The Nemesis of Social Studies in Botswana Primary schools

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012© 2012 Ozean PublicationTHE NEMESIS OF SOCIAL STUDIES IN BOTSWANA PRIMARY SCHOOLSMAVIS B. MHLAULIDepartment of Primary Education, University of BotswanaE-mail address for correspondence: mhlaulim@mopipi.ub.bw_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The major purpose of this study was to explore the Social Studies teachers‟ perceptions of the problemsand challenges teachers face in the teaching of Social Studies in primary schools in Botswana. I used critical theoryto understand the teachers perceived problems and challenges in the teaching of social studies. The study wasqualitative and anchored within the naturalistic inquiry paradigm. Qualitative methods were used to collect data.Data were analyzed using grounded theory and employed the constant comparative technique. The findings of thestudy revealed that social studies teachers are faced with enormous challenges in their effort to develop idealcitizens. I argue that these challenges that are embedded within the structural inequalities regarding social studies area deliberate act on the part of the government to depoliticize social studies and develop a certain kind of citizenryideal to the political climate of the country. Such efforts by the government to ignore the fact that social studies is apolitical subject have in fact turned to be its nemesis.Keywords: Botswana, Social Studies, Nemesis, Citizenship Education, Challenges, Critical theory, Primary schools.__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThere is consensus in the Social Studies literature that the major goal of social studies is citizenship education(Ajiboye, 2009; Adler & Sim, 2008; Ross, 2006; Hahn, 2001). In some countries social studies and citizenshipeducation are regarded as synonymous. Social Studies has been identified as the subject within the schoolcurriculum that is used as a vehicle for equipping students with the requisite knowledge, skills and values, attitudesand dispositions relevant for producing functional and effective citizens (Mhlauli, 2010). In Botswana, SocialStudies is one of the core curriculum subjects that is offered across the different levels of education from primary tojunior secondary levels of education. The introduction of social studies in the school curriculum in Botswana was aresult of the 1968 Mombasa Conference where African countries agreed to set up the African Social StudiesProgram (ASSP) now referred to as the African Social Studies and Environmental Studies Programme (ASSESP)(Adeyemi, 2008).In Botswana, social studies emerged for the first time as a school subject in 1969 as part of the standard one and twocurriculum (Mautle, 2000). It was not until 1982 that the subject was introduced into the whole primary schoolcurriculum and eventually became part of the Junior secondary schools curriculum in 1986 (Ministry of Education,2005). The rationale for introducing social studies in primary and secondary schools in Botswana was to focus onissues and problems relevant to the learners „experiences (Mautle, 2000). It was discovered that history and131

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012geography were no longer relevant to the needs of the children hence social studies was seen to be an ideal subjectthat will be able to address the children‟s realities in a contemporary world that is constantly changing. The aims ofthe social studies curriculum are based on “the philosophical view that social studies must play a leading role indeveloping the individual learner into a functional citizen of Botswana” (Mautle, 2000). However, Social Studieswas later introduced in other higher levels of education.Since its introduction in the primary school curriculum in Botswana in 1969, there have been doubts as to whetherthe subject is achieving its major goal of developing good citizens. These doubts emanated from recent trends andevidence from studies that suggest that products of schools are exhibiting behaviors that are not in tandem with goodcitizenship as encapsulated in the social studies curriculum (Ajiboye, 2009; Preece & Mosweunyane, 2004). Like inmany developing countries, the discourse on citizenship education through social studies in Botswana is still at itsinfancy stages and is to be implemented by teachers, yet very little is known about what social studies teachers‟think and say and their perceptions of problems they face in teaching Social Studies and or citizenship educationwithin the Botswana context. It is therefore, critical that social studies teachers understand its goals and intent (Sim,2008) and their voices are captured in order to understand their challenges. The major research question focused on“What are the teachers‟ perceptions on the problems or challenges facing social studies in primary schools inBotswana? In asking this question the study sought to hear from the teachers what challenges they are faced with inthe development of citizens through social studies teaching. The identification of challenges faced by the socialstudies teachers‟ may pave way for instructional recommendations that may impact on the delivery of the subject.RESEARCH QUESTIONSThe following broad questions guided the study:1. What are the Social Studies teachers‟ perceptions on the problems and challenges in the teaching of socialstudies?2. What are the socio-cultural challenges experienced in the teaching of social studies?3. If there are any challenges, how can they be addressed?THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKIn this article I use critical theory to understand the nature of the power relations embedded in educationalinstitutions and schooling in particular in order to understand the Social Studies teachers‟ problems and challengesin their teaching of the subject It is noteworthy to understand that, “critical theorist begin with the premise that menand women are essentially unfree and inhabit a world rife with contradictions and asymmetries of power andprivilege” (Mclaren, 2003, p. 69). Critical educators advocate for theories that are dialectical since they recognizethe problems of society as more than isolated events of individual deficiencies within a social structure. Thedialectical nature of critical theory enables the researcher to view the school not only as a socialization agent ofinstruction but also as a site for both domination and liberation (Mclaren, 2003). The dialectical nature of schoolingfurther opposes the dominant view of mainstream academic theory which conceives of schooling as mainlyproviding students with the skills and attitudes necessary for developing a certain kind of citizenry ideal to thesociety.I employ a critical lens to interrogate the social studies teachers‟ perceptions of the problems and challengesexperienced in the teaching of social studies and to show how mainstream academic knowledge continues to underprivilege other forms of knowledge. Mainstream academic knowledge continues to dichotomize knowledge throughseeing other subjects such as mathematics, English and science as more superior than other subjects such as socialstudies. This binary representation of the world was instituted during the colonial era and continues to manifest itself132

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012in more subtle ways (Said, 1978), what Tickly (2006) would refer to as the new imperialism. Critical educatorsargue that any worthwhile theory of schooling must be fundamentally rooted to the struggle for a better life for allthrough the construction of a society based a non exploitative relations and social justice; as well as being cognizantof the influences of class, gender, ethnicity and race to every problem (Mclaren, 2003). Therefore, critical theorybecomes an invaluable tool for the analysis of the teachers‟ perceptions of the problems and challenges they face inthe teaching of social studies. I use critical theory in view of the fact that the teachers challenges are rooted instructural inequalities and socialization processes which are often seen as universalistic without any consideration ofthose they affect and that in practice, Social Studies within the Botswana context remains a marginalized curriculumsubject.LITERATURE REVIEWSocial Studies and Citizenship Education in AfricaIn this review, I examine how Social Studies has been used to develop citizenship among African nations sinceindependence. I focus on two ways in which Social Studies has been used to develop citizenship among Africannations mainly: Africanization of the social studies curriculum and Promotion of Inquiry-based learning. SocialStudies has been used as a tool for national development. Its purposes, content and rationales differ from onecountry to another (Kissock, 1981). Among African nations it has been used to “improve the image of people in thesociety after a colonial heritage (Sierra Leone); to learn ways of improving the economy after military rule (Ghana);to transform the political culture (Ethiopia); and to inculcate concepts of nationalism, unity, and interdependenceamong a citizenry of new nations with diverse populations (Nigeria) (Kissock, 1981, p. 1). The major question hereis how does it do all this? The answer lies in the ability of Social Studies to prepare a well informed citizenry thathave the requisite knowledge, skills and values (Adeyemi, 2000). One way in which Social studies was used todevelop citizens has been through what Merryfield & Tlou (1995) refer to as the Africanization of the curriculum.Africanization of the Social Studies CurriculumSocial studies provide knowledge, skills, competencies, attitudes and values which enable the youth to be goodcitizens (Merryfield, 1995). The development of a good citizen in Africa was done through the Africanization ofthe social studies curriculum (Merryfield & Tlou, 1995). Merryfield & Tlou further define Africanization in termsof an African-centered education that refers to “instruction that is developed from and centered on African peoples‟experiences, thought, and environments (p. 2). This view is based on the premise that the curriculum has to bechanged to reflect the views of the Africans as opposed to those of the colonizers. This Africanization of the socialstudies was done in different aspects of the curriculum which necessitated that the objectives, content, methods andresources or teaching materials be redirected to reflect the content and knowledge, values and attitudes as well as theskills of the indigenous people it is supposed to serve. This called for reforms in the social studies curriculum moreespecially the syllabus to be Africanized.Merryfield & Tlou (1995) in their study where they examined the primary social studies curriculum in Malawi,Botswana, Kenya, Nigeria and Zimbabwe found that most of these countries had revised their social studiescurriculum to reflect their culture, language, literature and traditions. For example in Botswana the move towardsAfrocentric social studies included among others developing a strong moral code of behavior that is compatible withthe ethics and traditions of Botswana. In Kenya the social studies syllabus emphasized Kenya‟s economicdevelopment, cultural heritage, and National political unity as well as the knowledge and appreciation of their localcommunities and the nation as a whole. In Malawi more emphasis was put on teaching about Malawi and itsneighbors as opposed to non-African content. In Nigeria, the Africanization of the social studies was noticed in thatit concentrated on the local community, family, culture, health and economic well-being.In Zimbabwe, the syllabus reflected a new ideology that was oriented towards a socialist model. The primarycurriculum focused on the study of Zimbabwe as a nation, its history and culture. Most importantly there was a call133

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012for Zimbabweans to rewrite history to reflect their experiences and perspectives of the pre-colonial, colonial andpostcolonial eras in Zimbabwe (Merryfield & Tlou, 1995). This reform in the social studies curriculum to embracethe African environments and cultures was pivotal in the development of good citizens as it equipped them with theknowledge, values, attitudes and skills that allowed them to be conversant with their culture, heritage and societalsystems and such knowledge is relevant for nation building (Adeyemi & Asimeng-Boahene, 1999).It is further argued that part of the Africanization is to build national identity and unity. Tlou & Kabwila (2000)contend that a nation can only grow if its people have positive values towards their government, natural resources,social services, their society and themselves as a people. In Malawi this was exhibited through a curriculum thatpromotes national heritage through knowledge and respect of national symbols. The curriculum further instillspositive values towards government by advocating for participatory democracy, care of the environment, effectivecitizenship and maintenance of high social and moral standards. Students are also trained in decision making,problem solving and critical thinking (Tlou & Kabwila, 2000).Social studies also inculcate the spirit of identity and togetherness through rituals such as national anthems, flags,and other ceremonies that provides a sense of belonging either to the community or nation (Merryfield & Tlou,1995). In Zambia students and teachers are expected to sing the National Anthem and to respect the National flag assymbols of national consciousness and these have been instituted in the curriculum through the Education Act of1966. Students are expected to observe all these tenets of the nation as a way of learning good citizenship(Chishimba & Simukoko, 2000).Promotion of Inquiry Based Teaching MethodsSocial studies as a field of study advocates for the use of inquiry and problem based learning as opposed to rotelearning that previously characterized learning during the colonial era (EDC/CREDO, 1968). It is believed that theproblem-solving method is necessary as it develops the child in such a way that she/he sees it as a democraticadventure, as well as the intellectual, critical, and cooperative aspects of the learners (Waghid, 2004; Salia-Bao,1991). Dewey believed that the most effective and natural education occurred when problem solving was applied inthe classroom as it encouraged critical thinking (Salia-Bao, 1991). Following Dewey‟s principle of democraticeducation, it was believed that such a method encouraged participation among learners through engaging them incooperative adventures that would turn the classroom into a microcosm of democracy and thereby allowing the childto acquire skills and values of democracy.However, some scholars in social studies argue that the use of problem-based learning has been an ideal in mostsocial studies classrooms in Africa as teachers have not been trained towards the use of such methods (Adeyemi,2000; Asimeng-Boahene, 2000; Merryfield & Muyanda-Mutebi; 1991). Further research carried out in sevenmember countries of the African Social Studies Programme (ASSP) have shown that inquiry based learning istalked about in schools but does not translate into teaching as classroom activities are teacher driven and dominatedby the chalk-and- talk styles of teaching (Harber, 1997). Other studies carried out in primary and secondary schoolsin Botswana revealed that teachers used teacher centered methods as opposed to child centered methods in socialstudies classrooms (Mautle, 2000; Tabulawa, 1998). In Kenya, research into classrooms in general and social studiesin particular have revealed that lecture method is still dominant (Harher, 1997).In Botswana there have been attempts to train in-service teachers in child-centered approaches that were meant todevelop critical thinking among learners such as the Project method. This initiative received criticism from somepeople that it was futile to try to alter the classroom relations while the enveloping school social structure remainedoppressive (Tabulawa, 2003). Such pedagogies as learner-centered are said to be colonizing and domesticating andthat their presentation as “a one-size-fits-all” approach to teaching and learning marginalizes pedagogies that arebased on indigenous knowledge systems (Tabulawa, 2003). Tabulawa (2003) recommends that Africans need toinvent alternative culturally relevant pedagogies and there is need to develop indigenous pedagogies. I tend tosubscribe to the idea of developing indigenous pedagogies in Africa because it has been argued elsewhere that theAfrican continent is replete with cultural tools that have nurtured vast civilizations as Ancient Egypt, Asante andZulu kingdoms and has long been acknowledged as the cradle of civilization yet its cultural resources remainuntapped (Grant & Asimeng-Boahene, 2006). It is through developing indigenous pedagogies that the culturalresources can be tapped into and be used to further our education and develop the citizens we need.134

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012Challenges in Implementing the Social Studies CurriculumA number of challenges have been attributed to the implementation of social studies in Africa and among the manyare a lack of instructional materials, definitional problems and lack of trained and experienced teachers (Mautle,2000; Asimeng-Boahane, 2000). It is interesting to note that in her study of some selected African countriesMerryfield (1986) found that there was a problem of the definition of social studies and lack of instructionalmaterials in schools. After about two decades the problems still exist. It has been observed that there is a seriouslack of instructional materials for teaching social studies such as conventional materials like textbooks, audio, audiovisualsand other resources that are technology related in Africa in general (Asimeng-Boahene, 2000; Mautle;2000). Such materials where available, are also very limited in scope as they are usually content-related and notactivity or problem-solving based (Asimeng-Boahene, 2000).The other problem related to social studies teaching and implementation is related to the definition of social studies.In her study in Malawi, Kenya and Nigeria Merryfield (1986) observed that people who are responsible for theimplementation of social studies, teachers and teacher educators were not clear about the meaning of social studiesand could not differentiate it from the subjects it replaced. Another problem that appears to be dominant in Africarelates to the training of teachers or teacher education. It appears that there is a great shortage of trained andexperienced social studies teachers in most African schools (Mautle, 2000; Asimeng-Boahene, 2000). Problems inthe provision of materials and resources continue to dominate in classrooms in Botswana (Adeyemi, Boikhutso &Moffat (2003).The current state of affairs with regards to social studies needs to be addressed if social studies is toachieve its goal of preparing citizens for the 21 century.METHODOLOGYThe study was qualitative in its approach and employed the naturalistic inquiry paradigm. Naturalistic inquiry is saidto demand a natural setting. This is so because “phenomena of study, whatever they may be-physical, chemical,biological, social, psychological- take their meaning as much from their contexts as they do from themselves”(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, 189). Lincoln & Guba further emphasize that naturalistic inquirers begin their researchwith the belief that constructions of realities cannot be separated from the world in which they occur or areexperienced therefore emphasizing the relationship between time and context to understanding the phenomena understudy. Due to the nature of naturalistic inquiry, I found it suitable for the design of my study as it was flexible,required more time in the natural setting and allowed the study to take shape and form as it progressed.ParticipantsThe study was undertaken among eleven social studies teachers in upper classes in six primary schools in one of themajor villages in the central district in Botswana. For purposes of this study this major village was namedMaretlweng village (Pseudonym). Of the eleven teachers, four were males and seven were females. The teachers‟age ranged between 30 and 55 years, where four teachers were between 30 and 35 years, three were between 36 and45 years, two were between 46 and 50 and two were between 51 and 55 years. In this study, purposive sampling wasused to select the teachers who participated in this study. This type of sampling requires that one establishes criteria,bases, or standards necessary for units to be included in the investigation (Patton, 1990). Therefore, these teacherswere chosen on the basis that they are experts in the area of social studies, have taught social studies for more than 3years, are implementers of the curriculum and can explain what they do best.The naturalistic inquirer prefers purposive sampling because it allows for the increase of the scope and range of dataand the likelihood that a full array of multiple realities will be uncovered, it also maximizes the researcher‟s abilityto devise grounded theory that “ takes account of local conditions, local mutual shaping‟s, and local values”(Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 40). For this study, a type of purposive sampling known as snowball or chain samplingwas used to select the participants. The teachers who were identified at the beginning were requested to refer the135

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012researcher to other teachers in other schools who met the set criteria. After identifying such teachers, they wereinterviewed individually to get the final group that participated in the study. Those identified as potentialparticipants were requested if they would like to participate in the study and that participation was voluntary.Pseudonyms were used to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.Data SourcesQualitative methods which included individual interviews, participant observation and focus groups were used fordata collection. A total of 43 interviews, 22 participant observations and 2 focus group discussions were conductedover a period of three months (January-April, 2010). The individual interviews were used to solicit more in depthideas on issues and problems encountered in their teaching; this informed the classroom observations and furtherinterviews. The questions were based on what the teachers‟ think as opposed to asking content knowledge.Interviews have their own limitations, for instance, I interviewed teachers during break, lunch or after school. Thismade me rush over the interviews as teachers would either be in a hurry to go to the next class or tired after a longday of teaching.I observed the social studies teachers in different settings such as; classrooms and other outside activities in debateclubs, sports activities, staffroom and traditional music practices in an effort to understand what they do and whythey do what they do in relation to citizenship development through social studies and to listen to their normal chatsand gossips. The data obtained through observations was used to construct follow up interview questions and viceversa.Focus groups were used to enable both the participants and researcher to see how the individual responsescontributed during discussions differ from or reinforce those of peers. Focus groups have their limitations in thatthey compromise confidentiality. At times teachers were not free to say what they would have said if interviewedindividually. However, they enabled me to get the socio- cultural aspects of the study in that I was able to observethem when they are together on issues they agree or disagree on.Data AnalysisThis study adopted grounded theory techniques for data analysis (Strauss and Corbin, 1994). Data analysis involvedmaking sense of what the researcher has seen, heard, and read. It also requires analyzing, categorizing, synthesizing,searching for patterns and interpreting the data (Glesne, 1999). Data were analyzed inductively using the constantcomparative analysis (Merriam, 1998; Patton, 1990). Data collected were immediately transcribed, coded andcategorized in order to inform the next interviews and focus groups. The constant comparative analysis is said to bea process that “combines inductive category coding with a simultaneous comparison of all social incidents observedand coded (LeCompte and Preissle, 1993, p.256). Data analysis took place at the same time with data collection andquestions raised during transcription were used to shape the questions for the next interviews.FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONSHistorically, social studies as a vehicle through which citizenship education is taught has been plagued bycontroversies and debates over its nature, purpose and methods (Ross, 2006) and this has led to some peopledismissing it as a school subject (Thornton, 2005 ). The findings in this study have revealed enormous challengesthat social studies teachers in Botswana are faced with in their effort to develop citizens. All teachers in the studyexpressed frustration at the status of social studies within the curriculum and cited structural inequalities andsocialization and cultural practices as the major impediments to the development of social studies teaching andlearning. It is these deliberate roadblocks that have been placed on social studies that have turned out to be itsnemesis in spite of the noble intent of which the subject was borne out of and introduced into the school curriculum.The findings are discussed according to the Research Questions (RQs) in the study and are divided into twocategories mainly structural inequalities and socialization and cultural practices, their discussion follows below.136

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012RQ1: Structural InequalitiesTeachers lamented on structural inequalities that hamper the delivery of social studies and citizenship education inprimary schools and among the many cited the following: lack of recognition; inadequate resources; lowerqualifications and a lack of understanding of citizenship education. They also cited challenges emanating from theculture of the society they live in which included the socialization of children and lack of participation in classactivities.Lack of Recognition of the SubjectAll of the eleven social studies teachers and the three school-heads interviewed expressed concern on how socialstudies is handled within the school curriculum. They expressed frustration at the appalling state of affairsconcerning the status of social studies in the curriculum as they felt that it was totally ignored, not monitored norsupervised and argued that it was left at the mercy of those who teach it. Mr Tau elaborately commented on the lackof recognition that as social studies teachers they are concerned about, that:It is only that social studies on its own as compared to other subjects it is not that much monitored. If youlook at other subjects you find that they are monitored, they have people who give reports on them on aterm basis, but with social studies it is the burden of the teachers who are teaching it. You find thatwhether you are doing the right thing or not it is upon an individual. Or one would prefer to do it the waythey understand it, or the way I was taught from the college. The most important thing is that theGovernment should recognize that teachers determine the nation or country because right now we haveshortage of social studies teachers and there is no department that coordinates it like other subjects such asmathematics and science.Ms Lorato also talked about the non existence of a post of responsibility within the establishment and had this tosay:It is only that social studies on its own as compared to other subjects it is not that much monitored. If youlook at other subjects you find that they are monitored, they have people who give reports on them on aterm basis, but with social studies it is the burden of the teachers who are teaching it. You find that whetheryou are doing the right thing or not it is upon an individual. Or one would prefer to do it the way theyunderstand it, or the way I was taught from the college.The teachers‟ concerns were also augmented by the school-heads who expressed a lot of frustration on the state ofaffairs surrounding the status of social studies within the school establishment. Ms Joseph, who was a social studiesteacher prior to being promoted, had this to say:There are also no workshops for social studies teachers compared to other subjects. The teachers normallydon‟t even update themselves with information. They just teach outdated information. They just take thingsexactly as they are from the syllabus.Mr Jeremiah who is also a school-head, echoed more on the conspiracy within the government to sabotage their ownefforts in citizenship development that:You See, Like I said earlier on, if people know what social studies is , we would be having somebodyheading the department. To the Policy Makers social studies is not important, what is important is Mathsand Science, Languages and Arts. That‟s why we are having heads of Departments in these areas. Whenyou talk about social studies people will say no, Senior Teacher Sports and Culture would be rightly placedto head that department. Why? Because people don‟t really want to know what social studies is about? Butsomebody somewhere knows what social studies is, and because they think it‟s a political subject havedecided to ignore it.He went on to say that:What I would like to say about social studies as a subject, very important as it is; to the “Powers that be” toknow the importance of social studies particularly when we talk about citizenship education people need toknow and understand their roles... Otherwise, if citizenship education is not taken aboard people will be left137

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012behind. And I would be very happy if the “powers that be” meaning politicians and policy makers canlisten and take note of this, so that at the end of the day we have Senior Teachers; HoD‟s for social studies.It is not only about creating jobs but all about educating people and informing them about citizenshipeducation because it is very important.From these findings it is clear that both the teachers and school-heads expressed frustration and concern in the waysocial studies is handled and the lack of recognition of it as a curriculum subject that exists. The school-heads calledon policy makers to inform themselves on social studies and its goals if indeed they are committed to thedevelopment a certain kind of citizenry ideal to Botswana. Though teachers were aware of the various challengesthey are faced with, they also attributed them to conspiracy theories which they believed were political. This notionof conspiracy is explicitly stated by Mr Jeremiah that: “I think to some extent social studies on its own is a politicalsubject and if this can be brought to the attention of the teachers there is going to be a problem”. Therefore, from theexcerpt of Mr Jeremiah‟s interview, it can be deduced that the lack of recognition of social studies within thecurriculum was seen as deliberate and aimed at producing citizens who are compliant, uncritical and cannotchallenge the status quo.I also observed that social studies teachers were not specifically designated as such because they were teaching othersubjects such as Mathematics, Setswana, English, Science and Practical subjects which were more recognized thanSocial studies. This observation solidified the teachers assertion that Social Studies was not recognized as a a subjectand that it is not given any attention in terms of professional growth. This situation is troubling in that it defies thevery fundamental principle within which social studies is grounded; that of preparing citizens in a democracy byequipping them with the knowledge, skills and values necessary for active participation (Adler & Sim, 2008; Ross,2006; Hahn, 2001). It is this paradox of introducing such a robust and important curriculum subject and the lack ofits recognition thereof, which has turned to be the nemesis of social studies in primary schools in Botswana.Dearth of Teaching ResourcesAll the teachers spoke about the shortage of resources as one of the challenges that limits citizenship developmentand the teaching and learning of social studies in their schools. Teachers also recognized the importance oftechnology in order to be active players in the world. This dearth of resources was experienced across the differentsubjects. The inadequacy of materials ranged from technology to teaching materials such as resource books forteachers and funds to carry out educational tours or field trips. Talking about the lack of technology in schoolsresulting in computer illiteracy Mr Tau said:I think we are living in a changing world and as such citizens need to have technological skills suchas using modern technology devices like the computer, internet and all that is related to them. Itappears Batswana are lacking in scientific skills and knowledge and therefore it is necessary to developsuch skills. The government of Botswana has totally neglected primary schools when it comes totechnology and therefore this affects the teaching of subjects such as social studies.Ms Thato explained how the availability of computers would facilitate learning and had this to say:The resources again i.e. computers, internet where pupils could be researching for themselves, our kids arecomputer illiterate, so if these things were here in our school, I think our pupils were going to manipulate,they will learn better. We are now living in modern society where all these things are now used. When theyinteract with other pupils of their age who are using this, they seem to be left behind in a way and thoseother kids will look down upon them.From the above dictum, it is clear that teachers are faced with a mammoth task of having to improvise on teachingresources in a world that is constantly changing and getting even more complex. Teachers also recognized thatsocial studies is a living subject and as such requires them to embark on field trips, however, they expressed thattheir efforts are void in that there have financial limitations and Ms Neo had this to say:Lack of resources or teaching materials such as computers, globes, lack of funds as teachers are notprovided with funds to help in teaching citizenship education. For example, if children are to go out for atrip, parents have to pay the money from their pockets and for those who fail to pay their children do not gofor that trip. The government has to pay so that all kids benefit. We do not have places of research as theschool library has insufficient resources. Even public libraries sometimes do not have relevant information.138

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012Ms Thato also expressed concern on her inability to embark on field trips which are essential for students andlamented that:another one is lack of resources, sometimes you will find that we want pupils to visit certain places to takefield trips and due to lack of funds it is difficult for us to search such places, for instance, we talkedabout different religions, our pupils are used to Christianity or African Traditional Religionbecause in Botswana these are the dominating religions, when we talk about Islam for instance, wedon‟t have a mosque here in... Talking about a mosque which your pupil have never been to that place isvery difficult for them to understand it, but taking them in a field trip, let‟s say to Gaborone to see amosque, to see the Muslims in real life it becomes difficult.All these teachers expressed concern with the inadequate resources and argued that these problems militated againsttheir efforts to effectively teach social studies and develop citizens in their classrooms. These findings reinforcethose of an earlier study (Mautle, 2000) which was conducted among in-service primary teachers where it was foundthat there was acute unavailability of teaching resources and schools were in dire need of teaching materials. In the21 st century teachers are still required to improvise and teach subjects like social studies in abstraction. It is quitedifficult to believe that up to now the recommendation of the Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE, 1994)on equipping students with skills for accessing and processing information through Information technology has notbeen implemented in primary schools. This situation both devalues and de-motivates teachers who are charged withthe responsibility of the development of informed and effective citizens in this ever changing world.The inadequate resources in schools is generally disappointing given the country‟s economic growth over the years,one would expect schools to be widely resourced in terms of teaching and learning materials. These findingsconfirm the findings from previous studies that have found that there was a serious shortage of materials in socialstudies classrooms (Merryfield & Muyanda-Mutebi, 1991; Mautle, 2000; Adeyemi, Boikhutso & Moffat, 2003).One of the aims of the upper social studies curriculum as stated in the syllabus (MoE, 2005) is that: “Learnersshould have developed skills for accessing and processing of information using information technology (IT). Thisaim is ridiculous in view of the fact that schools are not equipped with computers and the very few schools that Iobserved with one or two computers which are white elephants because they are not in use were acquired throughdonations. Only one school had about twelve computers and all of them were acquired through a donation from thebusiness community through the efforts of the school and their Member of Parliament.Some of the schools I observed did not even have a single computer. The question is “how do you expect students toacquire computer skills when teachers themselves do not have them and the majority are computer illiterate?” Thissituation has serious implications for teaching and learning if indeed social studies is meant to facilitate in learners“the attainment of knowledge, develop skills and promote desirable attitudes needed to function as informed,productive and responsible citizens” (MoE, 2005, p. 147). Given the above mentioned state of affairs, it remains tobe seen how teachers can perform miracles of teaching information technology without the required resources.Low Teacher QualificationsSome of the teachers such as Mr Tau, Ms Kabo, Ms Thato and Mr Kgabo (Pseudonyms) also reiterated on the slowupgrading of teachers from primary teachers‟ certificate to at least a diploma or bachelors degree in primarilyeducation. They attributed the delay to a lack of recognition of primary school teachers and the role they play in thedevelopment of children from a tender age; failure to see the need to improve primary education and a politicalagenda. One of the school-heads, Mr Jeremiah, expressed concern and frustrations when he mentioned that:It has taken the powers that be a long time to upgrade the qualifications of teachers at primary- it hastaken time- this has brought a lot of challenges because if you are upgraded to a higher level/qualification,it means that it affects one‟s salary; therefore upgrading of teachers has financial implications. So it isbetter for them to leave the teachers at a lower qualifications level so that their remuneration should bethere- but it has taken time for people to understand that it is not about paying somebody, it is aboutbringing quality education because for as long as you are upgraded academically, then you will be able tobring about quality education.The teachers‟ argument was that the slow upgrading of teachers to a higher level is not based on financialimplications on the side of the Government but rather on the fact that a primary school teacher cannot earn that139

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012amount of money. They believe that they are stereotyped and degraded at the expense of the quality of educationprovided. Teachers believed that as a result of these stereotypes, their morale was very low. This view whereteachers‟ are undermined literally compromises the quality of education and negates the Government of Botswana‟saspirations of developing a knowledgeable and informed citizenry by 2016 (Presidential Task Group, 1997). Theseaspirations and the realities of social studies education on the ground are contradictory, hence the nemesis of socialstudies in Botswana primary schools.Lack of Understanding of Citizenship Education/ Social StudiesThough social studies is aimed at developing citizens in a democracy, teachers expressed the view that they did notknow what it means. Almost all of the teachers including school-heads talked about a lack of understanding of whatcitizenship education is and felt that it was important for the concept to be redefined and re-conceptualized withinthe Botswana context. This lack of understanding was attributed to the ineffectiveness of teacher education and thegovernment‟s reluctance to invest in teacher education. Ms Kabo raised an important issue regarding definitionalproblems that:I think citizenship education is not clearly defined in Botswana, there is need for teachers to understandwhat citizenship is and the teacher educators have to equip teachers to be with such knowledge. Teachereducation has to play an important role in following their students after training to see if they are doingwhat they are supposed to do.Ms Thato slammed the pedagogical aspects of social studies as attributable to definitional problems and said:social studies, the way it is being taught in primary schools is not that effective, the teachers are not muchinto developing citizenship as they are more into imparting knowledge because some do not evenunderstand what it is all about.The view held by Ms Thato reinforces other findings from studies undertaken at secondary and tertiary levels ofeducation on the state of social studies classrooms and teaching which have revealed that social studies teaching isteacher dominated, didactic and predominantly authoritarian (Mautle, 2000; Tabulawa, 1998; Harber, 1997). Theobservation that classrooms are teacher centered is a widespread challenge across the continent of Africa (Harber,1997; Asimeng-Boahene, 2000) and has remained such despite the fact that such education systems haveimplemented a number of educational reforms geared towards improving the quality of teaching and learning. Thisauthoritarian nature of schools in Africa has been associated with “the colonial legacy of school organization andcurriculum institutionalized during colonialism in the first part of the twentieth century, which has come to beregarded as „normal‟ or the only available model” (Harber,1997, p.3). Classrooms are characterized by silence onthe part of students who act as recipients of knowledge and are not challenged to take responsibility of their ownlearning (Tabulawa, 1998).One of the school-heads, Mr Jeremiah, who has majored in social studies education talked about the controversiesthat surround citizenship and remarked that:I was saying that may be the theory that supports the understanding of citizenship is not being understoodwell because proponents of this theory might be different themselves and they might be arguing about itthemselves not what is real about citizenship so I am saying we have to have a better understanding of thistheory to appreciate what they are telling us to know about citizenship. As a society or community inBotswana, we should understand issues of citizenship as they are taught in schools. We should also reviewthem and make some additions where necessary.From Mr Jeremiah‟s comments it could be deduced that citizenship education as taught in schools is alien andtherefore called for it to be re-imagined. He went further to talk about the ambiguity that characterizes citizenshipeducation as he mentioned that:like I say I don‟t have much background particularly when we talk about citizenship education, we are justteaching social studies as a subject, we do not go deep to citizenship education; what social studies is andwhat it can be, how it can influence or change the lives to know what social studies is all about. When youtalk of citizenship education, it‟s something that did not come into my mind, that some of these things you140

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012just do them in principle, not knowing that we are educating citizens, how their expectations should be likeparticularly that they are the rulers of tomorrowThe findings in this category raise serious issues with regards to the teachers‟ understandings and interpretations ofcitizenship education in primary schools in Botswana. There is clear evidence that not only are teachers faced withthese challenges but even school-heads who are the drivers of curriculum implementation and change have shownthat they do not understand what social studies or citizenship education is all about.RQ 2: Socialization and Cultural PracticesAlmost all of the teachers felt that the socialization and culture of their students presented challenges for them in thatsocial studies calls for inquiry based and participatory learning. However, the socialization process that studentscome from is totally the opposite of what is required in school. Teachers argued that some students were notparticipating in class due to their perceptions on education and their socialization.Lack of ParticipationTeachers also cited the lack of participation by students in class activities as a challenge for developing citizens insocial studies classrooms. This lack of participation was attributed to the socialization of the girl-child and the boychild in the Setswana culture. Teachers argued in their focus groups that that from a tender age boys and girls aresocialized differently being told that “a man should be strong and never cries” and that “a woman is not heard butseen”. This differential treatment of girls and boys at home impacts negatively on their participation in classactivities. Almost all the teachers talked about the challenge of students‟ participation. Teachers provided reasonsfor some of their students not participating in class. Some teachers argued that the way the girl child is socialized athome may be responsible for their lack of participation in class.Mr Tau said that:Culture is also a problem as girls don‟t want to become leaders in school but we try as much as possible toencourage them to be positive and have an input.Ms Batho though not focusing on the girl-child also talked about the socialization process saying:Whereas some due to how they have been brought up cannot feel free to say some issues concerning themand are at times unwilling to share their ideas with others.It is also crucial to note that the school culture where students have to participate through asking questions, speakingdirectly looking at the teacher‟s eyes, and supporting arguments totally contradicts the home culture where askingquestions may be seen as being rude or inquisitive, and looking directly at an adult‟s (teacher‟s) eyes when talkingto them and answering back (deliberation) may be viewed as disrespect. The teachers‟ arguments are supported inTabulawa (1998) who contends that the Tswana society emphasizes structures of domination and subordination ofthe child to his or her elders and children internalize these at a tender age and when they come to school they bringwith them that „cultural baggage‟. This, therefore, shows how the home experiences and relationships influence theteaching and learning process in the schools.Perceptions on EducationTeachers felt that the socio-economic status of some students basically impacted their perceptions about educationand the extent to which they participate in class. Mr Kgabo talked about the family background as influencingstudents‟ participation and said:Some lack motivation because of their family background, some are from poor families, their parents don‟tknow the importance of education, so when the kids come here in school, they only wait for the bell to ringto go home. They just come because they are told to come but the parents don‟t tell them the importance ofeducation141

European Journal of Educational Studies 4(1), 2012The challenges raised by these teachers under this category are important in that they reflect disparities between therealities of the school and the home. These realities are indicative that the culture of the school and the home aretotally different which may explain why students are passive in class and call for teacher educators, curriculumdevelopers and teachers to reconsider the cultural milieu that students bring to school and how it impacts theirlearning process.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSThe findings in this study reflect serious flaws in the way social studies and citizenship education in particular isperceived, interpreted and enacted in primary schools in Botswana. Teachers are demoralized as they findthemselves teaching a subject that appears to be a white elephant as it is not monitored with no Head of Departmentor at least a Senior Teacher. The state of the teaching resources is still appalling more especially the lack ofprovision of basic technology such as computers and internet despite the Revised National Policy on Education(RNPE, 1994) recommendation for students to be equipped with Information Technology (IT) skills since they livein a technologically changing world. These findings have implications for policy makers. Policy makers need to bereminded that democracy is not genetically inherited, it has to be learned, cultivated and practiced for it to prosper(Harber & Serf, 2006) and citizens do not spring from nowhere as they need to be taught desirable attitudes, values,beliefs, skills and knowledge requisite for them to become effective citizens in a democracy. This can only befacilitated by the recognition of the importance of Social Studies in Botswana primary schools.The situation that the social studies teachers‟ find themselves in needs an immediate redress in order for it to achieveits intended goals. Paradoxically, Botswana is a democracy, and it is surprising that it does not take Social Studiesserious. One wonders; what happened to the impetus that saw the development of Social Studies in the country andits implementation across the school curriculum? The contradiction lies with the waning of the subject within theschool establishment and the purported intent of providing Social Studies in primary schools which basically poses adilemma for the social studies teacher. The status of social studies within the school establishment has turned out tobe its nemesis as it now militates against the growth of the subject.There is need for policy makers to also recognize the role that Social Studies teachers play in developing andnurturing citizenship by creating a post of responsibility for Social Studies as their discontent may militate againstany effort towards citizenship development. The teaching of Social Studies also needs to be re-imagined and reconceptualizedwithin Botswana primary schools otherwise it will remain an illusion rather than a reality. Thefollowing recommendations are suggested for consideration:1. During teacher preparation citizenship education through social studies should be re-conceptualized to takeinto consideration the contextual factors.2. Ministry of Education must insure that posts of responsibilities are introduced for social studies teachers tocater for professional development, monitoring and assessment purposes.3. Policy Makers have to be cognizant of the role social studies plays in a democracy and insure that teacherdevelopment promotes equality among educators.4. Ministry of Education should equip schools with relevant resources and materials such as computers topromote learning required in the 21 st century.142

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