nreg1805-0 - College of Engineering

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionOffice of Nuclear Reactor RegulationWashington, DC 20555-0001

NUREG-1805sFire Dynamics Tools (FDT ):Quantitative Fire HazardAnalysis Methods for theU.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionFire Protection Inspection ProgramFinal ReportManuscript Completed: October 2004Date Published: December 2004Prepared byNaeem Iqbal, Mark Henry SalleySunil Weerakkody, NRC Project ManagerPrepared forDivision of System Safety and AnalysisOffice of Nuclear Reactor RegulationU.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionWashington, DC 20555-0001

ABSTRACTThe U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (NRR),Division of Systems Safety and Analysis (DSSA), Plant Systems Branch (SPLB), Fire ProtectionEngineering and Special Projects Section, has developed quantitative methods, known ass“Fire Dynamics Tools” (FDT ), to assist regional fire protection inspectors in performing fire hazardanalysis (FHA). These methods have been implemented in spreadsheets and taught at the NRC’ssquarterly regional inspector workshops. FDT were developed using state-of-the-art fire dynamicsequations and correlations that were preprogrammed and locked into Microsoft Excel ®sspreadsheets. These FDT will enable the inspector to perform quick, easy, first-order calculationsfor the potential fire scenarios using today’s state-of-the-art principles of fire dynamics. Each FDT sspreadsheet also contains a list of the physical and thermal properties of the materials commonlyencountered in nuclear power plants. This NUREG-series report addresses the technical basessfor FDT , which were derived from the principles developed primarily in the Society of FireProtection Engineers (SFPE) Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, National Fire ProtectionAssociation (NFPA) Fire Protection Handbook, and other fire science literature. The subject matterof this report covers many aspects of fire dynamics and contains descriptions of the most importantfire processes. A significant number of examples, reference tables, illustrations, and conceptualdrawings are presented in this report to expand the inspector’s appreciation in visualizing andretaining the material and understanding calculation methods.iii

CONTENTSAbstractPage................................................................... iiiList of Fire Dynamics Tools ................................................. xxviiDisclaimer................................................................xxxiThe Authors ............................................................. xxxiiiAcknowledgments ........................................................ xxxvExecutive Summary .......................................................xxxviisHow To Use this NUREG and the FDT ........................................xxxixAbbreviations ..............................................................Nomenclature .............................................................xlixlviiChapter 1. Introduction ................................................... 1-11.1 Purpose................................................ 1-11.2 Objective ............................................... 1-11.3 Regulatory Background on Fire Protection for Nuclear Power Plants 1-11.4 Fire Hazard Analysis for Nuclear Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31.5 Fire Protection Inspection Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-31.6 Fire Scenario Development for Nuclear Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-41.7 Process of Fire Development ............................... 1-41.8 The Fire Hazards ........................................ 1-61.8.1 Combustible Materials Found in Nuclear Power Plants . . . . . 1-71.8.1.1 Transient Combustibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71.8.1.2 In Situ Combustibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-71.8.1.3 Liquid Fuels ............................... 1-81.8.1.4 Explosive and Flammable Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-81.9 Location of the Fire ....................................... 1-91.10 Risk-Informed Performance-Based Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-91.11 Data Sources for Combustible Materials Found in Nuclear Power Plants 1-101.12 References ............................................ 1-121.13 Additional Readings ..................................... 1-13v

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 2.Predicting Hot Gas Layer Temperature and Smoke Layer Height in a Room Firewith Natural and Forced Ventilation ................................ 2-12.1 Objectives .............................................. 2-12.2 Introduction ............................................. 2-12.3 Compartment Fire Growth.................................. 2-12.3.1 Stages of Compartment Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12.3.2 Ventilation-Limited or Ventilation-Controlled Fires . . . . . . . . . 2-42.3.3 Fuel-Limited Fires .................................. 2-42.4 Compartment Ventilation................................... 2-42.4.1 Definitions ........................................ 2-62.5 Temperature ............................................ 2-62.6 Estimating Hot Gas Layer Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-82.6.1 Natural Ventilation: Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, andHarkleroad (MQH)................................... 2-82.6.2 Natural Ventilation (Compartment Closed): Method of Beyler . 2-122.6.3 Forced Ventilation: Method of Foote, Pagni, and Alvares (FPA) 2-122.6.4 Forced Ventilation: Method of Deal and Beyler . . . . . . . . . . 2-132.7 Estimating Smoke Layer Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-142.7.1 Smoke Layer ..................................... 2-152.7.2 Smoke Layer Interface Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-152.7.3 Natural Ventilation (Smoke Filling):The Non-Steady-State Yamana and Tanaka Method . . . . . . 2-152.8 Data Sources for Heat Release Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-172.9 Identification of Fire Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-192.10 Assumption and Limitations ............................... 2-232.11 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-242.12 Cautions .............................................. 2-252.13 Summary .............................................. 2-252.14 References ............................................ 2-262.15 Additional Readings ..................................... 2-282.16 Problems .............................................. 2-29vi

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 5. Estimating Radiant Heat Flux from Fire to a Target Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15.1 Objectives .............................................. 5-15.2 Introduction ............................................. 5-15.3 Critical Heat Flux to a Target ............................... 5-25.3.1 Point Source Radiation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35.3.2 Solid Flame Radiation Model with Target At and AboveGround Level...................................... 5-55.3.2.1 Emissive Power............................ 5-65.3.2.2 Configuration Factor F12under Wind-Free Conditions 5-75.3.2.3 Configuration Factor F12in Presence of Wind . . . 5-115.4 Method of Estimating Thermal Radiation from Hydrocarbon Fireball . . 5-155.4.1 Radiation Due to BLEVEs with Accompanying Fireball . . . . . 5-155.5 Assumptions and Limitations .............................. 5-175.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-175.7 Cautions .............................................. 5-185.8 Summary .............................................. 5-185.9 References ............................................ 5-195.10 Additional Readings ..................................... 5-205.11 Problems .............................................. 5-21Chapter 6.Estimating the Ignition Time of a Target FuelExposed to a Constant Radiative Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16.1 Objectives .............................................. 6-16.2 Introduction ............................................. 6-16.3 Ignition Sources and Fire Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-36.4 Ignition Time for Thermally Thick Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-36.4.1 Method of Tewarson ................................ 6-46.4.2 Method of Mikkola and Wichman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-86.4.3 Method of Quintiere and Harkleroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-86.4.4 Method of Janssens ................................ 6-96.4.5 Method of Toal, Silcock, and Shields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-126.5 Assumptions and Limitations .............................. 6-146.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-146.7 Cautions .............................................. 6-146.8 Summary .............................................. 6-146.9 References ............................................ 6-156.10 Additional Readings ..................................... 6-156.11 Problems .............................................. 6-16viii

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 7. Estimating the Full-Scale Heat Release Rate of a Cable Tray Fire . . . . . . . . 7-17.1 Objectives .............................................. 7-17.2 Introduction ............................................. 7-17.3 Cable Tray Fire Burning Mode Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27.4 Cable Tray Heat Release Rate .............................. 7-37.5 Cable Failure Criteria (Critical Temperature and Critical Heat Flux) . . 7-57.6 Assumptions and Limitations ............................... 7-67.7 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-67.8 Cautions ............................................... 7-67.9 Summary ............................................... 7-67.10 References ............................................. 7-77.11 Additional Readings ...................................... 7-77.12 Problems ............................................... 7-8Chapter 8. Estimating Burning Duration of Solid Combustibles .................... 8-18.1 Objectives .............................................. 8-18.2 Introduction ............................................. 8-18.3 Burning Duration of Solid Combustibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-18.4 Assumptions and Limitations ............................... 8-48.5 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-48.6 Cautions ............................................... 8-48.7 Summary ............................................... 8-48.8 References ............................................. 8-48.9 Problems ............................................... 8-5Chapter 9. Estimating the Centerline Temperature of a Buoyant Fire Plume . . . . . . . . . . 9-19.1 Objectives .............................................. 9-19.2 Introduction ............................................. 9-19.3 Fire Plume Characteristics ................................. 9-29.3.1 Plume Temperature................................. 9-49.4 Application for Centerline Fire Plume Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-79.5 Assumptions and Limitations ............................... 9-79.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-79.7 Cautions ............................................... 9-89.8 Summary ............................................... 9-89.9 References ............................................. 9-99.10 Additional Readings ...................................... 9-99.11 Problems .............................................. 9-10ix

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 10. Estimating Sprinkler Response Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-110.1 Objectives ............................................. 10-110.2 Introduction ............................................ 10-110.3 Operating Principles of Automatic Sprinklers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-310.3.1 Heat Transfer Characteristics for Heat-Sensitive Elements . 10-410.3.2 Sprinkler Dynamics ............................... 10-510.3.3 Temperature Ratings of Automatic Sprinklers . . . . . . . . . . . 10-610.3.4 Sprinkler Activation ............................... 10-910.3.5 Sprinkler Spray Interaction with Plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1110.4 Assumptions and Limitations ............................. 10-1210.5 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1210.6 Cautions ............................................. 10-1310.7 Summary ............................................. 10-1310.8 References ........................................... 10-1310.9 Additional Readings .................................... 10-1410.10 Problems ............................................. 10-15Chapter 11. Estimating Smoke Detector Response Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-111.1 Objectives ............................................. 11-111.2 Introduction ............................................ 11-111.3 Characteristics of Smoke Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-211.4 Operating Principles of Smoke Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-311.5 Smoke Detector Response ................................ 11-611.5.1 Method of Alpert.................................. 11-711.5.2 Method of Mowrer ................................ 11-911.5.3 Method of Milke ................................. 11-1011.6 Assumptions and Limitations ............................. 11-1111.7 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1211.8 Cautions ............................................. 11-1211.9 Summary ............................................. 11-1211.10 References ........................................... 11-1311.11 Additional Readings .................................... 11-1311.12 Problems ............................................. 11-14x

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 12. Estimating Heat Detector Response Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-112.1 Objectives ............................................. 12-112.2 Introduction ............................................ 12-112.3 Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc., Listing Informationfor Heat-Detecting Automatic Fire Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-112.4 Operating Principle of Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-212.4.1 Fixed-Temperature Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-312.4.1.1 Fusible-Element Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-312.4.1.2 Continuous Line Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-312.4.1.3 Bimetallic Type .......................... 12-312.4.2 Rate Compensation Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-412.4.3 Rate-of-Rise Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-412.4.4 Pneumatic Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-412.4.4.1 Line-Type Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-512.4.5 Combination Heat Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-512.4.6 Electronic Spot-Type Thermal Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-512.5 Fixed-Temperature Heat Detector Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-612.6 Assumptions and Limitations ............................. 12-1012.7 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1112.8 Cautions ............................................. 12-1112.9 Summary ............................................. 12-1112.10 References ........................................... 12-1212.11 Additional Readings .................................... 12-1212.12 Problems ............................................. 12-13Chapter 13. Predicting Compartment Flashover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-113.1 Objectives ............................................. 13-113.2 Introduction ............................................ 13-113.3 Compartment Flashover .................................. 13-513.3.1 Method of Predicting Compartment Flashover . . . . . . . . . . 13-513.3.1.1 Method of McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad(MQH)................................. 13-513.3.1.2 Method of Babrauskas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-613.3.1.3 Method of Thomas ....................... 13-613.3.2 Method of Predicting Compartment Post-Flashover Temperature 13-713.4 Fire Severity ........................................... 13-813.4.1 Method of Margaret Law ........................... 13-813.5 Assumptions and Limitations ............................. 13-1013.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1013.7 Cautions ............................................. 13-1013.8 Summary ............................................. 13-1013.9 References ........................................... 13-1113.10 Problems ............................................. 13-13xi

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 14. Estimating Pressure Rise Attributable to a Fire in a Closed Compartment . 14-114.1 Objectives ............................................. 14-114.2 Introduction ............................................ 14-114.3 Definition of Pressure .................................... 14-214.4 Pressure Rise Calculations ................................ 14-314.5 Assumptions and Limitations .............................. 14-314.6 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-414.7 Cautions .............................................. 14-414.8 Summary .............................................. 14-414.9 References ............................................ 14-414.10 Problems .............................................. 14-5Chapter 15.Estimating the Pressure Increase and Explosive Energy ReleaseAssociated with Explosions ....................................... 15-115.1 Objectives ............................................. 15-115.2 Introduction ............................................ 15-115.3 Explosion Hazard ....................................... 15-315.4 Explosive Range ........................................ 15-415.5 Backdraft Explosion ..................................... 15-415.6 Smoke Explosion ....................................... 15-415.7 Unconfined and Confined Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-515.8 Estimating the Effects of Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-715.8.1 Estimating Explosive Energy Release in a Confined Explosion 15-915.8.2 TNT Mass Equivalent Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1015.8.3 Blast Effects .................................... 15-1115.9 Effects of Pressure on Humans and Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1215.10 Effects of Pressure on Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1315.11 Estimating the Pressure Increase Attributable to a Confined Explosion 15-1415.12 Assumptions and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1515.13 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1515.14 Cautions ............................................. 15-1515.15 Summary ............................................. 15-1615.16 References ........................................... 15-1715.17 Additional Readings .................................... 15-1715.18 Problems ............................................. 15-18xii

CONTENTS (continued)Chapter 16. Calculating the Rate of Hydrogen Gas Generation in Battery Rooms . . . . . 16-116.1 Objectives ............................................. 16-116.2 Introduction ............................................ 16-116.3 Combustion of Hydrogen Gas .............................. 16-216.4 Ignition of Hydrogen Gas ................................. 16-416.4.1 Battery as an Ignition Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-516.4.2 Control of Hydrogen Gas Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-516.5 Fire Protection Code Requirements for Battery Rooms . . . . . . . . . . 16-616.6 Method of Calculating the Rate of Hydrogen Generation in Battery Rooms 16-716.7 Method of Calculating Flammable Gas and Vapor ConcentrationBuildup in Enclosed Spaces ............................... 16-816.8 Method of Calculating Flammable Gas and Vapor ConcentrationBuildup Time in Enclosed Spaces........................... 16-916.9 Assumptions and Limitations ............................. 16-1016.10 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1016.11 Cautions ............................................. 16-1116.12 Summary ............................................. 16-1116.13 References ........................................... 16-1216.14 Problems ............................................. 16-13Chapter 17. Calculating the Fire Resistance of Structural Steel Members............ 17-117.1 Objectives ............................................. 17-117.2 Introduction ............................................ 17-117.3 Fire Resistance of Buildings ............................... 17-317.4 Fire Resistance of Structural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-517.4.1 Fire Resistance and Temperature Limits of Steel Elements 17-517.4.2 Fire Resistance and Temperature Limits of Reinforced ConcreteElements........................................ 17-517.5 Failure Criteria for Structural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-617.6 Fire Walls and Fire Barrier Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-717.7 Fire Resistance Coatings for Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-817.8 Calculating Fire Resistance or Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1017.8.1 Equivalent Fire Resistance of Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . 17-1017.8.2 Steel Column (Unprotected) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1117.8.3 Steel Column (Protected with Gypsum Wallboard) . . . . . . 17-1217.8.4 Steel Column (with Low-Density Protection) . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1317.8.5 Steel Column (Protected with Spray-On Materials) . . . . . . 17-1417.8.6 Steel Column (Protected by Concrete) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1517.8.7 Steel Beams.................................... 17-1617.8.7.1 Beam Substitution Correlation for Structural SteelBeams Protected by Spray-On Materials . . . . . . 17-1717.8.7.2 Column Substitution Correlation for Structural SteelColumns Protected by Spray-On Materials . . . . 17-18xiii

CONTENTS (continued)17.8.8 Numerical Method to Estimate the Temperature Increasein Structural Steel Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1817.8.8.1 Unprotected Structural Steel Sections . . . . . . . . 17-1917.8.8.2 Protected Structural Steel Sections . . . . . . . . . . 17-2117.9 Assumptions and Limitations ............................. 17-2317.10 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2317.11 Cautions ............................................. 17-2317.12 Summary ............................................. 17-2317.13 References ........................................... 17-2417.14 Problems ............................................. 17-25Chapter 18. Estimating Visibility Through Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-118.1 Objectives ............................................. 18-118.2 Introduction ............................................ 18-118.3 Smoke Obscuration...................................... 18-118.4 Effect of Smoke on Nuclear Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-218.5 Estimating Visibility Through Smoke — Jin Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-218.6 Assumptions and Limitations .............................. 18-518.7 Required Input for Spreadsheet Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-518.8 Cautions .............................................. 18-518.9 Summary .............................................. 18-618.10 References ............................................ 18-618.10 Problems .............................................. 18-7Index.................................................................Index-1xiv

AppendicesPageA. Nuclear Power Plant Electrical Cable Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1A.1 Introduction ................................................... A-1A.2 Electrical Cable Construction ..................................... A-2A.3 Description of Cables ........................................... A-3A.4 Cable Materials ................................................ A-7A.4.1 Thermoplastic Materials ................................... A-7A.4.2 Thermoset Materials ...................................... A-8A.5 Cable Failure Threshold and Time to Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-9A.5.1 Theory ................................................. A-9A.5.2 Temperature Thresholds — Thermoset Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-9A.5.3 Temperature Thresholds — Thermoplastic Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-12A.5.4 Radiant Heating Failure Criteria — Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-14A.5.5 Basis for Cable Damage Timing Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-15A.5.6 Temperature Exposures — Thermoset Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-15A.5.7 Temperature Exposures — Thermoplastic Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-17A.5.8 Radiant Exposures — Thermoset and Thermoplastic Cables . . . . . A-19A.6 References .................................................. A-20A.7 Additional Readings ........................................... A-20B. Fundamentals of Fire Protection......................................... B-1B.12T-Squared (t ) Fire Power Law Heat Release Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1B.1.1 Introduction ............................................. B-1B.1.22t Heat Release Rate...................................... B-1B.1.3 References ............................................ B-10B.2 Elements of Hydraulic and Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11B.2.1 References ............................................ B-12B.3 Classes of Fires .............................................. B-13B.3.1 References ............................................ B-13B.4 Classification of Hazards ....................................... B-14B.4.1 Light (Low) Hazard ...................................... B-14B.4.2 Ordinary (Moderate) Hazard ............................... B-14B.4.3 Extra (High) Hazard ..................................... B-14B.4.4 References ............................................ B-14B.5 Classes of Fires and Extinguishing Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-15B.6 Classification of Flammable and Combustible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-17B.6.1 Flammable Liquid ....................................... B-17B.6.2 Combustible Liquid Classifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-18B.6.3 Storage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-20B.6.4 Flammable Combustible Storage Cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-21B.6.5 Definitions ............................................. B-21B.6.6 Hazardous Materials ..................................... B-22B.6.7 References ............................................ B-23B.7 Classification of Flammable Gases................................ B-24B.7.1 Classification ........................................... B-24B.7.2 Definitions ............................................. B-24B.7.3 References ............................................ B-24xv

Appendices (continued)B.8 Flammability Hazards of Gases .................................. B-25B.8.1 Flammability Potential of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-25B.8.2 Flammability Potential of Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-26B.8.3 Flammable Limits, Detonable Limits, and Potential forDeflagration-to-Detonation Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-26B.8.4 Flammable Gas Generation ............................... B-26B.8.5 Explosion Prevention Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-27B.8.6 References ............................................ B-28B.9 Combustion Properties of Pure Metals in Solid Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-29B.9.1 Reference ............................................. B-30B.10 Extinguishing Agents for Metal Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-31B.10.1 References ............................................ B-32B.11 Occupancy Classification and Use Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-32B.11.1 Occupancy Classification ................................. B-32B.11.2 Special Use and Occupancy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-34B.11.3 Code Advances/Changes ................................. B-34B.11.4 References ............................................ B-35B.12 Building Limitations and Types of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-36B.12.1 Types of Construction .................................... B-36B.12.2 Five Construction Types .................................. B-37B.12.3 Fire Resistance Ratings .................................. B-38B.12.4 Reference ............................................. B-38B.13 Deep-Seated Fires in Class A Solid Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-39B.13.1 General Information ..................................... B-39B.13.2 Deep-Seated Cable Fires ................................. B-40B.13.3 Deep-Seated Charcoal Fires............................... B-40B.13.4 References ............................................ B-40B.14 Special Hazard Gaseous Fire Extinguishing Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-41B.14.1 Introduction ............................................ B-41B.14.2 Halogenated Agent Extinguishing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-41B.14.3 Carbon Dioxide Fire Extinguishing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-53B.14.4 References ............................................ B-41B.15 Dry Chemical Extinguishing Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-55B.15.1 Hazards Associated with Dry Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-57B.15.2 References ............................................ B-57B.16 Fire Protection Using Foam ..................................... B-58B.16.1 Properties of Foam ...................................... B-59B.16.2 Hazards Associated with Foam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-60B.16.3 Delivery Systems for Foam ................................ B-60B.16.4 Application of Foam ..................................... B-61B.16.5 Types of Foam ......................................... B-62B.16.6 References ............................................ B-65B.16.7 Additional Reading ...................................... B-65xvi

Appendices (continued)B.17 Harmful Properties of Toxic Gases Found in Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-66B.17.1 Introduction ............................................ B-66B.17.2 Smoke and Toxic Gases .................................. B-67B.17.3 Toxicity Data ........................................... B-69B.17.4 References ............................................ B-71B.18 Effects of Decomposition Products of Halogenated Fire Extinguishing Agents . . B-72B.18.1 Introduction ............................................ B-72B.18.2 Toxicity of Decomposition Productsof Halogenated Fire Suppression Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-73B.18.3 Physical Properties of Halon 1301 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-75B.18.4 Physical Properties of Halon 1211 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-76B.18.5 References ............................................ B-77B.19 An Introduction to Computer Fire Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-78B.19.1 Introduction ............................................ B-78B.19.2 Categories of Computer Fire Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-79B.19.3 Limitations and Uncertainties Associated with Computer Fire Modeling B-84B.19.4 Fire Models ............................................ B-85B.19.5 References ............................................ B-89B.19.6 Additional Readings ..................................... B-89C. Sources of Fire ...................................................... C-1C.1 Heat Sources ................................................. C-1C.2 Incident Heat.................................................. C-3C.3 Target Fuel ................................................... C-4C.4 Flame/Heat Growth ............................................. C-5C.5 Fire Resistance ................................................ C-6C.6 Fire Resistance/Endurance Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-8C.7 Fire Test Standards ........................................... C-15D. NRC Documents Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-1D.1 Code of Federal Regulations Related to Nuclear Regulatory CommissionFire Protection................................................. D-1D.2 Branch Technical Positions Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-2D.3 NRC Regulatory Guides Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3D.4 NRC Generic Communications Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5D.4.1 NRC Administrative Letters Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5D.4.2 NRC Bulletins Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-6D.4.3 NRC Circulars Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7D.4.4 NRC Generic Letters Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8D.4.5 NRC Information Notices Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-10D.4.6 NRC Regulatory Issue Summaries Related to Fire Protection . . . . . D-16D.5 Commission (SECY) Papers Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-17D.6 NRC Preliminary Notifications Related to Fire Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21D.7 NRC Miscellaneous Documents Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-24D.8 NRR Staff Presentations and Publications Related to Fire Protection . . . . . D-27xvii

Appendices (continued)D.9 NRC Technical Reports in the NUREG Series Related to Nuclear Power PlantFire Protection Engineering Research and Development (R&D) . . . . . . . . . D-28D.10 Safety Evaluation Reports Related to License Renewalfor Operating Nuclear Power Plants ............................... D-45D.11 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Codes and Standardsfor Nuclear Facilities ........................................... D-46E. Current National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Codes and Standards . . . . . . . E-1F. Glossary of Fire Protection Terms ....................................... F-1G. Abbreviations Used in Fire Protection Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G-1H. Selected U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Fire Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-1H.1 Introduction ................................................... H-1H.2 San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, Unit 1,February 7 and March 12, 1968 ................................... H-6H.3 Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant, Unit 1, March 22, 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-8H.4 North Anna Power Station, Unit 2, July 3, 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-11H.5 Rancho Seco, March 19, 1984 ................................... H-12H.6 Waterford Steam Electric Station, Unit 3, June 26, 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-13H.7 Fort St. Vrain Nuclear Generating Station, October 2, 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-14H.8 Oconee Nuclear Station, Unit 1, January 3, 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-15H.9 H.B. Robinson Steam Electric Plant, Unit 2, January 7, 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . H-16H.10 Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Power Plant, Unit 2, March 1, 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-17H.11 Shearon Harris Nuclear Power Plant, October 9, 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-18H.12 Salem Generating Station Unit 2, November 9, 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-20H.13 Waterford Steam Electric Station Unit 3, June 10, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-21H.14 Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station Unit 2, April 4, 1996 . . . . . . . . . . . . H-24H.15 San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station, Unit 3, February 3, 2001 . . . . . . . H-26H.16 Point Beach Nuclear Plant, Unit 1, April 24, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-29H.17 Prairie Island Nuclear Generating Plant, Unit 1, August 3, 2001 . . . . . . . . . H-30H.18 Fort Calhoun Station, Unit 1, December 19, 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H-32xviii

Appendices (continued)I. Mathematics Review and System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1I.1 Mathematics Review ............................................. I-1I.1.1 Units of Measurement ...................................... I-1I.1.2 Math Functions ........................................... I-6I.1.3 Solving Equations ......................................... I-8I.1.4 Caution with T Conversions ............................... I-10I.1.5 Miscellaneous Information ................................. I-11I.1.6 Reference .............................................. I-12I.2 Notation Conventions ........................................... I-13I.2.1 References ............................................. I-13I.3 System of Units................................................ I-14I.3.1 Length, Area, and Volume Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-14I.3.2 Mass and Density Units ................................... I-14I.3.3 Time Units .............................................. I-14I.3.4 Force and Pressure Units .................................. I-15I.3.5 Energy Units ............................................ I-15I.3.6 Power Units ............................................. I-15I.3.7 Temperature Units ....................................... I-16I.3.8 References ............................................. I-16I.4 Physical Constants for General Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-17I.4.1 References ............................................. I-17J. Practice Problems and Solutions ........................................ J-1xix

FiguresPage1-1 Physical Process of Combustion and Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-51-2 The Fire Triangle .................................................... 1-52-1 Typical Stages of Fire Development...................................... 2-22-2 Stages of Compartment Fire............................................ 2-22-3 Types of Mechanical Ventilation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-52-4 Smoke Filling In a Compartment Fire .................................... 2-152-5 General Representation of Heat Release Rate Histories for a Fuel Package . . . . . 2-183-1 A Simple Design Fire Curve ............................................ 3-23-2 Dynamic Features of a Pool Fire ........................................ 3-73-3 Temperature Distribution in the Flame of a Burning Candle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-93-4 Diffusion Flame..................................................... 3-103-5 Premixed Flame .................................................... 3-103-6 Laminar Diffusion Flame.............................................. 3-103-7 Turbulent Premixed Flames ........................................... 3-113-8 Flame Extensions with a Free-Burning Flame and Under a Smooth Ceiling . . . . . . 3-133-9 Characteristics of Flame Height Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-164-1 Wall Fire Flame Configuration .......................................... 4-34-2 Line Fire Flame Against a Wall.......................................... 4-34-3 Corner Fire Flame Configuration ........................................ 4-45-1 Radiant Heat Flux from a Pool Fire to a Floor-Based Target Fuel (Point Source Model) . . 5-45-2 Solid Flame Radiation Model with No Wind and Target at Ground Level . . . . . . . . . . 5-55-3 Solid Flame Radiation Model with No Wind and Target Above Ground . . . . . . . . . . . 5-65-4 Cylindrical Flame Shape Configuration Factor Geometry for Vertical and HorizontalTargets at Ground Level with No Wind.................................... 5-85-5 Cylindrical Flame Shape Configuration Factor Geometry for Vertical and HorizontalTargets Above Ground with No Wind ..................................... 5-85-6 Solid Flame Radiation Model in Presence of Wind and Target Above Ground Level 5-115-7 Solid Flame Radiation Model in Presence of Wind and Target at Ground Level . . . 5-116-1 Ignition Processes for Liquid and Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-16-2 External Radiation to a Solid Target from a Flame or Hot Surfaceat Evaluated Temperature ............................................. 6-29-1 A Buoyant Turbulent Plume Showing Air Entrainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-19-2 Three Zones of the Axisymmetric Buoyant Fire Plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-39-3 Fire Plume with Virtual Origin ........................................... 9-5xx

Figures (continued)10-1 Heat Transfer Characteristics of the Heat-Sensitive Element of Sprinkler . . . . . . . . 10-410-2 Representative Arrangement of a Solder-Type Link-and-Lever Automatic Sprinkler 10-510-3 Ceiling Jet Flow Beneath an Unconfined Ceiling and Sprinkler Activation . . . . . . . 10-1111-1 Qualitative Relationship Between Time and Damage for Different Speeds of FireDevelopment and Average Detection, Reaction, and Fire Fighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-211-2 Illustration of the Photoelectric Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-411-3 Illustration of the Ionization Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-412-1 Ceiling Jet Flow Beneath an Unconfined Ceiling Showing a Heat Detector . . . . . . . 12-913-1 Flashover and Post-Flashover Compartment Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-214-1 Overpressure Generated at a Fixed Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-115-1 Pressure Peaks of an Explosion Inside a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-515-2 Propagation of Explosion Flame........................................ 15-615-3 Ideal Blast Wave Overpressure vs. Scaled Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1116-1 Flammability Limits of Hydrogen in Air Diluted with Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen . 16-316-2 Flammability Limits of Hydrogen in Air-Steam Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-316-3 Spark Ignition Energies for Dry Hydrogen-Air Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-416-4 Typical Flammability Diagram.......................................... 16-517-1 Standard Time-Temperature Curve (ASTM E119) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-117-2 Typical Methods of Protecting Various Structural Steel Elements from Fire . . . . . . 17-417-3 Encasement of a Steel Beam by Monolithic Casting of Concrete Around the Beam 17-917-4 Spray-On Mineral Fibers and Noncombustible Protective Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-917-5 Sections of Unprotected Steel Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1117-6 Heated Perimeters for Common Column and Beam Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1217-7 Concrete-Protected Structural Steel Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-15A-1 Basic Electrical Cable Construction — Common Single- and Multi-ConductorArrangements ....................................................... A-4A-2 Thermoplastic Insulated Cable Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-7A-3 Thermoset Insulated Cable Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-8A-4 Raw Time to Damage Chart for Thermoset XLPE Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-15A-5 Time to Damage Plot for Thermoset Cables with Linear Regression Curve . . . . . . A-16A-6 Raw Time to Damage Plot for Thermoplastic PE Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-17A-7 Time to Damage Plot for Thermoplastic Cables with Linear Regression Curve . . . . A-18xxi

Figures (continued)B.1-12Fire Growth of t Fitted to Data ........................................ B-2B.1-22Growth Rate Curves for t Fire......................................... B-4B.1-32Comparison of t Heat Release Rate with Full-Scale Free-Burn Heat Release Rate . B-5B.1-42Relation of t Heat Release Rate to Some Fire Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-5B.1-52Comparison of t Heat Release Rate with Full-Scale Furniture Heat Release Rate . . B-6B.1-62Three-Sided Work Station Heat Release Rate Curve Compared With t Curves . . B-8B.1-72Heat Release Rate Curve for Idle Pallets Compared with t Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . B-9B.1-82Heat Release Rate for Stacked Box Fires Compared with t Curves . . . . . . . . . . B-10B.14-1 Indication of Deep-Seated Fire and Reignition of Cables, Test # 60,IEEE-383-Qualified Cables, Horizontal Trays, 4-Minute Halon SoakAcceptor Tray Center Temperature .................................... B-44B.14-2 Soaking Time vs. Halon 1301 Concentration for Deep-Seated and Surface Fires B-45xxii

TablesPage1-1 Common Combustible and Hazardous Materials in NPPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-62-1 Temperature Conversions ............................................. 2-72-2 Critical Temperatures for Different Exposure Conditions and Effects on Humans . . . 2-72-3 Thermal Properties of Compartment Enclosing Surface Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-112-4 Measured Heat Release Rate Data for Cable Jacketing Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-202-5 Measured Heat Release Rate Data for Electrical Cabinets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-202-6 Measured Heat Release Rate Data for Transient Combustible Materials(Flammable/Combustible Liquids) ...................................... 2-212-7 Measured Heat Release Rate Data for Transient Combustible Materials (Trash) . . 2-212-8 Measured Heat Release Rate Data for Transient Combustible Materials(Plywood and Wood Pallet) ........................................... 2-222-9 Ignition Thresholds (Pilotless within 30 seconds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-222-10 Thermal Effects on Electronics ......................................... 2-223-1 Rough Measure of Heat Generated from Various Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23-2 Large-Pool Fire Burning Rate Data ...................................... 3-43-3 Pool Fire Burning Modes .............................................. 3-53-4 Burning Rates of Some Combustible Materials Found in Nuclear Power Plants . . . . 3-63-5 Flame Temperatures of Selected Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-133-6 Adiabatic Flame Temperatures of Selected Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-156-1 Typical Heat Fluxes From Various Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-26-2 Typical Ignition Times of Thick Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-46-3 Critical Heat Flux and Thermal Response Parameters of Selected Materials . . . . . . 6-66-4 Ignition Temperature and Thermal Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-76-5 Ignition and Flame Spread Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-106-6 Ignition and Flame Spread Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-127-1 Bench-Scale HRR of a Cable Tray Fire ................................... 7-47-2 Thermoplastic vs. Thermoset Cables ..................................... 7-58-1 Thermal Properties of Solid Combustible Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-310-1 Temperature Rating, Classification, and Color Coding of Automatic Sprinklers . . . . 10-610-2 Generic Sprinkler Temperature Rating (Tactivation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-710-3 Generic Sprinkler Response Time Index (RTI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-812-1 Time Constant of Any Listed Detector ................................... 12-712-2 Detector Response Time Index of Any Listed Detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8xxiii

Tables (continued)15-1 Estimated Damage Attributable to Explosive Overpressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-715-2 Heat of Combustion, Ignition Temperature, and Adiabatic Flame Temperatureof Flammable Gases................................................ 15-1015-3 Pressure Effects on Humans ......................................... 15-1215-4 Typical Failure Pressures of Some Building Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1316-1 Hydrogen Flammability Limits in Air at Room Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-216-2 Float Current Demand for Stationary Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-816-3 Mixing Efficiency for Various Ventilation Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1017-1 Standard Time-Temperature Curve Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-217-2 Temperature Endpoint Criteria for Structural Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-617-3 Typical Fire Resistance of Walls........................................ 17-717-4 Resultant Emissivity for Different Types of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-1917-5 Spreadsheet Calculation for the Temperature of Steel Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2017-6 Thermal Properties of Insulation Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2218-1 Proportionality Constants for Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-318-2 Specific Extinction Coefficient for Visibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-318-3 Smoke Particulate Yield .............................................. 18-4A-1 Designation of Electrical Rated Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-3A-2 Failure Time-Temperature Relationship for Thermoset Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-16A-3 Failure Time-Temperature Relationship for Thermoplastic Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-18A-4 Estimated Time to Damage for Radiant Heating Exposures for Thermoset Cables . A-19A-5 Estimated Time to Damage for Radiant Heating Exposures for Thermoplastic Cables . . A-19B.1-12Summary of t Fire Parameters ......................................... B-3B.1-2 Maximum Heat Release Rates of Warehouse Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-6B.2-1 Corresponding Elements of Hydraulic and Electrical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-11B.5-1 Fire Classes with Extinguishing Agents .................................. B-16B.6-1 Flammable Liquid Classifications ....................................... B-17B.6-2 Combustible Liquid Classifications ...................................... B-18B.6-3 Flash Points of Flammable and Combustible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-19B.6-4 Maximum Allowable Size of Containers and Portable Tanksfor Flammable and Combustible Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-20B.6-5 Hazardous Material Classification ...................................... B-22B.9-1 Melting, Boiling, and Ignition Temperatures of Pure Metals in Solid Form . . . . . . . B-30B.10-1 Extinguishing Agents for Metal Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-31xxiv

Tables (continued)B.12-1 Construction Classifications of the Model Codes and NFPA 220 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-38B.14-1 Halogenated Hydrocarbons Commonly Used for Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-42B.15-1Dry Chemical Agents ................................................ B-55B.17-1Toxicity Data ....................................................... B-69B.18-1 Approximate Lethal Concentrations (ALCs) for PredominantHalon 1301 and Halon 1211 Decomposition Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-73B.18-2 Concentration of Hazardous Gases Attributable to Decomposition of Halon 1301in Industrial Baghouse Fire Situation .................................... B-74B.18-3 Halon 1301 Decomposition Produced by an n-Heptane Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-76B.18-4 Selected Properties of Halon 1301, 1211, and 2402 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-76B.19-1 Computer Fire Models ............................................... B-85C.1-1 Common Engineering Terms Related to Heat Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-2C.2-1 Incident Heat........................................................ C-3C.3-1 Target Fuel ......................................................... C-4C.4-1 Flame/Heat Growth................................................... C-5C.5-1 Common Engineering Terms Related to Fire Severity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-6C.5-2 Common Engineering Terms Related to Fire Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-7C.6-1 Fire-Resistance Test Standards for Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-12C.6-2 Fire-Resistance Test Standards for Aerosol and Liquid Paints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-13C.6-3 Fire-Resistance Test Standards for Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-14D.3-1 NRC Regulatory Guides Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-3D.4-1 NRC Administrative Letters Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-5D.4-2 NRC Bulletins Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-6D.4-3 NRC Circulars Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-7D.4-4 NRC Generic Letters Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-8D.4-5 NRC Information Notices Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-10D.4-6 NRC Regulatory Issue Summaries Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-16D.5-1 Commission (SECY) Papers Related to Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-18D.6-1 Preliminary Notifications Related to Fire Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D-21E.1-1 NFPA Codes and Standards ........................................... E-1H.1-1 Summary of Selected U.S. Commercial Nuclear Power Plant Fire Incidents . . . . . . . H-2I.1-1 Basic Units .......................................................... I-1I.1-2 Derived Units ........................................................ I-2I.1-3 SI Prefixes .......................................................... I-3I.1-4 Scientific Notations, Prefixes, and Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-4I.1-5 Selected Unit Conversions .............................................. I-5I.4-1 Values of Constants for General Use ..................................... I-17xxv

xxvi

LIST OF FIRE DYNAMICS TOOLSThe NRC’s Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (NRR) developed the fire dynamics toolss ®(FDT ) using commercially available software (Microsoft Excel 2000).FDTs02.1_Temperature_NV.xlsChapter and Related Calculation Method(s)Chapter 2. Predicting Hot Gas Layer Temperatureand Smoke Layer Height in a Room Firewith Natural VentilationMethod of McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad (MQH)• Compartment with Thermally Thick/Thin Boundaries02.2_Temperature_FV.xlsChapter 2. Predicting Hot Gas Layer Temperaturein a Room Fire with Forced VentilationMethod of Foote, Pagni, and Alvares (FPA)• Compartment with Thermally Thick/Thin BoundariesMethod of Deal and Beyler• Compartment with Thermally Thick/Thin Boundaries02.3_Temperature_CC.xls03_HRR_Flame_Height_Burning_Duration_Calculation.xls04_Flame_Height_Calculations.xlsChapter 2. Predicting Hot Gas Layer Temperature in a RoomFire with Door ClosedCompartment has Sufficient Leaksto Prevent Pressure Buildup; Leakage is IgnoredMethod of BeylerChapter 3. Estimating Burning Characteristicsof Liquid Pool Fire, Heat Release Rate,Burning Duration and Flame HeightChapter 4. Estimating Wall Fire Flame Height,Line Fire Flame Height Against the Wall,and Corner Fire Flame Heightxxvii

LIST OF FIRE DYNAMICS TOOLS (continued)FDTs05.1_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind_Free.xls05.2_Heat_Flux_Calculations_Wind.xls05.3_Thermal_Radiation_From_Hydrocarbon_Fireballs.xls06_Ignition_Time_Calculations.xlsChapter and Related Calculation MethodChapter 5. Estimating Radiant Heat Flux from Fireto a Target FuelWind-Free Condition• Point Source Radiation Model (Target at Ground Level)• Solid Flame Radiation Model (Target at Ground Level)• Solid Flame Radiation Model(Target Above Ground Level)Presence of Wind• Solid Flame Radiation Model (Target at Ground Level)• Solid Flame Radiation Model (Target Above Ground Level)Estimating Thermal Radiation from Hydrocarbon FireballsChapter 6. Estimating the Ignition Time of a Target FuelExposed to a Constant Radiative Heat Flux• Method of Estimating Piloted Ignition Timeof Solid Materials Under Radiant ExposuresMethod of (1) Mikkola and Wichman,(2) Quintiere and Harkleroad, and (3) Janssens• Method of Estimating Piloted Ignition Time of SolidMaterials Under Radiant ExposuresMethod of Toal, Silcock and Shields• Method of Estimating Piloted Ignition Time of SolidMaterials Under Radiant ExposuresMethod of Tewarson07_Cable_HRR_Calculations.xls08_Burning_Duration_Soild.xls09_Plume_Temperature_Calculations.xlsChapter 7. Estimating Full-Scale Heat Release Rateof a Cable Tray FireChapter 8. Estimating Burning Duration of SolidCombustiblesChapter 9. Estimating Centerline Temperatureof a Buoyant Fire Plumexxviii

LIST OF FIRE DYNAMICS TOOLS (continued)FDTs10_Detector_Activation_Time.xlsChapter and Related Calculation MethodEstimating Detector Response TimeChapter 10.Chapter 11.Chapter 12.Estimating Sprinkler Response TimeEstimating Smoke Detector Response TimeEstimating Heat Detector Response Time13_Compartment_ Flashover_Calculations.xlsChapter 13.Predicting Compartment Flashover• Compartment Post-Flashover Temperature:Method of Law• Minimum Heat Release RateRequired to Compartment Flashover:Method of (1) McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad(MQH); (2) Babrauskas; and (3) Thomas14_Compartment_Over_Pressure_Calculations.xlsChapter 14.Estimating Pressure RiseAttributable to a Fire in a Closed Compartment15_Explosion_Claculations.xls Chapter 15. Estimating the Pressure Increaseand Explosive Energy ReleaseAssociated with Explosions16_Battery_Room_Flammable_Gas_Conc.xlsChapter 16.Calculating the Rate of Hydrogen GasGeneration in Battery Rooms• Method of Estimating Hydrogen Gas GenerationRate in Battery Rooms• Method of Estimating Flammable Gas and VaporConcentration Buildup in Enclosed Spaces• Method of Estimating Flammable Gas and VaporConcentration Buildup Time in Enclosed Spacesxxix

LIST OF FIRE DYNAMICS TOOLS (continued)FDTsChapter and Related Calculation MethodChapter 17.Calculating the Fire Resistanceof Structural Steel Members17.1_FR_Beams_Columns_Substitution_Correlation.xls• Empirical Correlations17.2_FR_Beams_Columns_Quasi_Steady_State_Spray_Insulated.xls• Beam Substitution Correlation (Spray-Applied Materials)• Column Substitution Correlation (Spray-Applied Materials)• Heat Transfer Analysis using Numerical MethodsProtected Steel Beams and Columns (Spray-Applied)17.3_FR_Beams_Columns_Quasi_Steady_State_Board_Insulated.xls• Heat Transfer Analysis using Numerical MethodsProtected Steel Beams and Columns (Board Materials)17.4_FR_Beams_Columns_Quasi_Steady_State_Uninsulated.xls• Heat Transfer Analysis using Numerical MethodsUnprotected Steel Beams and Columns18_Visibility_Through_Smoke.xls Chapter 18. Estimating Visibility Through Smokexxx

DISCLAIMERThe calculation methods presented in this NUREG-series report and programmed in the FiresDynamics Tools (FDT ) spreadsheets include scientific calculations, as well as material physicaland thermal properties relevant to fire hazard analyses. Each spreadsheet on the CD-ROM hasbeen protected and secured to avoid calculation errors attributable to invalid entries in the cell(s).Although each calculation in each spreadsheet has been verified with the results of handcalculations, there is no absolute guarantee of the accuracy of these calculations.The first-time analyst should read the text in this report in its entirety before making an analysis.Most of the equations and correlations in the spreadsheets are simple mathematical expressionscommonly used in fire protection engineering. The mathematical expressions are not limited,however, and they sometimes give physically impossible values. Where we have encountered thisproblem, or where a value exceeds known limits, we have added red warning flags to thespreadsheets. For example a red flag appears when an equation increases the hot gas layertemperature as a result of a fire that goes well beyond those that are physically possible.Finally, with respect to any errors, omissions, or oversights that may still exist in the text, we areof one mind. Any shortcomings are the results of something the other one of us did or did not do. No oneelse can share them.The publication of this NUREG-series report completes the initial effort by the NRC’s Office ofNuclear Reactor Regulation to produce an Introduction to Fire Dynamics for NRC Inspectors.sFuture updates or corrections, or new FDT spreadsheets will be posted on the NRC’s publicWeb site in the Fire Protection section of the Reactor Operating Experience page athttp://www.nrc.gov/reactors/operating/ops-experience/fire-protection.html.sTo offer any questions, comments, or suggestions, or to report an error in the NUREG or FDT ,please send an email message to NXI@nrc.gov or MXS3@nrc.gov, or write to:Naeem IqbalOffice of Nuclear Reactor RegulationU.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionMail Stop O11-A11Washington, DC 20555-0001orMark Henry SalleyOffice of Nuclear Regulatory ResearchU.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionMail Stop T10-E50Washington, DC 20555-0001xxxi

xxxii

THE AUTHORSNaeem IqbalNaeem Iqbal is a Fire Protection Engineer in the NRC’s Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation(NRR). He holds a Master of Science degree in fire protection engineering from the University ofMaryland at College Park and a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering from NEDUniversity of Engineering and Technology in Pakistan. Mr. Iqbal is a member of the Society of FireProtection Engineers (SFPE); National Fire Protection Association (NFPA); American Society ofHeating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE); and International Associationof Fire Safety Science (IAFSS).Mr. Iqbal has been actively involved in fire hazard analysis, computer and mathematical firemodeling, smoke spread and fire growth, fire code review and compliance, and fire risk assessmentprojects for U.S. commercial nuclear power plants. He also reviews and prepares safety evaluationreports for power reactors. Mr. Iqbal is currently involved in preparing safety evaluation reports tosupport renewal of licenses for extended operation of the Nation’s operating nuclear power plantsunder Title 10, Part 54, of the Code of Federal Regulations (10 CFR Part 54). He has also beeninvolved in research and development projects in fire protection engineering, with a particular focuson fundamental and applied aspects of fire safety science, engineering, and technology.In addition, Mr. Iqbal has authored several publications and technical reports on flame spread,burning rate, fire growth on materials, and fire hazard analysis.Prior to joining the NRC, Mr. Iqbal worked for Hughes Associates, Inc., a leading engineeringconsulting firm specializing in engineering design, research and development, and advancedtechnology related to fire protection engineering. There, he was responsible for performingtechnical studies of a wide range of fire protection problems, as well as fire hazard and risk analysisof unusual and unique situations in commercial and industrial facilities and Department of Energy(DOE) nuclear processing facilities problems involving model building codes and fire codes that failto adequately address a particular situation.Mark Henry Salley, P.E.Mark Henry Salley currently serves as Fire Research Team Leader in the NRC’s Office of NuclearRegulatory Research (RES); however, he prepared much of this publication as a Fire ProtectionEngineer in NRR. Mr. Salley holds Master and Bachelor of Science degrees in fire protectionengineering, both from the University of Maryland at College Park. He is a registered professionalengineer in fire protection engineering and a member of the NFPA, SFPE, and American NuclearSociety (ANS).Prior to joining the NRC, Mr. Salley was the Corporate Fire Protection Engineer for the TennesseeValley Authority Nuclear (TVAN) program. There, he was responsible for the overall TVAN FireProtection and Fire Safe-Shutdown Program (under 10 CFR Appendix R). Mr. Salley worked onthe restart of Sequoyah Nuclear Plant, Units 1 and 2, as well as Browns Ferry Nuclear Plant,Units 2 and 3. He also played an integral role in the completion of construction, licensing, andstartup of Watts Bar Nuclear Plant, Unit 1.xxxiii

Mr. Salley has also served as a Principle Project Engineer for Parsons-Main Inc. in Charlotte, NorthCarolina. There, he supported the restart of the K-reactor at the DOE Savannah River Siteand the site-wide fire protection upgrade.Mr. Salley has an extensive background in fire protection engineering, including firefighting, designengineering, fire testing, and analytical analysis. He has also authored papers in the area of fireprotection engineering.xxxiv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Frederick Mowrer and the University of Maryland,Department of Fire Protection Engineering. Both authors have attended Dr. Mowrer’s AdvancedFire Modeling course (ENFP 625) as a part of their postgraduate studies, and the general conceptssused in creating and developing the FDT spreadsheets are similar to those taught by Dr. Mowrer.The authors also thank Mr. Sunil Weerakkody, the NRC Project Manager and Fire ProtectionSection Chief who spearheaded this project. We also gratefully acknowledge the contributions ofour colleagues and managers at NRC Headquarters who supported us throughout this project, aswell as the NRC’s regional managers and fire protection inspectors who offered valuablecontributions, support, and suggestions. The regional inspectors also contributed valuable advicesduring quarterly fire protection seminars to improve the quality of the FDT spreadsheets.We developed the final product with them in mind as the end users.The authors also extend our thanks to Tanya Mensah and James Downs, Fire Protection Engineerswith NRR/DSSA/SPLB, as well as the NRR Nuclear Safety Interns (Matthew Yoder, JasonDreisbach, Joel Rivera-Oritz, and Alexander Velazquez-Lozada) who assisted us in preparing thissreport and the FDT spreadsheets. We deeply appreciate their invaluable assistance. We alsogratefully acknowledge George Hausman, a Reactor Inspector in Region III, for assisting in makingsthe FDT spreadsheets more user-friendly. We also extend special thanks to Ms. Paula Garrity,a Technical Editor with the Program Management, Policy Development and Analysis Staff of theNRC’s Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research (RES), for providing editorial support, navigating usthrough the formal requirements, and assisting us in setting the style and appearance of the text.We are also indebted to Mr. Lionel Watkins and Ms. Monique King, two talented Visual InformationSpecialists in the Information and Records Services Division, Publishing and Distribution ServicesBranch, of the NRC’s Office of Chief Information Officer (OCIO), who designed the cover and manyof the graphics for this report. In addition, we greatly appreciate the support of Gary Lauffer(Chief of the Publishing Services Branch), Guy Beltz, (the agency’s Printing Specialist), andLinda Stevenson (the agency’s publications specialist), whose invaluable support and expertisewere critical to ensuring the quality of the published manuscript.Our sincere thanks also go to Mr. Gerald Haynes, a Fire Protection Engineer, with the Bureau ofAlcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF&E) in Washington, DC, who identified theconcept of spreadsheets used in the ATF&E fire and arson investigation program. The ATF&E’sspreadsheets served as a conceptual model for the NRC’s effort. Mr. Haynes, Mr. Stephen Hill,and numerous Certified Fire Inspectors (CFIs) at the ATF&E also provided valuable comments onthe development of the NRC’s spreadsheets.Finally, the authors thank the NRC inspectors and external stakeholders who took the timeto provide comments, suggestions, and words of encouragement on the first draft of this documentwhen it was published in the Federal Register (Vol. 68, No. 140, Page 43400). The following pagesacknowledge these contributors.Naeem IqbalMark Henry Salleyxxxv

Internal StakeholdersNRC Regional InspectorsRegion I:Region II:Richard BarkleyCharles CastoRam BhatiaCharles OgleChristopher Cahill Charles PayneLeonard CheungReinaldo RodriguezEugene CobeyWalter RogersAniello DellaGreca Robert SchinHarold Eichenholz Caswell SmithRoy FuhrmeisterNecota StaplesJames LinvilleMcKenzie ThomasGlenn MeyerGerald WisemanJohn RoggeLarry SchollJames TrappRichard UrbanTracy WalkerDavid WerkheiserKeith YoungRegion III:Sonia BurgessDoris ChyuRobert DaleyZelig FalevitsRonald GardnerJohn GrobeGeorge HausmanDavid HillsBenny JoseRonald LangstaffJulio LaraKenneth O’BrienMichael ParkerCynthia PedersonDarrell SchrumRegion IV:Lawrence EllershawPaula GoldbergClaude JohnsonCharles MarschallJohn MateychickTimothy McConnellWilliam McNeillRaymond MullikinRebecca NeaseNeil O’KeefeCharles PaulkTroy PruettLinda SmithJoseph TaylorJohn WhittemoreNRC HeadquartersSPLBFire Protection:Richard DipertDaniel FrumkinRaymond GallucciAlexander KleinPaul LainPhillip QuallsRobert RadlinskiNRR:Suzanne BlackJohn HannonMichael JohnsonPeter KoltayGeorge MorrisRobert PerchMark ReinhartSee-Meng WongRES:Monideep DeyJ.S. HyslopWilliam RaughleyNathan SiuACRS:Dana PowersStephen RosenJohn SieberGraham WallisExternal Stakeholders (Significant Public Comments)Rashid Abbas (TVA)Vytenis (Vyto) Babrauskas, PhD(Fire Science and Technology Inc.)Nick Barilo (Bechtel Hanford, Inc.)Thomas F. Barry, P.E. (Fireriskforum)John Bryan, EdD, Professor Emeritus(Fire Protection Eng., University of MD)Brad Dolan (Robinson NPP PSA Engineer)Tom Fernandez (DE Design, A&E)Wayne D. Holmes, P.E., FSFPE(HSB Professional Loss Control)Morgan J. Hurley, P.E. (SFPE)James R. Hutton, PE, CSP(National Nuclear Security Administration)David J. Icove, PhD, PE(U.S. Tennessee Valley Authority Police)Peter Jackman (International Fire Consultants, Ltd.)Moonhak Jee(KEPRI in Korea)Francisco Joglar (SAIC)Alex Marion (Nuclear Energy Institute)Leong Poon(Warrington Fire Research in Australia)Deggary N. Priest (Omega Point Laboratories)Robert Toth(International Association of Arson Investigators)Woody Walker (Arkansas Nuclear One)Ulf Wickström, SP (Sweden)xxxvi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYThe U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (NRR),Division of Systems Safety and Analysis (DSSA), Plant Systems Branch (SPLB), Fire ProtectionEngineering and Special Projects Section, has developed quantitative methods, known ass“Fire Dynamics Tools” (FDT ), to assist regional fire protection inspectors in performing fire hazardanalysis (FHA). These methods have been implemented in spreadsheets and taught at the NRC’squarterly regional inspector workshops conducted in 2001–2003. The goal of the training is toassist inspectors in calculating the quantitative aspects of a postulated fire and its effects on safesnuclear power plant (NPP) operation. FDT were developed using state-of-the-art fire dynamics®equations and correlations that were preprogramed and locked into Microsoft Excel spreadsheets.sThese FDT will enable the inspector to perform quick, easy, first-order calculations for the potentialsfire scenarios using today’s state-of-the-art principles of fire dynamics. Each FDT spreadsheetalso contains a list of the physical and thermal properties of the materials commonly encounteredin NPPs.sThe FDT are intended to assist fire protection inspectors in performing risk-informed evaluationsof credible fires that may cause critical damage to essential safe-shutdown equipment, as required*by the new reactor oversight process (ROP) defined in the NRC’s inspection manual . In the newROP, the NRC is moving toward a more risk-informed, objective, predictable, understandable, andfocused regulatory process. Key features of the new program are a risk-informed regulatory**framework, risk-informed inspections, a significance determination process (SDP) to evaluateinspection findings, performance indicators, a streamlined assessment process, and more clearlydefined actions that the NRC will take for plants based on their performance.sThis NUREG-series report addresses the technical bases for FDT , which were derived from theprinciples developed primarily in the Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE) Handbook of FireProtection Engineering, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Fire Protection Handbook, andother fire science literature. The subject matter of this report covers many aspects of fire dynamicsand contains descriptions of the most important fire processes. A significant number of examples,reference tables, illustrations, and conceptual drawings are presented in this report to expandthe inspector’s appreciation in visualizing and retaining the material and understanding calculationmethods.sThe content of the FDT encompasses fire as a physical phenomenon. As such, the inspectorneeds a working knowledge of algebra to effectively use the formulae presented in this report andsthe FDT . Acquired technical knowledge or course background in the sciences will also prove helpful.The information contained in this report is similar to, but includes less theory and detail than,an undergraduate-level university curriculum for fire protection engineering students.***NRC Inspection Manual, Chapter 0609F, Appendix F, “Determining Potential Risk Significanceof Fire Protection and Post-Fire Safe Shutdown Inspection Findings,” February 27, 2001.NRC Inspection Manual, Chapter 0609F, Appendix F, Section F.5, “Fire Protection RiskSignificance Screening Methodology—Phase 2, Step 4: Integrated Assessment of DID Findings(Excluding SSD) and Fire Ignition Frequency,” February 27, 2001.xxxvii

The goal of this report is to develop a common body of knowledge of fire protection and fire scienceto enable the inspector to acquire the understanding, skills, and abilities necessary to effectivelyapply principles of fire dynamics to analyze the potential effects of a fire in a commercial NPP.sThe FDT will advance the FHA process from an approach that is primarily qualitative to one thatsis more quantitative. The development of this report, the FDT , and the quarterly inspectorworkshops conducted in 2001–2003 is the NRC’s first step in achieving that goal.Toward that end, on November 22 and 23, 2004, the NRC conducted a 2-day public meeting at theagency’s headquarters in Rockville, Maryland, with the sole purpose of sharing an “advanced copy”of NUREG-1805 with all interested stakeholders. The meeting was well-received, and theparticipants identified numerous suggestions to further refine both the advanced copy and thespreadsheets. We thank those stakeholders for their involvement and have made every attemptto include their valued comments in preparing the final files for the publication of this report.Fire is a complex subject and transfer of its concepts to useful pursuits is a challenge. We hopesthat this report and the FDT can make a difference in the NRC’s fire protection inspection program,specifically risk-informed fire protection initiatives such as the SDP and risk-informed inspectionof circuits.xxxviii

HOW TO USE THIS NUREG AND THE FDT SsThis NUREG-series report and the related Fire Dynamics Tools (FDT ) provide first-orderquantitative methods (i.e., traditional approaches, correlations, computations, closed formapproximations or exact solutions, and hazard models) to assess the potential fire hazarddevelopment in commercial nuclear power plants (NPPs). This report is divided into chapterssthat correspond to FDT . First-time users should read this report in its entirety before performingsan analysis. Once the basic principles are understood, the FDT can be used to perform firedynamics calculations. As explained in this report, appropriate care must be exercised to applysthe FDT within the limits of their validity.The CD-ROM that accompanies this report provides separate folders containing the FDT sspreadsheets. This text exclusively uses the spreadsheets in the “English Units” folder. The folderslabeled “SI Units” contains the same FDT spreadsheets but requires all user inputs to bein SI units.The chapters and appendices of this report provide basic text on fire protection engineering,to provide inspectors with an overview of the basic characteristics and behavior of fire, fire hazardsof materials and buildings, and an overview of the fundamental methods of fire protection.Appendix F to this report contains a glossary of terms used in the field of fire protection engineering.Appendix I, “Mathematics Review and System of Units,” is included to refresh the inspector’sunderstanding of mathematical functions, dimensional consistency in equations, and variables usedsin the FDT . Each chapter contains practice problems for the inspector to apply the principlesslearned with the FDT program. Appendix J provides additional problems for added practice.Each chapter in this report has one or more spreadsheet(s) based on the method discussed in thechapter. Each spreadsheet is designed to make the calculation method understandable, and allof them are in the same format. The input parameter cells in each spreadsheet are identifiedin yellow. The user needs to enter data by typing (on the keyboard) and making selections throughthe use of pull-down menus and dialog boxes. The spreadsheets also bundle many materialproperties to enable the user to select a single input from a table, instead of entering all of theassociated parameters. The user simply needs to select the material from the provided list(pull-down menu), and the spreadsheet will automatically place the associated property data in thecorresponding green input cells. For example, an inspector can simply click on “concrete” in theproperty table, and the correct parameters will appear in the input parameter cells. This will alsoeliminate errors in manually entering the properties in the input parameter cells. Where materialproperties are not available in the spreadsheet table, the user will have to enter the values manuallywithout selecting any material from the material properties data table.The spreadsheets explicitly show the calculation methods — in detail and step-by-step — so thatthe inspector can follow the application of the FHA methods. The example problems at the endof each chapter, and practice problems in Appendix J, have been designed to be solved mainlysswith the FDT ; however, in some cases, simple calculations are required before using the FDT .The results of the calculations are designated by the word “ANSWER” in the spreadsheets.xxxix

sThe FDT spreadsheets are programmed with mathematical equations that can produce “numerical”accuracy to any number of decimal places. For consistency, the authors generally chosetwo decimal places; however, the user should focus on the magnitude of the results and not attemptto solve problems by placing critical emphasis on decimal values. For example if a componentis “damaged” at 700°F (371.11°C) and the calculated results indicate 699.99°F (371.10°C), only aninexperienced user would argue that damage is not probable. In many cases, a resultant close to690°F (365.55°C) is close enough to suggest damage.Fire dynamics is a constantly evolving science and rarely dictates a single answer as to how a fire burns.The user is encouraged to perform bounding calculations as a part of the FHA. This will form awindow of possible, credible solutions. An example of this concept would be to vary ventilationrates (door open vs. door closed, mechanical ventilation system on vs. off, different vent locations,etc.).A final word of caution is in order for users of this report and the accompanying spreadsheets. AnFHA can often be a complex series of calculations and evaluations that are necessary to gain acomprehensive understanding of the fire risk and its potential effects on NPP safety. This reportprovides one important element of that process, namely assisting the user in understanding firedynamics; however, this report was never intended to be the “end-all” text for a completeunderstanding of fire risk. Experience, engineering judgment, peer review, and other sources ofinformation will be necessary for a complete understanding of the risk. For example, this reportdoes not attempt to answer two important questions: “How accurate are the equations in this text?“Are they ±10%, or do they always over-predict the results?At the time of this writing, the NRC’s Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research, in cooperation withthe Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), is subjecting this report to “verification and validation”(V&V) against another fire dynamics method and three fire models to answer those very questions.Their final product should help reduce calculation uncertainties and provide additional insights tothe methods and models. Another program that has been recommended is the development of afire modeling user’s guide. Such a guide would compile in a usable format the lessons learned fromthe V&V exercise, as well as field experience from the use of this report, the accompanyingspreadsheets, and other methods. As such, a user’s guide would help to further improve the overallquality of fire risk assessments.xl

ABBREVIATIONSABSACRSADAMSADSAFFFAFTAFWAGAAHJAISIALALCANSANSIAPIASCEASCOSASETASHRAEASMEASMETASTMATATF&EAWGBFCBFNPBFRLBLBLEVEBOCABREAK1BSBTPBTUBWRCCWCFASTCFDCFICFOCFRCHFAcrylonitrile Butadiene StyreneAdvisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards (NRC)Agencywide Documents Access and Management System (NRC)Automatic Depressurization SystemAqueous Film Forming FoamAdiabatic Flame TemperatureAuxiliary FeedwaterAmerican Gas AssociationAuthority Having JurisdictionAmerican Iron and Steel InstituteAdministrative LetterApproximate Lethal ConcentrationAmerican Nuclear SocietyAmerican National Standards InstituteAmerican Petroleum InstituteAmerican Society of Civil EngineersAnalysis of Smoke Control SystemsAvailable Safe Egress TimeAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning EngineersAmerican Society of Mechanical EngineersAtria Smoke Management Engineering ToolsAmerican Society for Testing and MaterialsAuxiliary TransformerAlcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and ExplosivesAmerican Wire GaugeBromochlorodifluoro-methaneBrowns Ferry Nuclear Power PlantBuilding and Fire Research LaboratoryBulletinBoiling Liquid, Expanding Vapor ExplosionBuilding Officials & Code Administration InternationalBerkeley Algorithm for Breaking Window Glass in a Compartment FireBritish StandardBranch Technical PositionBritish Thermal UnitBoiling-Water ReactorComponent Cooling WaterConsolidate Model of Fire Growth and Smoke TransportComputational Fluid DynamicsCertified Fire InspectorChief Financial Officer (NRC)Code of Federal RegulationsCritical Heat Fluxxli

CIBConseil Internationale du BatimentCIBSI Chartered Institution of Building Services EngineersCIOChief Information Officer (NRC)CL.S.PE Chlorosulfonated PolyethyleneCOCarbon MonoxideCO2Carbon DioxideCPConstruction PermitCPCV Chlorinated PolyvinylchlorideCPEChlorinated PolyethyleneCPSC Consumer Product Safety CommissionCRCircular or Neoprene or Chloroprene RubberCSNI Committee on the Safety of Nuclear InstallationsCSP®Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene Rubber (Kel-F )CSR Cable Spreading RoomCTEF ChlorotrifluoroethyleneDDTDETACT-QSDETACT-T2DIDDOEDOTDSSAECCSEDGEDOELVACEMI/RFIEPAEPREPRIEQESFRETFEEVAFAAFDIFDMFDSsFDTFEMFEMAFEPDeflagration to Detonation TransitionDetector Actuation Quasi-SteadyDetector Actuation Time SquareDefense-in-DepthU.S. Department of EnergyU.S. Department of TransportationDivision of Systems Safety and Analysis (NRC)Emergency Core Cooling SystemEmergency Diesel GeneratorExecutive Director for Operations (NRC)Elevator EvacuationElectromagnetic or Radio-Frequency InterfaceEnvironmental Protection AgencyEthylene-Propylene RubberElectrical Power Research InstituteEquipment QualificationEarly Suppression Fast ResponseEthylenetetrafluoroethylene (Tefzel®)Ethylvinyl AcetateFederal Aviation AdministrationFire Detection InstituteFire Demand ModelFire Dynamics SimulatorFire Dynamics ToolsFinite Element MethodFederal Emergency Management AgencyFluorinated Polyethylene Propylene (Teflon®)xlii

FFFPFHAFIGARO IIFIPECFIRES-T3FIVEFMRCFPAFPEFPETOOLFPPFPSFRFRPFRXPEFSSDFTAFTMSGDCGLGSAGSIH2OHBrHCIHCNHEPAHFHPCIHRRHTGRHVACIAFSSIBCICBOICSICSDTSIEIECIEEEININEELIPEEEISOFilm-Forming Fluoroprotein FoamFire Hazard AnalysisFire and Gas Spread in Room (model)Fire Performance of Electrical CablesFire Response of Structures-Thermal Three (model)Fire Induced Vulnerability EvaluationFactory Mutual Research CorporationFoote, Pagni, and AlvaresFire Protection Engineer(ing)Fire Protection Engineering ToolFire Protection ProgramFire Protection SystemFire-RetardantFiberglass Reinforced Polyester (Plastic)Fire-Retardant Crosslinked PolyethylenePost-Fire Safe-ShutdownFederal Transit AuthorizationFederal Test Method StandardGeneral Design CriteriaGeneric LetterGeneral Service AdministrationGeneric Safety IssueWaterHydrogen BromideHydrogen ChlorideHydrogen CyanideHigh-Efficiency Particulate Air FilterHydrogen FluorideHigh Pressure Cooling InjectionHeat Release RateHigh-Temperature Gas-Cooled ReactorHeating, Ventilation, and Air ConditioningInternational Association of Fire Safety ScienceInternational Building CodeInternational Conference of Building OfficialsIntegrated Control SystemInternational Committee for the Study and Development of Tubular StructuresInitiative EventsInternational Electrotechnical CommissionInstitute of Electrical and Electronic EngineersInformation NoticeIdaho National Engineering and Environmental LaboratoryIndividual Plant Examination of External EventsInternational Organization for Standardizationxliii

LAVENTLCLCLLDLDLLELLERLFLLIFTLLNLLNGLOCLOCALPGLWRMCCMCRMESGMOVMQHNBCNBRNBSNEANEINEMANFCNFPANIOSHNISTNO2NOUNNPPNRCNRRNUREGOCIOOLORNLOSHAOSULink Actuation VentsLethal ConcentrationLethal Concentration LowLethal DoseLethal Dose LowLower Explosive LimitLicensee Event ReportLower Flammability LimitLateral Ignition and Flame Spread (ASTM E 1321 Standard Test Method)Lawrence Livermore National LaboratoryLiquified Natural GasLimiting Oxidant ConcentrationLoss-of-Coolant AccidentLiquid Propane GasLight-Water ReactorMotor Control CenterMain Control RoomMaximum Experimental Safe GapMotor-Operated ValveMcCaffrey, Quintiere, and HarkleroadNational Building CodeNitrileNational Bureau of StandardsNuclear Energy AgencyNuclear Energy InstituteNational Electrical Manufacturers AssociationNational Fire CodeNational Fire Protection AssociationNational Institute of Occupational Safety ad HealthNational Institute of Standards and TechnologyNitrogen DioxideNotification of Unusual EventNuclear Power PlantU.S. Nuclear Regulatory CommissionOffice of Nuclear Reactor Regulation (NRC)NUclear REGulatory GuideOffice of Chief Information Officer (NRC)Operating LicenseOak Ridge National LaboratoryOccupational Safety and Health AdministrationOhio State Universityxliv

PASSPCPDAPEPEFPESPFAPMMAPPPPEPRAPSPTEFPUPVCPVFRCPRESRGRHRRISRMVROPRTECSRTIRWFDS/GSBCSBCCISBDGSBRSCBASDPSERSFPESISNLSOLASSONGSSPLBSRPSSCPersonal Alert Safety SystemPolycarbonatePrimary Disconnect AssemblyPolyethylenePolyethylene FluoridePolyethersulphonePerfluoroalkoxy Branched PolymersPolymethylmethacrylatePolypropylenePolytetrafluoroethyleneProbabilistic Risk AssessmentPolystyrenePolytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®)PolyurethanePolyvinylchloridePolyvinylfluorideReactor Coolant PumpOffice of Nuclear Regulatory Research (NRC)Regulatory GuideResidual Heat RemovalRegulatory Issue SummaryRespiratory Minute VolumeReactor Oversight ProcessRegistry of the Toxic Effects of Chemical SubstanceResponse Time IndexRed Wing Fire DepartmentSteam GeneratorStandard Building CodeSouthern Building Code Congress InternationalStandby Diesel GeneratorStyrene Butadiene RubberSelf-Contained Breathing ApparatusSignificance Determination ProcessSignificant Event ReportSociety of Fire Protection EngineersSystem InternationalSandia National LaboratoriesSafety of Lives at SeaSan Onofre Nuclear Generating StationPlant Systems Branch (NRC)Standard Review Plan (NUREG-0800)Structure, System, and/or Componentxlv

TASEFTCLTDLTFETLCTLVTNTTRPTSCTTCTVATVANUBCUELUFCUFLULUPSUSFAUVCEV&VVRLAW/DXLPEXLPOTemperature Analysis of Structure Exposed to FireToxic Concentration LowToxic Dose LowTetrafluoroethylene (Teflon®)Toxic Concentration LowThreshold Limit ValueTrinitrotolueneThermal Response ParameterTechnical Support CenterTime-Temperature CurveTennessee Valley AuthorityTennessee Valley Authority Nuclear ProgramUniform Building CodeUpper Explosive LimitUniform Fire CodeUpper Flammability LimitUnderwriters LaboratoriesUninterruptible Power SupplyUnited States Fire AdministrationUnconfined Vapor Cloud Explosionverification and validationValve-Regulated Lead AcidWeight-to-Heated Perimeter RatioCrosslinked PolyethyleneCrosslinked Polyolefinxlvi

NOMENCLATUREAAAAAAAcefHsTvbCccicpcscvCHFDDDSCEEFFFTPFcgGhhhchhighkhvHHHgHfHHHefff(wall)f(wall,line)f(corner)Compartment floor areaSurface of elementHorizontal burning area of fuelAmpere hoursCross sectional areaArea of compartment enclosing surfaces (excluding vent areas)Area of ventilation openingsFlame spread parameterGas concentration by volumeThermal capacitySpecific heat of insulationSpecific heatSpecific heat of steelSpecific heat at constant volumeCritical heat flux for ignitionDiameterHeated parameterScaled distanceEmissive powerExplosive energy releasedConfiguration or shape factorFire resistance timeFlux time productFloat Current per 100 AHAcceleration of gravityGas discharge rateThickness of insulationHeat flux time product indexCompartment heightEffective heat transfer coefficientHeat transfer coefficient at ignitionConvective heat transfer coefficientHeight of ventilation openingThermal capacity of steel section at ambientHeightHydrogen gas generationFlame heightWall flame heightLine fire flame heightCorner fire flame heightxlvii

kkikcKKlcLLFLmmfmfmpThermal conductivityThermal conductivity of insulationThermal inertiaMixing efficiency factorProportionality constantCompartment lengthLengthLower flammability limitMassMass of fuel vaporMass of fuel burnedMass concentration of particulateMass flow rateMass entrainment rateMass flow rate of fuelMass flow rate out of enclosurePlume mass flow rateMpNNPMass loss rate per unit areaMass of particulates producedNumber of cells (batteries)Number of theoretical air changesPressureHeat fluxCritical heat fluxExternal heat fluxMinimum heat flux required for ignitionQQtotalRadiative heat fluxVolume of airTotal energy releaseHeat release rate or energy release rateConvective energy release rateEnergy release rate to cause flashoverFull-scale energy release rateBench-scale energy release ratexlviii

RRRTISttbtDtigtptrtttTTaTfTTgTsTjetTTactivationFO(max)p(centerline)activationRadiusRadial distanceFire ResistanceResponse time indexVisibilityTimeBurning durationDetection timeIgnition timeThermal penetration timeDetector response timeSmoke transit timeSprinkler activation timeTemperatureAmbient temperatureFire temperaturePost-flashover compartment temperatureGas temperatureSteel temperatureCeiling jet temperaturePlume centerline temperatureActivation temperatureujetCeiling jet velocityuwWind velocityuoGas velocityu* Nondimensional wind velocityVVdefwwcWWypzzoZpHHtTTTNTcc,effgigVolumeVolume of gas for deflagrationFuel exposed widthCompartment widthWeight of steel column per linear footWeight of TNTParticulate yieldHeight of smoke layer interface above floorHypothetical virtual origin of fire sourceFireball flame heightHeat of CombustionEffective heat of combustionTime stepGas temperature above ambientIgnition temperature above ambientHeat transfer coefficient for steelxlix

accFgiomYield (fraction of available energy participating in blast wave generation)Specific extinction coefficientFraction of total energy radiatedThicknessFlame emissivityVentilation factorFlame title or angle of deflectionDensityDensity of Ambient AirDensity of combustion productsDensity of concreteDensity of fuel vaporDensity of gasDensity of insulationStafan-Boltzmann constantDetector time constantRegression rateSubscriptsabsccccDdefeeeffeffff(corner)f(wall)f(wall,line)FOfsgHIigjetmminoAmbientBench-scaleCompartmentCombustionConcreteCurrentDetectionDeflagrationConvectiveExternalEffectiveEntrainmentFireFlameFuelCorner flameWall flameLine fire flameFlashoverFull-scaleGasHoursInsulationIgnitionCeiling jetExtinctionMinimumOutl

pppprrSCsTtotaltTNTvvwSpecificParticulatePlumePenetrationRadiativeResponseScaleSteelTotalTotalTransientTrinitrotolueneVentVolumeWindSuperscripts() Per unit time()” Per unit area()” Per unit are, per unit time* Nondimensionalli