MILITARY PHARMACY AND MEDICINE

© Military Pharmacy and Medicine • 2012 • 4 • 117 – 118Magdalena Cybulska at al.: Anthropological and archeological sources …period, the wounded and sick warriors werealso cared for by their companions. Based onarcheological findings, we may conclude thata “warrior-surgeon” was equipped with medicalinstruments, including the following tools:bone knives, exploration probes and hooks. Inancient civilizations, with development of theart of war and formation of armies, comes thegradual progress in the areas of medicine relatedto military actions and frequent injuries, particularlysurgery. Surgical skills and treatment ofinjuries and wounds were especially importantin carrying for wounded warriors. During theRoman period, trepanations were performed bymilitary doctors (specially trained) that accompaniedthe legions.Military surgery went through many stages ofdevelopment. In the Roman army, a qualifiedmilitary doctor replaced a warrior-surgeon ofthe La Tene period. When it comes to the RomanEmpire, we are able to identify the doctor or amedic based on archeological studies and funeraryequipment. However, in the Barbarian regionidentification is very difficult. Three burial sitesfrom the Iron Age were identified in Poland,which contained tools described by the archeologistsas medicine-related. Two graves belongedto warriors and one is thought to be a burial sitebelonging to a midwife [29, 30]. There was probablyalso folk knowledge regarding trepanationsand other surgical procedures. People involvedin the surgical craft benefited from this knowledge.In the Middle Ages, as a result of separatingsurgery from medicine, surgical occupationcould be undertaken by people without medicaleducation, who only possessed some practicalskills. However, it is emphasized that barbersperformed mainly minor surgical procedures,healed wounds, reduced dislocations and fracturesor opened abscesses. They could also learnabout medicine from the clergy, as their work alsoincluded shaving tonsures. In the Middle Ages,demand for surgeons was high. They workedin the cities and princes’ courts. Ethnographicsources inform us that some occupations werealso predestined to performing therapeutic oreven surgical procedures, including: blacksmiths,shepherds, carpenters and beekeepers [31].People who cared for animals could use theirmedical knowledge to perform certain procedureson men. The tools used by the mentionedhttp://military.isl-journals.comcraftsmen for their everyday work could also beuseful for various medical procedures. In case ofa blacksmith, the transformation of metals intospecific items was particularly important, as itwas attributed somewhat mystical properties, asin the case of transition from illness to health.Trepanation skulls, dated back to 11th and 14thcenturies, were also found in the medieval Cracowarea. In case of a 14th century skull, theprocedure could have been performed by eitheran experienced surgeon or a craftsman. Betweenthe 16th and 18th century, guild surgeons werefamiliar with the trepanation technique, butrarely used it. It probably resulted from fear ofpatient’s death. The only indication for trepanationincluded severe head injuries [32]. It was away to decrease intracranial pressure or removean epidural hematoma. In case of trepanationskulls from the turn of medieval and moderntimes, we may suspect that a guild surgeon or acraftsman performed that procedure.Skeletons bearing signs of amputations alsocome from medieval cities: Wroclaw andGdansk. Amputations performed by guild surgeonswere also considered dangerous and wererarely performed.The picture of medicine in Poland, which maybe reconstructed on the basis of archeologicaland anthropological material indicates that,since Neolithic period, people tried to use everythingfrom human environment for medicalpurposes: curative water springs (votive offeringsfound there indicate that contemporary societiesascribed the springs healing and magical properties),medical plants. They also made the first flintand stone tools for trepanation and other minorprocedures. Therefore, we may note the evidencethat surgery, herbal medicine and hydrotherapyhave been shaping since prehistoric times. Archeologicalrelics and skeletal material certainlygive only a fragmentary picture of medicine inPoland in the prehistoric and medieval times.Despite that, they constitute an important sourcein the studies of medical historians. Knowledgeof medicine was passed from one generation toanother in small, often isolated, societies. Medicine,magic and religion coexisted throughoutthe ages and some magical/therapeutic practiceswere still popular among rural populations at thebeginning of 20th century.117