe liability of capital punishment. In thisperiod of two hundred and forty-eight years it istrue that there were intervals of comparative peacewhen the emperors did not themselves call intoaction the laws against Christians. During thewhole second century there would seem to be noemperor who set himself to destroy the Christianname and people as a whole. In the time of Corn-modus it was even forbidden to accuse a Christianof his religion ; yet even then, if the accusationwas made and proved, it was a capital offence ,followed and that too in the case of a senator afterdefence before the senate, by the infliction of thepenalty. Alexander Severus is the first of whom

372 THE THIRD AGE OF THE MAKTYR CHURCH.it is said that "he suffered the Christians to be;"Philip also favoured them ; so again Valerian atfirst; Gallienus gave back their churches ; Diocle-rusted them and filled his Dalace with them:but no one of these emperors ventured tothe Christian religion to be according to the lawsof Rome a " licit" religion, < and no one thereforeenabled Christians to avow it without danger of suffering.The most favourable suspended the actionof the laws either by positive edict, or by lettingit be understood that they did not wish Christiansto be disturbed. A change either of theruler, or of the ruler's inclination, as was seen inthe cases of Valerian. / Aurelian, / and Diocletian, 'induced at once that full state of penality underwhich Christianity was as much forbidden as homicideor treason, and in virtue of which Romanmagistrates could as little refuse to judge thecrime of being a Christian as those other crimes.Thus it is that we find martyrdoms assigned totimes at which there is not known to have beenany general persecution: and in unnumbered casesChristians won their crown through private enmityor local tumults, p when any one of the thousandmotives which awaken ill-will was sufficient tocause an appeal to that great and unchangedenemy, the Law of Rome, which proscribed them.To Constantine belongs the glory of having removedthis enemy. He made the profession ofChristianity no longer a crime. He accomplished

THE THIRD AGE OF THE MARTYR CHURCH.373that which Justin and Tertullian and every Christianapologist had asked for in vain, that everyChristian in the Roman empire might profess andpractise the Christian Faith without suffering punishmentfor it.

CHAPTERXIII.THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND THE GREEK PHILOSOPHYPAETI.Socrates. It is, then, necessary to wait until we learn how we ought*»mAlcil)iades. But when, Socrates, will that time arrive? and who shallteach us it ? For it seems to me that I should with the greatest pleasuremSocrates. It is he who cares for thee.1 Second Alcib. § 22.IN the three preceding chapters we have witnesseda great spectacle, a spectacle in all history uniqueand withouta rival, the UXJL \^f encounter, V^-J-l-V^V-/ I^L

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.375the earth's bosom and silently fills its expanse. Attentionmust now be called to another aspect of thesame encounter. Koine, as we have said, preeminentlywielded power; not the power of her legionsonly, immense as that was, but the power of herlaws, and the power of that many-sided and as itseemed triumphant all-embracing civilisation, ofwhich she was the golden head. The mind however,the thought of the world which she ruled, belongedto the great o Hellenic race: and it remains to con-sider what contest this mind waged with the truthwhich the Christian Church sustained and sufferedfor. The sword hews away limbs; the fire destroysbodies; and the martyrs offered freely their limbsand their bodies to sword and flame. But the martyrswere inspired with a mind; they carried Christin them; and a mind too was opposed to theirs; themind which animated that ancient civilisation; themind which had erected such shrines as Diana ofEphesus and the Parthenon at Athens; the mindwhich dictated the laws of Solon and Lycurgus; thed which taught in the Academus, the Ly mthe Portico, and the Garden; the mind which builtAlexandria for the world's emporium and univer-, and raised Antioch to be the gorgeous thronef eastern magnificence. We have to conhow this heathen mind encountered the Christin short, how, "after that in the wisdom of God thworld by wisdom knew not God, it pleased Himthrough the folly of Christian preaching to save

376 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDthose that believed."2Let us trace the encounterof heathen wisdom-that is, Philosophy-withChristian wisdom, that is, the truth of a God incarnateand crucified, with all its consequences,as upborne by the Christian Church and plantedamongmen.Now the system of polytheistic worship whichwas then in possession of the Grseco-Roman worldhad been subjected for many ages to all the analyticpower of human reason as exercised by themost gifted of races which have hitherto embodiedtheir genius in a corresponding civilisation. Thephilosophy of Greece is in fact such an analysis,and the rise of this philosophy is carried backby the ablest inquirers to the time of Thales andPythagoras in the sixth century before Christ.In the beautiful climate of Ionia and SouthernItaly there arose at this time men who attemptedby the efforts of their own reason to form a physicaland a moral theory of the world which surroundedthem. Philosophy is not merely thought,but methodical thinking, thinking consciously directedupon the knowledge of things in their * con-nection with each other. Nor is it content merelywith the collecting of observations andithe know-ledge so derived, but proceeds to gather the individualinstances into a whole, to draw to a centrewhat was scattered, and to form a view of theworld resting upon clear conceptions and at unity2 1 Cor. i. 21.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.377"with itself.3 This was the nature of that workwhich Thales and Pythagoras commenced. Letus give O a glance O at the race which bore them, ' andof which they were representative men.This race had dwelt for some ages » \^ K-7 in A-L-i. Greece \_^ JL \~* \-/ X> V> *and from thence occupied by emigration the shoresof Asia Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy, with apart of Africa. Pythagoras, the father of Italianphilosophy, had migrated from Samos to Crotona,having visited Egypt, examined and gathered fromall the stores of its knowledge. A century*laterHerodotus, the father of Greek history, migratedlikewise from his country Halicarnassus, and afterspending many years in extensive travels throughEgypt and Western Asia settled at Thurii. Inthe succeeding century Plato travelled in like mannerwith similar purposes. He was familiar withSicily as with his own Attica, not to speak of Egyptor Phoenicia. These three great men, Pythagoras,Herodotus, and Plato, are specimens herein of thecultured Greek, the gentleman, as we should callhim. Thus though Greece proper was a verysmall country, the whole region from middleItaly, including Sicily, and the rich coast-land ofNorthern Africa from Carthage O to Egypt, O§/ * withi3 Zeller, die Philosophic der Griechen, 2te Aufl. vol. i. pp. 6 and 35."Philosophy/3 says Grote, Plato, vol. i. v. "is, or amis at becoming,reasoned truth: an aggregate of matters believed or disbelieved afterconscious process of examination gone through by the mind and capableof being explained to others:" who quotes Cicero's " Philosophia ex ra-tionum collatione consistit"

378 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDagain Phoenicia and Syria, and the continent tothe depth of perhaps a hundred miles round thethsia Minor watered by the sea,were in a larger sense the Greek's country, a fieldof Grecian thought, and enterprise, and observation,a sphere in which his mind was enlarged,and his judgment of men and things matured.4Generally speaking these regions were singularlyfavoured as to richness of soil and convenience ofsituation. Herodotus himself has marked the climateof Ionia as the most beautifuland best-temperedof the earth; and with a far wider knowledgef its regions we should not venture to dispute thjustness of his remark. Some modern writers arewont to dwell on the effect which climate exercisesupon man's mind. However this may be, it iscertain that the race whose energies were diffusedover this region was most highly gifted with naturalendowments. When out of the world whichChristianity has mainly formed, and from thebosom of nations which have grown through thestruggle of a thousand years, and with perpetualcompetition among each other, into a rich civilisation,we look back 011 that ancient and simplerworld, we find in Hellenism the most perfect * ex-pression of the natural man, as a plastic, artistic,poetical, philosophical, and generally intellectual4 Thus Herodotus says of Solon, TTJS 0eo>piV c/cS^ju^cras elveKtv, i. 30;and presently, ^» ^ |e?^e 'A07jz/a?e, Trap ^ ^ ^

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.379race, wherein matter was most completely permeatedby mind. The language which they usedeven yet presents a very perfect image of such arace, as not being formed from the corruption ofother idioms, but a mother tongue, the most brilliantof the Aryan sisters. In its union of strengthwith beauty, of pleasing sound with accurate sense,in its power to convey the most subtle distinctionsof philosophic thought, or the most radiant imagesof sensuous loveliness, the gravest enunciations oflaw, or the tender est dreams of romance, it waswell calculated to be the organ of a people whereinbodily form and immaterial intellect alike culminated.The language which we use ourselves isfull of nerve and vigor, with a certain northernforce and a habit of appropriating the materialstores of other languages by incorporating theirwords, which suits well the descendants of sea-kings, who have provinces all over the world; butt is without inflexions, deprived of cases and grs defective in markinin all these is most rich and flexible:time whereas the Grethe one resemblesthe torso of a Hercules without its limbs,the other an Apollo as he touches the earth in hisperfect symmetry. Then compare its sound withthat of the old Hellenic tongue, C 7 and we seem tothe poet's "stridor ferri tractseque cbeside the voice of a lute: while as to texture, itis like the train of a railway matched with thgolden network, fine as the spider's web, indig

380 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDsoluble as adamant, which the poet feigns to havebeen wrought by Vulcan: the English imprisonsthought in a rude and cumbrous iron, while theGreek exhibits it in a rich and ductile gold. Aswas the language, so was the people. Fond ofsociety and intercourse, skilful, crafty, commercial,enterprising, with a most human and genial intellect,with a keen and critical judgment, and a vividimagination. When such a race turned itself to ascientific consideration of the world, it might wellproduce what we are now to pass in review, theGreek philosophy.And here it is well to lay down first thestanding-point of the Greek mind. The Hellenicreligion was a natural religion, inasmuch as accordingto it man had no need to raise himself abovethe surrounding world and his own nature inorder to connect himself with the Deity. As hewas originally constituted, he felt himself relatedto it: no inward change in his mode of thought,no struggle with his natural impulses and inclinations,was required of him for this purpose. Allthat to him was humanlv natural seemed to himto have its justification in regard to the Deity likwise; and so the most godlike man wasout most completely his powers asd the essence of religious duty consisted in thould do for the honour of the Deity whatis in accordance with his own nature.55 Zeller, i. 39, quoted.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.381But this natural religion of the Greeks differedfrom that of others in that neither outward natureas such, nor the sensuous being of man as such,but human nature in its beauty, as illumined bymind, is its point of excellence. The Greek didnot, like the Eastern, lose his independence beforethe powers of nature, nor revel like the northernsavage in boundless liberty, but in the full consciousnessof his freedom saw its highest fulfilmentin obedience to the general order as the law of hisown nature. And as the purely Grecian deitiesare the ideals of human activity, he thus standsto them in a calm and free relation, such as noother nation of antiquity felt, because they arethe mirror of his own being, but his being exalted,so that he is drawn to them without purchasingthis at the cost of the pain and toil of an inwardstruggle.6How the features of his own land served toimage out to his fancy the Greek's religious attitudea poet has told us in exquisite verses, worthyof the beauty which they describe ; the apotheosisof nature." Where are the Islands of the Blest ?They stud the J3gean sea ;And where the deep Elysian rest ?It haunts the vale where Peneus strongPours his incessant stream along,While craggy ridge and mountain bareCut keenly through the liquid air,6 Zeller, i, p. 38.

382 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDAnd in their own pure tints arrayed,Scorn ^ earth's green robes which change and fade,And stand in beauty undecayed,Guards of the bold and free."7It seems to me essential to bear in mind throughoutour whole inquiry this standing-point of theGreek mind, because through all the succession ofschools and the fluctuation of doctrines, it remains,so to say, the ground-work on which they areembroidered. It is the very texture of Hellenicthought upon which first Pythagoras, then Plato,Aristotle, Epicurus, Zeno, Cleanthes, Panaatius,and__even Plotinus_and Porphyrius spin their web.They vary the decoration, but the substance re-mains unaltered. This standing-point rules theconception of virtue, and therefore of the wholemoral world. It reaches also to the final end ofman, and determines it.Moreover as the intellectual power of manseems to have culminated in the Hellenic race, soit would seem that a state of things existed amongthat people which left the human reason practicallymore to its own unaided resources than wefind to have been the case elsewhere.No doubtthe Greek mind had lived and brooded for agesupon the remains of original revelation, nor canany learning now completely unravel the interwoventhreads of tradition and reason so as todistinguish their separate work. However, ittain that in the sixth century before Christ th7 Newman, Verses on various occasions; Heathen Greece, p, 158.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.383Greeks were without a hierarchy, and without adefinite theology: not indeed without individualpriesthoods, traditionary rites, and an existing worship,as well as certain mysteries which professedto communicate a higher and more recondite doctrinethan that exposed to the vulgar gaze. Butin the absence of any hierarchy holding this priesthoodtogether, and teaching anything like a specificdoctrine about divine and human things, avery large range indeed was given to the mind "acting upon this shadowy religious belief, and re-acted upon by it, to form their philosophy. Th eGreeks did not, any more than antiquity in general ,use the acts of religious service for instruction byreligious discourse.8 In other words, there was nosuch thing as preaching among them. A domaintherefore was open to the philosopher on which hemight stand without directly impeaching the ancestralworship, while he examined its grounds, andperhaps sapped its foundations. He was thereintaking up a position which their priests, the civilfunctionaries of religious rites scarcely any longerretaining a spiritual meaning or a moral cogency,had not occupied.Thus it was that in the midst of a people whoworshipped traditionally a multitude of gods and8 Zeller, i. p. 43. WAlterthums, die gottesdienstlichen Handlungen zur Belehrung durchReligionsvortrage zu beniitzen. Ein Julian mchristlicher Sitte dazu i m rselbst ist uns kein Beispiel hie von iiberliefert"

384 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND1_ goddesses,^^^^^ j i " such as we have them exhibited in theHomeric and Hesiodic poems, the chief, perhapsthe only, and the yet unwritten literature of thatday, beings with a personal character and will,who were supposed to divide the government ofthe world between them, with a more or less recognisedsovereignty of one chief, arose men whoset themselves by the light of reason to thinksteadily and continuously how that world in whichthey were living had become what it was. Sucha movement of mind indicated in itself dissatis-faction with the existing o religion, O ." wherein thegods were considered the causes of things, andtheir wills the rulers of them, though in the backgroundeven here loomed the idea of fate, therepresentative, as it were, of brute matter, fromwhich the Greek mind could never disengage itself.Yet we do not find that these philosophersset themselves openly to attack the existing religion; rather leaving it in possession, and themselvesusually complying with its forms, they pursuedtheir own train of thought, as it were by itsside, not choosing to look whither it would leadthem.Such very much appears the position of inquirersin the first period of Greek philosophy,which is generally made to extend from its riseunder Thales to the time of the Sophists and Socrates.Their thoughts were mainly occupied withthe appearances of the physical world: they specu-

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.385lated how it could have arisen. Tims Thales, weare told, imagined its first principle to be water;Anaximander, boundless matter; Anaximenes, air;the Pythagorean said, all is number; the Eleaticschool, all is the one unchangeable being.9 Onthe contrary Heracleitus conceived the one Beingas ever in motion, involved in perpetual change :in accordance with which he nowhere finds true .knowledge, and thinks the mass of men have nounderstanding for eternal truth.10 Empedocles ofAgrigentum sets forth the four elements, * earth V/MIA VJ-JLawater, air, and fire, as the material principles orroots of things, attaching to these two ideal principlesas moving forces, Love as the unitive, andHatred as the severing.11 Anaxagoras, over andabove mechanical causes, W to which he limited himselfin the explanation of everything in particular, recognisesa divine spirit, which as the finest of allthings is simple, unmixed, passionless reason, whichcame upon chaos, forming and ordering the worldout of it.12 Democritus of Abdera takes for hisprinciples the Full and the Empty, identifyingthese with Being and Non-being, or Something andNothing. His Full consists of indivisible atoms.13The remarkable thing about all these systems,if we may so call them, is, that while the existingpopular religion teemed over, so to say, with the9 Zeller, i. p. 141. w Ib. i. pp. 449-452.11 Ueberweg, Grundriss der Gescfdclite der Pliilosovltie, drit. Aufl. i,p. G5.12 2 Ueberweg, i. 68. 13 ib. i. 72.II.CC

386 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDidea of a number of personal agents directinghuman things, these philosophers nearly all concurredin the attempt to find some one agent, andthat material, from which all should spring. As yeteven the radical distinction of matter and spiritwas not clear to their minds:14 the soul of theindividual man was to them merely a particleof the vital power which disclosed itself throughthe universe, the purest portion, but a portion still,of primal matter. In their conception of theconstituent cause while they advanced towardsunity they receded from personality. Even theworld - forming Intelligence of Anaxagoras, whofirst distinctly declares that spirit is not mixedwith matter, works only as a power of nature, andis portrayed to us in a semi-sensuous form, as afiner matter.15"After Greek philosophy had run out duringabout a hundred and fifty years in this sort ofvague and imaginative speculation upon the physicalworld, it underwent a great change, whichmarks the transition to its second period. Thesesuccessive opinions of philosophers led a class ofmen who arose at Athens about the middle age O ofSocrates to the conclusion, that it would be more14 Dollinger, HeidentTwm und Judentliiim, p. 272, and Zeller, i. p. 139,who states this of the Eleatics, Heracleitus, Democritus, and even thePythagoreans, who, though they put Number instead of Matter, yet conceivedincorporeal principles as material, and so considered from thesame point of view the soul and the body, the ethical and the physical,in man.15 Zeller, ibid.

LIBRARYvc rr\\ i £

388 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDwarmly pursued and never wholly neglected, wereyet subordinate.18Who is this man of singular ugliness, with aface like a Silenus, with a body enduring hungerand impervious to heat and cold, who for thirtyyears frequents from morning to night the agora,the streets, the porticoes of Athens; who can drainthe wine-cup through the night, and with reasonunimpaired discuss philosophy through the followingday; never alone, ready to converse with allin whom he discerned the germ of inquiry; whoneither courts the high nor despises the low, butbeside whom may be found the reckless beauty ofAlcibiades and the staid gravity of Nicias, the ad-miring gaze of Plato even in youth majestic, andthe sober homage of plainer Xenophon ? Who isthis, the man most social of men where the wholepopulation is a club, the club of Athenian citizenship; whose tongue arrests the most volatile andinconstant of peoples; whose reason attracts andby turns draws out or silences the most oppositeof characters; whose whole life is publicity; ofspirit at once homely and subtle, simple and critical,parent both of philosophic certitude and philosophicscepticism? This is Socrates, the son ofSophroniscus, to whom Greek philosophy will look18 Thus Zeller throughout his great work perpetually deplores that-through this long period, and with increasing force after Aristotle's time,Wissenscliafimmgreatest good, and his happiness.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.389back as on one that had given its bent and directedits course during a thousand years, until the lastof its defenders19 will fight a hopeless battle withtriumphant Christianity, as the gods of Greecevanish, never more to return, and the lurid starof a false prophet teaching a false monotheismappears above the horizon, and takes the place,which they have left vacant, to be chief foe of theChristian name.The special principle of Socrates is thus de-scribed to us by an historian of Greek philoso-phy.20 "It is not merely an already existingmode of thought which was further developed bySocrates, but an essentially new principle and proceedingwhich were introduced into philosophy.Whilst all preceding philosophy had been directedimmediately on the object, so that the question ofthe essence and grounds of natural appearances isin it the radical question, on which all others depend,Socrates was the first to give utterance tothe conviction that nothing can be known respectinganything which meets our thought, before itsgeneral essence, its conception, be determinedlingly the trial ofttions by the standard of the conception is philosophicalself-cognition, the beginning and the conditionof all true knowing: whilst those who precededhim had arrived through the consideration13 Simplicius, in the sixth century.20 Zeller, i. p, 117.

390 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDof things only to distinguishing between the representationof things and the knowing of them, he,reversing this, makes all cognition of things dependenton the right view of the nature of knowledge."Another21 says : u It is stated in Aristotle'sMetaphysics^ that Socrates introduced the methodof Induction and Definition, Avhich proceedsfrom the individual to the determination of theconception. Aristotle marks23 the domain of ethicsas that 011 which Socrates applied this method.According to him the fundamental view of So-crates was the indivisible unity of theoretical prudenceand practical ability on ethical ground.Socrates conceived all the virtues to be prudences,inasmuch as they are sciences.24 Thesestatements are fully borne out by the portraits ofXenophon and Plato : Aristotle has only givenpoint to their expression. Thus Xenophon says,254 he was ever conversing about human things, in-iring what was piety and what impietyhonour and what turpitude; what just and whatunjust; what sobermindedness and what madness;what courage and what cowardice ; what policyand what politician; what the government of menand who capable of it; and suchlike things; andthose who knew these he esteemed men of honour21 Ueberweg, i. p. 88. » xiii. 4. » Metapli. i. 6.24 T7]s T)ff£iS $eTO 6?j/cu Trdaas Tas apeTas' . . . \6yovs ras aperasslvac &ri

THE GEEEK PHILOSOPHY.391and goodness, those who knew them not to bejustly called of servile mind/ ' Never did hecease inquiring with those who frequented himabout what everything was.'26 ' And he did notdistinguish between wisdom and temperance, buthe asserted that justice and every other virtue waswisdom.'27 With this view hang together the convictionsthat virtue can be taught, that all virtuein truth is only one, and that no one is willinglywicked, but only through ignorance.28 The goodis identical with the beautiful and the expedient.Right dealing, grounded upon prudence and practice,is better than good fortune. Self-knowledge,the fulfilment of the Delphic Apollo's injunction,4 Know thyself,' is the condition of practical ability.External goods do not advance. To need nothingis godlike; to need the least possible comes nearestto the divine perfection.29 Cicero's well-knownexpression is substantially correct,30 that Socratescalled down philosophy from heaven to earth, introducedit into cities and houses, and required itto study life, morals, goods and evils, which constituteda progress from the natural philosophyby his predecessors to ethics whose pro-vince is man. But Socrates possessed no completystem of ethical doctrines, but only the main-oro so it was natural th2LTIbIbid. iii. 9, iv. 6; Sympos. ii, 12. Plat. Apol. 25 e; Pp. 329 b.29 Mf 30 Tusc. v. 4.

392 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDcould only reach definite ethical statements in conversationwith others. Thus his art was MentalMidwifery,31 as Plato designates it. His confessednon-knowledge, resting on the firm consciousnessof the essence of true knowledge, stood higherthan the imagined O knowledge O of those who conversedwith him; and to it was attached the So-cratic Irony; that apparent recognition which ispaid to the superior wisdom and prudence of anotheruntil this is dissolved into its nothingnessby the dialectic examination which measures whatis maintained as a generalisation by the fixed pointof the particular case. Thus it was that Socratesexercised the charge of examining men,32 which hewas convinced had been imposed upon him by theDelphic god in the oracle elicited by Ch^erephothat he was the wisest of men."The opinion, practice, and teaching of Socratesconcerning the gods and the godhead are set forthmost graphically by his disciple Xenophon in twochapters of his Memorabilia. Scarcely could aChristian moralist exhibit more lucidly the argumentfrom design in proof of a divine Providencewhich has formed and which rules the world;more than this, which has produced the seasonsof the year, the plants, the animals, for the goodof man. In the eyes of Socrates the human bodyitself is a never-failing proof of the divine love of31 % naicvTiKrj, Plat. Tliecct. p. 149.32 e|eYa

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.393man. He details the wisdom with which it is puttogether, and forces the opponent, who is introducedas not sacrificing, nor praying to the gods,nor believing O in divination, / to confess : " When Iconsider this, assuredly these things seem the deviceof some wise world-maker, the lover of livingthings."33 Another he compels by a long enumerationof divine benefits to man to come to asimilar conclusion.34 " Certainly, Socrates, the2'ods seem to have a great care for men. Besides,he relies, when we cannot foresee in the futurewhat is good for us, they help us by revealingthrough divination what is to come, and instructingus as to the best course. Nay, Socrates, rejoinsthe other, they seem to treat you even morekindly than other men; for without being askedby you they signify before to you what you shoulddo and what leave undone. That I say true, answersSocrates, even you, 0 Euthydemus, will acknowledge,if you do not wait until you see theforms of the gods, but are contented, when youbehold their works, to worship and honour them.And consider that the gods themselves point thisout to you: for not only do the rest of them, whenthey » give us good things, not exhibit themselves toour senses in so doing, but he35 who coordinates33 Xen. Mem. i. 4. 7. cro^oC TWOSyfuovpyov Kal34 Ibid. iv. 3.356 rhv Q\QV KofffMOV avvrdrrw re /cat(rwexcov,eV & Trdvra ra /caAa Kalayadd eon, Kal dei pxv %pa5jUeVois arptfiij re /cat vyia Kal ayfiparov wap^0CCTT0P 5e wrj/jLaros ara^apr^r^s vTrriperovvra, ovros ra jAtyiara /xe^ irpdr-

394 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDand holds together the whole universe, in whomare all beautiful and good things, and who providesthem for the perpetual use of men free fromwaste, disease, and old age, so that they help usunfailingly, quicker than thought, is discerned inthe greatness of his operations, but while he administersthese to us, is himself invisible. Andtake thought that the sun, who seems to be manifestto all, allows not men to examine him closebut should "I anyone attempt .. . to . look 1 * at * him -*" 1lame-lessly, takes away his sight. And the ministersof the gods too you will find evading our senses;the lightning shoots from on high, and is masterwherever it alights, but is seen neither in its approach,nor in its stroke, nor in its departure. Thewinds themselves are invisible, but their works aremanifest, and we feel them as they come. Nayand man's soul too, or if there be anything else inman participating the divine, manifestly rules inus as a king, but is not seen. Bearing in thoughtthese things we must not despise the invisible, butlearning their power by their results, honour thatwhich is divine.36 Indeed, Socrates, says Euthy-demus, for my part I am quite resolved not theleast to neglect what is divine; but my trouble is,rwv bparat, raSe Se ollcojfOft&v a6paros TJ/J.'IV ecrrt. Compare thes passage of S. Paul, Rom. i. 19, 20. 5i6ri rb yvcaarbv rov 0eoudvep6v fanv ¬V avrois' 6 yap ®fbs avrois fipavepwcre' ra yap a6para avrovcbrb Krlffecas K6ffp.ov rots Tror^uacrt voovfj.ev'a KaQoparai, ^re a/'5tos avrov SviajuisdeioTrjs els rb tivai avrovs avaTroXoyrjrovs. Socrates draws precisely thesill36

THE GREEK THILOSOPPIY.395that it seems to me that no single man can ever beduly thankful for the kindnesses of the gods. Donot let this trouble you, Euthydemus, for you seethe god at Delphi, when anyone asks him how tobe grateful to the gods, answers, By your country'slaw. Now it is surely law everywhere toplease the gods by sacrifices, as best you can.How then can anyone honour the gods better ormore piously than by doing what themselves bid?Only we must not be behind our power: for anyonewho is so behind surely is manifest therein asnot honouring the gods. Our duty is to honourthem to the utmost of our power, and then to takeheart and hope from them, the greatest goods: fora man cannot show a sound mind in hoping fromothers greater goods than from those who have thepower to give the greatest aid; nor from those inany other way than by pleasing them. And howcan one better please them than by the most unfailingobedience to them? Now by saying suchthings, o / and himself doing o them, / he was ever ^ oing those who were in intercourse with him topiety and a sound mind."The last words of this man to his V iudges O were:" And now it is time that we depart, I to death,and you to life; but which of us are going untothe better thing is not clear to anyone save toGod."37 And when the hemlock was reaching hisheart,38 he uncovered his head, and said with his37 Plato, Apol., at the end. 3S Phcedo, p. 118.

396 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDlast utterance, " 0 Crito, we owe a cock to zEscu-lapius : pay it, and do not neglect it."I have cited at length these passages becauseI think that they exhibit clearly the opinions anconvictions > of Socrates on the most importantof all subjects. We behold here a man of a veryreligious mind, holding with the utmost tenacitythe idea of a Providence, the Benefactor of menand their Judge, since it discriminates betweenthem by reward and punishment: nor is it an im-^^^^^personal Providence, an abstract Reason, but " awise world-maker," who loves man and does himgood, and whose operations in this very purposeof doing him good indicate unity of design andperfection of execution: and yet in his conceptionof the godhead itself he halts between unity andplurality, and beside a statement such as we mightread in a Pauline epistle of the one God whoorders in harmony the universe and holds it toother,we find him passing to the recognition andworship of many gods: beside words to his judgesmost sublime and most pathetic, concerning theissue of life and of death, we find him with hislast breath directing his friend to discharge thesacrifice of a cock which he had promised to JEs-culapius. He does not attempt to solve either therational or the moral antagonism between manygods and one ; but practically he throws himselfinto the worship of his country, referring to thelaw of each place as that which should determine

THE GKEEK PHILOSOPHY.397for every man the question how the gods are tobe honoured. And in this I believe that he istypical of the whole race of philosophers at whosehead he stands. Like him they spoke of one God,and they - offered the cock to ^Esculapius. If weseek the highest expressions concerning the divineunity, wisdom, and power which are to be foundin their writings, they approach S. Paul: if weconsider other expressions, and above all, theirpractice, it is in the main that other word of Socrates,Worship according to the law of yourcountry. In the doctrine attributed to him bothiy Xenophon and Aristotle, that he identified virtueand prudence, and believed that no man iswillingly wicked, but only out of ignorance, wehave a proof which can scarcely be exceeded inforce how entirely the standing -point of Socrateswas that above attributed to the Greek mind ingeneral, that of a religion according to nature. Itignores in the most emhatic because in the mostunconscious " way the inclination to evil in man.The relation between God and man is simply thatof greater and less. There is a physical affinityand a numerical proportion between that mightynature which is ruled through cj all its length O andbreadth by a pervading reason, and the portion ofit contained in man's body and soul.39"mlength the inbv Xen. j\Iem. mcrates of any notion of turpitude in the occupation of Theodote is verj

398 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDIt is curious to imagine what would have beenthe effect of the life and the death of Socrates hadhe lived and died just as he did with one sole exception,that Plato and Xenophon had not beenhis disciples. Socrates wrote nothing : oral dis-course was his sole instrument of teaching. Whenits last memories had faded away, we might haveknown as little of him as we really know of Pythagoras.He would still indeed have been thegreatest of heathen names because he died for hismoral convictions.*This might have been all, andit would have been very much. This, however,was not to be. In Xenophon's Memorabilia wehave an accurate life -portrait of the man, while ingenius of Plato we have the applicationof what may be termed Socratic principles to theformation of an ethical, logical, and physical system.The Megaric40 school of Euclides, and Pluedo'sschool of Elis, took indeed one side of his doctrine,the dialectic, for their special subject of inquiry;the Cynic school of Antisthenes and the Cyrenianschool of Aristippus another side, the ethical : butit was Plato who embraced in one comprehensivescheme the whole grasp of his master's thought,striking indeed. One is reminded that Socrates took lessons in rhetoricof that Aspasia, herself the hetaera of Pericles, who is recorded to haveeducated a school of Theodotes. Thus Plutarch, Pericles, 24, says ofher, t ircuSiffKas fruipovcras rpetpovcra. In the Meneximus, p. 235, Socratesclaims her as being his 5i5atnca/Vos ovcra ov irdvv

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.399as well as the collective approved elements of formersystems.The principle of Socrates concerning the unionf knowledge and virtue invited his followers twork out a system of dialectics and ethics.41 Andfurther the dialectic process of induction and definition,which Aristotle tells us that Socrates introduced,was made by Plato the foundation of hisphilosophy.42 Its central point is the doctrine ofIdeas. Now the Platonic Idea is the object of theconception. As a single object becomes known byits representation, so the Idea becomes known byits conception, It is not the essence as such whichdwells in many similar individual objects, but thatessence as represented perfectly in its kind, unal-terably, in unity, independence, and self-existence.The Idea points to the general, but is representedby Plato as an original image of the individualprojected as it were outside of time and space.Conceive individuals which have a similar being,or belong 4 to the same class, delivered from thelimits of time and space, of materiality and individualimperfections, and so reduced to that unitywhich is the groundwork of their existence, andsuch unity is the Platonic Idea. The highest Ideais the Idea of the srood,43 which is as it were thesun in the realm of Ideas, viewed as the first causeof being and of knowledge. Plato seems to identifyUeberweg, i. 91. 42 Ibid. i. 117.Ibid. i. 118.

400 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDit with the highest godhead. Thus the method toattain the knowledge of Ideas is dialectics, whichcomprehend the double path of rising to the generaland returning from the general to the particular.As to the generation44 of the doctrine of Ideas,Aristotle states it as the common product of thedoctrine of Heracleitus that everything whichmeets the senses is subject to change and flux,and of the Socratic view of the conception. FromSocrates Plato learnt that when once this is rightlyformed, it can be held fast unchangeably: he wouldnot then apply it to anything which meets thesenses, but inferred that there must be other beingswhich are the objects of the knowledge acquiredby the conception, and these objects henamed Ideas. The filiation,45 then, between Socratesand Plato is this: Socrates was the firstto require that all knowledge and all moral dealingO should proceed 1 from the knowing O of the conception,and endeavoured to execute this by hisinductive process, ** while with Plato the same convictionformed the starting-point of a philosophicalsystem : so that what with Socrates was simplya rule of scientific procedure was carried out byPlato to an objective intuition, and when Socratessaid, Only the knowing of the conception is trueknowledge, Plato added, Only the being of the conceptionis true being.44 Ueberweg, i. 120, from Aristotle, lletayli. i. 6 and 9, and xiii. 4., « Zeller, i. 119.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.401Thus in Plato we have a man of great originalmind attempting with this instrument of inductionand definition to form a scheme of the universe,which divides under his hand into a triple aspectof ethics, physics, and dialectics.46 No doubt hismain intention was to offer to the cultured andreflective few,-that inner circle to which histeaching and his writings were directed,-a philosophywhich should serve them as a religion,47which should fill up the gaps and remove theanomalies of the existing worship, purifying andrestoring it, while it preserved amity with it nwithstanding. Such being his intention, the mannerin which he treats the doctrine of the DivineBeing o is the more remarkable. Instead of basing ohis philosophy upon it, and showing its relation asa part of his system of physics, ethics, and dialectics,he speaks of it frequently indeed, but alwaysincidentally.48 It is not so with other doctrineswhich he has at heart. Three of his finest dialoguesare dedicated to setting forth as manyaspects of his doctrine as to the soul's immortality; the Phsedrus treats of its preexistence ; the46 Ueberweg, i. 120, remarks : " Die Eintlieilung der Philosophic inEthik, Pl'ysik und Dialektik (die Cicero Acad. pos. i. 5, 19, Plato zuge-schreibt), hat nach Sextus Empir (adi\ Math. vii. 16) zuerst Plato'sinIlecht, SwdfAct ihr Urheber,« See Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 599. Dollinger, p. 299, sec. 122 ; p. 279,sec. 87.le (dieReligion und die Kunst) hatimraernur gelegenheitlich geaussert." *II.DD

402 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDBanquet of the influence of immortality on the relationsof the present life; the Phaedo of death asthe means of a happy futurity.49 But no one collectstogether and lucidly exhibits his view of thedivine nature. This has to be picked out of hiswritings, a bit here, and another there, and put togetherby the student. No doubt he felt, as hehas said,50 " with regard to the Maker and theFather of this universe it is hard to find him out, "and when you have found him impossible to describehim to all men." He was intimately convincedthat the great mass of mankind was quiteunsuited to receive the conception of the DivineBeing which he had formed. But I believe thereto have been another reason of greater force withhim for his not having presented as a whole hisconclusions on this central doctrine of all. It wasnot merely that the fate of his master Socrates wasever before him,51 but the singular position whichhe held with regard to the established worship.He wished to correct, not to destroy it; he wishedto reduce it to monotheism, and yet to preservepolytheism. The two are bound together in hismind. If then his writings be carefully analysed,and every reference to the Supreme Being put to-49 Dollinger, p. 290, sec. 110.50 Timaus, 28.51 Thus Grote, Plato, i. 230, speaks of " the early caution producedby the fate of Socrates," and believes " such apprehension to have ope-as one m mexposition under his own name, any Tl\dTwvos y7pa,u^a," p. 231.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.403gether into a sort of mosaic,52 we should find thefollowing picture. The everlasting essence ofthings, with which Philosophy deals, is the highestobject. Ideas are those everlasting gods afterthe pattern of which the world and all things whichare in it are formed, and the Godhead, taken absolutely,is not distinct from the highest Idea. Platosets forth the causality of Ideas and the sway ofreason in the world together with the impossibilityto explain what is generated save by an Ingenerate,motion save by a soul, and the ordered dispositionof the world, working out a purpose, save by reason; and in all which he declares respecting theGodhead, the Idea of Good, of the highest metaphysicaland ethical perfection, is his guiding-point. As this highest Idea stands at,the head ofall Ideas as the cause of all being and knowledge,so the one everlasting invisible God, the Formerand Father of all things, stands at the head of allthe gods, alike difficult to find and to describe.Just as the above Idea is distinguished by the conceptionof the Good, so Plato selects goodness asGod's most essential attribute. It is on this groundthat he maintains the Godhead to be absolutelygood and upright, and its operation to be merelygood and upright; against the old notion whichimputed envy to it, and derived evil from it.52 This has been done by Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. 599-602, fromwhom I take it. He supports his analysis with a great number of referencesto various works of Plato.

404 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDAgain, in opposition to the fabulous appearancesof the gods, it is from the goodness of the Godheadthat he deduces its unchans;eableness, / inas-much as what is perfect .T can neither be changed Oby anything else, nor change itself, and so becomeworse. He adds, the Godhead will never showitself to men other than it is, since all falsehoodis foreign to it; inasmuch as to falsehood in theproperest sense, that is, ignorance and self-deception,it is not exposed, and has 110 need to deceiveothers. He extols the divine perfection, to whichno beauty and no excellence is wanting; the divinepower, which embraces everything and cando everything which is possible, that is, whichdoes not involve a moral or a metaphysical con-tradiction : /or instance, it is impossible for Godto wish to change Himself, for evil to cease, andfrom the doctrine respecting the forming of theworld and matter it is clear that the divine activityin producing is limited by the nature of thefinite.53 He extols the divine wisdom which dis-53 Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, p. 487, remarks of Plato's doctrine: " So faras things are the appearance and the image of the Idea, they must bedetermined by the Idea; so far as they have in themselves a properprinciple in matter, they must be determined likewise by necessity :since, certain as it is that the world is the work of reason, it is as littleto be left out of mind that in its formation beside reason another blindlyin- ^^ Twork not absolutely perfect, but only so good as the nature of the finitemitted : and ne refers to mwill suffice, wherein at the conclusion of a review of the pof things Plato says: ravra Sij iravra r6re ravry iretyv^ra e|Ka\\iffTOv re Kal api

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.405poses all things to its purpose; its omniscience,which nothing escapes; its justice, which leavesno transgression unpunished and no virtue unrewarded;its goodness, which makes the best provisionfor all. He rejects, as notions taken fromman, not merely the Godhead7s having a body, butlikewise all those tales which impute passions,quarrels, crimes of every kind to the gods. Hedeclares them to be exalted above pleasure anddispleasure, to be untouched by any evil; 4 and isfull of moral indignation at the thought that theyallow themselves to be won over, or rather corrupted,by prayers and offerings. Moreover heshows that everything is ordered and ruled byDivine Providence, which extends over the leastas well as the greatest, and as regards men isespecially convinced that they are a carefully-tended possession of the Godhead, and that allthings must issue in good to those who throughvirtue gain its goodwill. If the unequal and unjustdistribution of men's lot is objected, his replyis, that virtue carries its reward and wickednessits punishment immediately in itself; further, thatboth are sure of a complete retribution in theWIT^F V5?) Xj0?? 8tf curias e?S>] Sio/n^etrdai, rb juez/ a^cry/ccuo*/, rb 8e 0e?oi>, /cat rb ^uei/ 0e?oi/* *' 5" ** / f' 3^ O/ A> f/ « *"» * /¬V ttTTaCTf f?7T¬i^ /CTT)0"¬OJS ¬^¬/Ca ¬VOai(AQVO$ piOU, /Ctt0 00*OJ/ ^WZ/ 7/

406 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDafter- world, while already in this life as a rule inthe end the upright goes not without recognitionand thanks, nor the transgressor without universalhate and detestation. As to the general fact thatthere is evil in the world, it seemed to him so inevitablethat it was not requisite expressly to defendthe Godhead on that score. All these statementscarry us back at last to one and the samepoint. It is the Idea of the Good by applyingwhich Plato produces so exalted a doctrine ofGod. In the like spirit he will consider only themoral intention in acts of worship. He alone canplease the Godhead who is like it, and he alone islike it who is pious, wise, and just. The gods cannotreceive the gifts of the wicked ; the virtuousalone have a right to invoke them. God is goodness;' and he who bears not the linage *-of thatoodness in himself stands in 110 communion withhim.The doctrine here set forth is the highest everreached by purely heathen Greek speculation; butwe must remember that it is not thus collectedinto a head by Plato himself, still less is it putinto such a relation to his physical, his logical, andhis moral system as such a doctrine ought to bear.A man who had reached so lofty a conviction ofthe divine unity and moral perfection as this must,if he would make it effectual, give to it in his systemthe place which it really holds in the world.If there be indeed a Maker and Father of the

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.407universe by whom all things consist, all that Platotaught should have been subordinated to this itsfirst principle, and the sum of his teaching to menshould have been to set him forth. So far is thisfrom the position which Plato really took, that inhis ideal Eepublic no other religion but the traditionalGreek religion was to subsist; he changesnothing in the very forms of the polytheistic worship; he refers the decision on many points tothe Delphic Apollo.54 And when in his last bookon the Laws55 he sets forth the notion of a secondbest state, one which can be realised underactual circumstances, wherein he gives a mass ofpractical directions for the needs of the lowerclasses, religion in its purely polytheistic dress isthe soul of his teaching, the groundwork of hisstructure. Men are to worship first of all theOlympian gods, and the gods who are the patronsof the city; then the gods of the earth; then demonsand heroes; and all these in the traditionalway by offerings, prayers, and vows. All good inpublic life is their gift; everything is to be consecratedto them; to violate their shrines is thegreatest of crimes. In fact, after all, but few ofmankind are capable of understanding or receivingthe philosophic God. However imperfect56 the54 Bellinger, p. 297, sec. 119, quoted.55 So likewise Zeller remarks, vol. ii. part 1, p. 604 : "Die Gesetze,welchen die philosophischen Regenten fehlen, behandeln die Volks-re-ligion durchweg ala die sittliche Grundlage des Staatswesens."56 Ibid. p. 605.

408 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDpopular belief in the gods may be, and howeverunsatisfactory to him the allegorical interpretationsof it then so much in vogue, yet is it in Plato'sconviction indispensable to all those who havenot had a scientific education. Men must first betaught with lies, and then with the truth: the popularfables and the worship grounded on themis therefore for all the first, and for most the onlyform of religion.57 The philosopher, it is true "sees deeper and despises them in his heart. Thusthe monotheist in speculation is a polytheist inpractice : as Socrates, the model and exemplar ofGreek philosophy, with his dying breath, so Platoits most inspired teacher with all the voice of hisauthority, sacrificed the cock to ./Esculapius.But moreover, this supreme God, who has tobe disinterred from the recesses of the Platonicteaching, and conciliated with the worship practicallypaid to a host of subordinate gods, is inPlato's conception neither absolutely personal norfree, and he is not the Creator but only the Formerof the world. In Plato's theory there is coeternalwith him a first matter, without form or quality,which exists independently of him; which more-over is inhabited and swayed to and fro in disorderlyheavings by a sort of soul, the token of57 Here Zeller remarks : " Diese Voraussetzung liegt der ganzen Be-handlung dieser Gegenstande bei Plato zu Grunde. . . . Dass die philo-sophisclie Erkenntniss immer auf eine kleine Minderheit beschrankt seinmiisse ist Plato's entscliiedeue Ueberzeugung."

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.409that dark Necessity58 which rises behind the figuresof gods and men in Greek poetry. It is » indeedthe work of the divine reason to come " down uponthis shapeless mass and its inborn mover, and outof them to construct the world-soul, with whichand with his own reason he forms and maintainsand vivifies the ordered universe. As he is by thisoperation the Father of the universe, so this FirstMatter is " the Mother of all generation," the conditionof the existence of corporeal things. But inthis original matter lies the origin of evil, which,erpetuated in the corporeal structure of man, canindeed be tamed and schooled, and in a certaindegree O subdued, * but never can be exterminatedby the divine reason. The power, the wisdom, andthe providence of Plato's God are encountered bythis check, which stands eternally over against theDemiurgos in his world - forming activity, whichlimits his freedom, and impairs his personality,while it excludes the whole idea of creation.Students of this philosophy59 attempt to associatetogether his highest Idea, that of the Good, withthe supreme God, of whom he speaks withsonal attributes, as the just, the wise, the true, thegood, but admit that Plato has not attempted tove the problem how the Idea, which by his hypothesisas it is the highest is also the most general,is at the same time the most individual, the one58 Dollinger, p. 293.59 See Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. 448-457

410 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDpersonal God. In fact, it is admitted that he fails-together with all the ancient Greek writers-inthe strict conception of personality.60 As accordingto him individual beings are what they areonly by participation of something higher, it is nowonder that in describing that one Reason, theIdea of the Good, the highest and most general ofall, which forms and governs the world, his languageoscillates between the personal and the impersonal.But if his philosophical reasons tendone way, it must be allowed that the heart andaffections of the man, and the whole moral senseof the teacher, decide another.The ethical system of Plato appears to be astrict deduction from his physical. As man in hisview is a compound of matter, vivified by a portionof the world-soul, which the divine reasontakes and unites with a portion of itself, so hisvirtues correspond to this threefold composition. GlFor man has an immortal portion in his soul, thereason, the godlike, in him, but the divine reason,in joining a portion of the world-soul with matter,invests it with two mortal parts, one the courageous,or manly, the other, sensuous desire, or thefemale element, having their seat in the body'sWie es sich aber in dieser Beziehung mit der Personlichkeit ver-immvorgelegt hat, wie ja dem Alterthumder Personlichkeit fehlt, und die Vernunft nicht selten als allgemni und. Unv>ersonlicnemsicher echAvankenden "VVeise gedacht wird." Zeller^ p. 454.61 Dollioger, p. 286, sec. 103. Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, p. 538.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.activity. To these answerespectively the virtuesof prudence, of courage, and of temperance, whilejustice comes in afterwards as a right ordering ofthe three, or as prudence applied to practice. Theseat of all irregular desires, of all evil, in fact, isto Plato in this union of the soul with matter.this matter is primordial, evil in its origin doesnot indeed spring from God, but it is beyond hispower: it springs from that state of things whichexisted before the action of God on chaos :62 itmust stand over against the good : and of necessityencompasses this mortal nature and the placeof its habitation : and to man it lies not in theperverted * use of free-will, but in his original com-position, wherein his body is its seat. But in thistriple composition of man Plato does not seem tohave clearly apprehended a human personality atall : he has not even attempted to explain63 inwhat the unity of the soul consists besides theseits three portions, two of which, being tied to thebody, drop off at death.It is in the practice of Plato as a teacher thatwe can most fitly consider the conception whichthe Greek philosophers in general had concerningthe method of studying */ o and imparting c philosophv J62 Theatetut, p. 176. 2o?/c. 'AAA' our' d-n^Aec-flai rd Ka/cd Swarfo, cS 0eJ5a>pe' inrsvavTiov yap rt TO? a7a0a? dei elz/cu avayKfi* OVT eV 0eo?s aura 2/cai roi'Se T^763 See Zeller, vol. ii. part 1, pp. 541-4, who points out a string of difficultieson the subject of personality, free-will, as maintained by Plato,and his doctrine that no one is willingly wicked.

412 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDaltogether. It was about the fortieth year of hislife, and twelve years after the death of his masterSocrates, that Plato, having already travelledwidely, settled at Athens.64 Here he purchased afixed residence at the Academia, which became fromthat time a philosophical school for study, conversation,oral lectures, and friendly meetings. Herehe drew around him an inner circle of scholars towrhom he addressed his unwritten doctrines,65 especiallyhis doctrine of Ideas, the key to his wholesystem, according as they were able, after preparation,to receive them : and here besides he gavelectures which might be attended not only by thatinner circle of choice disciples but by studiouspersons in general. This residence of Plato servedfor three hundred years, from 387 before Christuntil the siege of Athens by Sylla in 87, as thecentre of Plato's philosophy viewed as a teachingpower. Now in this Plato had before him thegreat example of Pythagoras, in the first age ofGreek philosophy. Concerning the doctrines ofthat philosopher we know little with certainty,66but all are agreed as to his manner of teachingthem. His attempt L was to establish a community "/which should carry in its bosom, propagate, andperpetuate a doctrine in morals, politics, religion,and philosophy. His whole procedure was by oral64 See Grote's Plato, i. pp. 133, 4.65 Ueberweg, i. p. 116.66 So Zeller sets forth at length, i. p. 206 ; and Ueberweg, i. p. 47

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.413teaching, for he left not a word written. It wasin fact a religious order of life which he first practisedin his own person, and then endeavoured tocommunicate to others. Into this order trial foreveryone preceded reception.67 His scholars werefor a long period required to practise silent obedienceand unconditional submission to the authorityof the doctrine delivered to them. Severedaily examination was imposed upon all. Thepublishing of his doctrine, especially his speculationas to the nature of God, was strictly forbidden.The upright life, the learning which thencould only be attained by personal inquiry, thepersuasiveness of Pythagoras, were together so effectivethat he succeeded in establishing such acommunity both in Crotona and in other cities ofSouthern Italy. It was persecuted and sufferedcontinual disasters, but still this Pythagorean community,bearing on its founder's doctrines andmanner of life, existed for several generations afterhis death, during which many of the most distinguishedGreeks belonged to it. Such was the poet^Eschylus, whose mind was formed on Pythagoreanprinciples. In Plato's time the Pythagorean Ar-chytas was at the head of the state of Tarentum :and Plato himself was largely imbued with Pythagoreantenets.6867 Ueberweg, i. p. 50. Plato calls it bUv two. jSiou, for which Pythagorasavr6s re 8ias frycwnrjflT?, Kal ol vcnepov ert Kal vvv Uvday6p¬iovrp6irov Inpo/icfjbrrcs TOV fiiov Sm^cu/eZ? TTTJ SOKOVVIV elvat. Polit. x. p. 600.68 Grote, PZato, i. p. 221.

414 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDNow Plato, it is true, did not imitate thelitical part of the Pythagorean scheme. It w>er that he set forth his ideal republic.But the same conception as to the mannerof communicating a doctrine lay in his mindas in that of Pythagoras. He did not look towriting as a primary instrument of communicatingthought. He places it himself in a relation ofdependence upon oral dialectic instruction. It isonly to serve as a reminder of what had beenotherwise_ *taught: and, moreover, it is quite sub-ordinate to his first postulate, the earnestness of alife devoted to inquiry and education.69 Theseprinciples are set forth with great lucidity in hisdialogue Phaedrus, where he introduces by themouth of Socrates the Egyptian god Thoth, theinventor of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, draftsand dice, and also of letters. With these inventionsin his hand the god approached the thenking of Egypt Thamous, recommending him tomake them known to his subjects. But Thamouswas by no means inclined to receive these inventionsunconditionally: he praises or blames them,as he judges of them, and at last he comes to theletters.70 " This discovery," says Thoth, " 0 king,will make the Egyptians wiser, and improve theirmemory. It is of sovereign effect in both things."Most ingenious Thoth," replies the king, " onede to ive birth to art and another t69 Ueberweg, i. 115. 70 Phad. sec. 135, p. 274.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.415judge what good or i what harm it will do to thosewho use it. And now you, i being the father ofletters, out of natural affection assert of them thatwhich is just the contrary to their real office. Forthey will breed forgetfulness in the minds of thosewho learn them, who will slight the faculty ofmemory, inasmuch as relying on what is writtenexternally in the types of others they do not exerciseremembrance by an inward act of their own.The spell you have found is good not for fixing inthe mind, but for reminding. And as to wisdom,you offer to those who learn them not its realitybut its appearance. For they will indeed hearmuch, but as this will be without teaching, theywill seem to have many minds but generally nojudgment, and be hard to comprehend, havingbecome wiseacres instead of wise men. 0 Soc-rates, says Phaedrus, you are one who can easilytell stories from Egypt or any other country. Mydear Phsedrus, * it was in the temple of DodoneanJupiter that they made the first oracular wordsto proceed from an oak. The men of that day,not being wise as you young T men, were satisfiedin their simplicity to listen t to an oak or a rock,if they only spoke the truth. Perhaps it makesa difference to you who the speaker is, and fromwhat country; for you do not look merely whetherit is true or not. Your rebuke, says Phse-drus, " is just, and what the Theban says *^ aboutletters seems to me to be right. Well then, says

416 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDSocrates, the man who thinks to leave an art inwriting, and he also who receives it as being, whenwritten, something clear and certain, must be verysimple, and be really ignorant of Ammon's oracle,when he thinks that written words are somethingmore than a reminder to one who knows the subjectof the matters about which they are written.Exactly so, Socrates. For surely, Phasdrus,writing shares this troublesome characteristic withpainting. The productions of painting stand thereas if they were alive, but if you ask them a question,preserve a solemn silence. Just so it is withwriting. You may think that they speak withsome meaning, but if you ask what that meaningis, there they stand with just the same word intheir mouth. When once a thing - is written, itis tossed over and over by all who take it in,whether it concerns them or not, and is unableto speak, or to be silent with the proper persons.And if it is maltreated or slandered, it wants itsfather always to help it, for it can neither defendnor help itself. What you say now is also verytrue indeed. But, says Socrates, can we not findanother word, this one's "lawful brother, " and seethe process by which it arises, and how muchbetter and abler than the former it is ? Whatword is this, and how does it arise ? The wordwhich is written on the disciple's soul togetherwith true knowledge, which is able to defend itself,and knows how to speak and to be silent with the

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.417proper persons. You mean the living and animatedword of one who has knowledge, whereofthe written word may justly be called the shadow.71I mean that indeed. Tell me now ; an intelligentgardener, who had seeds that he cared for, andwished to bear fruit, would he hurry with themin summer to the gardens of Adonis, plant them,and rejoice to see them springing up with a fair,h k? or w Id th amusement,and in festival-time, if he did it at all, butwhen he took pains would use his erardener's art,sow them at the fitting time, and be too glad if,seven months afterwards, he saw them coming toperfection? Certainly, Socrates, that would bethe difference between his sport and his earnest.Shall we, then, say that he who possesses thescience of justice, honour, and goodness, has lessintelligence than the gardener for his own seeds ?Surely not. He will not, then, hurry to writethem with a pen in ink with words, which cannoton the one hand help themselves with speech, andon the other hand are incapable j. to teach the truthsufficiently. should think he would not. Hewill not ; but as for these written flower-borders ,he will sow and write them, when he does writethem, for amusement, , storing;- up reminders forhimself,'should he come to a forgetfulOold age,O *andfor every one who pursues the same footsteps, and71 rbv rov ¬l^6ros \6yov AtytLSav n \4yotToii.vXoyi °v o ytypaftfAevos et5a>\uvEE

418 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDhe will take pleasure in seeing them springin g uptenderly : so when other men fall to other amusements,lubricating themselves at the banquet, orother such things, he will take his amusementhere. In this, Socrates, you would substitute avery seemly amusement for a bad one, when theman who can play with words sports upon thesubject of justice and suchlike. So it is, my dearPhaedrus, but it is, I take it, earnest in a far highersense, when one, using the art of dialectics, takeshold of a fitting soul, and lants and sows withtrue knowledge words able to help both themselvesand their planter, not fruitless, but havingseed, whence growing up in a succession of mindsthey will from age to age produce an immortalline,72 and will make their possessor happy as faras mancan be."In these words, put in his masters mouth,Plato, if I mistake not, has given us the wholepurpose of his life, and the manner in which hehoped to accomplish it. It was in the Academiathat he sought to establish that immortal line ofliving words, who should speak as the possessorsof real knowledge upon justice, truth, and goodness.He is describing a living culture by livingteachers, of whom he aspired to be himself thefirst and the written dialoues whih h has lefthis intention, and so f72 ffTTfp/J.0. &\\o i &\\ois

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.419upon the higher points of his doctrine,73 remindersof that which he had set forth to chosen auditorsby word of mouth, the word which was able, ashe says, to explain and defend itself, and to answera question put to it.This, then, was the relation existing in the mindof the prince of Greek philosophers between thewritten and the spoken word as instruments inimparting true knowledge, or science. The writtenword he regarded as subsidiary, as presupposinginstruction by question and answer, and stillmore the moral discipline of a life earnestly givenup to the study of the subjects in question. Withoutthis a writing by itself was like a figure in apicture, which makes an impression on the beholder,but when asked if it is the true impres-sion keeps, as he says, a solemn face, and makesno reply ; which is the same to all, the earnestand the indifferent, and cannot treat them accordingto their merits. He laughs at the notion ofsuch a writing being by itself any more than sport.And let us remember that he who said this hasenshrined his own philosophy in the most finishedpecimens of dramatic dialogues which the Gre IVmind produced. These are the statements of thman who wrote Greek in his countrymen's opinionas Jupiter would have spoken it. There are, then,in Plato's mind three constituents of teaching o :73 See his averseness to write on such doctrines at all set forth inhis 7th epistle.

420 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDfirst, the choice of fitting subjects for it, and whatis therein implied, the imposition of a moral disciplineupon them regulating their life to the endin view; secondly, the master's oral instructionconveying gradually and with authority to mindsso prepared the doctrine to be received; andthirdly, the committing such doctrine to writing,which shall serve to remind the disciple of whathe has been taught. And this was what he carriedinto effect.74 He fixed himself at the Academia,over which he presided for forty years : he wassucceeded therein by his nephew Speusippus, whoheld his chair for eight years ; Xenocrates followedin the same post during twenty-five years ;and the line was continued afterwards by Polemon,Grantor, Crates, Arcesilaus, and others in uninterruptedseries. Plato thus established the methodof Greek philosophy, and his example herein wasfollowed by Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus.His great disciple Aristotle came to him at theage of seventeen, and studied under him duringtwenty years. At a later age, when, after completingthe education of Alexander, he fixed himselfin middle life at Athens, he set up there asecond philosophical school at the Lyceum on its74 Grote observes, Plato, i. 216 : " Plato was not merely a composerof dialogues. He was lecturer and chief of a school besides. The pre-sidency of that school, commencing about 386 B.C., and continued by him\vith great celebrity for the last half (nearly for*y years) of his life, washis most important function. Among his contemporaries he must haveexerted greater influence through his school than through his writings."

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.421eastern side, and on the model of that of Plato.Attached to this museum were a portico, a hallwith seats, one seat especially for the lecturingfessor, a garden, and a walk, together witha residence,appropriated to theteacher and the rocess of instruction.75 WhAristotle died in the year 322 B.C., his friendTheophrastus presided over his school uringe and thirty years, and the line continued on.We learn that there were periodical meetings, convivialand conversational, among the members bothof the Academic and Peripatetic schools, and lawsfor their regulation established by Xenocrates andAristotle. It was in the shady walks of his gardenthat this great philosopher taught by word of mouththe choicer circle of his disciles: for the moregeneral hearers he gave lectures sitting.76 Hisinstructions were divided into two classes, thosewhich he gave on rhetoric, the art of discussion,knowledge of civil matters, and suchlike, whichwere exoteric, and those which touched the finerand more subtle *points of philosophy, which weretermed acroatic, as addressed to the ears.77 Again,his dialogues he called "public" or " issued" discourses,things made over 4 to the general public, indistinction from what was not so disclosed, but reservedfor the philosopher's own meditation, to besubsequently communicated either by oral lecture75 Grote, Plato, i. p. 138. 76 Ueberweg, i. p. 140, from Diogenes.77 Aulus Gellius, N. A. xx. 5, quoted by Ueberweg.

422 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND"or by writing to the private circle of scholars whogave themselves up entirely to his philosophy.These Aristotle called "philosophical" or "teaching"discourses, proceeding, that is, from the principlesproper to each branch of learning, and notfrom the opinions of the lecturer. These latterwere termed "tentative," as belonging to the exoteric.Simplicius, one of the latest writers onGreek philosophy, defines exoteric as " the com-mon, and what concludes by arguments which arematter of opinion ;" and Philoponus, as discourses" not of strict proof, and not directed to lawfully-begotten hearers," that is, trained and prepared,it but to the public, and springing from probabilities."78Thus in Aristotle, the largest in grasp ofmind, the most observant of facts, the most accuratein definition among Greek writers, the*phi-losopher in fact and "master of those who know,"79for all future ages, we find the same three constitu-ents of teachin as in Plato, / and in the same orderof importance : first, hearers selected for their naturalaptitude, and then submitted to a moral disciplineand a common life ; secondly, the instructionof such hearers by word of mouth, question and78 '£»/ K.OIVC? fyiyv6fjLevoi Aoyoi . . . e'/cSeSo^uei/ot \6yor ol Kara fyiXoGofyior 5(5acr/caAi/col \6yoi, ol e/c T&V ot/ceuoz> ap%a?i> 4/eao-Tou jua^juaros /cai OVK e/c&V TOV airoKpivopevov 5o£c£j> (rvXhoyifyiAtvoi, which last are \6yoi 7reipa

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.423answer, discussion and cross-examination; andlastly, the committing of doctrines to writing.With him too his written philosophical discourseswere reminders of his oral teaching, which theypresupposed and required as a key to their fullmeaning, and especially for the comprehension oftheir harmony as a system.The order of teaching which I have thus sketchedas being followed in practice by the two most eminentGreek philosophers belonged to them all.They had no other conception respecting the methodof communicating a doctrine efficiently tomen. They none of them considered"philosophymerely or chiefly as a literature: none of themattributed to a book the power of teaching it,Their conception was, a master and his scholars,and the living together, the moral subordinationand discipline which this involved. This schoolof education or training in knowledge80 was theirprimary thought : the committing of their doctrineto writing was both subsequent and secondary.Their writings were intended, as Plato says, tobe recollections81 of their teaching, and failed toconvey the real knowledge to those who had notthe stamp of this teaching impressed on theirminds.As Plato made a local habitationfor himself andhis doctrine in the Academia, and Aristotle in theLyceum, so Zeno, the founder of the third great80 81

424 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDphilosophic school,* took up his abode in the Porticoat Athens, a court surrounded with pillars, andadorned with the paintings of Polygnotus. Herehe began to teach about 308 B.C., and here he continuedteaching as some say for fifty-eight years. Itis said that the character of Socrates, as drawn byXenophoii and by Plato in his Apology, filled himwith astonishment and admiration :82 and the Stoicsafterwards drew their doctrine of the wise man,which they endeavoured to image out and realise,from that living example of it,83 an instance of theconnection of doctrine with person which is full ofinterest and suggestion. Zeno was succeeded inhis office of teaching by Cleanthes, and Cleanthesr Chrysippus and a long line of teachers, who forseveral hundred years continued, with variations,the same general doctrine of ethics.Just in the same way and at the same timeZeiio's great rival Epicurus fixed the seat of hisschool in the Garden at Athens, which thenceforthbecame for thirty-six years the central point of theteacher's activity. About him gathered a circle offriends whom similarity of principles and the enjoymentof cultivated intercourse bound togetherwith unusual intimacy. It speaks for the specialcharacter of his philosophy that from the beginningwomen and even heta3ra3 formed a part of this society.But he succeede during this long period82 Ueberweg, i. p. 188, from Diogenes and Themistius.83 Ibid, from Noack, Psyche, v. i. sec. 13.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.425of teaching in impressing upon his school so stronga character that it is recognised without essential84change during hundreds of years.We should do injustice to the character anthe work of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, and Epicurus,the founders of the four great schools of Greekphilosophy, if we did not take into account whatwas in their day no doubt of greater influencethan their writings, that is, their function asteachers, their oral teaching itself, and thosefundamental principles of philosophic educationwhich lay at the bottom of it. Plato has left usvery little of doctrine put out in his own name.He is not a speaker in his dialogues. He putswhat he would say in the mouth of others, especiallyof Socrates. He tells us that he has purposelydone this in order that men F might not say, here isPlato's philosophy:85 and the reason of this wasthat he utterly distrusted his own or any man'spower to disclose to others such a system in a setform of words. It is, then, the more remarkable84 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 343.85 Ep. vii. p. 841. ovfcow ejiioi/ 76 Trepl avrwv ecm avyypaufta, oi>8e /x?j Trorey^rjrar farov yap ov8a/j.w$ effrly d>s ^AAa ^a^TjjUara, aAA' e/c TroAA?}^ vvvovcriasyiyvonevrjs""ncpl"rbj_irpay/jLavrb_Kal^rov av^rjv e|ai^^y, olov airb irvpbs TTTjS?]-ffawros e|a^>0ev ^>a»s, ev TT? ^/yxj? 'ytvoptvov avrb tavrbmm e to the same effect ; after which he says, $>v «/¬Ka vo\>v ex&>*> outt TTorels avro r*0&ai TCC vevoTjftfra, Kal TaGra els a/ier Q.K[VT\TQV, &ei ra yeypofj^^ya TVTTOIS. So again in his second letter, p. 314. ?roA-\aKis 5e \¬y6fj.eva Kal ael aKov6/j.¬i/a /cat TroAAairpay par etas. . . . /x¬t(TT7] Se

426 THE CHKISTIAN CHURCH ANDthat he has said in his own person what were hismost settled convictions as to intercourse by worof mouth, and continuous written discourse, viewedas instruments for attaining and communicatintruth. He expresses his absolute disbelief thatmen can reach true conceptions by their being setforth in the immutable form of writing. It is afar other+and more difficult work which has to beaccomplished. In a word, not even aptness forlearning and memory will give the power to seethe truth as to virtue and vice to one who is notkin to the subject; nor, again, this kinship withoutsuch aptitude and memory: but when bothare joined, then out of living together, after much8 by the continual friction of name, definition,acts of sight and perception, by thoughtand meditation, the hearing and answering theobjections of others, the process of mutual cross-examination discharged without envy or jealousy,and with sincere love of the truth, a sudden flashof fire kindles in the mind, and nourishes itself,disclosing the knowledge required. Thus it isthat prudence and intelligence on each subject,shining out in this beam of light, go forward asfar as man may reach. The view here propounded,if reflected upon, will convey to us what the livingirpbs a\\T)Au avruv e/ccKTTa, ov6fj.ara Kal \6yoi o»|/ets re Kal alff6^ffeis,Iv eviJ(.ev¬(ni> fXcyxois t?Ae7xo/xei/a Kal avev

THE GKEEK PHILOSOPHY.427work first of Pythagoras, and then of Plato, Aristotle,Zeno, Epicurus, and their successors, was.oth the conception indeed and the realisationseem to have been most complete in Pythagoras.The philosophic living together was its basis. Instructionwas oral. Learnin was effected by thecollision of mind wi$i mind, by objection and answer.It was the Socratic principle inherited fromthese schools that nothing passed muster for knowledgewhich did not stand the test of cross-examination:87but an unchangeable text was utterlyunsuited, according to Plato, to debate the questionunder treatment in such fashion, while on theother hand the mind of the reader was passive inreceiving the impression which it conveyed. Onneither side therefore did the conditions of knowledgeexist, but this was reached under the circumstancesof personal intercourse above mentioned,and might I be recalled in the written formto the minds of those who had thus first attainedit.Down to the end of Greek philosophy the sameconception as to the method of teaching prevailed.87 Grote, Plato, i. 229. " When we see by what standard Plato testathe efficacy of any expository process, we shall see yet more clearly howhe came to consider written exposition unavailing. The standard whichhe applies is, that the learner shall be rendered able both to apply toothers and himself to endure a Socratic Elenchus or cross-examinationas to the logical difficulties involved in all the steps and helps to learning."Without this " Plato will not allow that he has attained trueknowledge" (Armschools and universities.

428 THE CHURCH AND GREEK PHILOSOPHY.Ammonius Sakkas, the founder of Neoplatonism,delivered his doctrine only by word of mouth,which his chief disciples, Erennius, Origines, andPlotinus, engaged not to make public.88 It waswhen one of them, Erennius, had broken this promise,that another, Plotinus, after delivering lecturesat Eome, wrote down %is philosophy; buthis scheme was to carry it out by collecting hisdisciples together in one city, and thus realisingPlato's republic.88 Ueberweg, i. pp. 242, 3.

CHAPTERXIV.THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AND THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.PAETII.THE mind of the next great teacher who arose inGreece after Plato presented an almost completecontrast to that of the master under whom he hadso long studied. Aristotle's power consisted ina parallel development of two forces which do notoften coexist.1 He joined together a rare degreeof consistent philosophic thinking with an equallyrare degree of accurate observation. This doublefaculty is shown in what he effected. He madethe sciences of logic, ethics, and psychology : hebuilt up those of natural history and politics withthe wealth of knowledge which his experience hadaccumulated.2 Thus his analytic and syntheticenius embraced the whole range of human knowledgethen existing. As Plato threw his vividfancy and imagination and his religious temperinto everything which concerned the human spirit,so Aristotle fixed his aze uon nature which withhim in all its manifestations was the ultimate fact1 Zeller, vol. ii. part 2, p. 632.2 Dollinger, pp. 304, 305.

430 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDAs Plato rose from the single being to his conceptionof the true, the good, the beautiful, of whichthe Idea to him was everything, so Aristotle, stead-fastly discarding his master's doctrine of Ideas, tookhis stand on the single O being, O / examining O it withthe closest observation and the subtlest thought ,and the knowledge thus conveyed to him is everything.Plato's conception of God is that of thegreat world-former, orderer, and ruler: Aristotle'sconception of God is that of a pure intelligence ,without power, an eternal, ever-active, endless, incorporealsubstance, who never steps out of thateverlasting rest into action : who is the world'sfirst cause, but is unconscious of it, his action uponthe world being likened to the influence of thebeloved object upon the lover. Plato's dualism issummed up in the expression, God and Matter ;Aristotle's dualism, 5 in God and the World. Platorepresents the action of the Deity as the wor king-up of the original matter into the millions of formswhich the world exhibits : but these millions offorms are taken by Aristotle as if they had existedfor ever ; the World, as it is, and the Deity, arecoeternal.Aristotle's doctrine of the human soul is thatit exists only as that which animates the body,without which its being cannot be known.3the principle which forms, moves, and developesthe body; the substance which only appears in* Dollinger, pp. 309, 310, sec. 137, 138.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.431the body formed and penetrated by it, and whichworks continuously in it, as the life which determinesand prevails over its matter. Thus the bodyis of itself nothing ; what it is, it is only throughthe soul, whose being and nature it expresses, towhich it is related as the medium in which thepurpose, which is the soul, realises itself. Thusthe soul cannot be thought of without the body,nor the body without the soul : both come intotheir actual state together.o In the soul Aristotledistinguishes three parts, the vegetative, the sensitive,and the thinking. This last, the peculiarproperty of man, is further divisible into the passiveand the active, of which the former is linked"to the soul as the soul is to the body, as form isto matter, multiplies itself with individuals, and isextinguished with them. But the reason, or pureintelligence, has nothing in common with matter.comes from without into man, and exists in himas a self - consisting indestructible being, withoutmultiplying or dividing itself. Accordingly thisintellect or reason suffers the soul to sink backwith the body into the nothing from which bothhave been together produced. It alone continuesto subsist as what is ever the same and unchangeable,since it is nothing but the divine intelligencein an individual existence, enlightening th> O Oness of the human subject in the passive partderstanding, and so must be considered asthe first mover in man of his discursive thinking O

432 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDand knowing, as well as of his willing.4 As thatwhich is properly human in the soul, that whichhas had a beginning, must also pass away, eventhe understanding, and only the divine reason isimmortal, and as memory belongs to the sensitivesoul, and individual thinking only takes place bymeans of the passive intellect, all consciousnessmust cease with death. And again, clearly asAristotle maintains that man is the mover andmaster of his own actions, and has it in his powerto be good or evil, and thence repudiates the assumptionof Socrates and Plato that no one iswillingly evil, yet he cannot find a place for realfreedom of the will between the motion which arisesfrom sensitive desire, and that which proceedsfrom the divine intelligence dwelling in the soul.Necessity "j arises on both sides, from the thingswhich determine the passive understanding, andfrom the divine intelligence.5 Thus his physicaltheory, as in the case of Plato noted above,6 preventsa clear conception of the human personality.His notion of man in this point corresponds to hisnotion of God: he does not concern himself withquestions respecting the goodness, justice, and freedomof God, inasmuch as his God is not reallypersonal :7 so with regard to man we find in himno elucidation as to the question of moral freedom,nor of the origin and nature of wickedness in man.4 Dollinger, p. 310, sec. 139. 5 Ibid. p. 311, sec. 140.6 See p. 411, above. 7 Dollinger, pp. 307 and 311.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.433Wickedness is with Aristotle the impotence to holdthe mean between too much and too little*: it pre-sents itself therefore only in this world of contingencyand change, and has no relation to God,since the first or absolute good has nothing op-posed to it. He has not the sense of moral perversionwith regard o to evil. In accordance withwhich the end of all moral activity with him isdness, which consists in the well-being arisingfrom an energy according to nature; as virtueis the observing a proper mean between two extremes.And the highest happiness is contemplativethought, the function of the divine in man,the turning away from everything external to theinner world of the conceptions.The religious character, which belongs conspicuouslyto Plato's philosophy, fails, it will beseen, in that of Aristotle. Whereas Plato stroveto purify the popular belief, and urged as thehighest point of virtue to become like to God bythe conjunction of justice and sanctity with prudence,8Aristotle divides morality from religion ashis God is separated off from the world.9 Hisscientific inquiries have not that immediate rela-tion to the personalife and the destiny of man inwhich the religiousness of Platonism most consists.His whole view of the world goes to explain things8 Alb Kal ireiuffdeu eV0eV5e/ceure0e'p Kara rb ^uvar6v 6/ucnWjs Se Sinuiov Kal oaiov juera (ppovfoewsK. r. A. Theatet. p. 17G. » Zellev, vol. ii. part 2, p. 623.II.

434 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDas far as possible from their natural causes.10 Thu>he admits in the whole direction of the world theruling of a divine power, of a reason which reachesits purpose; he believes in particular that the godsfor men, take an interest in him who lives inaccordance with reason; that happiness is thgift; he contradicts the notion that the godheadis envious, and so could withhold from man knowledge,the best of its gifts; but this divine providencecoincides for him entirely with the workingof natural causes. In his view the godhead O stands *in solitary self-contemplation outside the world,the object of admiration and reverence to man.The knowledge of it is the highest task for hi>intellect. It is the good to which in common witheverything that is finite he is struggling ; whoseperfection calls forth his love : but little as he canexpect a return of love from it, so little does hefind in it any cooperation distinct from the naturalconnection of things, and his reason is the onlypoint of immediate contact with it.Eeligion11 itself Aristotle treats as an unconditionalmoral necessity. The man who doubtswhether the ods should be honoured is a subjectfit not for instruction but for punishment, just asthe man who asks whether he should love hisparents. As the natural system of the worldcannot be imagined without God, so neither canman in it be imagined without religion. But he*10 Zeller, ii. 2, p. 625. " Ibid. p. C29.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.435can give us no other ground save political expediencyfor resting religion upon fables so apparentas the stories of the popular belief. He some-times himself uses these fables, like other popularopinions, to illustrate some general proposition, afor instance, Homer's verses on the golden chainshow the immobility of the first mover : just asin other cases he likes to pursue his scientificassumptions to their least apparent beginnings ,and to take account of sayings and proverbs.But if we except the few general principles ofreligious belief, he ascribes to these fable> no-deeper meaning, and as little does he seem to careabout purifying their character. For his state hepresupposes the existing religion, as in his personalconduct he did not withdraw from its usages, I andexpressed his attachment to friends and relationsin the forms consecrated by it. But no trace isfound in him of Plato's desire to reform rlby means of philosophy : and in his politics heallows in the existing worship even what in itselfhe disapproves, as the case of unseemly words,inscriptions, and statues.' Thus- the relation ofthe Aristotelic philosophy to the actual religionis generally a very loose one. It does not*disdainindeed to use the points of'connection which theother presents, but has no need of it whatever foritself: nor does it seek on its own side to purifyand transform religion, the imperfection of whichit rather seems to take as something unavoidable.c

436 THE CHRISTIAN CHUECH ANDThe two are indifferent to each other ; philosophypursues its way without troubling itself about re-ligion, without fearing any interruption from it.In the seventy-seven years which elapsed fromthe death of Socrates, B.C. 399, to that of Aristotle,B.C. 322, Greek life had suffered a great change.That dear-loved independence which every statehad cultivated, and which concentrated everyenergy of the mind in civil life, had vanished.During the forty years of Plato's work as ateacher it was becoming less and less : Cha3roneagave it the death-blow ; while Aristotle is the sonof a time at which scientific study had alreadybegun to take the place of active political life.12But the conquest effected by his great pupil Alexandercompleted this change. He opened theEast to the Greek mind, / bringing o o it into close contactwith Asiatic thought, beliefs, and customs.Under his successors Alexandria, « Antioch, ~A_-L-JLA. U-A_\_y \J-*-*-«andSeleucia,Tarsus,Peramus,and Rhodes becamegreat centres of.Greek culture: but Greek self-government was gone. Athens with the rest ofthe Greek cities had lost its political independence,but it remained the metropolis of Greek philo-sor>hv../From the last decade of the fourth cen-tury before Christ four great schools, the Platonic,Peripatetic, Stoic, and Epicurean, all seated here,as embodied in the dwelling-place and oral teachingof their masters, stand over against each other.O / O12 Zeller, yol. iii. part 1, p. 7.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.437The point most interesting to our present subjectis this, that all these schools take up a commonground, one which we consider to belong properlyto religion, that is, the question wherein the happinessof man consists, and how to attain it.13 Thusthe political circumstances of the land gave thetone to its philosophy. What the time requiredwas something which would compensate men forthe lost position of a free citizen and a self-governedfatherland. The cultivated classes lookedto philosophy for consolation and support. Theanswers to this question which the various systemsgave were very different from each other, but anwer they all attempted. What they hcommon is, the drawing-back of man upon -L hself, his inner mind, his consciousness, as a beingwho thinks and wills :u while on the other handthe mental view was widened from the boundariesof a narrow state to that which touches man ingeneral. The field of morality opened out beyondthe range of this or that city, territory, or monarchy.Thus two hundred full years were occupiedwith the struggles of the Stoic and Epicureanschools, and the sceptical opposition to them ofthe middle and later Academy. At the very beginningof this time the man who sat first inAristotle's chair after him, and therefore the headof the most speculative school, Theophrastus, hadshocked the students of philosophy by declaringZeller, vol. iii. part 1. p. 14. 14 Ibid. p. 18.

438 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDthat fortune, not wisdom, was the ruler of theworld. But it was precisely against the despondencewhich such a conviction would work in themind that the Stoics struggled with their doctrineof apathy, Epicurus with his self-contentment, theSceptics with'their tranquillity of indifference.15These all sought to cure those whom the fablesof the popular religion were insufficient to satisfythose who felt the evils and trials of life and knewnot whither to turn in their need. But the Stoicand the Epicurean cures stood in the strongestcontrast to each other.Zeno1G of Cittium in Cyprus, after listening fortwenty years to the teaching of various Socraticmasters in Athens, founded a school himself, andwished it to be a school of virtuous men ratherthan of speculative philosophers. It was a systemof complete materialism rigorously carried out.He admitted only corporeal causes, and two principles,matter, and a force eternally indwelling init and shaping it. These two principles, matterand force, were in fact to the stoic mind only oneeternal being viewed in a twofold aspect. Matterfor its subsistence needs a principle of unity to formand hold it together : and this, the active element,is inconceivable without matter as the subject inwhich it dwells, works, and moves. Thus thepositive element is matter viewed as being as yet15 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 12. Dollinger, p. 318.36 Dollinger, pp. 319-321.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.439without qualities, while the active element whichruns through and quickens everything is God inmatter. In real truth God and matter are onething:, 7 or, / in other words, ' the stoic doctrine is apantheism which views matter as instinct withlife.17 God is the unity of that force which embracesand interpenetrates the universe, assumimns, and as such " is a subtle fluid, fire, ether,or breath, / in which are contained all forms of ex-istence belonging to the world-body which it animates,and from which they develop themselvesin order: it lives and moves in all, and is thecommon source of all effect and all desire. God,then, is the world-soul, and the world itself no-aggregate of independent elements, but a being,organised, living, filled and animated by a singlesoul, that is to say, by one original fire manifestingitself in various degrees of tension and heat. Ifin Aristotle's theoryJthe world is a total of singlecbeings, which are only bound together unto ahigher aim by a community of effort, in the stoicsystem on the contrary these beings all viewedtogether are members of a surpassingly perfectorganisation, ^ li4U..*-«.RJUU L/JU \fcXJLA4 and UVdLX V/L as such, _J lyL \*J iJ. " so bound in one. thatnothing can happen to the individual being, whichdoes not by sympathy extend its operation to allothers. Thus on his physical side, God is theworld-fire, the vital all-interpenetrating heat, thesole cause of all life and motion, and the necessity17 The doctrine of Hylozoismus,

440 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDwhich rules the world : while on his moral side,inasmuch as the first general cause can only bea soul full of reason and wisdom, he is the world-reason, / a blessed beino;. O> the originatoro of the morallaw, ever occupied with the government of theworld, being in fact himself the world. Thuseverything is subject to the law of absolute necessity; everything eternally determined through anendless series of preceding causes, since nothinghappens without a cause, and that again is the workingof a cause before it. What, then, is called,or seems to be, chance, is merely the working ofa cause unknown to us. The will of man is ac-cordingly mere spontaneity. He wills, but whathe wills is inevitable : he determines himself, butalways in consequence of preceding causes. Andsince here every cause is something subject to theconditions of matter, something purely inside theworld, it becomes unalterable destiny. But inasmuchas the series of causes leads back to thefirst, and this first cause has not only a physicalside, but includes intelligence with it, and soeverything in it is foreseen and predetermined,therefore that which considered under the aspectof inevitable necessity is called fate or destiny,viewed as thought may be termed Providence, adivine arrangement.With such a doctrine it is evident that allmorality was reduced to a matter of physics: anyet no sect of Greek philosophers struggled so

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.441hard to solve the great problem of moral freedas the - ^ Stoics.18 /^N» "* O But T the iron grasp of their leading tenet was ever too much for them. Man'ssoul is of the same substance as the world-soul,that is, breath or fire, of which it is a portion: inman it manifests itself as the force from whichknowledge and action proceed, as at once intelligence,will, and consciousness. It is, then, closeallied with the Divine Being, but at the same timecorporeal, a being which stands in perpetual actionand reaction with the human body. It is that heat-matter bound to the blood, which communicateslife and motion: it is perishable, though it lastsbeyond the body, perhaps to the general conflagration.It has therefore, in the most favourable view,the duration of a world-period, with the outrun ofwhich it must return to the universal ether or;odhead: its individual existence and consciousnessend.As to the popular religion,19 the Stoics admittedthat it was filled with pretended deities, falsetrines, and rank superstition; that its wildf fables about the gods was simply conteniptibbut that it was well to retain the names of god Oconsecrated in public opinion, who were mereljf particular incorporations of thworld-godThe Stoics did not representh mj:rnents of human nature as18 Ddllinger, pp. 322-324. » Ibid. p. 324.

442 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDother, like Plato.20 With them nature and reasonis one thing. Their virtue,21 or highest good, islife in accordance with nature, that is, the concurrenceof human conduct with the all-ruling law ofnature, or of man's will with God's will. Thus itwas that the Stoic sought to reach his doctrine ofphilosophical impassibility: and to this system themajority of earnest and thinking minds in the twocenturies before Christ inclined.2At the very same time as Zeno, Epicurus setup at Athens a school destined through all its existenceto wage a battle with stoicism, yet aimingby different means at the same end, the freedom.of the individual man from anxiety and disturbance.23If Zeno's world was an intelligent animal,that of Epicurus was a machine formed and keptin action by chance. He assumed the atomictheory of Democritus, that all bodies-and thereare nothing else but corporeal things-have arisenoriginally from atoms moving themselves in emptyspace. They are eternal and indestructible, withoutquality, but not without quantity, and endlesslyvarious in figure. As these from mereweight and impulse would fall like an everlastingrain, in empty space without meeting each other,Epicurus devised a third motion, a slight declen-sion from the perpendicular, in virtue of which20 Dollinger, p. 326.216/j.oAoyov/AwcasTT} v(rei $r)v. Ueberweg, i. p. 198- Dollinger, p. 340, " jbid. p. 330

THE GEEEK PHILOSOPHY.443their agglomeration is produced: and thus it is awork of pure chance that out of these, the count-s worlds which frame the universe began to 1Any order or higher guidance of the universe, asdirected to a purpose, is not to be thought ofnore than necessary laws, according to which thppearances of nature reproduce themsca law would ultimately lead to a lawgiver, andthis miht reawaken fear, > and disturb the wiseman's repose. He utterly denied the interventioneither of one god or of many gods in the formingor the maintenance of the world: the main purposeindeed of his philosophy was to overthrowthat religious view which saw in the argunienfrom design a sure proof of a divine Providence.24Nothing, he thought, was more perverted thanthat the opinion that nature was directed for thef man, or g.11:that we have tongues in order to speak, or earsin order to hear, for in fact just the reverse istrue. We speak because we have tongues, andhear because we have ears. The powers of naturehave worked purely under the law of necessity.Among their manifold productions some werenecessarily composed in accordance with an end:hence resulted for man in particular many meansand powers; but such result must not be viewedas intentional, rather as a purely casual conse-nce of naturally necessary operations. God21 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 370.

444 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDsuch as the people believed, he utterly repudiated.Not he who denied such srods, but he who assumedtheir existence, was godless. He allowed, indeed,that there existed an immense multitude of gods,beings of human form, but endued with subtle,ethereal, transparent, indestructible bodies, whooccupied the intermundial spaces, free from care,regardless of human things, enjoying their ownblissful repose.25 His gods are in fact a companyof Epicurean philosophers, possessing everythingwhich they can desire, eternal life, no care, andperpetual opportunity of agreeable entertainment.The soul of man is a body made out of thefinest round and fiery atoms; a body which, likeheated air, most rapidly penetrates the whole materialframe. The finest portion of the soul, thefeeling and thinking spirit, which as a fourth elementis added to the fiery, aerial, and vaporousportions, dwells in the breast. In these elementsall the soul's passions and impulses are rooted.When death destroys the body, the sheltering andprotecting home of the soul's atoms, these evaporateat once. It was clear that in such a systemthe soul could not outlive the body, but Epicuruslaid a special stress on this, since thereby onlycould men be delivered from the greatest impedi-nent to repose and undisturbed enjoymentlife, the torturing fear of thhments after death. It was the crown of h25 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 398.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.445system, to which ethics, physics, and such logic ashe admitted were entirely subordinate, to emancipatemen from four fears, the fear of death, thefear of natural things, the fear of the gods, thefear of a divine Providence, which was the sameing as fate.26 Nevertheless, the followers ofEpicurus had no scruple, after the manner of theirmaster, who had spoken of the worship of the godslike a priest, to visit temples and take part in religiousceremonies. These, it is true, were useless,since they had nothing to fear and nothing tohope from the gods, but it was an act of reason,and could do no harm, to honour beings naturallyso high and excellent.27Of this school we learn that it gradually becamethe most numerous of all. Its social forcereally lay in setting forth as a model the undisturbedsecurity of individual life. It agreed atthe bottom with stoicism that man's wisdom andhighest end was to live in accordance with nature.Zcno, it is true, called 4 this living in accordancewith nature,'virtue,'man's highestOand onlyJgood;O /Epicurus called it pleasure; but Zeno's virtue consistedessentially in the absence of passions, thepleasure of Epicurus in the mind's undisturbed-ness.28 The Epicureans were more attached totheir master's memory than any other school.2" Dollinger, pp. 331-333. Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 39227 Dollinger, p. 335.23 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 427. oaraSia, and araoa^ia.

446 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH AXDThey were renowned for their friendship witheach other. Epicurus's Garden at Athens meantthe highest refinement of Athenian life, the enjoymentof everything that was pleasant in the societyof likeminded men.29 It was this side of his philosophywhich made it popular.While the schools of Zeno and Epicurus seatedat Athens were powerfully influencing Grecianthought, the former especially drawing to it thestronger and more thinking minds, resistance aroseto them both in the chair of Plato. First Arcesi-laus and then Carneades who had succeeded to thisoffice, set up in the middle Academy the school ofScepticism. While Stoics and Epicureans alikesought peace of mind through knowledge of theworld and its laws, they on the contrary maintainedthat this same peace of mind could only beattained by renouncing all such knowledge.30 Theyheld that no truth and no certainty were given toman by the representations of his senses, by hisfeelings, and by his consciousness of these, whichdo not enable him to know the real being of anything.31Those who held this view would not saydownright that what they contradicted was untrue: they were of opinion that it might be true,only there was no certitude of this, and thereforeit must be left undetermined. The uncertaintywas as great on the one side as on the other.29 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, i. p. 107. . 30 Ibid. p.31 Dolliuger. p. 336, who quotes tiextus, Ilypot. i. 8.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.447Sextus Empiricus defined the state of skepsis tobe " skilfulness in so setting forth appearancesand reflections against each other, 'as to be broughtthrough the equilibrium, of opposn g facts andgrounds in their favour first to a suspension of judg-ment, and then to imperturbable tranquillity."Carneades, whose life occupied the greater partof the second century before Christ, and who isextolled by Cicero as the keenest and most copiousof disputants, was the man in whom this school ofthought reached its highest point. He e hadappeared at Rome among a deputation of philosophersin the year 155 when his eloquence andearnestness made a great impression on his Romanhearers. This scepticism of the younger Academyhowever ran in accordance with the directionwhich the collective philosophy of the Greekst lly t , nd was carried out wit tness d tific ability which make recognisein it an important member of philosophicaldevelopment.32 Carneadesubjected the stoic doctrineas to God in particular to a criticism therange of which went far beyond the dogmas ofthis school, and in fact tended to represent everyconviction as to the existence of the godhead, andevery religious belief, as something impossible anduntenable.33 Thi s, however owever, as Cicero repeatedlyassures us, was not done for the purpose of destroyingbelief 111 in the gods, od but only to point out32 Zeller, vol. Hi. part 1, p. 477. & Dollinger. p. 338.

448 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDthe weakness and groundlessness of stoic doctrines.It is chiefly in his assaults on the assertions andassumptions of his adversaries that Carneades isvictorious : when i he attempts anything positiveon his own side, it amounts to this, that a rationalman will take probability for his guide, when hecannot be assured of truth : and his chief meritappears to have been in more accurately determiningthe degrees of probability.The contests of these schools bring us downto the middle of the second century before Christ,when Greece fell under the dominion of Rome.From this time forth not only were Greek philosophersof eminence drawn to live themselvesat Rome, and so to meet her statesmen and noblesin habits of intercourse, but the higher classes ofthe great capital commonly completed their educationby visiting and studying at Athens, Rhodes,and other centres of Grecian thought. Thusthe fusion of Greece with the empire, while herpolitical importance dwindled away, her influenceupon the mind of her subjugators was immenselyincreased. But the Roman on his side obtaineda sort of victory. As a rule he was anything butan original thinker. He was an essentially practicalman : he had a steady instinct which ledhim to distrust first causes and general principles.The Greek schools were to him of value only as3t For a full account of the line of thought followed by Carneades,-see Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, pp. 454-477.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.449they might fit into his daily life, not as coherentsystems of thought. The spirit therefore in whichhe rearded their differences was to select fromthem what best suited his tastes and feelings. Ifhe had no power to originate, he could choose.But such likewise had been the result among theeeks themselves of two centuries of conflict, inwhich the rival systems of Stoicism, Epicureanism,and Scepticism had stood over against each other.They sprung from the same soil; they might evenbe termed three branches of one stem,35 inasmuchas their common root was the desire to find for*the individual man something which would givehim tranquillity of mind, happiness in fact, independentof his civil circumstances. In this theyall took up a practical rather than a theoreticalground, the ground indeed which is now assignedto religion. Utterly opposed, then, as they werein their means, they sought the same end, and itwas not in nature that the collision of their variousarguments should not at length kindle thepirit of eclecticism. Thus the temper of than statesman and noble, and the course ofGreek philosophy itself, combined to produce thisspirit, which from the beginning of the first centurybefore Christ pervaded the thinkers of theGreco-Roman world.36 But eclecticism betokens aweakening of the philosophic mind, that wearinesswhich is unable to take a firm grasp of truth,35 Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 436. " Ibid. pp. 482, 492.II.GG

450 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDan absence of the keen aim and high desire whichsuch a grasp betokens. It is a confession that 110one system possesses the truth : in which state cthings nothing remains for the individual but tochoose for himself out of different systems thosemorsels of truth which approve themselves most tohis taste or tact, or, as he would term it, his truth-seeking sincerity.ut it is not too much to say that the wholespirit of later antiquity, so far as it interesteditself in the discovery of truth, from the time thatGreek philosophy was diffused over the Romanworld, leant more or less to eclecticism. Its mostable, most distinguished, and most interesting representativeis Cicero.37 He lived at a time whenrival criticism had searched out and exposed everyweak point in the different systems of thought.To found new systems there was no further creativeforce ; his eclectic position was the necessaryresult. His genius supplied him with no meansto overcome it. His philosophical writings arescarcely more than transcripts from various Gre-cian sources, wherein he uses his skill as a rhetoricianand his unfailing wealth of words to set forthwith lawyerlike balancing the arguments of differentschools. We can yet detect the originals,from which in the short intervals of enforced ab-seinemEklekticismus in dem letzten Jahrlrandert vor dem Anfang unsererZeitrechnung."m

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.451seiice from political life before and after the deathof Ca3sar he transfused with such rapidity into aLatin shape the products of Greek discussion.38Thus his treatise on the Eepublic and on Lawsare in form imitations of Plato's writings withthe same title, while for their contents Ciceroapplies Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic doctrinesto his own political experiences, making also muchuse of Polybius. His Paradoxa explain Stoic propositions.The groundwork of his Consolatio isGrantor's writing upon Grief. The Lost Hortensiusis drawn from an exhortation of Aristotle to The-niison, a prince of a city of Cyprus, or from asimilar work of the academician Philo of LarissaV:his books De Finibus from works of Phjjedrus,Chrysippus, Carneades, Antiochus, as well as thestudies which Cicero himself in his youth madewhile attending lectures ; his Academica from thewritings and partly also from the lectures of thebest-known Academicians : his Tusculan Disputationsfrom Plato and Grantor, from Stoics andPeripatetics. The first book on the Nature

452 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDthird from Carneades and Clitomachus. Of hisbooks on Divination, the first is taken from Chry-sippus, Posidonius, Diogenes, and Antipater ; thesecond from Carneades, and the stoic Panaitius.His treatise on Fate from the writings of Chrysip-pus, Posidonius, Cleanthes, and Carneades: hisElder Cato from Plato, Xenophon, Hippocrates,and Aristo of Chius : his Lcelius mainly from awriting of Theophrastus on Friendship. His mainauthority for the first two books on Offices isPanaetius ; and for the third Posidonius ; whilebesides Plato and Aristotle he has made use ofDiogenes of Babylon, Antipater of Tyre, and Hecato. .Now in this selection from rival and antagonisticschools-this oscillation between the posi-tive and sceptical tone of thought, this sitting asa judge rather than obeying as a disciple-Cicerovery exactly represented the tone and attitude ofthe cultivatedclasses in his own time and in thecentury following his death. Originality of mindin philosophic studies was gone; nor was anysystem as a whole believed in. The sceptic aneclectic turn of mind are but the reverse sides ofthe same mental coinage : he who selects fromall is convinced by none. Neither his doubts norhis choices satisfied Cicero, or any one - of thosewho followed him in that most important century,the eighth of the Roman city, fifty years of whichpreceded and fifty followed the coming of Christ.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.453In its philosophical productions no preceding centuryhad been so poor as this. It had only toshow the school of the Sextii, which arose athe beginning of our era, and toea sort of middle standing between Pythagorean,Cynic, and Stoic principles.39 This school was ofsmall importance, and soon became extinct. Withthis exception from Cicero to Seneca no names ofdistinction appear. There is a gap in philosophicalthought. A period so influential on the destiniesof man in its events, so celebrated for its politeliterature, on which the world has since been feed-ing, is barren in the highest realm of inquiry.For this reason there is a particular justice intaking Cicero as an exponent of heathen thoughtand spirit, the living specimen of the kind, inasmuchas he is the last philosophic writer beforeChristian thought appears in the world, and chosefor himself the function of summing up what hethought of value in the ages before him.We omit therefore nothing in our review ifwe place ourselves at the end of this centunin the reign of Claudius, and cast a srlance backward over that prodigious labour of human reasonthrough which we have hastily twhich had then lasted six hundred years. Thproblem was, given the universe, what will man'!reason in the most gifted, cultivated, inquiringdialectic race of the ancient world do with it ?39 Uebenveg, i. 219, 223.

454 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDAnd more particularly, to what results will reasoncome as to the power which has formed, or whichrules it: as to its chief inhabitant, his nature, andthe purpose for which he exists, and the end towhich he is ever advancing : as to the duties bywhich he * is bound to this creating, or at leastmaintaining and ruling power : as to those officeswhich he owes to his fellow, the individual to theindividual, the civil community to the community.It was to these points especially that the greatestcharacter in the whole movement-the single o hea-then who knew how to die for his convictionsturned the thoughts of those who followed him.Again, at the very starting-point of Greek philo-sophv ./ a man of most virtuous conduct, gifted likewisewith great powers of attraction, had soughtto realise in a society the philosophic life. Andwe have seen this conception of the mode of propagating1 O O truth to lie at the bottom of Greek teaching,and to have been pursued by Plato, by Aristotle,by Zeno, by Epicurus, to have been theoriginal and even the only form of teaching whichthey recognised. What was the result in this respectalso ? In the four hundred and forty yearsfollowing the death of Socrates had reason produceda consistent doctrine, and a society of whichthat doctrine should be the law and bond, a fittingbodv »/ for its soul to tenant, the immortal race ofthat living word which Plato contemplated? Timethere had been enough, and even a superfluity of

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.455genius : but there were also two great outwardevents which might be expected to favour andadvance such a result.The first of these was the subjection of thewhole East to the influence of the Greek mind bythe conquest of Alexander, the effect of whichcontinued in the kingdoms carried on by his successors.Originally the civil position of the Greek,as the free citizen of a free state, had been all inall to him. His country was his single measure.But during the lifetime of Plato and Aristotle thisposition had been more and more altering. Thephilosophy of Zeno and Epicurus was set up bymen who had lost it altogether, who were thrownback on themselves, on the intrinsic nature of man,for support. Their inmost thought was how toproduce tranquillity of mind, and so far as mightbe, happiness, for man, in something independentof his civil position. The loss of self-governmenthad opened to them perforce a field far wider thanthe narrow confines of a provincial citizenship.Henceforth the schools of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno,and Epicurus issued their mental legislation notfor the inhabitant of Attica, but for all that fusionof races whicl}, occupied the eastern coasts of theMediterranean, ' was ruled bv «/ Greek potentates, JL . 7 andspoke the Hellenic tongue. Thus the around takenup by philosophy was at once religious and cosmopolitan; the former because it attempted todeal with the nature of man as man, and to give

456 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDhim inward contentment, the latter because themind, which used as its organ the Greek language,yed large and independent empires, emlvarious races of men. Then, if ever, it might havebeen expected that heathenism would make a greatspring,40 would cast aside what was local and accidentalin the various customs, races, and beliefsbrought under the fusing influence of one spirit,and idealise out of them a religion bearing thestamp and showing the force of that human reasonof which Greece was the great representative. Butthe three centuries which witnessed the birth, thevigorous growth, and^the incessant contests of theschools of Zeno and Epicurus, together with thescepticism which from Plato's chair passed judgmenton them both, produced no such result, butrather terminated in that balancing of oppositesystems, and the selection of fragments from each,which we have seen in Cicero.The second great event which we have tonote is that when the Greek mind had thus beenfor three hundred years in possession of societythroughout the East, the Roman empire came tobind in unity of government not only all thoseraces which the successors of Alexander had ruled,but the wide regions of the West as well, and theiryet uncivilised inhabitants. Here, again, the Greekmind was not dethroned, but married, as it were,to Roman power. Philosophy made a sort of40 Dollinger, p. 313.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.457triumphal entry into Eome in spite of Cato andall the conservative force of the old Roman spirit.And if fusion had been the thought, the desire,and the attempt of the Ptolemies and the Seleu-cida3, even more certainly was it the only spiritby which Augustus and Tiberius could hope torule in peace the world made subject to them.And not less than the extinction of Greek autonomydid the loss of self-government accompanyingthe institution of the empire force the Romanalso back upon himself. When Cicero could nolonger sway the senate, he studied philosophicsystems at Tusculurn : and certainly his book ofOffices has been more valued by all posterity thanhis speeches against Catiline or his defence of Milo.A long train of waiters from the Fathers downwardshave seen in the civil unity of the Romanempire a providential preparation for a great reli-ion. But the field on which that empire arosehad already, so far as concerns the thinking classeslong been occupied by the Greek philosophy. Thetwo forces come into operation now together: andseventy years after the battle of Actium, when Au-ustus and Tiberius had completely establishedone ruling authority, and when this second outwardrevolution had had full time to give its im-pulse to thought, and had set before the eyes ofmen for two whole generations the vision of anempire which seemed conterminous with civilisationitself, we may fairly ask what philosophy had

458 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDclone towards producing a corresponding unity ofdoctrine, and a society sustaining and propagatingit.If, then, we take our stand at the moment whenClaudius began to reign, and count a century backwards,it is impossible to mention a time whenphilosophy was more impotent for good, and whenthe higher classes of the Roman empire were morethoroughly irreligious and unbelieving. To under-and the reason of this we must take into accounfirst the negative and then the positive action ofphilosophy up to that time. As to the former,there can be no doubt that the effect of philosophyin all its schools and through all its shades cthought had been hostile to a simple belief in polytheismand its mythology. Human reason hadbeen turned with pitiless severity on its mass offables, its discreditable stories, its manifold contradictions.As early as the sixth century beforeChrist it had used the key of allegory in order toinfuse into these some better meaning, and thiswas carried out into full detail by Metrodorus, afollower of Anaxagoras. Thus if Homer, the mirrorin which the Greek saw his religion reflected,described Jupiter as suspending Juno between heavenand earth, Heracleitus was indignant with theatheists who did not see that it meant how theworld and the elements were formed.41 Bv thisprocess indecent personal agencies melted away41 Dollinger, p, 254.

THE GREEK-PHILOSOPHY.459into physical effects, or were even sublimated intomoral lessons. Men were told that only soft Pha3a-cians could see in the loves of Mars and Venus aconsecration of adultery : to the man of sense itmeant that valour and beauty were worthy of eachother. Through all the following centuries thistone of mind continued. As to the stoical philosophersin particular, this physical allegorising wasthe perpetual instrument by which they reconciledtheir stern system of material Pantheism with allthe stage scenery of the poet's Olympus.curus, on the contrary, recognised the existenceof gods in countless numbers, but they were beingswho lived in the enjoyment of his philosophy, farremoved from the cares of providence and thethought of human things. On the other hand,Plato's attempt to purify, while he recognised,polytheism, and to sweep away all its fables aspurveyors of evil thoughts and desires, found littlesuccess, though his conception of the godhead asthe Idea of goodness, remained the highest everreached in that long process of thought; andthrough all this period the best and purest mindsfound in him a support against that bewildermentof the reason which the vulgar religion inflictedon them. But few and far between were thosewho followed Plato in this his highest conception,while the literature of that last century, in themidst of which Christ appeared, remains an abidingproof that the critical, scoffing, negative spirit of

"460 THE CHKISTIAN CHURCH ANDphilosophy had spread itself over all the culturedclasses. We seek in vain in Julius Caesar andCicero, in Lucretius, Catullus, Virgil, Manilius,Horace, Ovid, in Polybius, Dionysius, Diodorus, orStrabo, for any real belief in the immortal godswhose names appear in their writings. The poetsuse them for stage-effect, the statesmen as part ofthe machinery of government, the historians asnames interwoven with the events which they recount: yet the life of all these men was filled withthe frequentation of rites and ceremonies, as amatter of law and custom, having reference to amultitude of gods, concerning whom they had acontemptuous disbelief, though none of them werewithout many a dark superstition.Such was the negative influence of philosophy;but what inward support had it given to mindswhose ancestral belief, still entertained by the massof men all around, was thus eaten out ? What sub-stitute had it provided for this discredited polytheismwith its ridiculed mythology ?1. First, did the Greek philosophy teach theunity of the Godhead ? If by this question bemeant, did philosophy ever go forth into the midstof the temples and smoking sacrifices with whichevery city teemed, and proclaim, These gods whichyou worship are no gods : there is one Maker andKuler of the universe, and the homage due to himalone is usurped by a multitude of pretende deities:-then there is no doubt about the answer,

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.461that this is what neither Socrates, nor Plato, norAristotle, nor Zeno, nor any other philosopherthought of doing. The philosophic god was neverset in the forefront of the battle after this fashion.He dwelt in the most secret shrine of Plato'smind, hard to be discovered, and to be confessed,if at all, in secret. If with Aristotle he was apure spirit, yet he abode apart from the world,working O on it indeed, / as the manet on the iron ,'but unconscious of it, not ruling it with free will.42And, save so far as this is an exception, the Greekmind from beginning to end never succeeded inlately separating God from matter. And astime went on, this original defect showed itselfmore and more, until in the stoic svsteni, which,as to the conception of the power ruling the world,revailed over all the rest, that which was calledwas simply a force pervading all matter.43The Stoics could, indeed, as in the hymn of Cle-anthes, invest this god of theirs with many beautiful,grand, and attractive attributes. His wasImighty power ;44 he was the author of natDollinger, p. 307. " Er wirkt also zwar auf die Welt, aber ohnesie zu kennen, wie der Magnet auf das Eisen, und seine Action auf dieWelt ist keine freiwolleiide."« Ibid. pp. 340, 572.Zeu, (j>vcrecas ^pX7??6* VO/JLOU /J.cra2ol 87) TTttS o5e KofffAQS e\Krcrdvuej/os TrepTIeiderai 77 p.ev &y?p, Kal e/ca'z/ virb crew Kpar¬?rat'AAAa crv /cat ra irspurcra, eviorao'ai &pnaKal KOCT^S ra &KocrfjLa, Kal ou

462 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDlie ruled all things with law; and the world will-ingly obeyed his will. And this common lawpassed through all things, so that evil mixed withgood resulted in a general order. Thus theycould address him as Father and as King, guidingall things with justice ; and this being they termedJupiter. But this is only a poetic45 exhibition oftheir genuine thought and meaning, which was,that " all which was real was corporeal; matterand force are the two chief principles ; matter initself is motionless and formless, but capable ofassuming every motion and every form. Forceis the active, moving, and forming principle ; itis indivisibly joined with matter: the operatingforce in the whole of the world is the Godhead. "4(;" By the names "World-soul, World-reason, Nature,Universal Law, Providence, Fate, the same thingis indicated, the one Primal Force determiningeverything with absolute regularity, interpenetratingthe whole world." " And even the oppositionbetween the material and the spiritual descriptionof the Godhead disappears upon closer examination,for on Stoic principles the Godhead can onlythen be considered as real when considered asbody.47 It was to such a unity that Greek phi-45 Cleanthes preferred expressly the poetic form ; see the note inZeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 289 : for poetry and music are better suited toreach the truth of divine contemplation than the bare philosophicalexpression.46 Ueberweg. i. p. 195.47 Zeller, vol. iii. pp. 130, 131: see the many authorities he produces,pp. 12G-131.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.463losophy advanced, receding more and more fromthat imperfect conception of personality with whichit had started. Further, the idea of creation iswanting to Greek philosophy from its beginningto its end. The power which it contemplatesis evermore confronted with matter, which it canpermeate, fashion, move through a natural alchemyof endless changes, but in face of which it is notfree to create or not to create, not even free toprevent the evil which lies therein as a sort ofblind necessity. As there was always Force, sowas there always Matter. To the conception ofa free Creator of spirit and of matter the Greekmind never rose : nor accordingly to that of a freeKuler of the universe : and this is only to sayin other words, that the conception of personalitythat is, of self-consciousness and moral freedom,as applied to a Being * of infinite power, wisdom,_ "and goodness-was imperfect and confused. Platoin his highest flight had seemed to recognise oneGod, whom to enjoy is the happiness of man ; butPlato and all who followed him had endured, hadcountenanced, had taken part in the polytheisticworship. And again, neither he, nor Aristotle,nor Zeno showed any inclination to suffer fortheir doctrines. This philosophic god, graduallyevolved by the reasoning mind, produced the verysmallest effect upon the unphilosophic world. Thestoic argument from final causes, which Cicerohas preserved for us, and the force of which he

464 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDhas acknowledged in very remarkable words,48generated no martyrs. Was it merel from waof earnestness that the philosophers tolerated andpractised the polytheism which surrounded them,and avoided all suffering for their opinions bycompliance with a worship which they disbelieved? or was it that their standing-ground, inall more or less pantheistic, was identical withthat which they impugned ?49 that the gods ofOlympus were powers of nature personified, whiletheir god was simply one power inhabiting nature ?that they never reached the one personal creatingGod, and were consequently unable to maintainhis absolute distinction from the world togetherowith his relation to it as Creator and Ruler ? Thatwhich they cherished as a private philosophicalgood, which they cared so little to exhibit to theworld, was in fact incapable of conquering .theworld, for the human heart cannot live upon animpersonal god, and will not suffer for a conceptionof the reason. But it was in this conceptionHe says of the opposite theory of Epicurus, the construction ofthe world from the chance falling-together of atoms : " Hoc qui ex-istimat fieri potuisse, non intelligo, cur non idem putet, si innumerabilesunius et viginti formse literarum, vel aurea) vel quales libet, aliquo con-mfliDear. ii. 37.49 So Zeller remarks, iii. 1, p. 29G: "A Pantheism, such as the stoic,monly being allowed, that of passing on to derived beings the name of^ Vmit belonged, and that of personifying as God the impersonal, which isan appearance of divine power."m

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.465that philosophic thought had terminated. Andhere we find the chief cause of its powerlessnessto improve and purify the mythology which itattacked, and much more to affect the lives andconduct of those who professed its tenets. Forthe old mythology J Oi/ had at least a strong o consciousnessof personality in its gods. In Homer himselfthe original tradition, of which his religion was acorruption, still spoke of the father of gods andmen as the ruler and judge of the world. In theheathen mind generally such a conception stillexisted ; nor is it too much to say that the commonpeople among the Greeks and Eomans werenearer to the truth of one personal God than thephilosopher ; and the philosopher himself when helistened at any moment of danger and anxietyto the promptings " of the soul naturally Christian"within him, than when he indulged in hisesoteric problems.the conception of personality in Godrules the conception of personality in miroughout the Greek philosophy the former wasweak and imperfect, until in the Stoic system itvanished, so the latter. The physical theory ofthe Greek overmastered and excluded the conceptionof freewill in his mind, first as to God andthen as to man. As evil existed throughout O theworld, for which he had no better solution thanto place its seat in that matter which was co-tent with the divine reason, and which thatn. HH

466 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDreason was powerless wholly to subdue, so in thesmaller world of man. In him a portion of thedivine reason was united with matter. If Plato,Aristotle, and the Stoics arranged somewhat differentlythe mode of this composition, yet to allof them alike from the one side and the other thenotion of physical necessity came in. The materialconstituent tended to evil, the reasoning constituentto good: in the man who was made upof the two there was a perpetual jar. There wasno room left in their theory for the concethe soul as a self-originating cause of actisect struggled so hard and so persistently to maintaina doctrine of freewill as the Stoic : but itwent down before that central tenet of their system,physical necessity, the inexorable sequenceof cause and effect, which made up their " commonlaw," by which the world was ruled. The conceptionof an all-wise, all-good, and all-powerfulpersonal Creator, in whose nature the eternalis based, not being clear to their minds, so neitherwas the conception of sin, as the infringement ofthat law. The law of physical necessity took theplace of the eternal moral law: that which mandid he did by virtue of the physical constituentsout of which he was composed. The evil whichhe did was physical rather than moral: and hewas not responsible for what he could not prevent.The questions of freewill, of evil viewed as sin,and of responsibility, are inextricably bound up

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.467with the doctrine of the human personality; andon all these the philosophic mind was dark andconfused.ut if the Greek's physical theory stood in theway of his conceiving clearly the human personalityin this life, much more did it impede his conceptionof that personality as continuing after death.For as the union of a portion of the divine reasonwith matter constituted man, and as death put anend to that union, the compound being ceased toexist, the portion of the divine reason reverted toits source, but the sensitive soul, as well as thebody, was dissolved and came to nothing. Therewas in his mind no " individual substance of arational nature" to form the basis of identity, andmaintain the conception of personality. In theabsence of this, he who had felt, thought, andacted, was no more. He could not therefore receiveretribution for his deeds, since there was nopersonal agent on whom the retribution was to fall.3. A god who'was not personal and did notmake man,-man in whom freewill, the mark ofpersonality, was not recognised, so long as helived, and in whom after death no personal agentcontinued to exist, - these correspond to eachother, and these were the last result of Gneco-Boinan philosophic thought up to the time ofClaudius. But what sort of duty did man, beingsuch, owe to such a god? Cicero's book on Officeshad been written upwards of eighty years, but no-

468 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDthing that followed it during that time equalled itin reputation or ability. It was the best productthat his Eoman thought could draw from all thepreceding Grecian schools: and it was acceptedfor centuries as the standard of heathen morality.Let us, then, first note that in this book50 there isnothing like a recognition of God as the Creatorand Common Father; no call upon the humansoul to love him as such, and for his own per-* fections; no thought that the duty of man consistsin becoming like to him, nor his reward inattaining that likeness. The absence of such athought gives its character to the whole book,and measures its level. The second point to benoted is, that the happiness of man consists not inbeing like God, and consequently, in union withhim, but in virtue, which is living according tonature. In his reasonable nature everyone possessesa sufficient standard of moral action underevery circumstance which may arise. Thirdly ,throughout O the whole of his treatise Cicero makesno use of the doctrine of man's immortality. Hishappiness, then, is left to consist in virtue - lifeaccording ^p_ to V v-^ reason, "*" **J^

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.469wn authority, but he is in fact the mouth];herein of that whole preceding heathen philosophywhich he criticised, and from which he selected.Even Plato himself, by far the highest and best ofGreek philosophers in this respect, thouggle expressions indicated that the happinessf man was to be made like to God, constructedno system of ethics in dependence on that conception,which, if it be true, is of all-constraininginfluence, and is to the whole moral system whatthe law of gravity is to the material universe.Plato's ethical system was a strict deduction fromhis physical theory of the three parts in man, toeach of which he assigned its virtue. Far less didAristotle connect morality with God. The Stoics,indeed, who occupy by far the largest space inGreek philosophy, seem to be an exception. It issaid that " their whole view of the world springsfrom the thought of the Divine Being who generatesall finite beings from himself, and includesthem all in himself, who penetrates them withhis power, rules them, with his unchangeable law,and thus merely manifests himself in them all;"so that their system " is fundamentally religious,and scarcely an important statement in it which isnot in connection with their doctrine of God;" andso with them " all moral duties rest on a religious oW* ground, -L V.7 IXI.JL.J. V

470 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDname for the sternest and most absolute system ofmaterial necessity: a God without a moral nature;without freedom; without personality; under thatname, in fact, force and matter making up onething are substituted for a living God, who, invirtue of the laws of nature, is swept out of hisown universe. So, again, Cicero's statement thatnan's hapDiiiess consists in virtue, which virtue islife according to nature, is the general doctrineof philosophy, which the Stoics in particular hadelaborated. If there be any one expression whichwould sum-up in a point the whole heathen conceptionof what man should do, it would be "Lifeaccording to nature." So, again, the exclusionof any thought of immortality, and a consequentretribution, in its bearing on morality, was commonto all the schools of Grecian thought, if wexcept the faltering accents and yearning heart ofPlato, and most of all was truly stoic. The imperfectionand unclearness of their view as to thedivine personality, and as to the human, in thereasonable being, the image and reflection of thedivine, accords but too truly, while it accountsfor, this detachment of man from God in the fieldof moral duty.4. What, then, remained to man after suchdeductions ? There remained the earthly city,the human commonwealth. And when, passingbeyond the bounds of any particular nation, andman's civil position therein, philosophy grasped

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.471the moral life as the relation between man asman,52 and conceived human society itself as oneuniversal kingdom of gods and men, it made areal progress and reached its highest pthis was the proper merit of the Stoics.53 Plutarcattributes " to Zeno, their founder, this precise idea,that we ousrht C J not to live in cities and towns, eachdivided by peculiar notions of justice, but esteemall men as tribesmen and citizens, who should makeup one flock feeding in a common pasture under acommon law. The grandest passages of Cicero arethose in which he clothes in his Roman diction thisstoic idea, as for instance :54 uThey judge the worldto be ruled by the power and will of the gods, andto be a sort of city and polity common to gods andmen, and that everyone of us is part of this world."The bond of this community is the common possessionof reason,55 " in which consists the primalsociety of man with God. But they who have reasonin common, have also right reason in common.And as this is law, we are as men to be consideredted with the gods by law also. Now thwho have community of law,mmnity of rights. This latter makes them also to be-52 Zeller, iii. 1, 12.53 Kat fj.7]V T] TroAv ftav/tafou&i) troXireia. rov TTJV *S,ru>iKcav atptcriv Kara/3aA-Ao/xez/ou TA]vwvos ds sv rovro avvrdvei Ke^aAatoz/, ft/a fi^ Kara ir6\sts ju?j8e KaraiSiois e'/cacrrot §ici>picr/j.4voi SiKuiots, a\\a Trdvras avdpcoirovs j]yc*>-a S?]MOTas Kal Tro\iras, efs 5e. Plutarch, Alex. M. Virt. i. 6, p. 329, quoted byZeller, iii. 1, p. 281.De Finibus, iii. sec. 19. 5S De Legifais, i. 7, 6.

472 THE CHRISTIAN CHUECH ANDlong to the same polity. But if such pay obedienceto the same commands and authorities, then arethey even much more obedient to this supernal allotment,this divine mind and all-powerful God. Sothat this universal world is to be considered onecommonwealth of gods and men." u Law is thesupreme reason, implanted in nature, which commandsall things that are to be done, and prohibitstheir contraries." "The radical idea of right I de-rive from nature, under whose guidance we have todraw out the whole of this subject-matter." Thusthe great Roman lawyer and statesman, robing philosophyin his toga, propounded to his countrymen,full of the greed of universal conquest, with 110 lesslucidity than truth and beauty, the result of stoicthought, that human society in general rested onthe similarit of reason in the individual, that wehave no ground for restricting this common possessionto one people, or to consider ourselvesmore nearly related to one than another. Allmen, apart from what they have done for themselves,stand equally near to each other, since allequally partake of reason. All are members ofone body, since the same nature has formed themout of one stuff, for the same destination.56Greek philosophy has undoubtedly the meritof bringing out into clear conception this purelyhuman and natural society. It thus expressed inZeller, iii. 1, p. 278, mhowever, only enlarge on Cicero's idea, or rather Zeno's.

THE GKEEK PHILOSOPHY.473language cj cD the work of Alexander, * and still morethe work of the Roman empire, as it was to be ;and more than this, it herein supplied a point offuture contact with Christian morality. The advancefrom the narrowness of the Greek mind inits proud rejection of all iion-hellenic nations, andno less from the revolting selfishness of Romanconquest, is remarkable. And it is an advance ofphilosophic thought. As the older thinkers consideredthe political life of the city to be an immediatedemand of human nature, so the Stoicsconsidered the unitedness of man as a whole together,the dilatation of the particular politicalcommunity to the whole race, in the same light.Its ground was the common possession of reason.The common law which ruled this human commonwealthwas to live according to the dictationf reason, that is, according to nature, in whichth v_ts,57 being one and the samin God and in man, and in them altue branches into four parts, the prud idiscerns and practises the truth; the justice whicassigns his own to each ; the courage which pre-vails over all difficulties; the self-restraint andorder which preserves temperance in all things.These being bound up together cover the wholemoral domain, and embrace all those relations57 "Jam vero virtus eadem in homine ac Deo est, neque ullo alioingenio przeterea. Est autem virtus xrihil aliud quam in se perfecta, etad sum mum perducta natura." De Legibus, i. 8,58 De Officiis, i. 5.

474 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDwithin which human society moves, and, as havingtheir root in the moral nature of man, are a dutyto everyone.This human commonwealth enfolds in idea thewhole earth. It is the society of man with man.ut it closes with this life. It has no respect toanything beyond. It was the Stoics who mostcompletely worked out this system of moral philosophy; who urged the duty of man's obedienceto nature, of his voluntary subjection to that oneuniversal law and power which held all thingsfrom the highest to the lowest in its grasp; andwho likewise most absolutely cut him off fromany personal existence in a future state. Thevirtue in which they placed his happiness was tobe complete in itself; it was the work of manwithout any assistance on the part of God.59made man equal to God. It found its reward initself. If it was objected that the highest virtue inthis life sometimes met with the greatest disasters,sorrows, pains, and bereavements, the system hadno reply to this mystery. It did not attempt toassert a recompense beyond the grave.As little did it attempt to account for or tocorrect the conflict between man's reason and hisanimal nature. That perpetual approval of the betterand choice of the worse part stood before the59 Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 36. " Virtutem nemo unquam acceptam deoretulit. Nimirum recte. Propter virtutem enim jure laudamur, et inmma nobis, haberenms."

TPIE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.475Stoic as before us all. He admitted that the vastmajority of men were bad, and his wise man was anideal never reached.But he had no answer what-*ever to the question, why, if vice is so evil in the-e of our reason, it so clings to our nature; why,so contrary to the good of the mass, it dwellswithin every individual.60The human city or community of men is thehighest point which this moral philosophy contemplates.Each particular commonwealth shouldbe herein the image of the one universal commonwealthwhich their thought had constructed. Butwhat, / then, / is the relation of the individual manto the whole of which he is a part ? This nature,which is the standard to the whole ideal commonwealth,is, as we have seen so often, in fact a lawof the strictest necessity. If virtuous, man followsit willingly ; if vicious, he must follow itagainst his will. There was no real freedom forthe individual in the system as philosophy. Whatwas disguised under the name of law, reason, andGod, was a relentless necessity before which everyonewas to bow. But transfer this philosophyto any political community, and consider in whatposition it placed the individual with regard to thecivil government. Human society is consideredas supreme : but his own state represents to himthat society, "/ ' and « as all things O end with this life, 'no part of man remains withdrawn from that des-60 Champagny, les Cesars, iii. 333.

476 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDpotism which requires the sacrifice of the part forthe good of the whole. Man's conscience had norefuge in the thought of a future life ; no reservewhich the abuse of human power could not touch.And so we find that in matter of fact there wasno issue out of such a difficulty but in the doctrineof self-destruction. They termed it in truthThe Issuef1 when disease, or disaster, or pain, orthe abuse of human power, rendered it impossibleQTti-X-t j -f~ loner ^s ^-"~^^ to lead a life in accordance with nature.11 this case all the Stoic authorities justified it,praised it, and termed it the Door which divineProvidence had benignantly left ever open.While therefore it must be acknowledged & thatthe stoical conception of the whole earth as onecity62 was a true result of Greek thought, and atthe same time the highest point it reached, and apositive result of great value, yet it must also besaid that it was one rather big with rich promisesfor the future than of any great present advantage :for it required to be impregnated and filled withanother conception of which its framers had losttheir hold, the doctrine, that is, of a future retribution,redressing the inequality, the injustice, the undeservedsuffering so often falling upon virtue inC1 " 'Etavwyh ist bei den Stoikern cler stehende Ausdruck fiir deum ." Zeller, vol. iii. part 1, p. 284 n. 2, who quotes Diog. vii. 130.'EAAo'yoJS1 re fyatrw e|a|eij/ eaurb^ a?rb rou (3iov rbv aofybv /cat uTrep irarp&os /catL»7rep 0;Aco^ Ka^ eV (TK\r]pOT£pa ycwjrcu i&yi)$6vi, fy Trtipdecreo'W, $ v6(?QLS avidrois.Qui onmera. orbem terraruin imam urbemradoxoji 2.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.477the present life. When that conception canie tcomplete and exalt the Stoic idea, the needdestruction as an issue of the wise man, i as soonas he could not live according to nature, « ceased \^\^s M7KJ \_> V-t 4for man himself ceased to be a part of a physicalwhole governed by necessity. The human city relaxedits right over the individual in presence ofa divine city, which embraced indeed man in hispresent life, but taught him to look for its completerealisation in another.The human commonwealth, however, extendedin idea to the race itself, as possessing reason incommon, and individual man therein, as well asthe whole aggregate, viewed as being ruled by thecardinal virtues of prudence, justice, fortitude, andtemperance, biit both the commonwealth and theindividual terminating with this life, was the lastword of heathen philosophy up to the time ofClaudius.We have seen thatfrom the time the Greekrace was absorbed in the Roman empire the systemsof philosophy were broken up by the eclecticspirit, which, engendered within already by theferment of opinions, was strengthened and developedby the accession of the .practical Romanmind. Variety of belief is indeed marked as " theessential feature of Greek philosophy'7 from its outset,and " the antagonist force of suspensive scepticism"as including some of its most powerful intellectsfrom Xenophanes five hundred years before

478 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDto Sextus Empiricus two hundred years after theChristian era. One of its historians stamps it as"a collection of dissenters, small sects each with itsown following, each springing from a special individualas authority, each knowing itself to be onlone among many."63 It is therefore no wonderthat if Plato's grand conception of an immortalline of the living word thus came to nought, philosophyproved itself much more incapable of foundinga society impregnated with its " principles thanit had even been of constructing a coherent doctrinewhich should obtain general reception. Andto judge of the actual impotence of philosophy inthe century ending with the principate of Claudius,we must rest a moment on this second fact. Philosopherscalling themselves Platonic, Peripatetic,Sceptic, Stoic, Epicurean, or these in various mix-tures, were to be found at the various seats oflearning, Athens, Rhodes, Alexandria, for instance,or at Rome as the seat of empire, or travelling likewandering stars over her vast territory, but thesescattered, nebular, and disjoined luminaries shonewith a varying as well as a feeble light, which ratherconfused than satisfied human reason. Theywere utterly powerless to transfer their doctrineinto anv mi number of human hearts living O in accordancetherein. The only exception to this statementseems to prove its real truth. By far the mostunited of the sects was that of the Epicureans, who63 Grote, Plato, vol. i, p. 87.

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.479held with great tenacity to their founder's viewsand mode of life, which may be summed up indenial of God and Providence, and enjoyment tothe utmost of this world's goods; the fair side ofit being a general benevolence, courtesy, friendship,in short, a genial appreciation of what weunderstand by the word civilisation. These antagonistsof Stoic principles and of the highest moralitywhich heathen thought had constructed werethe most numerous of existing sects, and we aretold that hundreds of years after their founder'sdeath they presented the appearance of a well-ordered republic, ruled without uproar or dissensionby one spirit, in which they formed a favourablecontrast to the Stoics. With the exceptionof a sinle fugitive, Metrodorus, never had anEpicurean detached himself from his school.64 Wemust give philosophy the credit of this single instanceof a capacity to create a social life in accordancewith its tenets in a sect whose doctrineswerea reproach among the heathens themselves. " Thefailure of ^Pythagoras, of Plato, of Aristotle, ofZeno, was the success of Epicurus, and at the sametime the announcement that the asre of Augustusand Tiberius was ready to expire in sensualityand unbelief, and even in exhaustion of the philosophicmind, for no period is so barren of scientific64 Dollinger, p. 815, from Numenius, quoted by Eusebius. Ueber-weg, i. 205, says of them, that up to the rise of Neoplcitonism they werethe most numerous of all,

480 THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH ANDnames, which carry any weight, as the fifty yearspreceding Claudius.65 "We have seen above thatthese philosophers aimed at forming a societyhich should carry out their principles ; that thas their original O and their only J idea of teaching Othat with a view to make it permanent they createda chair of teaching, a living authority whowas to continue on their doctrine. But the chairof Plato alone presented66 five Academies with dissentientdoctrines ; and a Platonic or Stoic city noone had seen. Thus viewing their united actionupon the polytheistic idolatry we may say thatwhile they could discredit its fables in reflectingminds, while they could even raise an altar in theirthoughts " to the unknown God," they left societyin possession of the temples and observant of aworship which they pronounced to be immoral,monstrous, and ridiculous. They had destroyedin many the ancestral belief; they had awakenedperhaps in some a sense of one great Power rulingthe universe ; but having taken up the religiousground and professed to " satisfy man's desire forappiness, they luul been utterly powerless to con-65 See Dollinger, pp. 341 and 572-584; so Champagny, les Cesars,iii. 294.66 Uebervveg gives them thus: to the first Academy belong Plato'ssuccessor Speusippus, who taught 347-339 B.C.; Xenocrates, 339-314;mthe third: in the fourth, Philo of Larissa, about 80 B.C., returned to thedogmatic direction; and Antiochus of Ascalon, Cicero's friend, foundedmm

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.481struct a religion. They failed entirely in the unionof three things,67 a dogma and a morality foundedon that dogma, O / both of which should be exhibited, *brought before the eyes and worked into the heartsof men by a corresponding worship. To unitethese three things was needed an authority ofwhich above all they were destitute. Their dogmawas without the principle of faith; their moralitywithout binding power; but the worship whichshould blend the two they had not at all. And sothey presented no semblance of the society whichshould carry these three things in its bosom, andthey could not in the least satisfy the doubts orthe yearnings which they had raised.But the period beginning with the rise ofGreek philosophy and ending with the principateof Claudius will ever remain of the highest interestand importance as showing what human reason,putting forth its highest powers in the race inwhich it culminated, but at the same time morethoroughly separated from belief, tradition, andauthority than anywhere else, did actually achieve.It is in this respecthat the heathen philosophers,together with the poets and historians who pre-the fifth, in which he fused Platonic, Aristotelian, and Stoic doctrinestogether. S. Augustine, de Civ. Dei, viii. 3, puts his finger on the variationsof the Socratici.gmes,une mdonner a la societe une foi, une regie, et des pratiques, c'etait 1'ceuvre quele genre humain appelait de ses vreux, et sur laquelle pourtant tous lesefforts humains semblaient echouer," A. Thierrv. Tableau de V EmpireRoII.II

482 THE CHRISTIAN CHUECH ANDcede the publication of the Christian religion inthe Roman world, possess a value far beyond anyintrinsic merit of their own. It is a study ofpathology the results of which are far as yet frombeing gathered in. It is only by carefully examiningwhat the philosophers taught in theologyand morals-for they aspired to be and were boththe theologians and the moralists of those agesthat we can at all form an adequate judgment ofthe real work which the Christian Church haswrought in the world. It is only by using thehistorians and poets as a mirror of that generalsociety to whose cultured classes the philosophersspoke, that we can estimate what the great massof mankind then was, and what effect the philosophersproduced on them. The difference betweentheir world and their society and ours isthe measure of Christian work. The hundredyears preceding Claudius, which include in themalmost all the greatest names of Roman literature,are the most important of all in this point of view,both as containing the result of scientific thoughtin the five preceding centuries, and as giving thedepth of the moral and intellectual descent. Welearn from this whole long period the fulness ofthe truth conveyed4 in those words of the angelicdoctor at the commencement of his great work :u Even for those thins which can be investiatedconcerning God by the force of human reason, itwas necessary for man to be instructed by a divine

THE GREEK PHILOSOPHY.483»revelation, because few only, and they after longinquiries, and with the admixture of many errors,would convey to man the truth concerning God"68'as searched out by reason.What the philosophers from the time of Thaleshad taken as their special work was to measureand estimate the visible world. And for the lastfour centuries of this period especially they madethe .nature and the needs, the supreme good andthe happiness of man their chief concern, in subordinationto which they continued their physicalinquiries. And surely the judgment which aninspired writer formed of their travail must recurto the mind with great force at the end of the precedingreview : "If they knew so much as to beable to estimate the visible world, why did theynot more easily discover its Lord ?"69 Why fromthe goods which they beheld had they not powerto know the sole possessor of being, nor whenthey gave attention to his works, recognised theirartificer ? Why did they esteem fire or breath,rapid air or circling stars, or»the force of water,or the lights of heaven rulers of the universe ?For if the visible beauty of these delighted themso that they conceived them to be gods, how didthey not draw the conclusion that the Lord ofthese was so much better than they ? for it wasthe Author of beauty who created them. If theywere struck dumb with the sense of their power68 S. Thomas, Summa, p. 1. 9, 1, a. 1. 69 Sap. xiii. U.

484 THE CHURCH AND GREEK PHILOSOPHY.and operation, why did they not conceive howmuch more powerful He who made them was?For from the greatness and the beauty of creaturesthe parent of them is by the force of reason discerned.70From their capital error in this-which the^_same writer declares to be inexcusable'1-proceededtheir other errors concerning man, hisnature, his supreme good, and his final end. Itis here sufficient to note that down to the ageof Claudius there is no appearance that either ofthese great errors would be corrected : and stillless any appearance of the rise of a great religionwhich would cause the multitudinous altars ofheathenism to disappear before the altar of theunknown God, and would construct a City of Godin the midst of that population in the thinkinminds of which divergent systems of philosophyhad eaten out belief in the babel of false godswithout implanting belief in a personal Creator,the author and the end of man.0 Reading with. S. Chrys. and S. Gregory fa ptyeQovs Kal K7)j> ©eov wyvwvioC ». . TraAty5e ouS' aurot (ruTYj/ccaroi. &z/?. xiii. 1, 8.

*^» y3TIOD " «%^*^ S «Jtfjr%w AVM"- *" t^

INDEX.Academies, the five, of Plato's school, 480.^-^"inAlexander the Great, effects of his conquests on Greek life, 436, 455.Alexander Se-verus, his treatment of Christians, 244.Antoninus Pius, extension of the Church in his reign, 197; treatment ofit under him, 227-233; what aspect the Church bore to him, 233-7.martyred under Commodus, 302, 209, note 37.Apostolic age, result of, 186-7.Aristotle, his character as a philosopher, 429; his view of the soul, 430;^B-^«-mof teaching, 420; what he says of Socrates, 390; his account of thegeneration of the Platonic doctrine of Ideas, 400.Atlianasms, S., 26, 32, 34, 37, 98.Athenagoras, 182.Athens, worship at, 5.Augustine, S., his contrast of Heathenism with Christianity, 172-5; onthe moral influence of Polytheism, 21-4, 27, 30, 33; how the SecondDivine Person is the Truth, 51; Adam and Christ, 76, 77, 84, 110; theChurch Christ's Body, 99; and at once his Temple, House, and City,88; also the power of the Holy Ghost coming upon men, 97; doweredwith Christ's Blood, 144; Christ and the Church one Man, 57, 144;believing Christ, without believing the Church, is decapitating Christ,105; crime of denying that the Catholic Church will for ever continuein its unity, 106; the Word made flesh that He might become theHead of the Church, 107; the Holy Spirit Vicarius Redemptoris, 115,119,124, 125, 139; asserts the perpetual Principatus of the Roman Seem^fsof no charity but in the unity of the Body, 130,139; coherence of them r 9Church will be hereafter, 112.Augustus, his idea of the Roman empire, 2; prospects of Polytheism atthe end of his reign, 46.Aulus GelliuB, 421.Beugnot, Destruction du Paganisme; 43, 44.

488 INDEX.Captivity of man to the devil, 27-30, 33-8, 69 ; its full reversal as seen inthe Body of Christ, 112.?, 447.Catholic, term used of the Church by S. Ignatius about A.D. 115, andby the Church of Polycarp fifty years later, 20G.CeUvs, 179, 197, 230, 231, 234.Champagny, 16, 182, 241, 243, 305, 475, 480.Christ, declares Himself to be a king, 49; His ki] gciom50-4; the counterpart of Adam as an individual, 76; as Head of arace, 77; as making one Body with His people, 79; parallel in Hisnatural and mystical Body, 96; analogies between them, 97; coherenceof both in the Eucharist, 103; His action permanent in Hiskingdom, 81 ; in His House, 86 ; in His Body, 88 ; in His Bride, 91 ;Himperishable, 104; crime of imputing falsehood to it, 105; force ofits corporate unity, 110 ; gifts which He bestows on it, 125 ; connectionof Truth with His Person the principle of persecution, 182 ; HisPassion repeated in His people, 185 ; His work summed up by S. Augustine,172-5.Chrywgtom, S., 87, 101, 109, 220, 224.Church, the, the Kingdom of Truth, 81; the House of Christ, 86 ; theBody of Christ, 88; the Bride of Christ, 91 ; the Mother of His race,92; the power of the Holv Ghost coming: upon men, 97: as such.the treasure-house of Truth and Grace, 100, 120-2; conveys the fruitsof the Incarnation, 101, 143; is imperishable and incorruptible, 105;possesses Unity, Truth, Charity, and Sanctity as coinherent gifts ofthe Spirit, 125-8; bestows forgiveness of sins, faith, adoption, andsanctification on the individual, 128-31; unity of its jurisdiction, 14G ;analogy between it and the relation of soul and body, 133; betweenit and the human commonwealth, 134; between it and the naturalunity of man's race, 135; transmission of truth in it, 148, 1GG; bya triple succession, 156-1G1; development of the Truth its properwork, 1G8; its divine life as opposed to heathenism. 171; its witnessof Christ's confession in the first ten generations, 184; its firstpersecution by Nero, 191; growth in the time of Antoninus Pius,195; picture of it by S. Ignatius, 199 ; its treatment of heresies, 204,206, 258, 265, 274, 276 ; bearing of Trajan to it, 209, 215; of Hadrian,221; of Antoninus Pius, 226; of Marcus Aurelius, 292; of Commo-dus? 302; of Septimius Severus, 302; its position in the third century,308; its organic unity as set forth by S. Cyprian, 325-334;power of its idea on Christians, 340 ; expresses Christ in its moralcharacter, its worship, and its government, 341-5; persecuted byDecius, 356; by Valerian and Aurelian, 361; by Diocletian, 3G2 ; obtainsfreedom from Constantine, 371; how affected by Roman lawbetween A.D. 64 and 313, 371-3.urch, a mother or cathedral church only so called, 253.» ^^^mCicero, states the work of Socrates, 391; representative of Eclecticism,

INDEX.489J450 ; sources of his philosophical works, 451 ; what he says of theatomic theory, 464 ; his book de Officiis the standard of heathenmorality for centuries after him, 468 ; his statement of the Stoic ideaof the world as one republic of gods and men, 471 ; his conception ofvirtue in general, 471, 473 ; his partition of the cardinal virtues, 473 ;virtue not a gift of God, but the work of man, 474.Cleanthes, his hymn quoted, 461.Clement, Pope S., 191, 194.Clement, of Alexandria, 278. 287, 303.Commodm, 243, 302.Cyprian, S.9 his statement of the Church's organic unity founded on thePrimacy given to Peter, 32G-331 ; puts the force of the Episcopatein its unity, 147, 332-4 ; repudiates a parallel between the twelvetribes of Israel and the Church, on the question of unity, 334 ; agreementof his witness with that of S. Paul, S. Ignatius, and S. Irenoeus,349 ; his conversion, described by himself, a type of heathen conversionin general, 336-8 ; describes the relaxation produced by thelong peace of the Church before the Decian persecution, 350-2 ; hismartyrdom, 358 ; says the Emperor Decius would much rather endurethe appointment of a rival emperor than of a Bishop of Rome, 356.Cyril) S.) of Alexandria, 54, 55 ; on the Fall and the Restoration, 136 ;to become a Christian is to enter into unity with Christ both physicaland spiritual, 137.Dante, 422.Deems, 356.De Rossi, 252.Diocletian, 362.Diognetus, author of letter to, marks the Christians as one body andpeople, but diffused everywhere, circ. A.D. 100, 318.Dionysiiis, 8., archbishop of Alexandria, prizes martyrdom for the unityof the Church more highly than for resistance to idolatry, 345.Dollinger, Heidenthurn und Judenthum, quoted or referred to, 5-13, 25,. 196, 386, 401, 402, 407, 409, 410, 429-31, 438, 441, 442, 445-47, 456,458, 461, 479, 480 ; Hippolytus und Kallistus, 248, 256? 257.Domitian, his persecution, 94.Eclecticism, how it arose in Greek Philosophy, 448 ; becomes universal,450,Epicurus, his conception of the method of teaching, 424; his doctrine,442.Episcopate, the, triply defended by scripture, by institutions, and bycontinuous personal descent, 163; one and undivided, 327 ; like theunity of the Godhead, 333 ; which is effected by the Primacy, 334.Eucharist, coherence of natural and mystical Body of Christ in, 102-3 ;called by S. Ignatius that flesh of our Saviour Christ which sufferedfor our sins, 202, note.Eusel)ii(s, 150,209. 251, 253, 302, 304, 361, 363, 364, 366, 367. 369.

490 INDEX.x of xins, doctrine of, guarded by triple succession of teaching,of men, and of sacraments, 162.Wren*ill, no room for it in the physical theory of Greek philosophy, e.g.in Plato, 410, 411; in Aristotle, 432; in Stoicism, 440-1 ; in all theschools, as to God, 461-5 ; a^ to man, 465-7 ; bearing of this on civilgovernment, 475.Future life of man as a personal being, why not held by Greek philosophy,467, 470 ; absence of it from Cicero's tie Qfficiis, 4G8.ce9 Adam created in, 62, 64 ; loss of this gift in the Fall, 66 ; grace-s restored in Christ, 136 ; grace in the God-man, 77 ; as in Adam andman com:ough the headshipm"^Mthe body of Adam, 79; grace, with truth, makes " the power of theHoly Ghost coming upon men," 97, 117 ; the human fountain of thisdouble power in the created nature of Christ, 121; whence it is trans-mChurch complete and indefeasible, 127 ; as given to 1may be withdrawn, 131; actual bestowal of this grace c138-142 ; grace necessary for the acceptance and mwarrCyprian as inseparable, 3;>2-3.rreek mind, its standing-point, 380 ; represents human reason morethan any other ancient race, 382 ; aided by a matchless language,379; ripens in the most beautiful of climates, 378 ; pervades thewhole East from the time of Alexander, 455; is married to Romanpower in the empire, 456 ; is the great intellectual opponent of theChristian mind and Church. 375 : criticises nolvtheism for six hun-dred years, 37the Eoman C"life, 467, 470.PIup to the time of S. Peter's foundinggrandeur of Rome in his days, 240 ; treatment of the Church,^^m) die romische Kirche in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten, 209,257, 273, 289, 352, 354.Hasler, Verhultniss der heidnischen und christlichen Ethik, 468.Heathenism) what it is, 59, 70, 72 ; contrasted with Christianity, 79,mtruths, 177-9.rmining theCanon of the New Testament, 284 ; brings out full statements of the^mmthe hierarchy, 288 ; ternment of Alexandria, 278, 279; by S. Augustine,282.Herodotus, the travelled Greek gentleman, 377.

INDEX.491Idolatry, Asiatic, its turpitude, 25 ; division of gods, how far it couldgo, 27.Ignatius, S., Bishop of Antioch, his picture of the Church in his day,199-203; his martyrdom, 215 ; his recognition of the Roman Primacy,218 ; power of his intercession attested by S. Chrysostom, 219 ; theEucharist, that flesh of our Saviour Christ which suffered for oursins, 202 ; "Wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church,"206 ; completeness of a diocesan church called rj> i5w juaT¬?ov, ofthe whole church rb ¬V 0-dS/ia rr\s tKK\-n

492 INDEX.t/ * V *deemed necessary by the sects, 339 ; losses to the Christian body byit contrasted with those of civil war, by Origen, 324 ; a continuationof Christ's confession before Pilate, 184 ; its spirit the tissue of earlyChristian life, 238 ; identified with "perfect charity" by S. Ignatius,myf Tyre, a teacher of Mmans, 19, 203, 210.Moliler, 59, 132, 135, 159.Nero, importance of his act in raising the first persecution, 191.Newmati) Dr., the natural beauty of Greece, 381; the martyrs s

INDEX.493momvealth, 472 ; its failure to construct a society ruled by its principles,477.Philostratus, 306,Plato, applies Socratic principles to an ethical, logical, and physicalsystem, 398; his doctrine of Ideas, 399; his filiation with Socrates,400 ; his philosophy, and his idea of God, 401-6 ; with which, however,he retains the inculcation and practice of the popular religion,406; his God not absolutely personal, nor free, nor a creator, 408;his ethical system, 410; his conception of the methoc411; his contrast between oral teaching and writing, ni.mDartmor doctrm ^Hreal knowledge, &rurr&*$, is to be attained, 425 ; calls the art of So-mlike to God, 433.^ * ^^ ^wm^ ni ^^^his conduct to them with Trajan and Junius Rusticus, 210, note 38.Plutarch, his statement of Zeno's Politeia, 471.rtytheism, of the Gneco- Roman world, its multiplicity, 4; universality,mf27; its mjuriousness to man, 30; illogical character, 31; superhumanpower, 33 ; relation to civilisation, 38; to the empire's constitution,"mAspects about A.u.c. 750, 46; is the summing-up of human historybefore Christ, 58.P. t/ f + tr M. A -a. 0cession, and perpetual recognition, 164 ; attested by S. Ignatius, 218;by S.Ireneeus, 267; by Tertullian, 352 ; by S. Cyprian, 326-331; necessaryto the Church's unity, 146-8 ; is linked with jurisdiction, and isthe expression of Christ's sovereignty, 345; brought out by the questionsof penance, rebaptising heretics, and keeping Easter, 351-5 ; init lies the unity of the Episcopate, 334.Pythagoras, 377; his attempt to construct a philosophic religious community,412; his conception influences Plato, and all subsequentGreek philosophy, 414.Real Presence, defended by the succession of doctrine, of men, and ofinstitutions, 162.Bebaptisatioti of heretics, 353.Suinart, Acta Sincera Martyrum, quoted, 184,207,217, 226, 294, 300, 301.Sabbatli, the day changed, and the observance modified, by authorityof the Church alone, 165.Schmidt, Geschichte der Denk- und Glaubensfreiheit, 194.Scfwvane, Dogmengeschichte der vornicanischen Zeit, 261, 285, 287, 288.Scripture, not used as the means for the first foundation of Christianity,148-50 ; introduced as subsidiary to oral teaching, 150-2 ; its greatvalue in this light, 152-4; relation hence arising of Scripture to themm

494 INDEX.Church? 154 ; instances of this relation, 1G1-5; this relation set forthby our Lord for perpetual guidance of His Church, 16.6-8 ; the same,urged by Tertullian, 274 ; by S. Irezutais, 268, 2G9 ; by Clement ofAlexandria, 278,Sects, their multitude in early times, 204, 261, 270, 315.St'ptinnus Sererus, maxims of government, 243, 248-50 ; his persecution.302.Socrates, his person, 388 ; influence on Greek philosophy, 387 j theStoic type of the wise maccount of his special"^^" Dinion on the srods -^^"- andthe Godhead, 302-5 ; his last words to his judges, 395 ; last wordsof his life, 39G ; halts between unity and plurality in the Godhead,mpies, 398; the filiation between them, med mentalmidwifery by Plato, 392 ; one of his sti>mof S. Paul, 393, note.Stoicism, Epicureanism, Scepticism, three branches on one stemSnare;, GO-2.Suicide, termed the Issue in Stoic philosophy, 47G.mmTacitus, 190, 247, 248.Teaching office, created by Christ, 1GG ; witnessed by S. Ignatius, 202;by S. IrenrauB, 2G6, 268, 2G9, 272 ; by Tertullian, 274, 276 ; by Clementof Alexandria, 278 ; by Origen, 280; alone carries both Traditionand Scripture as a living gift of the Spirit, 287.Tertullian, 4, 32, 37, 188, 192, 194, 197, 209, 24G, 250, 251, 274, 276, 352.TJdcrry, Amad6e, 313, 481.Thomas Aquinas, S., 28, 57, 81, 125, 483.Tillemont, 209, 245, 249, 263.Tradition, the whole body of Apostolic teaching so called, 149, 150;, by S. Irenaiiis, 198 ; Tertullian, 274-7 ; Clement of Alexandria,278 ; Origen, 280.Trajan, his treatment of Christians, 213; of S. Ignatius, 215 ; importanceof his answer to Pliny, 221.Truth* as meaning the whole body of the divine revelation, 140; committedfor its propagation to a society, 155, 166 ; secured in it by atriple succession, 15G-60 ; its root in the Person of Christ, 51, 121,181 ; the gift of His Spirit, 121, 125, 127 ; development of, 1G8 ; inthe hall of Pilate, 49 ; its first transmission by oral teaching only,148.~UcT)eni'eg9 Grundriss der Geschichte der Philosophic des Alterthum.-.quoted or referred to, 385, 387, 300, 398, 399, 400, 401, 412, 413, 414?421, 422, 424, 428, 442, 450, 451, 453, 4G2, 479, 480.) divides theology into fabulous, natural, and civil.

INDEX.495390-5.Zeller, Philosophic der Griechen, quoted or referred to, 377, 380, 381,383, 385, 38G, 388, 389, 400, 401, 403-6; 407, 408, 409, 410, 111, 412,425, 429, 433, 434, 436, 437, 438, 443, 444, 445, 44G, 447, 448, 449,4G2, 4G9? 471, 472, 476.j the Stoic, his conception of the method of teaching, 424 ; his doctrineupon God and the soul, 438-442 ; his conception of men as oneflock feeding in a common pasture under a common la^v, 471.Zulirigl. 468.THEEND.LONDON:ROBSOX AND SONS, PRINTERS, PANCRAS ROADj N/

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- -" '. ""INDEX,ACTON'S Modern Cookery 20 BUNSEN (E. De) on Apocrypha 15ALCOCK'S Residence in Japan 16 's Keys of St. Peter 15ALLIES on Formation of Christianity 15 BURKE'S Vicissitudes of Families 4Alpine Guide (The)16 BURTON'S Christian Church 3ALVENSLEBEN'S Maximilian in Mexico .... 4APJOHN'S Manual of the Metalloids9Cabinet Lawyer20ARNOLD'S Manual of English Literature ..CALVERT'S Wife's Manual15ARNOTT'S Elements of Physics8CATES'S Biographical Dictionary ..3Arundines Cami 18CATS and FARLIE'S Moral Emblems12Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson " * * 6AYKE'S Treasury of Bible Knowledge ...... 14Chorale Book for England11Christian Schools and Scholars6CLOUGH'S Lives from Plutarch2BACON'S Essays by WHATELY 5 COLE:S:SO (Bishop) on Pentateuch and BookLife and Letters, by SPEEDING 3 of Joshua 15WorksCOLLINS'S Horse Trainer's Guide ,. 19r on the Emotions and WillCommonplace Philosopher in Town andon the Senses and Intellect 7 Country 6on the Study of Character 7 CONTNGTON'S Chemical Analysis10BALL'S Guide to the Central Alps 16 Translation of Virgil's 2Eneid 18" -'Guide to the Western Alps Iti CONTANSEAU'S Two French and EnglishGuide to the Eastern Alps 16 Dictionaries 6BARNARD'S Drawing from NatureCOXTBEAEE and HowsoN'sLife and EpistlesBAYLDON'S Rents and Tillages13 of St. PaulitBeaten Tracks16 COOK'S Acts of the ApostlesBECKER'S Charicles and Galius 17 COPLAND'S Dictionary of Practical Medicine 11BEETHOVEN'S Letters 4 COULTHART'S Decimal Interest Tables .... 20BENFEY'S Sanskrit-English Dictionary " " 6 Cox's Manual of Mythology17BERRY'S Journals3Tales of the Great Persian WaroBLACK'S Treatise on Brewing20Tales from Greek Mythology 17BLACKLEY and PEIEDLANDER'S GermanTales of the Gods and Heroes17and English Dictionary .. , 6 Tales of Thebes and Argos 17BLAINE'S Rural Sports . 19 CRAWLEY'S Billiard Book 20Veterinary Art 19 CRESY'S Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering i;jBLIGHT'S Week at the Lands End 17 Critical Essays of a Country Parson BOOTH'S Epigrams 6 CROWE'S History of France 2BOURSE on Screw Propeller 13 CRUMP on Banking, &c 19"*s Catechism of the Steam Engine.. 13 CUSSA>TS'S Grammar of Heraldry12Handbook of Steam Engine .... 13Treatise on the Steam Engine.... 13 DART'S Iliad of Homer 18BOWDLER'S Family SHAKSPEARE18D'AUBIGNE'S History of the Reformation inBRAMLEY-MOORE'Six Sisters of theValleys 17the time of CALVINBRANDE'S Dictionary of Science,Literature,and Art.... 10DAVIDSON'S Introduction to New Testament 14DAYMAN'S Dante's Divina Commedia 18BRAY'S (C.) Education of the Feelings ....""-* / Dead Shot (The), by MARKSMAN 19Philosophy of Necessity ......7On Force7DE BURGH'S Maritime International Law*.. 20DE LA RIVE'S Treatise on Electricity8BRINTON on Food and Digestion 20DE MORGAN on Matter and Spirit7BRISTOW'S Glossary of Mineralogy 8 DE TOCQUEVILLE'S Democracy in America. 2ERODIE'S Constitutional History1(SirC.B.) Works 11DISRAELI'S Speeches on Reform5DOBSON on the Ox19BROWNE'S Exposition 39 Articles14DOVE on Storms "8UCKLE'S History of Civilisation2oBULL'S Hints to Mothers20DYER'S City of RomeMaternal Management of Children,. 20Ancient Egypt 3 EASTLAKE'S Hints on Household Taste .... 12God in History 3 Shipmaster's Guide 20Memoirs3 Elements of Botany 9

22 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.ELLICOTT'S Commentary on Ephesians ,,,. 14 HORS LET'S Manual of Poisons 9- Destiny of the Creature 14 HOSKYNS'S Occasional Essays 7Lectures on Life of Christ "" 14 How we Spent the Summer 16Commentary on Galatians 14 HOWARD'S Gymnastic Exercises 11Pastoral Epist. 14 HOWITT'S Australian Discovery 16Philippians,&c. 14 Rural Life of England 17Thessalonians 14 Visits to Remarkable Places »* " 17ENGEL'S Introduction to National Music 11 HUDSON'S Executor's Guide 20Essays and Reviews 15 HUGHES'S Garden Architecture 13on Religion and Literature, edited by (W.) Manual of Geography 7MANNING, FIRST and SECOND SERIES .. 15 HULLAH'S History of Modern Music 11EWALD'S History of Israel 14 Transition Musical Lectures 11Sacred Music11FAIRBAIRN'S Application of Cast and HUMPHREYS'S Sentiments of Shakspeare .. 12Wrought Iron to Building 13 BUTTON'S_ " Studies in Parliament 6Information for Engineers .... 13 Hymns from Lyra Germanic a14Treatise on Mills and Millwork 13FAIRBAIRN on Iron Shipbuilding13INGEXOW'S Poems18FARRAR'S Chapters on Language5Story of Doom18FELKIN on Hosiery & Lace Manufactures.. 13FFOULKES'S Christendom's Divisions 15Icelandic Legends, SECOND SERIES 17FLIEDNER'S (Pastor) Life4FRANCIS'S Fishing Book 19 JAMESON'S Legends of the Saints and Mar-(Sir P.) Memoir and Journal 3 tyrs 12FROUDE'S History of England 1 Legends of the Madonna 12Short Studies 6 Legends of the Monastic Orders 12JAMESON and EASTLAKE'S History of OurGANOT'S Elementary Physics 8 Lord 12GILBERT and CHURCHILL'S Dolomite Mountains16JENNER'S Holy ChildJOHNSTON'S Gazetteer,DictionaryGILL'S Papal Drama 2 graphicalGILLY'S Shipwrecks of the Navy17GOODBYE'S Elements of Mechanism 13GORLE'S QuestionsBROWNE'S Expositionof the 39 ArticlesGRANT'S Ethics of AristotleGraver Thoughts of a Country Parsonor General Geo-KALISCH'S Commentary on the Bible14Hebrew Grammar 54 KEITH on Destiny of the World 146 Fulfilment of Prophecy 14Gray's Anatomy11 KELLER'S Lake Dwellings of Switzerland . 9GREENE'S Corals and Sea Jellies ~f KESTEVEN'S Domestic Medicine 11Sponges and Animalculae 9 KIRBY and SPENCE'S Entomology 9GROVE on Correlation of Physical Forces 8GWILT'S Encyclopaedia of Architecture . 1218KNIGHT'S Arch of Titus 17Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa ....16Handbook of Angling, by EPHEMERA 19 LANDON'S (L. E. L.) Poetical Works 18Hare on Election of Representatives 5 LATHAM'S English Dictionary 5HARLEYand BROWN'S Histological Demon- - River Plate 7strations 11 LAWRENCE on Rocks 8HARTWIG'S Harmonies of Nature 9 LECKY'S History of Rationalism 3Polar World 9 Leisure Hours in Town " " " 6Sea and its Living Wonders 9 Lessons of Middle Age 6Tropical World 9 Letters of Distinguished Musicians 4HAUGHTON'S Manual of Geology 8 LETVES'S Biographical History of Philosophy 8HAWKER'S Instructions to Young Sports- LIBDELL and SCOTT'S Greek-English Lexicon 6men 19 Abridged ditto 6HEARN'S Plutology 2 Life of Man Symbolised 12on English Government 2 LINDLEY and MOORE'S Treasury of Botany 9HELPS'S Spanish Conquest in America .... 2 LONGMAN'S Lectures on History of England 2HENDERSON'S Folk-Lore 6 LOUDON'S Encyclopaedia of Agriculture .... 18HERSCHEL'S Essays from Reviews 10 Gardening 13" Outlines of Astronomy 7 Plants 9Preliminary Discourse on the - Trees and Shrubs 9Study of Natural Philosophy 8 Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture 13HEWITT on the Diseases of Women 10 LOWNDES'S Engineer's Handbook 12HODGSON'S Time and Space 7 Lyra Domestica 15HOLMES'S System of Surgery 10 Eucharistica 16HOOKER and WALKER-ARNOTT'S British Germanica < 12,16Flora 9 Messianica 16HOPKINS'S Hawaii 8 - Mystica 16HORNE'S Introduction to the Scriptures 14 Sacra .Compendium of the Scriptures 14 M ACAULAY'S (Lord) Essays . * 275

NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO. 23MACAULAY'S History of England1 MOZART'S LettersLays of Ancient Rome 18 MULLER'S (Max) Chips from a GermanMiscellaneous Writings 6 "Workshop7Speeches . "" 5Lectures on the Science of Lan-Works 1 guage 5MACFARREN'S Lectures on Harmony 11 (K. O.) Literature of AncientMACLEOD'S Elements of Political Economy 4 Greece 2Dictionary of Political Economy 4 MURCHISON on Continued Fevers 10Elements of Banking 19 MURE'S Language and Literature of Greece 2Theory and Practice of Banking 19McCuLLOCH's Dictionary of Commerce 19 New Testament Illustrated with Wood En-Geographical Dictionary 7 gravings from the Old Masters 12MAGUIRE'S Irish in America 17 NEWMAN'S History of his Religious Opinions 8Life of Father Mathcw 3 NICHOLAS'S Pedigree of the English People 6Rome and its Rulers 3 NICHOLS'S Handbook to British Museum.. 20MALLESON'S French in India " 2 NIGHTINGALE'S Notes on Hospitals 20on Holy Ghost 15 NILSSON'S Scandinavia9's England and Christendom .... 15MARSHALI/S Physiology "*"* 10 ODLIKG'S Animal Chemistry10MARSHMAN'S History of India 2 Couuse of Practical Chemistry 10Life of Havelock 4 Manual of Chemistry .. 10MARTINEAU'S Endeavours after the Chris- Original Designs for Wood Carving 12tian Life 16 OWEN'S Comparative Anatomy and Physio-MASSEY on Shakspeare's Sonnets 18 logy of Vertebrate AnimalsOWEX'S Lectures on the Invertebrata 8's History of England116MASSINGBERD'S History of the Reformation 3 OXENHAM on AtonementMAUXDER'S Biographical Treasury4 PACKE'S Guide to the Pyrenees16Geographical Treasury 8PAGET'S Lectures on Surgical Pathology .. 10Historical Treasury 3 PEREIRA'S Manual of Materia Medica 11Scientific and Literary Treasury 9PERKINS'S Tuscan Sculptors12Treasury of Knowledge20Treasury of Natural History 9 PHILLIPS'S Guide to Geology .. 8Pictures in Tyrol ,16MAURY'S Physical Geography8MAT'S Constitutional History of England. 1 PIESSE'S Art of Perfumery isMELVILLE'S Digby Grand 17 Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic 13General ounce 17PIKE'S English and their Origin6Gladiators " 17 PITT on Brewing20Good for Nothi17 Playtime with the Poets18PRATT'S Law of Building Societies 20Holmby House17PRESCOTT'S Scripture Difficulties 14Interpreter17PROCTOR'S Handbook of the Stars 7Kate Coventry 17Saturn7Queen's Maries 17PYCROFT'S Course of English Reading litMENDELSSOHN'S Letters '". 45Cricket Field19MERIVALE'S (EL) Historical Studies 1(C.) Fall of the Roman Republic 2 RAIKES'S Englishman in India17Romans under the Empire 2 RAYMOND on Fishing without Cruelty 18Boyle Lectures 2 READE'S Poetical Works 18MILES on Horse's Foot and Horse Shoeing. 19 Recreations of a Country Parson ,6on Horses' Teeth and Stables19 REILLT'S Map of Mont Blanc16MILL on Liberty 4 RIVERS's Rose Amateur's Guide9- on Representative Government 4 ROGERS'S Correspondence of Greyson 7- on Utilitarianism 4Eclipse of Faith7's Dissertations and Discussions 4Defence of Faith7Political Economy 4Essays from the Edinburgh Re-System of Logic 4 view 7Hamilton's Philosophy 4 Reason and Faith 7Inaugural Address at St. Andrew's. 5 ROGET'S Thesaurus of English Words andMILLER'S Elements of Chemistry 10 Phrases 6MITCHELL'S Manual of Assaying 13 ROXALDS'S Fly-Fisher's Entomology 19MOJSTSELL'S Beatitudes15 ROWTON'S Debater6"His Presence not his Memory.. 15 RUDD'S Aristophanes18* Spiritual Songs' 15 RUSSELL on Government and Constitution 1MONTGOMERY on Pregnancy10MOORE'S Irish Melodies 18 SAXDARS'S Justinian's Institutes4Lalla Rookh 18 SCHUBERT'S Life, translated by COLERIDGE 4Journal and Correspondence .... 3 SCOTT'S Lectures on the Fine Arts11Poetical Works 18 SEEBOHM'S Oxford Reformers of 1498 2(Dr. G.) First Man 8 SEWELL'S After Life 16MORELL'S Elements of PsychologyMental Philosophy77Glimpse of the WorldHistory of the Early Church163MOSHEIM'S Ecclesiastical History 15 Journal of a Home Life178

24 NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS ANI> CO.SEWELJL'S Passing Thoughts on Religion TROLLOPE'S Barchester Towers 17Preparation fur Communion "** 15 Warden 17Principles of Education 15 Twiss's Law of Nations 20Readings for Confirmation 15 TYXDALL'S Lectures on Heat 8Readings for Lent1.1 Lectures t n Sound 8Examination for Confirmation 15 Memoir of FA RAD AY 4Stories and Tales1SHAW'S Work on Wine20SHEPHERD'S Iceland .. 16SHIPLEY'S Church and the World ........ 15URE'S Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, andMines13-- Tracts for the Day .............. 1 :>Short Whist .............................. 19 VAN DER HOEVEN'S Handbook of Zoolosry.. 8SHORT'S Church History .................. 3 VAUGHAN'S (R.) Revolutions in EnglishSMITH'S (SOUTHWOOD) Philosophy of Health 20 History1"- (J.) Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck 14 Way to Rest 7(G.) Reign of King DavidWesley an Methodism ........ 3(SvD>"EY) Miscellaneous Works C WALKER on the Rifle19Moral Philosophy 6 WARD'S Workmen and Wages4Wit and Wisdom 0 WATSON'S Principles and Practice of Physic 10SMITH on Cavalry Drill and Manoeuvres.... 19 WATTS'S Dictionary of Chemistry 10SOUTHEY'S (Doctor)5 WEBB'S Objects for Common Telescopes.... 7Poetical WorksIS WEBSTER & WILKINSON'S Greek Testament 13Springdale Abbey 17WELD'S Florence16STANLEY'S History of British Birds 9 WELLINGTON'S Life, by GLEIG3STEBBING'S Analysis of MILL'S Logic 5 WELLS on Dew 8STEPHEN'S Essays in Ecclesiastical Bio- WENPT'S Papers on Maritime Law20graphy .. 4 WEST on Children's Diseases 10Lectures on History of France 2 WHATELY'S English Synonymes5STIRLING'Secret of Hegel 7 Life and CorrespondenceSTOXEHESTGE on the Dog.. 19 Logic5on the Greyhound 19 Rhetoric5STRAW GE on Sea Air 11 on Religious Worship 16Restoration of Health 11 Whist, what to Lead, by CAM20Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church 6 WHITE and RIDDLE'S latin-English Dietionaries5WILLICH'S Popular Tables 20TAYLOR'S (Jeremy) Works, edited by EDBS 15WINSLOW on Light... - 8(E,) Selections from some WOOD'S Bible Animals ...9temporary Poets 18 Homes without Hands 9TENNENT'S Ceylon 9 WOODWARD'S Historical and ChronologicalWild Elephant9THIRIAVALL'S History of Greeceo Encyclopaedia3WRIGHT'S Homer's Iliad18TIMBS'S Curiosities of London 17THOMSON'S (Archbishop) Laws of Thought(A, T.) Conspectus 11 YONGE'S English-Greek Lexicon5TODD (A.) on Parliamentary Government.. 1 Abridged ditto 5's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physio Horace 18logy " 11and BOWMAN'S Anatomy and Phy-YOUNG'S Nautical DictionaryYOUATT on the Dog2019siok>gy of Man 11 on the Horse 19ST. SARY'S COLLEGESPOTTISWOGIE AJTD CO., PBUTEBS, XBW STSEKT-SQUAHE. LCLVI

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