The Hub Conservation Area - Montanans 4 Safe Wildlife Passage

Executive SummaryMaintaining the ecological connections, orwildlife movement corridors, between majorwildland habitats is one of the most pressingchallenges for habitat and wildlife conservationin the Northern Rockies today. AmericanWildlands’ Corridors of Life program plays acritical role in conserving the habitat linksbetween the “string of pearls” representedby our national parks, wilderness and roadlessareas, wildlife refuges, and other protectedhabitats. In 2007 and 2008 AWL conducted aPriority Linkage Assessment (PLA) to determinethe most important habitat connections, or“linkages,” in the U.S. Northern Rockies, in allfour of our conservation areas – the Cabinet-Purcell, Crown, Hub, and High Divide. Theobjective was to focus and prioritize ourprogram work, and provide much neededinformation to other NGOs and agencies. Thisassessment focused on the movement needs ofwide-ranging carnivore species (grizzly bear,wolf, wolverine and lynx) and wide-rangingungulate species (elk, moose, pronghorn, andbighorn sheep), although additional informationabout other locally-significant species was alsocollected.The Hub conservation area is the interfacebetween the densely forested, mountainouslandscape of northwestern Montana and thebasin and range geography of southwesternMontana. For the Priority Linkage Assessment,American Wildlands interviewed thirty-onebiologists in the Hub conservation area toidentify critical habitat linkage at multiplescales, as well as the threats to, andopportunities for, conserving these fifty-sixwildlife linkage areas. Based on this data eachlinkage is prioritized into one of five hierarchicalgroups of threat and opportunities (very high,high, intermediate, low, very low). Ecologicalquality considers the importance of the linkageto local or regional wildlife connectivity and thecurrent condition of the linkage.Wildlife connectivity in the Hub conservationarea is changing dramatically with increasingsubdivision, development, highway traffic, andother human activities. Throughout the region,the greatest threat to habitat connectivityidentified by the Priority Linkage Assessmentwas private lands subdivision and/or conversionof agricultural or timber lands that currentlycomprise vast amounts of open space that arepermeable to wildlife. Loss of these agriculturalopen spaces to development can result inoverall habitat fragmentation for wildlife, andcan lead to a bottleneck for wildlife attemptingto disperse or migrate. Development increasesother related threats, including:•Sanitation/human conflict issues•Forest/forest roads management•Increasing highway traffic•Wildlife mortality on railroads•Forest highways•Mining•Public land management•Lack of hunter accessConservation opportunities include:•Conservation easements or land acquisition•Transportation mitigation, such as wildlifecrossing structures•Community groups/conservationpartnerships•Education and outreach to communities coexistingwith wildlife•National Forest planning processesNext, American Wildlands will workwith conservation partners to act on theopportunities identified for each linkage area.Our next steps include:•Identifying potential collaborative partners,such as other conservation NGOs, localcommunity groups, and agencies, for each ofthe identified linkage areas.

•Working with partners to develop andimplement conservation strategies thataddress the threats and opportunities forconserving that linkage.•Providing AWL’s expertise regarding thelatest science; GIS modeling, analysis andmapping; land and wildlife managementlaws, policies and best managementpractices.•Facilitating the engagement/procurementof additional expertise and capacities, asneeded.Hierarchical breakdown of our findings in the Hub. View map of identified linkage areas on page 6.

Map 1. The Hub Conservation Area major wildlife linkages identified through the Priority LinkageAssessment.

Map 2. Major bighorn sheep linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that areimportant for connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.

Map 3. Major elk linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that are important forconnectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.

Map 4. Major moose linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that areimportant for connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.

Map 6. Major mule deer linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that areimportant for connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.11

Map 7. Major lynx linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that are importantfor connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.12

Map 8. Major wolf linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that are importantfor connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.13

Map 9. Major wolverine linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that areimportant for connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.14

Map 10. Major grizzly bear linkages identified through the Priority Linkage Assessment that areimportant for connectivity in the Hub Conservation Area.15

Conservation PartnersThis assessment is based on the informationgiven by the following biologists:Keith Aune, Wildlife Conservation SocietyTim Bertram, US Forest ServiceVanna Boccadori, Montana Fish, Wildlife andParksTom Carlson, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksJim Claar, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksLaura Conway, US Forest ServiceJeff Copeland, US Forest ServiceBrent Costain, US Forest ServiceRich DeSimone, Montana Fish, Wildlife andParksJay Frederick, US Forest Service-EnnisSteve Gehman, Wild Things UnlimitedAdam Grove, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksGary Hanvey, US Forest ServiceJamie Jonkel, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksGayle Joslin, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksCraig Jourdonnais, Montana Fish, Wildlife andParksJay Kolbe, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksQuentin Kujala, Montana Fish, Wildlife andParksSarah LaMarr, Bureau of Land ManagementTom Lemke, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksCory Loecker, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksBrent Lonner, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksGary Olson, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksDenise Pengeroth, US Forest ServiceJenny Sika, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksCarolyn Sime, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksJim Sparks, Bureau of Land ManagementJohn Squires, US Forest ServiceMike Thompson, Montana Fish, Wildlife andParksRay Vinke, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksJohn Vore, Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksMark Wilson, US Fish and Wildlife ServiceWe also appreciated assistance of thefollowing individuals, organizations, andfoundations:Jessica HannGrace HammondChris Boyer, Kestrel Aerial, www.kestrelaerial.comLighthawk AviationJoy Ritter, Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks,Helena, MTGary Tabor, Center for Large LandscapeConservationElizabeth Williamson, American WildlandsThe Priority Linkage Assessment receivedscientific review from:Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks: VannaBoccadori, John Vore, Adam Grove, Jenny Sika,Tom Lemke, Jamie Jonkel, Ray Vinke, CarolynSimeGayle Joslin, Orion Institute16

For information regarding contents ofthis report, please contact the followingAmerican Wildlands staff:General Questions and ContentApril JohnstonConservation Directorajohnston@wildlands.org(406) 586-8175 x 106Maps, Data Analysis, and MethodologySarah OlimbGIS Lab Managersolimb@wildlands.org(406) 586-8175 x 103Julie BetschGIS Specialistjbetsch@wildlands.org(406) 586-8175 x 109Special thanks to the following organizationsand foundations for funding the Priority LinkageAssessment:LaSalle Adams FoundationMid Shore Community FoundationMontana Fish, Wildlife & ParksNew-Land FoundationPage FoundationWeeden FoundationWilburforce FoundationYellowstone to Yukon Conservation InitiativeRecommended document citation:American Wildlands. 2009. Priority Linkage Assessment: The Hub Conservation Area. TechnicalReport. Version 1.0. http://www.wildlands.org/programs/corridors/pla17

IntroductionMaintaining the ecological connections, orwildlife movement corridors, between majorwildland habitats is one of the most pressingchallenges for habitat and wildlife conservationin the Northern Rockies today. The designationof national parks, refuges, wilderness, androadless areas—without conserving the habitatthat ties them together—creates a series ofcore habitat “islands.” These islands of habitatmay eventually lead to extinction for residentwildlife because of negative influences commonamong small, isolated populations of wildlife—inbreeding, outbreaks of disease, the effects ofnatural disasters, and the inability of wildlife tore-colonize an area.American WildlandsCorridors of Life ProgramOverviewAmerican Wildlands’ Corridors of Life programfocuses on keeping these large protected areas—the core habitats-–ecologically connected withinthe U.S. Northern Rockies. American Wildlands(AWL) works to restore and maintain the wildlifemovement corridors between these protectedcore habitats for the benefit of wide-ranging ormigratory animals. Our work is the ecologicallynecessarycomplement to the work of local,state, regional and national conservation groupsthat focus on conserving the large core habitatsof this region.American Wildlands addresses habitatconnectivity at both the regional scale and atthe more localized landscape level (addressingthe need of wildlife to be able to move aboutwithin these regional corridors). The regionalcontext addresses the needs of wide-rangingspecies such as grizzly bear, wolf, lynx andwolverine, while the landscape contextaddresses wildlife whose movement needsare more localized such as elk, moose, andbighorn sheep.More than a decade ago, AWL literally putwildlife corridors in the Northern Rockies ona map with the development of a least costpath model developed by Dr. Lance Craigheadand Richard Walker (Figure 1). The modelshown below in Figure 1, identified the areasmost likely to provide connectivity for forestcarnivores. For the past decade, AmericanWildlands used this model to focus ourconservation activities; however, much haschanged in the Northern Rockies landscape inthe past decade, and an update to the originalCorridors model was needed, so the PriorityLinkage Assessment was born.American WildlandsCabinet -PurcellsEcosystemLewiston!Coeur d'Alene!Corridors of LifeSalmon - SelwayEcosystemCore AreasHigh Qual. CorridorsBoise´!0 20 40 Kilometers0 20 40 MilesLow Qual. CorridorsCorridors of Life Program1Kalispell!2Missoula!Crownof theContinentEcosystemButte!Pocatello!Helena!Idaho Falls!Bear River RangeBearLakeGreat Falls!Bozeman!GreaterYellowstoneEcosystemAlpine!Jackson!Protecting Habitat Connectivity for Wildlifein the U.S. Northern Rockies4Regional Conservation Corridors Area1. Cabinet- Purcells2. Crown of the Continent3. The Hub4. The High DivideFigure 1. 1995 Walker and Craighead Corridors model(most recently updated in 2006).3Cody!Lander!18

American Wildlands’ PriorityLinkage AssessmentIn 2007, American Wildlands developed a PriorityLinkage Assessment (PLA) to 1) update andbroaden our current understanding of wildlifelinkage areas in the U.S. Northern Rockies; 2)determine the highest priority habitat connectionsin the U.S. Northern Rockies so that wecan apply our resources towards conservationof those linkage areas; and 3) provide informationto our conservation partners. This assessmentfocused on the movement needs of wideranging carnivore species (grizzly bear, wolf,wolverine and lynx) and wide-ranging ungulatespecies (elk, moose, pronghorn, and bighornsheep), although additional information aboutother locally-significant species was also collected.AWL has conducted this assessmentin all four of our conservation areas (Figure2)—the Cabinet-Purcell, Crown, Hub, and HighDivide.The Priority Linkage Assessment is an expertopiniondriven model that captures the extensivefield knowledge and wildlife movementinformation of biologists in the region’s linkageareas, coupled with a literature review ofpeer-reviewed habitat connectivity models andresearch papers addressing wildlife linkage.Based on the expert opinion of the nearly 100state, tribal, independent and federal biologistswe interviewed in the four conservation areasstudied, American Wildlands identified criticalhabitat linkage at multiple scales, as well asthe threats to, and opportunities for, conservingthese wildlife linkage areas. Within each conservationarea we assessed, biologists identifiedlinkage areas of varying size. In some cases, wecombined small linkage areas, or “sublinkages”into a linkage area. The result is that we createdeasy-to-read GIS maps of the identifiedlinkage areas that can have nested sets of finerscaledata embedded within them.Figure 2. American WildlandsNorthern Rockies ConservationAreas19

Background: The HubConservation AreaProject Boundary and DescriptionThe regional conservation area called the Hubin this report is the interface between thedensely forested, mountainous landscape ofnorthwestern Montana and the basin and rangegeography of southwestern Montana. Thenorthern boundary of the Hub as defined in thisreport extends from the foothills north of theLittle Belt Mountains, extending west across theContinental Divide just south of the ScapegoatWilderness, runs north of the Blackfoot Valley,across the Swan Mountains and the lowerend of Seeley Lake, and through RattlesnakeWilderness south of the Mission Mountainsnorth of Missoula. The southern boundary ofthe Hub extends from the Boulder River east ofthe Absarokas, across the Paradise Valley andthe Gallatin Crest, encompasses the GallatinCanyon and the Spanish Peaks of the MadisonRange. The boundary then turns slightly northacross the southernmost reaches of the GallatinValley, before continuing west across the northend of the Tobacco Roots and includes part ofthe Highlands, Homestake Pass, includes theBig Hole River in the north end of the Pioneers,and the north end of the Big Hole Valley beforeentering into a heavily forested region nearLost Trail in the Beaverhead Mountains, beforeending just east of the Selway-BitterrootWilderness. The eastern boundary is moreclearly defined geographically, skirting theeastern foothills of the Little Belt Mountainsand the Crazy Mountains. The western boundaryis more artificial, but essentially follows theridgeline of the Bitterroot Mountains west of theBitterroot Valley.There are several distinct mountain regionswithin the Hub, with habitat types stronglyinfluenced by the presence of the ContinentalDivide, which runs north-south just east ofthe “center” of the area defined as the Hub.The northern edge of the Hub is much more ofa continuous forested, mountainous complexwhere the southern edges of the Rattlesnake,Swan, and Mission mountains converge. Thisarea is known as the Cabinet Yaak ecosystem inthe west, and the Northern Continental Divide(NCDE), or “Crown of the Continent” ecosystemin the eastern half of the complex. The easternboundary of the Northern Continental Divide/Crown of the Continent ecosystem, where themountains meet the plains of central Montana,is known as the Rocky Mountain Front. It is thevery southern end of the Rocky Mountain Front,the NCDE, and the Cabinet Yaak ecosystemsform the northern border of the Hub.The Continental Divide region of the Hub runssouth out of the Scapegoat Wilderness. In thisarea, the more isolated formation of mountainranges begins to define itself as the BoulderMountains. These mountains run south, endingjust north of Butte, Montana. The ElkhornRanges and the Bull Mountains are small rangesjust slightly separated from the main Boulderrange by narrow valleys.In the southern-central half of the Hub,mountain ranges become better defined, withbroad intermountain valleys; graduating to thetrue basin and range geography of the HighDivide region to the south. An anomaly is inthe southeastern and southwestern corners ofthe Hub, where again the landscape becomesmore mountainous with narrow valleys. In thesoutheast corner this is the northernmost extentof the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem (GYE),and in the southwest it is the Salmon-Selwayecosystem.The Eastern HubEast of the Boulder Mountains, the broad Helenavalley is indicative of true basin and rangegeography. The town of Helena lies betweenthe Boulder Mountains and the Big Belts. TheBig Belt Mountains and Bridger Mountains forma long, narrow series of mountains extending ina graceful slightly backwards C-shaped curve.The Big Belts, in the northern half, extend fromwhere the Missouri River enters the HelenaValley and extend to just south of Canyon FerryLake. There is a lower series of hills and creeksbetween the Big Belts and Bridger’s, which skirtthe eastern edge of the very broad GallatinValley and city of Bozeman, Montana. The verywestern extent of the Gallatin Valley is wherethe confluence of the Madison, Jefferson, and20

Georgetown Lake,photo by Grace HammondGallatin Rivers form the Missouri River, whichflows north into the Helena valley and thenbends north and east of the Big Belts. Both theBridger’s and Big Belts are isolated ranges, withbroad valleys on both sides-the Smith RiverValley to the east of the Big Belts, and theShields River Valley to the east of the Bridger’s.The lower Bangtail Mountains are adjacentto the south end of the Bridger’s. Both theBridger’s and the Bangtails are separated fromthe Gallatin’s by Bozeman Pass, a twenty eightmile stretch of rolling hills. The very easternHub has three distinct mountain ranges; all ofwhich are not linear in shape. The Little Beltsis the northernmost of these ranges. The SmithRiver and its’ associated valley lie between theBig Belts and Little Belts. The Castle Mountainslie between the Little Belts and the CrazyMountains to the south. To the south of theCastles, between the Crazy Mountains and theBridger/Bangtails, is the Shields River and itsbroad associated valley. East of the ContinentalDivide, the landscape becomes increasingly21drier; the intermountain valleys historicallywere sagebrush steppe, but have now largelybeen converted to dry land crops. Ponderosapine (Pinus ponderosa) is found extensively eastof the Divide.The area south of the Bridger’s, Bangtails, andCrazies, the southeastern edge of the Hub,is similar to the northern boundary in that itconsists of nearly continuous mountain ranges.The Boulder Plateau is continuous with theAbsaroka-Beartooths, which are separated fromthe Gallatin’s by the relatively lush ParadiseValley. The Yellowstone River flows norththrough the Paradise Valley, turning to the eastonce it emerges at the north end of the ParadiseValley. The Gallatin and Madison Range areseparated by the very narrow Gallatin Canyon.West of the Madison’s, the landscape onceagain becomes the predominately basin-rangegeography of the High Divide.

Central HubThe mountain ranges west of the ContinentalDivide are moister, with a prevalence ofPonderosa pine. The broad Deerlodge Valleyruns from Butte, Montana, running north beforeturning west along the Clark Fork River Valleywhen it hits the East Garnets Range. The FlintCreek Range borders the west side of this valley.The East Garnets are the first semi-isolatedmountain ranges south of the southern Swan-Mission mountain complex. There are two majorrivers, the Clark Fork and the Blackfoot Riversand associated valleys between the Swan-Mission area and the East-West Garnets. TheFlint Creek Range is bordered by the PhilipsburgValley on the west. The Anaconda-Pintler rangelies at the southern edge of the Flint CreekRange, separated by a small valley running eastwest.Georgetown Lake lies within this valley.Western HubThe Philipsburg Valley is between the FlintCreek Range and the Sapphire Mountains.The Anaconda Pintlers border the southernend of the Philipsburg Valley. The west endof the Anaconda-Pintlers end at the LostTrail area. This area is a junction of theFigure 3. Major linkages identified in the Hub Priority Linkage Assessment.22

Beaverhead Mountains to the south, and theBitterroot Range to the north. West of theSapphire Mountains lies the Bitterroot Valley.The Bitterroot River runs through the centerof this valley. The city of Missoula is at thevery northern end of the Bitterroot Valley. Atthe western edge of the Hub are the ruggedBitterroot Mountains.Regional Wildlife MovementGrizzly bears, black bears, lynx, wolverine,wolves, mountain lions, elk, moose, pronghorn,bighorn sheep, and mountain goats can all befound in the Hub region.Grizzly bear populations are thriving andexpanding in the Cabinet-Yaak and Crown ofthe Continent (Northern Continental DivideEcosystem) to the north of the Hub. As a result,the biologists interviewed for this assessmentgenerally described a southbound movementfrom these “core” areas into the Hub. There aregreater numbers of verified grizzly activity fromthe Continental Divide to the western edges ofthe Hub. Most of the activity described occurredin the mountainous, forested landscapes ofthe Boulder Mountains, Garnet Mountains,Flint Creek Range, Sapphires and BitterrootMountains, with primary movement betweenthese ranges happening via riparian corridorslike the Clark Fork and Blackfoot River, orsmaller tributaries. Reports of grizzly east ofthe Continental Divide were less numerous, andalmost entirely restricted to the area betweenMarysville and the Elkhorn Mountains, and afew in the very northern Big Belt Mountains.The exception to this are the accounts ofgrizzly bear moving northward out of theYellowstone National Park area and into therugged Absaroka-Gallatin-Madison mountaincomplex. Biologists indirectly attributed thisprevalence of bear activity west of the Divide asdriven by habitat factors, including higher berryproduction, better vegetative forage due toincreased moistness. As ungulate populations areprolific throughout the Hub, vegetative qualityand density (i.e., cover habitat) may indeed bea factor rather than lack of animal prey. Grizzlybears are starting to be seen more regularlyin the southern parts of the Hub, particularlyin ranges like the Sapphires, Flint Creeks, andBoulders where they are known to occupy thenorthern extents of those same ranges.Contrary to grizzly, black bear were describedas occurring throughout the forested landscapesof the Hub both east and west of the Divide.Although most biologists described black bearsas able to be almost anywhere in the forestedor montane parkland landscape, their reportsdid indicate a higher occurrence of blacks bearsaround riparian drainages.Lynx occurrence in the Hub was mostly limitedto the northern areas between the ContinentalDivide and the western areas. There were someold trapping records that indicated that anoccasional lynx would make it into the isolatedranges east of the Continental Divide, but thisPotter Basin looking southwest to the BridgerRange, photo by Grace Hammond23

appears to be incidental and may be dispersinganimals.Wolves, like black bear, are able to movethroughout the landscape and can surviveanywhere where there are adequate deer andelk populations. General patterns of movementare dispersal eastward from thriving populationsin the central Idaho wilderness west of theBitterroot Valley, and southward dispersal fromthe NCDE throughout the mountains and valleysof the western and central Hub. While thereare no physical barriers that prevent wolvesfrom moving east of the Continental Divide intothe northeastern Hub region of the Big Belts,Little Belts, Crazies, and Castles, currentlytheir presence is not tolerated socially andtherefore long term pack establishment is notlikely at this point. A separate wolf populationis moving northward out of the GYE and intothe southeastern mountainous complex of theAbsarokas, Gallatins, and Madisons. Conceivably,these GYE wolves could re-populate theBridgers, Castles, Crazies, and Little Belts if thesocial landscape would tolerate their presence.Wolverine are the great distance travelersof the carnivores assessed in this project.Wolverine biologists interviewed stressed thatwolverine could literally move anywhere in thelandscape, and that the greatest factors for longterm survival in this area was conservation oflarge, contiguous expanses of wilderness andlate springtime snowpack. Genetic researchis increasingly showing that dispersal can beexplained by where late springtime snowpackoccurs, typically high elevation, ruggedmountainous country. This same researchindicates that wolverine may be followingthis snowpack in their movements, ratherthan shorter, straight line distances betweenpeaks. Thus, areas of the western Hub, likethe Bitterroots and Lost Trail are particularlyimportant for these mesocarnivores becauseof the extent of wilderness and late seasonsnowpack in these areas.Mountain lion movements were described bysome biologists, although this was not oneof the primary species we assessed. Thesebiologists indicated that lions could be almostanywhere on the landscape where there were24high concentrations of ungulates, regardless ofhabitat type.Elk occur throughout the Hub. Elk movementwas described by most biologists as anelevational, seasonal pattern. Multiple herdscould be associated with any given mountainrange, with winter range typically occurring atlower elevations and summer range occurringwithin higher elevations. Elk often usedtraditional routes, often drainages, to movebetween seasonal ranges. In some cases, elkpopulations were becoming static as they stayedon private land with abundant food year-around.All biologists described winter range as theprimary limiting factor for elk; because thiswinter range often occurs in the same placesas human development, long term viability ofcurrent population densities of elk may notbe feasible in places where human populationcontinues to increase.Bighorn sheep occur in areas throughout theHub, but their populations are in much lowernumbers, with an estimated 6,700 animalsstatewide. In the Sapphires, Flint Creek, andAnaconda-Pintler mountains of the westernHub, there are several herds functioning as ametapopulation. Herds east of the Flints weremore isolated. Like elk, movements were moreseasonal in nature and more closely tied tospecific habitats-more open grasslands ratherthan forested habitats. The strongest limitingfactor for bighorn populations in the Hub isthe presence of domestic sheep. Pneumonia,lungworm, and other diseases transmitted fromdomestic sheep to bighorns has led to over 90%mortality of some herds.Pronghorn are strongly associated with lowelevation, sagebrush steppe habitat, and thus,occur in much higher numbers east of theContinental Divide; indeed, some biologistsdescribe the entire Smith and Shields Rivervalleys as one continuous pronghorn habitat.There are isolated populations of pronghorns inthe Philipsburg and Deerlodge Valleys. Like elk,pronghorn move seasonally between summerand winter ranges.Moose were described as occurring throughoutthe Hub in low numbers, and strongly associated

with mountainous wet meadows and ripariancorridors. Biologists describe declines in moosepopulations for unknown reasons. More recordsof moose occur west of the Continental Divide,with low numbers of moose occurring east of theDivide in small patches of suitable habitat. Theanomaly to this was in the southeastern Hub,were there were notable moose populationsoccurring in the mountainous complex of theAbsarokas, Gallatins, and Madisons.Mountain goat populations were described by afew biologists as being in small, isolated, ruggedmountainous areas. Like bighorn, they weredescribed as occurring in areas of the Hub thatprovided high elevation alpine and sub-alpinecrest habitats in the summer, such as the BigBelt Mountains.Population and EconomicsThe Hub is a region in transition. Within thisregion are four cities with more than 30,000residents: Butte, Bozeman, Helena, andMissoula. These cities are connected by aninterstate and highway system that comprisea large parallelogram shape- Interstate 90connects Bozeman, Butte, and Missoula.Interstate 15 connects Helena to Butte, andHighway 200 connects Helena and Missoula.Much of the Hub is still dominated by anagricultural economy. Farmers grow dry landcrops of barley, hay, wheat and alfalfa, andranchers raise beef cattle and sheep. Ranchersoften graze cattle and sheep on public landallotments in the summer, bringing them tovalley-bottom winter range in the fall. Conflictoccurs when wild carnivores threaten livestockgrazing on public lands in the summer, or targetanimals concentrated on winter range. Conflictalso occurs with wild ungulates that competewith cattle and sheep for forage on winterrange. While records of carnivore depredationindicate that wolves and bears are a threatin some cases, biologists indicated that muchof the social intolerance appears to be moreculturally based.The communities surrounding the four citiesare experiencing high amounts of exurbandevelopment. Traditionally, private lands wereseries of ranches and large farms that comprised25a lot of open space. Under this scenario, landuse regulation was not as necessary sincehuman density was very low. Now, with rapidpopulation expansion, areas that were onceopen landscapes are being quickly subdivided,and the need for more organized, planneddevelopment to circumvent undue damage tonatural resources is increasingly recognized.Growth and land use policies may be one ofthe best tools to maintain wildlife connectivity,and avoid conflict between humans and wildlife(for instance, it may be wise not to place asubdivision in the path of a traditional corridorused by a herd of 5,000 elk). The social cultureof the Hub has been slow to accept growthmanagement. However, this is changing, withrecent efforts by city and county commissionersin Helena, Bozeman, and Missoula to adoptprogressive growth management plans andzoning.Transportation corridors also strongly affectwildlife connectivity in the Hub. Almost theentire Hub is affected by either Interstates 15 orWest side of Castle Mountains,photo by Grace Hammond

90, or Highways 200, 287, or 93. Improvementsin transportation mean easier access anddecreased commuter times to major cities,and thus facilitates exurban development intorural communities outside the four major cities.Increasingly, resource managers have to considerthe effects transportation systems have on theviability of wildlife populations.Priority Linkage AssessmentMethodsThe Interviews and Rating SystemThe bulk of this assessment involves AmericanWildlands staff interviewing experts fromstate, tribal, and federal agencies, andindependent biologists within the region toidentify, catalog and prioritize linkage areas inthe regional corridor. In the Hub conservationarea, we selected 33 biological experts fromMontana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, the U.S.Forest Service, the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService, the Confederated Salish and KootenaiTribes, Montana Department of Transportation,Idaho Transportation Department, Idaho Fishand Game, and four non-profit/independentcontractor experts with proven knowledgeof wide-ranging wildlife in the Hub corridor.American Wildlands gathered expert opinionsthat are based on scientific data, ratherthan more anecdotal traditional ecologicalknowledge. As wildlife connectivity in specificlinkage areas is further defined, we will broadenour queries to other knowledgeable people suchas landowners, highway maintenance workers,and commuters to learn more about specificwildlife movement.To ensure equal coverage of the area of interest,geographic distribution of experts’ “areas ofexpertise” were considered during the selectionof participants to promote a uniform samplingeffort of the study areas. Individual interviewswith experts were preferred although in fourcases, due to time restraints and the preferenceof the interviewees, interviews were conductedin small groups of two or three biologists.The PLA process collected data on a variety ofungulate and carnivore species, as well as a few26avian/small mammal species. While this doesnot include all wildlife living in the NorthernRocky Mountains, the species selected representa wide variety of habitat requirements, scalesof movement, and life history requirements.By collecting data on all these species, habitatrequirements and linkages of many functionallevels and scales were captured. This approachmaximizes the usefulness of this data collectioneffort to a wide variety of resource managementagencies, conservation organizations, andcommunities. Interviewees were questionedabout wide-ranging ungulates (such as deer andelk) and wide-ranging carnivores (such as grizzlybears, black bears, wolves, wolverine andlynx). Information was collected about otherspecies if appropriate. The connectivity lensshifts for each of these species. This assessmentconcentrates on the areas that overlap andare common for wide-ranging wildlife species.Areas with the highest ecological ratings usuallycorrespond to movements by multiple wildlifespecies in topographically important areas,such as riparian areas linking multiple mountainranges.The interviews followed a standardizedprocedure with one of the authors conductingthe interview and a second acting as recorderwith minimal participation; both made everyeffort not to influence the experts’ opinions orresponses. The purpose and procedure of theproject were described in detail. Experts wereasked to use previous professional and personalexperience in the field to answer questions.They were encouraged to share as muchinformation as possible, but not to extrapolatebeyond their expertise. Each expert was given alarge map (~60x50 cm) of the study area (scale1 cm = 5 km) with vegetation, roads, cities, andpolitical boundaries demarcated and asked todelineate the area they considered their areaof expertise. Next, a series of standardizedquestions prompted the expert to 1) delineateimportant habitat linkages and 2) rate theecological quality (EQ) of each from 1 (lowquality) to 10 (high quality) while consideringa range of qualifications (e.g. seasonal,migration path, dispersal path) and species(e.g. forest carnivores, ungulates, migratory

irds). This step was repeated for conservationthreats (e.g. fencing, roads, subdivision, socialintolerance) and conservation opportunities(e.g. conservation easements, conservationmindedlandowners). Conservation threats(CT) were rated from 1 (low threat) to 10 (highthreat) and conservation opportunities (CO)were rated from 1 (low opportunity) to 10 (highopportunity). Linkages identified for EQ, CT,and CO could overlap, but were not required todo so (i.e. some linkages were given ratings forall three categories while others were given onlyone or two).Several biologists believed that the linkagemap that we were working to create should beturned on its head; urban areas should be excludedand the remaining land should be consideredpossible linkage habitat. Bears will gowhere we will allow them, they argued, andconsideration of all of western Montana as connectivityhabitat has been demonstrated by theState’s grizzly bear management plan for westernMontana. For the purposes of the PriorityLinkage Assessment, we chose to identify andfocus on the best habitat and opportunities forwildlife movement within the region so that asthe landscape changes, restoration and protectionis focused in priority locations to ensurelong-term opportunities for movement amongthe region’s ecosystems.After the interviews, experts’ areas of expertiseand identified linkages were digitized inArcGIS 9.2 (ESRI 2007). Each distinct linkagewas assigned a unique number, i.e. linkagesidentified by multiple experts were digitizedonly once and assigned only one number.Linkage- and expert-specific data were enteredinto a Microsoft Access database (MicrosoftWindows XP Professional 2002). A record wascreated for each linkage identified by an expert.Hence, a linkage identified by five experts hadfive separate records in the database, eachcontaining, when applicable, ratings and textualinformation for wildlife species, EQ, CT, and CO.The ratings assigned by the experts were usedto rank the linkages; the ratings and textualinformation will be linked to the digitizedpolygons in ArcGIS.Deriving linkage scoresThe experts’ ratings were averaged andcombined to produce an overall score (L) foreach linkage using the following equation:Eq.1where n (EQ, CT or CO) is the number of ratings. Inthe equation, EQ is weighted with a powerof 11 to ensure that even the lowest value ofEQ (i.e. “1”) would outrank any stand-alonevalue of CT or CO. Hence, the overall linkagescore is driven by the linkage’s ecological valuewith bonuses given for identified threats oropportunities. Linkages that were identified byan expert but not rated (i.e. the expert wasuncomfortable assigning a ranking) were notincluded in the analysis.GroupingMany of the expert-identified linkages overlapped,resulting in a cluttered, almost indecipherablemap. To make the map more usableand to eliminate duplicate linkages with thesame function (e.g. multiple linkages on Interstate90), we grouped the linkages into Majorlinkages using the experts’ descriptions of theconnectivity and our own knowledge. We averagedthe ratings of “sub-linkages” that made upthe major linkages to produce an overall MajorLinkage Score (MLS) using the following equation:Eq.2where Li are the scores of the sublinkagesincluded in the Major linkage and nLi is thenumber of sublinkage scores averaged for theMajor linkage.27

Bayesian ratingThe number of ratings per linkage (1≤ n ≤ 34)and the derived linkage scores (8 ≤ MLS ≤ 128)varied considerably, a result which, becauseof the inherent uncertainty in expert opinionbasedstudies, could be a result of expert orsampling bias. For example: 1) not every expertis familiar with the entire study area and canthus identify and rate only a certain percentageof the set of potential linkages; 2) expertsself-select the linkages they wish to rate, thus“popular” or well-known linkages may receivea disproportionately high number of ratings; 3)the value of ratings is not necessarily consistentamong experts (i.e. some experts may give alllinkages the highest possible rating whereasother experts may never give the highestrating); 4) experts assign ratings based on thequality of the linkage from their professionalperspective (i.e. a grizzly bear expert mayperceive a linkage as very high quality while anelk expert may perceive the same linkage areaas only moderate quality).To account for this inherent uncertainty, aBayesian averaging approach was used to adjustthe linkage scores considering the number oftimes linkages were identified and the relativescore of linkages compared to other linkages inthe sampling set:Eq. 3where C is a constant value proportional to thetypical data set size (in this case, the averagenumber of scores), ‾m ‾ is the prior mean (i.e. theaverage MLS), and x is the MLS. This algorithmconsiders the linkage score as well as thenumber of times it was rated based on the ideathat a greater number of ratings will increasethe accuracy of the data. Thus, the algorithmcalculates a new ranking, the Bayesian average(‾x), which adjusts for expert and sampling bias,including reducing the impact of aberrantly highor low values.Linkages were next ranked by ‾x values. Becausethe Bayesian average is an estimate based onthe best available information about the samplepopulation, linkages were presented in groupsof quality, need and potential instead of in anumbered list, thus avoiding the implication ofsignificance in minute differences of valueswhen no verifiable significance exists. Groupswere divided into five hierarchical classes (veryhigh, high, moderate, low, very low) using thenatural breaks (Jenks) algorithm which groupssimilar values and maximizes the differencesbetween groups. It is important to notethat, because experts were asked to identify“important wildlife linkages,” even linkagesthat fell in the “low” and “very low” groupsare important areas to consider for maintainingwildlife connectivity. The grouping is insteadintended to help prioritize the linkages whereimmediate conservation action may be mosteffective or needed if limited resources areavailable and such prioritization is necessary.ResultsData AnalysisAfter the interviews in the Hub conservationarea we had 370 identified linkages, manyof which overlapped. Based on the experts’descriptions of the connectivity, the confluenceof linkage boundaries, and our own knowledge,we grouped the linkages into 56 major linkages.Ratings of linkages comprising the majorlinkages were averaged so that all majorlinkages ended up with one value each forEcological Quality, Conservation Threat, andConservation Opportunity. Instead of ranking theadjusted overall linkage scores, we prioritizedeach linkage into one of five hierarchicalgroups of threat and opportunities (very high,high, intermediate, low, very low) based onnatural breaks in the score distribution. Thismethod groups similar values and maximizesthe difference between groups, henceavoiding the data misrepresentation incurredby distancing very similar scores the same asvery unlike scores. Whereas all of the majorlinkages identified in this analysis are importantfor connectivity in the Cabinet Purcell, the28

Figure 4. Hierarchical breakdown of our findings in the Hub.highest priority linkages are in the “Very High”group, followed by “High” and the remainingsubsequent groups.Structure of Linkage ReportsThe data collected for of each of the major linkageareas are discussed in individual two-pagereports. The following sections are included foreach major linkage:Geographic Setting: This provides spatial referenceto the boundaries of the linkage, wheredelineated from the consensus of the PLA interviewees.Although boundaries are describedfor each area, these are not actual demarcatedlines, but geographic formations that influencethe movement of wildlife through the linkagearea.Importance of Linkage Area: This section providesan over-arching view of how the linkagearea functions within the greater regional area.29Ecological Setting: This section describes thelocal characteristics of each linkage includingthe human development and native habitatspresent. Dominant plant communities arederived from the 2001 National Landcoverdataset in Arc Map© v.9.2 (ESRI 2006) andNorthern Rockies natural history references.Wildlife: This section contains wildlife informationabout the focal species that are present,specific localized uses, seasonal ranges, andcore habitat contained within each linkage area.This information was compiled directly fromthe interviews. While most of the informationgathered pertained to large ungulates and forestcarnivores, information was also collected regardingavian and small mammal species presentin linkage. This is not a comprehensive overviewof all small mammalian or avian species withineach linkage; instead, data was typically presentedwhen a specific linkage area representedan important seasonal, core, or nesting habitatfor other wildlife species.

Conservation Threats: This section lays outthe various threats to maintaining habitat connectivityfor major wildlife species discussedin each linkage. This information was compileddirectly from the interviews.Conservation Opportunities: This section discussesthe various kinds of opportunities thatcurrently exist, or may exist in the near (1-2year) term to maintain or restore persistenthabitat connectivity for major wildlife speciesdiscussed in each linkage. This information wascompiled directly from the interviews.Linkage Map: Each linkage report contains amap depicting land ownership, major roadsand natural features, and the linkage directionfor three major groups of animals: forest carnivores,ungulates, and others. Specific areaswithin each linkage that were discussed in interviewshave been highlighted with outlined text.Land ownership is indicated because conservationthreats and opportunities, and the strategiesfor each, differ according to land ownershippatterns. Only groups of animals identified inthe PLA interviews for each linkage will be representedin the key for each map.Linkage Scorecard: The “scorecard” for eachlinkage in the upper right corner of the firstpage of each linkage report indicates the cumulativescores of all sub-linkages within thatlinkage area. The black bar indicates the overalllinkage score, taking each factor (ecologicalquality, conservation threats, and conservationopportunities) into account. The range for theoverall score is 0-130, with 130 representing amaximum, “high quality” linkage. The green,blue, and red bars indicates (respectively) theecological quality, conservation opportunity, andOverall ScoreEcological QualityConservation OpportunityConservation Threatconservation threat score for each linkage, witha range from 0-10, with 10 being the maximumhigh score.Animal Icons: Each linkage report contains asidebar depicting animal icons. These iconsrepresent the major species discussed for eachlinkage area, and are meant to facilitate easytransfer of information to the reader that mayonly be interested in specific species or groupsof animals.Identified ThreatsThrough our Priority Linkage Assessment, weidentified the following list of threats to habitatconnectivity and wildlife movement:• Private land subdivision and countyplanning. Many areas in the Hub conservationarea are growing quickly. The lack of countyland use planning tools, such as zoning,growth plans or subdivision regulations, wasidentified as a threat The types of issuesthat were identified (potential or realized)with unregulated development were habitatfragmentation and loss in critical areas (dueto direct habitat loss from building withinwildlife habitat, increased roading, or increasedhuman population, thus causing avoidanceby wildlife), increased risk of wildlife-humanconflict (either due to direct interactionbetween wildlife and humans, or wildlife anddomestic pets/livestock), sanitation issues, andlong term, genetic isolation or extinction oflocalized wildlife populations due to a loss ofecological immigration and emigration betweenmetapopulations. An associated problem withprivate land is restriction of hunter accessacross private land to adjacent public lands;within the Hub this is causing wildlife managersto be unable to manage game populations,which further exacerbate conflict betweenwild ungulates and grazing livestock. In somecases wild game recognize the relative safety ofprivate lands during hunting season, which leadsto the same results of over-target ungulatepopulation numbers.• Sanitation/human conflict issues.Increased developments also increase the30

sanitation and conflict issues between humansand wildlife coexisting in the wildland-urbaninterface. Sanitation primarily affects bearsbut can include other wildlife such as deer.Sanitation issues include improper garbagestorage and the inappropriate placement andtiming of bird feeders. Other food attractantsinclude poorly stored pet food, compost pileswith food scraps in them, beehives, and fruittrees, which can draw wildlife into orchards orto ripe fruit on the ground. Food attractantscan habituate and food-condition black bearsand grizzly bears to human developments andgreatly increase their chances of being removedfrom that area or exterminated as a “problembear.” Bear educators use the saying, “A fedbear is a dead bear.”• Increasing highway traffic. In manyareas throughout the Hub, wildlife mortality onhighways was listed as a threat to both wildlifeand humans. These areas of high road killfrequency were concentrated into “hotspots”where roads were adjacent or parallel to wildlifelinkage or core habitat areas. As developmentincreases in the region and moves out of citycenters, traffic increases on highways androads, resulting in highways becoming a barrierto wildlife movement when traffic reachesthresholds approaching 100 vehicles per hour.Animal-vehicle collisions are the largest directcause of human-related mortality for wildanimals in the United States. Impacts to humansafety are increasing also; from 1994 to 2003,human fatalities due to animal-vehicle collisionsrose annually from 122 to 201 (nationwide).insect-borne plant diseases, or lead to lack ofheterogeneity of forest vegetation; recreationaldevelopment, which can fragment habitatthrough direct loss of habitat, wildlife avoidanceof areas frequented by humans, or habituationof wildlife to humans, leading to increased riskof human-wildlife conflict. The construction oflogging roads is one of the greatest impacts towildlife movement and security. Generally, anyroad density greater than one mile per squaremile threatens wildlife security.• Forest highways. The Western FederalLands Highways Program, in partnership withlocal counties and the Forest Service, hasidentified hundreds of miles of roads that theywant to upgrade to Forest Highways. These arelargely paving projects which will likely lead toincreased traffic, development, and a host ofrelated environmental impacts. These upgradesof regular forest roads to Forest Highways arefunded by the Federal Highways Administration(FHWA).• Mining. There are several active minesin the Hub conservation area. Mining createsOpportunitiesa direct loss of wildlife habitat, as well as aroading and building infrastructure that threatenwildlife security and movement near themining site. Mines bring traffic to those roadsand increase the chances of wildlife-humanconflicts. Mining waste can leach chemicals andcontaminants into the ground water or nearbystreams and rivers.• Forest/forest roads management. Manyconsider the public lands to be refuges forwildlife. However, certain aspects of publicland management and projects on public landscan pose a threat to wildlife connectivity. Thisincludes: grazing allotments, which can bringdomestic livestock, such as sheep, into thecore areas of wildlife populations, increasingrisk of depredation and disease transmission;logging, which can fragment habitat, decreaseoverall habitat security, and alter waterquality; suppression or alteration of natural fireregimes, which can increase severity of natural31Many of the threats identified in the processwere linked to conservation opportunities.The most common opportunities identified bybiologists included:• Conservation easements or landacquisition. Interviewees identified potentialareas that would be priorities to secureconservation easements. In some cases,biologists had knowledge of particularlandowners who were or might be interested inprivate lands conservation. In some cases, aneasement may be donated and in others it would

need to be purchased.• Information and Education. Manyinterviewees recommended the implementationof Living with Wildlife programs, education onbest management practices for vegetation, andeducation regarding smart growth practices.Outreach to new landowners moving in to theregion is seen as a priority, for their behaviorscan have implications on wildlife movement andmortality.• Forest Planning. Some of the NationalForests in the Hub conservation area are in theprocess of revising their forest plans. Biologistsidentified opportunities to have wildlife linkageareas identified and connectivity issues betteraddressed through the forest planning process.• Wildlife crossing structures on highwaysand railroads. Where increasing highway andrailroad traffic threatens wildlife movement,biologists identified opportunities for crossingstructures, signs, fencing, or other types oftransportation mitigation. In some cases,these opportunities were linked to existing orupcoming Montana Department of Transportationor Idaho Transportation Department projects.In other cases, experts identified opportunitiesto explore the possibilities for mitigation.Depending on the traffic volumes on highways,these opportunities may be short or longterm.Recommendations were generally madewithout specific knowledge about the costs ofcrossing structures or the engineering feasibilityof structures for particular landscapes.There are numerous tools that can be usedto facilitate wildlife passage over and underhighways and railroads. In linkage areas wherewildlife crossing structures were identified asopportunities, more work is needed to identifythe best tool.• Community groups. Interviewees allagreed that citizen-led grassroots efforts toconserve local linkages are something thatshould be pursued. To this end, existing groups,such as the Blackfoot Challenge, and theMacDonald Pass Working Group, along withseveral watershep groups, were identified. TheBlackfoot Challenge, a coalition of landowners,land trusts, federal and state agencies, andother conservation interests, have protected88,000 acres of private land so far. Much of thisland was acquired from Plum Creek. Workingwith county and city commissioners, developers,architects, and engineers to incorporate smartgrowthprinciples was also identified.Georgetown Lake, photo by Grace Hammond32

Literature ReviewThis review is meant to describe kinds of animalmovement and the relevancy of movementsto corridors to a general audience that maynot have direct experience with wildliferesearch. American Wildlands completed aliterature review of wildlife corridor studiesto better understand the role corridors play inwildlife conservation. We reviewed publishedliterature regarding animal movement in theNorthern Rocky Mountains, including homerange sizes, long distance dispersal, migratorymovements, the effects of fragmentation onmovement patterns, and the need for corridorsin a developing landscape. We touch on thecontroversy behind corridor conservation,provide a summary of where gaps currently existin corridor knowledge, and suggest areas wherefuture research may be directed.METHODSThe literature search reviewed peer-reviewedpapers and technical publications foundthrough online search engines, library searches,and papers referred to us during our PriorityLinkage Assessment interviews. Papers werereviewed from the following journals: BiologicalConservation, Bioscience, ConservationBiology, Diversity and Distributions, Ecography,Ecological Modeling, Ecology, Journal of AnimalEcology, Journal of Applied Ecology, Journal ofEnvironmental Management, Journal of WildlifeManagement, Landscape Ecology, and WildlifeSociety Bulletin. We also consulted several fulllength texts. The search was originally confinedto the years 2002 – 2008. Relevant articleswritten previous to these dates, encountered ascitations in these articles, were also utilized. Wepaid specific attention to research performed inthe U.S. Northern Rocky Mountain region withparticular focus on large mammal work. Bothempirical and theoretical research completedon animals outside of our focal species wereexamined to gain a better understanding of thescientific basis of current corridor and habitatconservation.KINDS OF ANIMAL MOVEMENTAnimal movement is essential for individualand long-term population survival. Movementallows animals to obtain appropriate, adequateand quality nutrients, water, viable mates, andeffective habitat for shelter and raising young.Unfortunately, continued habitat fragmentationposes a formidable barrier to this movement.Appendix 1 identifies animals native to theU.S. Northern Rocky Mountains while Appendix2 defines known home range sizes for thesespecies. Appendix 3 lists known migrationdistances, and Appendix 4 lists known dispersaldistances. Each of these plays a vital role in thelong-term survival of a population. This reviewdiscusses each of these kinds of movement anddetails current knowledge specific to movementand corridor conservation.Home rangeAnimals are able to meet basic needs throughlocal movements made within their home range.Home range is defined as an area normallytraversed by an individual or group of animalsduring activities associated with feeding,resting, reproduction and shelter-seeking(Harestad and Bunnell, 1979). Appendix 2 liststhe known home ranges for U.S. Northern RockyMountain wildlife, while identifying where moreresearch is required.When reviewing the home range of individualspecies, it is important to note the role of aspecies’ territory. While a home range definesthe entire area traversed by an individual orgroup of individuals during their daily activities,the territory for an individual or group ofindividuals is defined as the area of a homerange that they will defend against others ofthe same species (Lincoln et al., 1998). For33

example, if a grizzly bear had a home range of93 square kilometers, it does not necessarilymean that it is essential to conserve 186 squarekilometers of habitat for two grizzly bears,as there is some overlap of home range thatis tolerated within the species. Rather, it isimportant to determine the territory, or theamount of land within the home range, that thegrizzly bear will defend against another grizzlybear. This will provide the minimum amount ofland necessary for two grizzly bears to subsistand coexist in the same general area.MigrationThose animals unable to meet their basicsurvival needs in a single location may traverselong distances to do so. Migration is a seasonal,roundtrip, intra-population movement madeprimarily by resident adults between discreteareas not used at other times of the year(Semlitsch, 2007; Berger 2004). Migrationserves a variety of critical purposes, whichvary by species, subpopulation, year andlocation. Some animals migrate for parturition(birthing) purposes. This occurs when the landupon which a population subsists for much ofthe year is in some way inadequate for raisingyoung (i.e. predation risk for young is high),and, in turn, the land on which the young areborn does not provide adequate sustenanceyear-round (Semlitsch, 2007; Bergerud et al.,1990). Wildlife may migrate strictly based uponseasonal availability of food in different locales.This is seen when the summer range does notprovide nourishment for winter survival or viceversa,and is illustrated by migrations of somepronghorn (White et al., 2007; Sawyer et al.,2005), and mule deer (Sawyer et al., 2005;Brown 1992, Thomas and Irby, 1991).Still other wildlife species migrate based upona critical threshold at which point there is apotential for resource depletion. Migration ofsome individuals or an entire population may beseen when a population outgrows an area and itsresources. These are often referred to as partialor adaptive migrations (Alerstam et al., 2003).These migrations have been identified in the U.S.Northern Rockies in populations of pronghorn34(White et al., 2007) and elk (Boyce, 1991;Hebblewhite et al., 2006).Current migratory patterns of animals in theU.S. Northern Rocky Mountain region havechanged due to four main causes (Berger, 2004):1. Intolerance to bison outsideYellowstone National Park;2. Winter feeding of elk;3. Increased human population;4. Habitat loss.DispersalDispersal is an interpopulation, unidirectionalmovement from natal sites with no predictablereturns (Semlitsch, 2007; Sutherland et al.,2000). Dispersal determines population spread,allows for colonization and recolonization offragmented landscapes and encourages geneticflow (Trakhtenbrot et al., 2005; Hoffmanet al., 2006). Dispersal is less a matter ofimmediate individual or species survival, butrather a critical means by which a speciesmaintains long-term survival (Hoehn et al.,2007; Brown and Kodric-Brown, 1977). In fact,dispersing animals are less likely to survivethan their counterparts remaining in familiarterritory. Dispersing individuals are at a higherrisk of encountering human development androads, new predators, and low quality food intheir travels. Dispersal may prove ever moreimportant with increased fragmentation as ameans to maintain population viability throughgenetic flow.HABITAT FRAGMENTATIONResearch has indicated that the ability tomove across the landscape is necessary forlong-term population survival of species.Habitat fragmentation is thought to seriouslyimpair animal movement across the regionallandscape. Social and cultural pressures demandthat conservation and resource managementgroups bear the burden of proof thatfragmentation is occurring (due to both naturaland anthropogenic factors), that it impedesanimal movement across the landscape, and

that this impediment is deleterious to wildlifepopulations.Defining fragmentationMany fragmentation studies use the definitiondescribed by Fahrig (2003). This definition statesthat, “Habitat fragmentation is a process duringwhich a large expanse of habitat is transformedinto a number of smaller patches of smallertotal area, isolated from each other by a matrixof habitats unlike the original.” As Fahrig(2003) notes, this definition is not restrictedto habitat fragmentation. Rather, it describesan interweaving of habitat fragmentation andhabitat loss. Implicit in the definition are areduction in habitat, an increase in isolationof habitat patches, an increase in number ofpatches, and a decrease in size of patches.Proof of fragmentationeffects on wildlifeAlthough Fahrig (2003) suggests the need todefine habitat loss and habitat fragmentationas two distinct entities, since the mixing of thetwo lead to inconsistencies in research findings,most of the studies we encountered in ourliterature search did not make this distinction.Appendix 5 lists the fragmentation studieswe reviewed and identifies the positive ornegative effects of fragmentation on species’populations. Overall, the studies show thatfragmentation, when combined with habitatloss, has deleterious effects on populations. Itmust be noted, though, that the few studiesfocusing on fragmentation, in the absence ofhabitat loss, showed slight positive effects onsome wildlife populations. This was due to thelack of competition for resources in fragmentedhabitats and did not apply to wide rangingspecies.Fragmentation’s impacts on wildlifepopulationsThe studies we reviewed show that habitat lossand fragmentation are occurring throughoutNorth America, and are impeding the movementof wildlife populations (Merrill et al., 1994;Sawyer et al., 2005).The studies show that by preventing animalmovement, population viability decreases dueto an inability to disperse and ensure geneticvariability within subpopulations, leading to anincreased risk of species’ extinction (Pimm etal., 2006; Harris and Pimm, 2008; Vellend et al.,2006). The studies also show that fragmentationof the landscape can lead to predationchanges that could potentially decimate nativepopulations unable to move away from a newdanger (Crooks and Soule, 1999; Kinley andApps, 2001; Wittmer et al., 2005).Indirectly related to movement, fragmentationand habitat loss can lead to changes in individualmorphology (Neckel-Oliveira and Gascon, 2006;Lomolino and Perault, 2007; Fredrickson andHedrick, 2002; Schmidt and Jensen, 2005;Schmidt and Jensen, 2003). It has been suggestedthat the small body size of individuals noted insome fragmentation studies may be due to thelow quality habitat in fragmented habitat patchesand an inability for individuals to reach higherquality habitat in other patches. There alsoexists an increased risk of exotic species’ invasionon fragmented landscapes with the potentialelimination of native species (Saunders et al.,1991; Crooks and Soule, 1999). In a fragmentedlandscape, native species are less likely or unableto recolonize fragments within which populationshave been lost.The vast majority of the studies we reviewedwere fragmentation studies as defined above, inwhich fragmentation and habitat loss go handin-hand.We did encounter a few studies thatfocused on fragmentation alone. These studiesfound or hypothesized that fragmentationcould potentially produce positive effectson populations. One such study showed anincreased movement and interbreeding betweentropical tree frog populations (Phyllomedusatarsius) (Neckel-Oliveira and Gascon, 2006). Theincreased dispersal noted in this study may bedue to a high population density in fragmentedpatches and a need for young, fit individuals toseek out alternate food sources on patches with35

higher quality habitat.Other positive effects of habitat fragmentationinclude changes in predation in which preyspecies are able to disperse before predatorsare able to follow. The fragmented landscapeallows temporary refugia for prey speciesand acts as a temporary barrier to predatorspecies, allowing prey species the opportunityto bolster their population numbers (Fahrig,2003). Other arguments for fragmentationfocus around the consideration that fragmentedpopulations are less likely to be wiped out bya single denominator. For example, a singleconnected population may be eradicated bydisease, whereas, in a fragmented landscapea population in one area may survive while apopulation in another area dies off (Simberloffet al., 1992).Some studies focusing only on habitatfragmentation show potential positive effectson populations, while studies focusing solelyon habitat loss show strong negative effects,leading one to assume that the negative effectsof habitat loss override the positive effectsof fragmentation when the two are studiedtogether. As Fahrig (2003) suggested, it maybe beneficial to define habitat loss and habitatfragmentation as separate phenomena to betterunderstand their impact on wildlife populations.Anthropogenic relationship tofragmentationIn the current socio-political climate, thereare questions about whether anthropogenicchanges to the environment are responsiblefor habitat loss and fragmentation and thusthe cause of the resulting negative effectsupon populations, or merely a reflection ofnaturally occurring processes. The literaturewe reviewed shows that although the cause ofhabitat fragmentation and habitat loss is dueto a combination of human and natural factors(Apps and McLellan, 2006), human disturbanceappears to be the dominating factor. Laliberteand Ripple (2004) mapped habitat rangecontraction for 43 species across North America.They then compared this map with a map ofthe “human footprint” created by Sanderson etal. (2002). They found that range contractionsin North American species closely coincide withhuman disturbance of the land, suggesting thatthe negative effects of habitat loss and habitatfragmentation on wildlife populations are largelydue to human land use.As habitat fragmentation continues tocreate barriers to animal movement, habitatconnectivity grows increasingly vital inpromoting the long-term survival of species.Maintaining connectivity where it still existsand creating connectivity where it has been lostis of critical importance in land managementplans directed at counteracting the effects offragmentation on wildlife populations.HABITAT CONNECTIVITYDefining connectivityConnectivity is defined as the degree to whichthe landscape facilitates or impedes movementamong resource patches (Taylor et al., 1993).For land management purposes it is important toemphasize the distinction between structural andfunctional connectivity. Structural connectivity isa spatial connection of the landscape. Functionalconnectivity provides a conduit for animaldispersal. Functional connectivity implies animalmovement, whereas structural connectivity isstrictly spatial (Tischendorf and Fahrig, 2000).For example, if two habitat patches containingseparate black bear subpopulations are connectedby habitat that is incompatible with black bearneeds, the landscape would be consideredstructurally connected, but not functionallyconnected. It would only be functional if theblack bears were able to use the connectinglandscape. Therefore, when planning landscapeconnectivity, functional connectivity is thedesired outcome, and the ability of the species ofinterest to utilize the connected landscape mustbe taken into consideration. It is also importantto note that the same landscape may potentiallyprovide varying amounts of connectivity fordifferent species (Tischendorf and Fahrig, 2000;With and Crist, 1995). For example, a landscapeproviding functional connectivity for a bobcat36

may not provide functional connectivity for agrizzly bear.Measuring connectivityWhen incorporating landscape connectivityinto land management planning, existing andpotential connectivity for an area must bemeasured. To measure existing connectivity,Tischendorf and Fahrig (2000) suggestmeasuring a species’ movements across thelandscape. Although landscape structure,species abundance and distribution are relatedto connectivity, they are not direct measuresof it. The actual movement of a species in alandscape is the only true indicator of existinglandscape connectivity.Though it is not a measure of existingconnectivity, landscape structure is animportant indicator of potential connectivity.To predict whether an animal will use a habitat,it is important to understand the complexitiesinherent in the relationship between theanimal and the landscape (With and Crist,1995). Understanding the habitat an animalrequires and the spatial and habitat qualityconsiderations that form an animal’s habitatchoice are critical when creating functionalconnectivity. Belisle (2005) suggests that anintegration of animal behavior into the study oflandscape ecology would enhance understandingof the choices an animal makes in this habitatselection process.Corridors as a managementapproach to connectivityCorridors are a means by which landscapeconnectivity is incorporated into landmanagement plans. A corridor is a linearhabitat, embedded in a dissimilar matrix, thatconnects two or more larger blocks of habitatand that is proposed for conservation on thegrounds that it will enhance or maintain theviability of specific wildlife populations in thehabitat blocks (Beier and Noss, 1998). Theterm corridor was originally coined in 1975 byWilson and Willis and is based on the equilibriumtheory of island biogeography (MacArthur andWilson, 1967), which states that a dynamicequilibrium exists between the extinction ofspecies in a defined location and the randomimmigration of new species. Inherent in thestudy of corridor conservation is the theory ofmetapopulation (Perrow and Davy, 2002) whichstates that a metapopulation within a definedarea consists of multiple subpopulations. Whena subpopulation ceases to exist in one section ofthe defined area, the metapopulation persistsbecause of the continuation or emergence of asubpopulation within the same defined area.Functional connectivity of corridorsMore recently, a corridor has been defined as aspace, usually linear in shape that improves theability of organisms to move among patches ofEast side of Bridger Range,photo by Grace Hammond37

their habitat (Hilty et al., 2006), thus implyinga need for functional connectivity. Corridorutilization was investigated to determine whethercorridors provide functional connectivity.Recent genetic research indicates that corridorscan provide a functional connection betweenisolated populations (Dixon et al., 2006; Haleet al., 2001). These studies found that isolatedsubpopulations in fragmented landscapesintermingled when appropriate corridors wereavailable. Mech and Hallet (2001) found twosubpopulations of red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris),whose genetic structures were altered bylandscape fragmentation, returned “to theiroriginal state in terms of genetic structure,”when a corridor between the populations wascreated. Hilty and Merenlender (2004) usedremotely triggered cameras to determinecorridor use by carnivores. Not only did theyfind carnivores traversed the corridor, theyfound carnivores preferred the corridor over thesurrounding, disturbed landscape.Corridor effects on wildlife populationsWhen considering corridors as mitigationmeasures to fragmentation, it is importantto determine if the animals utilize availablecorridors, and if the corridors are effectiveat ameliorating the negative effects offragmentation.trowbridgii) than isolated patches. This studydid not investigate the genetic basis for themorphological changes; therefore it is uncertainwhether the decreased body size was a geneticresponse to the fragmented landscape or merelya morphological response due to habitat qualityand quantity.Some studies indicate the potential forcorridors to have negative effects onpopulations. Research on meadow voles(Microtus pennsylvanicus) concluded thatindividual survival is lower in landscapesconnected by corridors than in landscapeswith isolated patches (Coffman et al., 2001).In the presence of corridors, individuals aremore likely to disperse to other patchesthan they would in fragmented landscapeslacking corridors. Dispersing individuals takeon an inherent risk even in large contiguouslandscapes. Dispersal places high energydemands upon dispersing individuals, highquality nutrients may not always be readilyHighway 12 between Elliston & Garrison lookingsouth to Beck Hill, photo by Grace HammondOverall, studies show that corridors cancounteract the negative population effectsof habitat fragmentation. Studies showincreased movement of meadow voles (Microtuspennsylvanicus) within landscapes wherecorridors were incorporated to counteractfragmentation (Coffman et al., 2001) and geneflow between subpopulations of red squirrels(Sciurus vulgaris) and red-backed voles(Clethrionomys gapper) is higher in fragmentedlandscapes containing corridors than infragmented landscapes without corridors (Haleet al., 2001; Mech and Hallet, 2001). Lomolinoand Perault (2007) also found that patchesconnected by corridors contained individualswith larger body size for the northwestern deermouse (Peromyscus keeni), montane shrew(Sorex monticolus), and Trowbridge’s shrew (S.38

available during dispersal, and new predatorsmay be encountered. Corridors are oftensmall habitat patches, in which an individualmight easily wander out of and end up in ahuman-dominated landscape. A theoreticalrisk associated with corridors is populationextinction. It would be more likely for acontiguous population to be wiped out by asingle disease than a fragmented population(Simberloff and Cox, 1987). Corridors couldalso lead to changes in predation tactics.Carnivores could use narrow corridors as away to “trap” their prey, and corridors closeto human development could introduce exoticcarnivores including domestic and feral dogsand cats.SPECIES-SPECIFIC IMPLICATIONSOF MOVEMENT, FRAGMENTATION,AND CONNECTIVITYIn the Priority Linkage Assessment, AmericanWildlands focused on eight species (elk, moose,pronghorn, bighorn sheep, gray wolf, grizzlybear, wolverine, and Canada lynx). AWL alsodiscussed several other local wildlife specieswith experts interviewed in the Priority LinkageAssessment. Following are descriptions ofknown data about these focal species regardingmovement, habitat fragmentation, and habitatconnectivity.RESEARCH NEEDEDWildlife corridors are not without controversy(Simberloff and Cox, 1987; Simberloff et al.,1992). One source of controversy lies in the factthat studies separating habitat fragmentationfrom habitat loss show that fragmentation tohave slight positive effects on some wildlifepopulations (see Appendix 5). In addition,although corridors appear beneficial overall,there are a number of potential drawbacks (asdiscussed previously). There is also the SLOSS(Single Large or Several Small) debate regardingwhether conservation of a single large habitatfor wildlife population survival is preferableto the conservation of several small habitatsconnected by corridors. Some conservationistsargue that with limited resources availablefor land conservation, more attention shouldbe paid to conserving large swathes of land asopposed to small patches connected by narrowcorridors.To resolve this controversy, more research mustbe completed. There remain significant gaps inknowledge surrounding the effects of habitatfragmentation and corridor conservationon wildlife populations. As Appendices 2 - 4indicate, there is much to learn with regard todistances and patterns of species’ movementin the Northern Rocky Mountains. The morefully we understand species’ movement, thebetter equipped we will be to conserve land toeffectively meet those needs.More research is also required to differentiatebetween habitat loss and habitatfragmentation. This knowledge will identify theexact effect each has on wildlife populations.It will also determine the most efficient meansof habitat conservation and help resolve theSLOSS debate with the understanding thatthere may be more than one answer: somespecies may require single large habitats whileothers could survive with several smaller,connected habitats.Further studies are necessary to betterunderstand the impact of corridors on animalpopulations and movement. There is a need todetermine species-specific habitat requirementsand habitat selection processes so thatconservation of habitat patches and corridorsthat will optimize effectiveness.More research centered on U.S. Northern RockyMountain wildlife populations will help usdesign effective conservation actions for thesedistinct populations. Land ownership patternsin the U.S. Northern Rockies of Montana andIdaho elucidate the need for different strategiesto ameliorate existing and prevent furtherhabitat wildlife fragmentation. Ruediger etal. (2003) analyzed land ownership patternsand determined that, in Montana, private landsubdivision and transportation corridors willincreasingly be significant sources of habitat39

fragmentation, and thus will be barriers tohabitat connectivity for wide-ranging, lowdensitycarnivores, such as grizzly bears,wolves, lynx, wolverine, and fisher. Knowing theresponses of these populations to fragmentationand corridor connectivity will provideopportunities to create habitats and corridorsthat meet specific wildlife needs.Despite the current gaps in scientific knowledge,American Wildlands believes that it isimperative to take immediate conservationaction based upon the best science presentlyavailable. Although a general consensus does notexist on the best means by which to maintainwildlife connectivity, there is enough sciencesupporting the efficacy of wildlife corridorconservation that we created our Corridorsof Life Program and determined that wildlifeconnectivity must be maintained or restored forlong-term wildlife persistence.except for breeding seasons and while a femalehas cubs. Grizzly bears are currently listed asthreatened, with the exception of delistedportions of the populations of the GreaterYellowstone Ecosystem, which are now understate regulation.In the U.S. Northern Rocky Mountains and PacificNorthwest, grizzly bears occur in five isolatedpopulations- the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem(GYE) of northwest Wyoming and southwestMontana, the Northern Continental DivideEcosystem (NCDE) and Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystemof western Montana, the Selkirks of the IdahoPanhandle, and North Cascades of Washingtonstate (USFWS, 1993). Grizzly bear populationsare especially vulnerable to fragmentationeffects and human-caused mortality due to lowreproductive capacity and limited dispersalability (Allendorf et al., 1991; Waller andServheen, 1999).Focal SpeciesGrizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis)Grizzlies can inhabit a wide variety of areasincluding alpine forests, subalpine meadows,arctic tundra and coastal areas; historically theyeven inhabited the American Southwest deserts.Grizzlies disperse widely and exhibit discreteelevational movements between spring and fall.Their non-migratory home range varies between50-300 miles 2 (females), and 200-500 miles 2(males).Grizzly bears are omnivorous, with typicallymore than half their diet consisting ofvegetarian sources, such as grasses, sedges,corms, berries, and pine nuts, with whitebarkpine nuts as one of the most critical foodsources in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.Dependent upon region, a grizzly’s diet is 11%-50% meat, and includes carrion, fish, rodents,ungulates, insect aggregations and grubs.Grizzlies undergo an annual hibernation duringwinter months; thus, in the fall they enter anincreased feeding period called hyperphagia tobuild enough fat to sustain them during theirdormant period. They are solitary animals40Within the Cabinet-Yaak region of Montanaand Idaho, researchers modeled that withprojected human population increases, thereis an anticipated 33-45% decline in grizzly bearpopulations. These declines were predicted tobe caused by habitat loss and fragmentationexacerbated by increased mortality dueto human/bear conflicts, and increases inthe ratio of unknown to known bear deaths(Mattson and Merrill, 2004). Kasworm et al.’s(2006) monitoring report supports Mattsonand Merrill’s dire predictions; human causedmortality in the Cabinet-Yaak recovery zoneaverages 1.8 bears per year, with numbers offemales with cubs averaging 1.8 per year. Thereport concludes that the population wouldnot persist unless intensive management steps,such as population augmentation, were taken(Kasworm et al., 2006).Given the vulnerability of this species, muchresearch has been devoted to Grizzly bearmovement patterns and fine scale habitatuse. Twenty five years ago, Picton (1983)concluded through detailed statistical analysisthat grizzly bear use of areas outside ofcurrent recovery zone was not accidental,and identified a likely “filter bridge” (wildlife

and desert; this reflects overall adaptability ofthe species. This adaptability and reproductivesuccess has allowed wolves to make aremarkable comeback in the Northern Rockies,with a current estimated population of 1,500animals and an estimated annual growth rate of24%, despite 724 wolves being legally removedsince the late 1980s, with an unknown numberof animals poached annually.Wolves’ habitat preference is based on thepresence of native ungulates within a pack’sterritory on a year-round basis (Montana Fish,Wildlife and Parks, 2003). Biologists thatparticipated in the Priority Linkage Assessmentproject indicated that social intolerance wasthe primary inhibitor to wolf movement, nothabitat fragmentation. Wolves are considerednon-migratory but disperse widely (Walton etal., 2001). Packs move widely to patrol theirterritories within their home ranges. Packterritories are dynamic and change annually withfluctuations in prey availability. Pack activity iscentered on a den site and nearby rendezvoussites from April through September. Wolves livein packs with complex social hierarchy. Packmembers may disperse to find their own mates orterritories. Packs are structured with a breedingalpha male and female; however, contrary topopular belief, females other than the alphamay also produce pups within a pack. Annualpack home ranges may be up to several hundredsquare kilometers, dependent upon habitatquality and prey resources. Summer home rangeis typically smaller than winter home range.Average territory size for a northwestern Montanawolf pack is 220 km 2 ; in Yellowstone, the averageterritory size was much larger at 891 km 2 (U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service et al., 2000).Wolves’ primary prey are deer and elk, howeversolitary animals will take small mammalian preyopportunistically. They scavenge on carrion,small rodents, and, in Yellowstone, will takebison. Depredations of livestock may occur,particularly in years when mild winters causedeer fawns to be less vulnerable to predation(USFWS, 1991). Livestock depredation canbecome a learned behavior and may result inlethal control of entire packs. In Minnesota,changes in snow pack induced shifts in deerpopulations and mobility that resulted in shiftsin wolf pack movement, sociability, and feedingbehavior (Fuller, 1991).Like grizzlies, there is tension in the NorthernRockies associated with the presence of wolves,in particular because of the risk of livestockdepredation. By 2002, gray wolves had reachedbiological recovery goals. Montana and Idaho’swolf management plans were approved by theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2005. Currently,listing status is uncertain as there have beentwo changes in status in Fall-Winter 2008. Thenew administration will review the December2008 de-listing decision in Winter-Spring 2009.The gray wolf is a big game species in Idaho.Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis)Lynx are habitat specialists with very specificrequirements. They primarily inhabit thesubalpine fir zone in the U.S. Northern Rockies.This habitat is generally found above 1219mwest of the Continental Divide and is dominatedby spruce, several species of fir, and serallodgepole pine. East of the Continental Dividethe subalpine fir forests inhabited by lynx occurat higher elevations (1,650 to 2,400 meters) andare composed mostly of subalpine fir (Ruedigeret al., 2000). Throughout their range, shrubsteppehabitats may provide important linkagehabitat between the primary habitat typesdescribed above (Ruediger et al., 2000). Snowconditions are an important environmentalvariable for lynx, who prefer areas withmoderately deep annual snowfall amounts (100to 127 centimeters) (Kelsall et al., 1977). Inall lynx habitat types, patches of forest thathave early successional stages created bydisturbances such as fire and insect infestationsare preferred since this creates forage and coverfor snowshoe hares, the most important preyspecies of the lynx. However, older forests alsoprovide habitat for snowshoe hares and lynx forlonger periods than disturbance-created habitats(Ruediger et al., 2000). Snags, downed timber,and thick brush are important as denning sitesfor lynx. These sites tend to be within matureor old growth stands (Koehler, 1990; Koehler42

and Brittell, 1990). Additionally, denning habitatmust be near or adjacent to foraging habitat asthe hunting range of the female lynx is reducedwhen she has kittens (Ruediger et al., 2000).Lynx are also dietary specialists, with snowshoehares comprising up to 97% of their diet(Koehler and Aubry, 1994). When snowshoe harepopulations are reduced, red squirrels are animportant part of their diet. Lynx may also huntgrouse, ground squirrels, porcupines, and othersmall rodents.Lynx are considered non-migratory but dispersewidely. The home range size varies, from 10to 243 km 2 (McCord and Cardoza, 1982); witha typical home ranges of 16 to 20 km 2 (Quinnand Parker, 1987; Butts, 1992). Factors thatinfluence home range sizes include sex, age,population density, prey density, and methodof survey and calculation (McCord and Cardoza,1982; Ward and Krebs, 1985; Quinn and Parker,1987; Hatler, 1988). In other areas, longdistance dispersal has been reported to rangefrom 103 to 616 kilometers (Saunders, 1963;Nellis and Wetmore, 1969; Brainerd, 1985;Ward, 1985; Brittell et al., 1989).Lynx are solitary, and the female alone raisesthe kittens. A female will reproduce every 1-2 years, and the kittens stay with the motherthrough the next breeding season.Lynx are considered a furbearer animal inMontana but they are not currently trapped, asthey are listed as a Threatened species underthe Endangered Species Act.Wolverine (Gulo gulo)One of the least-understood meso-carnivores inthe Northern Rockies, the wolverine’s currentdistribution was thought to be limited to northcentralWashington, northern/central Idaho,western Montana, and northwestern Wyoming.In March 2008, after an 86 year absence, awolverine was photographed near Truckee,California by researchers from Oregon StateUniversity. Throughout the Northern Rockies,wolverines occur at a low density (1 per 65km 2 ). They are considered non-migratory butdisperse widely with a mean annual homerange of 422 km 2 (males) and 388 km 2 (females)(Hornocker and Hash, 1981). Territory and rangedepends on availability of denning sites and foodsupply (Wilson, 1982). While juveniles disperseapproximately 30-100 km from their nataldens, Magoun (1985) and Gardner et al. (1986)recorded dispersal movements of greater than300 km.In the contiguous United States, wolverines areconsidered a true wilderness species closelyassociated with rugged, mountainous habitatswith deep snow pack. Copeland et al. (2007)analyzed the seasonal habitat associations ofwolverines in central Idaho, and found thatelevation explained habitat use better thanany other variable in both summer and winter.This research indicated that wolverines preferhigher whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulus) habitatsin winter and the lower elevation Douglas fir(Pseudotsuga menziezii) and lodgepole pine(Pinus contorta) habitats in summer; at alltimes they preferred northerly aspects and hada neutral response to trails, although in winterthey both avoided roads and ungulate winterranges.Aubry et al. (2007) investigated the distributionand broad-scale habitat relations of wolverinein the contiguous United States. Their resultsindicated that distribution of wolverine hadcontracted substantially by the mid-1900s to theircurrent ranges. The researchers investigatedpotential relations between historic wolverinedistributions and varying environmental factorssuch as vegetation and temperature. The onlyvariable that could fully account for the historicdistribution patterns was spring snow cover.Extirpation from historic ranges is likely relatedto high levels of human caused mortality and lowto non-existent immigration rates.The findings of Ruggerio et al. (2007) supportAubry et al. (2007), by concluding that currentwolverine populations appear to be relativelysmall and isolated. More research is neededon how landscape features either facilitateor impede immigration and emigration in43

Photo by Denver Bryanpopulations. Low population densities, habitatfragmentation, and high demographic sensitivityto mortality raise concerns among somebiologists that the harvesting of wolverinescould have detrimental effects on theirmetapopulation dynamics.Wolverines are opportunistic; rodents andcarrion form a large part of their diet (Hatler,1989) but they also been eat roots, berries, birdeggs and nestlings, and attack large ungulateshampered by deep snow.Wolverines are generally solitary, but subadultoffspring may travel with both parents priorto independence. Females give birth to kits inFebruary or March in the Northern Rockies. Insome areas, females may produce kits every twoto three years (Wilson, 1982).Currently, the U.S. Forest Service and Bureauof Land Management list the wolverine as asensitive species, and Idaho lists them as aspecies of greatest conservation need (SHCN).Trapping is still allowed on a quota systemin Montana. In 2008, Montana Fish, Wildlifeand Parks reduced overall harvest quota forwolverine to nearly half of previous quotas.Elk (Cervus elaphus)In the Northern Rockies, elk prefer forestand forest edge habitat; they make seasonalelevational movements from higher altitudes inthe summer to mountain valleys in the winter.Elk are highly adaptable and can be found insemi-deserts in the Great Basin. Herds can beresident or migratory. Habitat use is stronglyinfluenced by human activities and roaddensities greater than 1.0 miles/per square milehave been shown to influence habitat security(Lyons et al., 1985). The home range of a nonmigratoryherd is 1.8-5.3 km 2 . Herds exhibithigh site fidelity to their home range, but theymay abandon their home ranges if they areexcessively disturbed.Elk are grazers that utilize grasses and forbs,but will also browse shrubs and small treessuch as aspen. Cow elk live in small herds withcalves throughout the year except in the fallrut, when bulls gather cows into harems.Elk are a big game species that generatesignificant economic revenue, and state harveststrategies and management vary throughout theRocky Mountains.Pronghorn (Antilocapra Americana)Pronghorn prefer open grasslands, sagebrushsteppe, and desert-dominated vegetation lessthan 60cm in height with little or no snowcoverin winter. Pronghorn habitat fragmentationoccurs from human development on seasonalranges. The pronghorn’s winter habitat is idealfor farming and rural residential development,which also provides favorable conditions forcoyotes. An increase in farming and ruraldevelopment has produced a significantdecrease in pronghorn numbers in the GreaterYellowstone Ecosystem that is thought to becaused by high predator-induced mortality ratesduring the winter months (Hansen et al., 2002).Forbs are an important part of the pronghorn’sdiet in spring and summer. Sagebrush dominatestheir diet in winter and grasses in fall andspring. Pronghorn migrate during severe weatherconditions or when warranted by poor habitatconditions; herds have been known to travelover 160 km to avoid deep snow. Fencingalong migration routes can lead to habitatfragmentation due to the pronghorn’s inabilityto maneuver around it. Although pronghorn are44

the fastest land mammal in North America, theyare poor jumpers and, unlike mule deer andelk, usually will not jump fences. Pronghornresearch indicates that fencing in migrationroutes should therefore be minimized to allowaccess to vital winter grounds (Sheldon, 2005).Same-sex herds live together most of the year,with large mixed herds congregating on winterranges and during migration. The pronghorn isclassified as a big game species with harveststrategies that vary by state.Moose (Alces alces)Moose occur in cool, moist boreal and mixeddeciduous forested areas where there is 60 to 70cm of snow cover in the winter. Conifer cover,uneven plant age and the composition of willowsare important habitat components; closedcanopy stands may be important in winter(Mattson, 1985). If adequate riparian habitat isavailable, moose may make substantial use ofmid- to high elevation sagebrush habitat. Theyare the most able of any ungulate to negotiatedeep snow. Snow accumulation is shown toaffect populations even more strongly thanwolf density (Mech et al., 1987). In naturallyregulated ecosystems, predation by bears andwolves is often limited (Van Ballenbergie andBallard, 1994). Moose are non-migratory inNorth America, with an average home range of5-10 km 2 . Moose are primarily browsers, eatingtwigs, bark, and leaves/needles of conifers,but prefer willows and aspen. When available,moose also eat water plants. Moose are knownto be capable of altering the structure anddynamics of boreal forest by their browsing(McInnes et al., 1992), preventing young saplingsfrom growing into tree canopy, creating a forestwith a more open canopy and a well-developedshrub understory.Moose are generally solitary, but maycongregate in small groups on winter habitats.In some areas, small breeding groups will formduring the fall rut. Moose are a big game specieswith individual harvest strategies in each statethroughout the Northern Rockies.Bighorn sheep (Ovis Canadensis)Bighorn sheep prefer semi-open and openvegetation types in rugged terrain with minimalsnow depth in winter and high quality greenforage in growing seasons. Bighorns spend mostof their time close to escape terrain such ascliffs and talus slopes (Pallister, 1974), withcliffs, rocky outcroppings, and very steep slopesnecessary for lambing security. Bighorn sheepdepend on bunchgrasses and shrubs in winterand summer ranges consisting of grasses, sedgesand forbs. They make local movements betweenseasonal ranges and do not readily disperse intonew habitat. Their home range averages 17km². They form same-sex herds during breedingseason (Shakleton et al., 1999). Bighorn sheepare classified as a big game species, with variousstate harvest and management strategies.Ancillary Species:General references for ancillary species includethe following sources. Specific references arelisted within text.Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks Field Guidewww.fieldguide.mt.govNature Serve www.natureserve.orgU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Species website;www.fws.gov/speciesMathews, D. 2003. Rocky Mountain NaturalHistory: Grand Teton to Jasper. Raven Editions,Portland, OR.Sibley, D. 2000. The Sibley Guide to Birds. AlfredKnopf Publishers, New York City, New York.Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)Mule deer prefer sagebrush and forest edgehabitats. They are browsers, with winterdiets largely dependent upon sagebrush. Muledeer are non-migratory, but make seasonalelevational movements. Mule deer live inrelated herds, while males may disperse andlive together in unrelated herds. Mule deer areclassified as a big game species, with harveststrategies that vary by state.45

Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus)Mountain goats prefer precipitous terrain andoccasionally enter subalpine forests. Snowcoveris an important influence on winter distribution.Winter habitat includes steep, south-facingcanyon walls, and windblown ridge tops. Springhabitat includes south and west facing cliffs,while summer habitat consists of meadows, cliffs,ravines, and forests. Their diet varies by rangeand season, and includes grasses, sedges, forbs,coniferous trees, mosses and lichens. They haveseasonal movements of 8-13 km between winterand summer ranges, and may travel even fartherin springtime to access salt licks. Their averagehome range size is 23 km 2 ; although males showlittle home range fidelity and are usually solitary.Female mountain goats form nursery bandsconsisting of females, kids and outlying juvenilemales. Mountain goats may congregate at minerallicks. Mountain goats are classified as a big gamespecies, with harvest strategies that vary bystate.Mountain lion (Puma concolor)Photo by Phil KnightPhoto by Lance CraigheadMountain lions are extremely adaptable, andoccupies almost all habitats in the NorthernRockies except open prairie. Research indicatesa preference for rock formations such asprecipices, canyons, and dense brush. Preferredprey is deer and elk, but may also include othersmall mammals such as mice, rabbit, beaver,porcupine, and grouse. The mountain lion isnon-migratory but disperses widely:

Marten (Martes americana)Martens prefer mature conifer and mixed woodforests with deadfall and snags for denning.In Glacier National Park, research shows thatmartens prefer areas containing mesic spruceand subalpine fir. Martens are omnivorous andprefer to eat small mammals such as voles, miceand shrews, but will also eat birds, insects,and fruit. Martens are non-migratory with anaverage home range size of 0.7 km 2 and 2.9 km 2for females and males respectively. Martens area solitary animal except during breeding seasonand when mothers have kits. They are classifiedas a furbearing species and trapping is allowedin some areas.area, or home range, is 7- 40.5 km². Adultbald eagle pairs mate for life and defendnesting territories. In wintertime, eagleswill congregate near open water where fishand waterfowl are abundant. The federalgovernment delisted bald eagles from theEndangered Species Act and their managementnow lies under state authority.Black bear (Ursus americanus)Habitat use by black bears is tied to seasonalfood availability. Black bears commonly usedense forests, riparian slopes and avalanchechutes during spring green-up. Other favoredhabitats include stream bottoms, wet meadows,and dry mountain meadows. Black bears areomnivorous. Their diet varies by season andconsists of grasses, sedges, berries, fruits,tree cambium, honey, eggs, carrion, rodents,insects and occasionally ungulates. Black bearsare non-migratory but disperses widely. Theirhome range size varies from 41.4 - 336.7 km².Black bears are a big game species with harveststrategies that vary by state.Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)Bald eagles prefer conifer or cottonwoodforested areas in close proximity to water.They feed on fish, waterfowl and other birds,small mammals, and carrion. Their huntingPhoto by Tim &Shelley Duggins47

GUIDE TO READINGPRIORITY LINKAGE ASSESSMENT LINKAGE REPORTS (p 50-192)Major Linkage NameLinkage “scorecard”- see page 30 fordetailsSpeciesAnimalIcons.Theserepresentthemajorspeciesdiscussedfor eachlinkagearea.Geographic BoundaryThe outer boundary of the linkageis described using local landmarks,highways, or other features. The nameof the linkage (i.e. Tobacco Roots toGravelly) describes the general habitatareas that are connected and displayedon the accompanying linkage map.Some linkages, such as Horse Prairie orCentennial Valley, also represent criticalcore habitat as well as connectionsbetween other linkages.Importance of Linkage AreaThe important habitat uses andconnections for several wildlife speciesthat are provided by the linkage areaare described in this section. Theconnections may be between seasonalhabitats within the local geographic area(i.e. bighorn movement between summerand winter range), or linkages betweenthis particular area and adjoining habitatsat a regional scale (i.e. wolverinemovement between major mountainranges).Ecological SettingThe natural features of the linkageare described here. This includesdescriptions of the vegetationcommunities (i.e. kinds of trees andplants), general topography andriver drainages, and the kinds ofhuman development (i.e. highways,railroads, major power lines) or naturaldisturbances (i.e. wild fires) that haveoccurred in the area that influencehabitat quality and continuity.WildlifeThis section describes the primarywildlife uses that occur in the linkage,emphasizing those focal species thathave important wide-ranging or seasonalmovements.48

Conservation ThreatsHuman activities or developments within alinkage that adversely affect the ability ofwildlife to use existing habitat or to movethrough the area are considered to beconservation threats. This includes such thingsas highways and railroads that fragment habitatcontinuity and may be a mortality hazard,subdivisions that remove habitat and increasehuman presence in an area, or high intensityrecreational use or roads that represent enoughsustained disturbance to limit wildlife useof an area. Often these threats may not beindividually severe but in combination withothers, are sufficient to reduce potentialwildlife uses. Those activities or developmentsthat are the most permanent on the landscaperepresent the greatest threats.Conservation OpportunitiesOpportunities to conserve habitat throughprivate or public land management actionsare described in this section. The focus is onpeople who are living or working in a particularlinkage and are concerned about maintainingor improving wildlife habitat quality andconnectivity. The presence of conservationmindedcitizen groups or individuals, nongovernmentalorganizations and partnerships,and state and/or federal agency plans that arefocused on maintaining or improving habitatquality and connectivity is emphasized.Linkage map-This map displays the general area of a linkage, and map labels representsome of the local landmarks for which the linkage is named. Specificwildlife movement corridors within the area are NOT displayed becausethey are variable depending on the wildlife species, and upon weather,seasonal disturbances and many other factors.49

Absaroka to CraziesSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area includes the foothillsand valley floor between the south end ofthe Crazy Mountains and the north end ofthe Absaroka Range. The east and westsides of this linkage follow the width ofthe Crazy Mountains. Sheep Mountainand Springdale are within this linkagearea, and cross Interstate 90.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides connectivityfor local ungulate movement from thefoothills into the higher elevations ofthe Crazy Mountains. There is also eastwestmovement across the foothills intothe Shields River Valley. On a largerscale, this linkage area connects theCrazy Mountains to the Absaroka Range,and south to the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Crazy Mountains, AbsarokaRange.Ecological SettingThis link spans the Yellowstone Riverbelow the mouth of the Shields Riverroughly between Livingston andSpringdale. The foothills on eitherside of the Yellowstone are primarilygrasslands with scattered patches ofjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum), limberpine (Pinus flexilis), and Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii). Riparian habitatalong the river supports cottonwood(Populus spp), red-osier dogwood (Cornusstolonifera) and willows (Salix spp.)in fairly dense stands. The linkageintersects the Yellowstone River corridorin a relatively narrow canyon thatcontains the Yellowstone River, Interstate90, a secondary highway, a major railroad50and two power lines. Irrigated hay land,pasture, and some cropland are present.Several ranches and dispersed residencesare located in the linkage, mostly nearthe Yellowstone River.WildlifeGrizzly: There are consistent reports ofgrizzly bears in the Crazy Mountains. Thislinkage area is open country that lackscover and is not ideal for large carnivoremovement. It is, however, considered apotential link for wolverine.Wolves move through Springdale intothe Shields River Valley where preyare numerous. Wolves may come intoconflict with cattle and domestic sheepproduction.Elk: Falls Creek is elk winter range. Theelk move high into the Crazy Mountains insummer. Also, a large herd uses a privateranch in the Sheep Mountain area.Pronghorn: There is good pronghornhabitat along the south Crazies, mostlyon private land. The sagebrush steppe onthe east side of the Crazy Mountains (tothe east of this linkage area) is also veryhigh quality winter range with 200 to 300pronghorn.Conservation ThreatsConflict: Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parksis limited in its ability to manage/harvestelk on a 40,000 acre private ranch. Also,hunting access to public lands is restrictedby access across private lands in manyplaces around the Gallatin National Forestand Crazy Mountains. Significant elkherds and pronghorn forage on privateagricultural lands. Social acceptance,along with carnivore abatement, may beat issue with domestic sheep producers.

Highways: Interstate 90 runs east-west directlythrough this linkage; there is a high risk of bothanimal-vehicle collisions and avoidance of thearea around I-90 by wildlife.Energy Development: Oil and gas permitshave been leased by the State for natural gasexploration in this area. Future developmentmay include areas beneath the YellowstoneRiver, and north of Big Timber.Conservation OpportunitiesThere is a ¼ mile setback from the YellowstoneRiver for oil and gas exploration, althoughdrilling may occur sideways, beneath the river.Community groups may organize to address thisissue.51

BangtailsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Bangtails linkage area is boundedby the Bridger Mountains on the west,extending into the Shields River Valley,with the towns of Wilsall and Sedanforming the northern boundary. Theeastern boundary is Highway 89, andthe southern boundary is Interstate 90.This linkage area includes the BangtailMountains and the surrounding foothills.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Bangtails function as a connectionfor ungulates and carnivores betweenthe Shields River Valley and the southend of the Bridgers and Gallatin Ranges.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bridgers, Bangtails, andGallatinsEcological SettingThe Bangtail Mountains have undergoneintensive and widespread timber harvest,which created a high density of networkedroads. There are no large intact foreststands remaining in this linkage. Thesemountains are (were) heavily forestedby Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),while foothills to the east are moresparsely timbered with Douglas-fir, withmany intervening grasslands and opensagebrush slopes. South-facing slopes atall elevations tend to be less timbered.The east side foothills contain a series ofparallel, eastward-flowing drainages thatsupport small streams and riparian habitat.Outside of logging areas, road densitiesare still moderately high. The closeproximity to Bozeman results in significantrecreational use, both motorized and nonmotorized,of the Bangtail linkage. Someresidential development has occurredalong the Bridger Canyon road along the52west boundary of the linkage, and alongBrackett Creek on the north boundary.Elevation in the Bangtail linkage rangesfrom about 5,000 feet to over 7,800 feet.WildlifeThis area primarily functions as amovement corridor for elk as they movebetween summer and winter range.Wolves have been sighted in this linkagearea, particularly in Kelly Canyon.The area is full of wild ungulates, andtherefore is attractive to wolves. Althoughthe valley portions of the linkage areopen and have low human population,the social intolerance for carnivoresmay make it difficult for them to travelthrough the linkage.Elk are expanding their numbers,particularly in their winter range, fromthe Bridger Canyon area to BrackettCreek. The east side of the Bridgers(thus, the west side of this linkage area)is summer range for elk, particularly PineCreek to Slushman’s Creek. The valleyarea on the east side of the linkage area,between Clyde Park and Wilsall is elkwinter range.Pronghorn: The entire valley areawithin this linkage is potential pronghornhabitat; they move throughout the ShieldsRiver Valley. There is a very small herdof pronghorn that move between KellyCanyon and Jackson Creek Road.Conservation ThreatsConflict: There is social intoleranceof carnivores in this linkage area,particularly in the valley areas wherethere are livestock operators.Highways: Pronghorn are crossingHighway 89 frequently. Currently, there

is low threat because of low traffic volume, butthis could change with increasing developmentand human population.Loss of Access: Increasingly, access to publiclands across private lands is becoming morelimited. This leads to “privatization” of wildlifeand inhibits Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parksfrom meeting their target numbers for wildpopulations. This issue is particularly relevantin the east valley between Brackett Creek andWilsall, and just outside Livingston, whererecently a 20,000 acre ranch was purchased,public access cut off, with an effort to createfood plots for wildlife, particularly gamebirds.Conservation OpportunitiesThere may be opportunities to promote “livingwith wildlife” programs in the area, especiallyas carnivore populations in the Greater Yellowstoneecosystem, and the likelihood of encounters,continues to increase.53

Bear CreekSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Bear Creek linkage is located thevery southern of the Bitterroot Valley, andincludes edges of the Bitterroot NationalForest. The northern boundary is RockCreek, and the southern boundary, thetown of Darby. The eastern boundary isthe Spring Hill area, just west of SleepingChild Creek, and the western boundary isthe upper reaches of Rock Creek south toTin Cup Creek.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage provides east-westconnectivity between the Selway-Bitterroot ecosystem, the SapphireMountains, and the Lost Trail area.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Selway-Bitterroot ecosystem andthe Sapphire Mountains.Ecological SettingThe Bear Creek linkage spans theBitterroot River at a narrow constrictionof the larger valley between CharlosHeights and Darby. Most of the areais forested with ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) with some other tree species.The river bottom supports large standsof cottonwood (Populus spp.) and willow(Salix spp.) riparian habitat. Lake Como,on Rock Creek, lies at the western endof the linkage. Highway 93 bisects thelinkage. Timber harvest occurs in bothends of the linkage but with a higherdensity road network to the west end.Subdivisions and residential developmenthave fragmented habitat through themiddle part of the linkage, and somepasture land along the river has removedwoody riparian vegetation. Elevations inthe linkage range from about 3,800 feetto 4,300 feet.54WildlifeThe drainages in this linkage area aresmall, narrow, and steep, literallyfunneling animals into the valley as thepath of least topographic resistance.The Bear Creek drainage is an importantwildlife movement area that comes downoff the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness andinto the linkage area.The Lolo Peak to Lost Trail Pass area,across the Bitterroot ridgeline to thewest of this linkage, is very importantfor carnivore (grizzly, wolves, andwolverine) connectivity. The Selway-Bitterroot area, which is partially in thewest end of this linkage, is part of corehabitat for fisher as well- this is the onlycore area for fisher in Montana.Grizzly move south from the LoloNational Forest, through the westernend of this linkage, and into the Selway-Bitterroot ecosystem.Wolves: This area was historically thewestern range end for wolves; they arenow moving east from central Idahointo the Bitterroot Valley and beyond.At least twelve active wolf packs livearound the Bitterroot Valley and thislinkage area. They have an abundant preybase, primarily whitetail deer, along allthe riparian areas associated with theBitterroot River. Wolves move primarilyalong the foothills of the linkage area,and not within the densely populatedvalley. The best, most likely place forwolf movement in this linkage, is aroundthe Blue Mountain area between Darbyand Sula.There is a major population of elkaround Darby, but development is rapidlyconsuming winter range. Patte Canyonto the east fork of the Bitterroot River isimportant winter range area for elk, as

large range on private land south of Rye Creek.Moose occur in nearly all the riparian drainageswithin this linkage area.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is heavy in the Bitterroot Valleywhich is transforming from logging/agriculturalland base into a bedroom community forMissoula. Currently, land use planning tools arein their beginning phases within Granite Countyand are highly controversial. Many ranchettetypedevelopments occur within this linkagearea.Fencing is an issue impeding wildlife movementthrough the linkage area. There is alsosignificant off-highway vehicle (OHV) use.Invasive weeds, such as spotted knapweedand leafy spurge, have some of the highestinfestation rates in this linkage of anywhere elsein the state.Highway 93 is particularly deadly for wildlifelike Bighorn sheep, which frequently crossingnorth of Darby. Where Rock Creek and LostHorse Creek cross Highway 93, is a hotspotfor animal-vehicle collisions. There are over30,000 commuters a day between Missoula andthe Bitterroot Valley; collision probability ishigh. Furthermore, the presence of high trafficvolumes and road expansion create habitatfragmentation.Conservation OpportunitiesHighway 93 would be a great area to promotethe mitigation of wildlife road crossings.There is already support for a commuterhighway project; timing is good for advancingwildlife measures as well. Although GraniteCounty is more conservative regarding landuse regulations, things are slowly changing,and people may be receptive to advancingcollaborative, smart growth practices; there arethree pro-land regulation county commissionersin office. The Bitterroot Open Lands board hassome funding available but has not yet begunprojects; it would be beneficial to get thisinformation to them.Land Conservation: There is a large ranchbetween Darby and Rye Creek that may beconserved; the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundationis involved in private land conservation in thislinkage area.There may be opportunities to protect riverdrainages in the linkage; these areas arevital for wildlife movement and are currentlyprotected from development because of theirsteep topography. Also, there may be peoplein the Stockman’s Association who could beapproached to discuss “living with wildlife”solutions. The valley is ripe for outreach, toeducate the public on small measures that canbenefit wildlife, like containing unattendedpets.55

Big BeltsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area is primarily comprisedof the Big Belt Mountains. They arebordered by the Canyon Ferry-HelenaValley on the west, and the Smith RiverValley on the east, the Bridger Mountainsto the south.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area connects animalsmoving southeast out of the Sawtooths/Marysville area with the BridgerMountains and, ultimately, the northernend of the Greater Yellowstoneecosystem to the south. It could functionas a link between the Sawtooths (RockyMountain Front) and the Little BeltMountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Sawtooths (Rocky MountainFront) and Bridgers.Ecological SettingThe Big Belts are an isolated mountainrange on the east side of the MissouriRiver drainage, adjacent to Canyon Ferryreservoir. The linkage is mostly forestedby Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)with lodgepole pine (P. contorta) andwhitebark pine (P. albicaulus) at higherelevations intermixed with open meadowsand riparian valleys. South-facing slopesare typically less heavily forested thannorth-facing slopes and higher elevations.Foothills are drier with scattered RockyMountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum)and limber pine (P. flexilis) and a varietyof shrubs on some sites. At the lowestelevations, all tree cover gives way tograsslands and scattered big sagebrushstands (Artemisia tridentata spp.). Manyof these habitats have been convertedto dry land grain and irrigated cropland,57particularly on the alluvial flats on theeast side of Canyon Ferry Reservoir.Timber harvest has occurred throughoutthe linkage, particularly on the north end,using a high density road network, wherethere is a distinct checkerboard patternof land ownership. Extensive forestedareas remain intact and unroaded in thecentral part of the linkage. Highway12 crosses the south end of the linkage.Elevations in the linkage range from about3,500 feet adjacent to Canyon FerryReservoir to over 9,500 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions primarilyas a movement corridor for carnivoresand ungulates. The northern end ofthe Big Belts is the most likely linkagesto the Little Belt Mountains to the eastacross the Upper Smith River Valley fromthe Birch Creek drainage north to theMilligan Hill area, encompassing the DryRange.Grizzly bears: This area could serve as apotential north-south movement corridor.There have been unconfirmed reports ofgrizzly bear around York.Black bear can be found throughout theBig Belts.Wolves have been reported in thislinkage area, particularly around theEdith Lake area. On a regional scale,this linkage is thought to be a potentialnorth-south corridor for wolves movingbetween the Greater Yellowstone andNorthern Continental Divide ecosystem.Wolverines have been sighted yeararoundin the Gates of the Mountainsarea; the area at Sweats Creek betweenYork and Nelson is potential denninghabitat, with many fallen trees fromstorms. The entire crest of the BigBelts, such as Boulder-Baldy, is potential

wolverine habitat.Lynx are present in very small numbers onHogback Mountain. The lynx habitat in thislinkage area is marginal.Elk thrive on good summertime forage habitatin the Big Belts. Elk Ridge and Jim Ball Basinare examples of summer range, composed ofvery productive, high quality habitat with alot of open grasslands. The west slopes of theBig Belts have several important winter rangeareas, such as White’s Creek and Deep Creek.The White’s Creek- White Gulch- ConfederateGulch to Duck Creek area is a distinct winterrange on private land. Elk migrate up the westslope winter range to summer on the Big BeltDivide at the head of Rock Creek and BeaverCreek. Elk at the Cottonwood Creek and RayCreek winter range are the southernmost elkherd in this linkage area. Elk also winter onthe east side of the Big Belts, particularly alongthe flanks of the mountains near Birch Creek.Pronghorn are found at Canyon Ferry to DeepCreek and from East Helena to Canyon Ferryduring the winter, spring, and fall. East ofCanyon Ferry, there is a herd of about 600antelope that are doing well on agriculturallands.Moose in this linkage area are found around thelower drainages of all the 2nd and 3rd orderstreams around Townsend. The Big Belts aredry habitat and therefore not “prime” moosehabitat. Moose can be found in the southwestBig Belts in the north fork of Deep Creek. Other“moosey” areas of this linkage are in CabinGulch, Sulphur Bar, and Hay Creek. On the eastside of the Big Belts, moose can be found inthe Gypsy Lake, Birch Creek and Camas Creekareas.Mountain goats were transplanted in thismountain range from the Sleeping Giant areafollowing a population die-off from pneumonia.Mountain goats can be found primarily in foursubpopulations located in the Beaver Creek,Avalanche-Hellgate, Boulder-Baldy, and Mt.Edith areas with scattered individuals foundelsewhere. The goats tend to come down tothe lower flat areas of the linkage during springgreen-up.58Mule deer can be found throughout the BigBelts, with important winter range in theWhite Creek area. Conversely, this is also animportant area for mountain lions, whoseprimary prey are mule deer.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Most of Jim Ball Basin is privateland. Within this linkage area, much of theungulate winter range is on private land. Iftheses lands were to be developed, it wouldnegatively impact the elk and mule deerpopulations.Recreation: the area between Trout Creek andMagpie Gulch is a bottleneck for wildlife dueto the high amount of motorized recreation inthe area. Avalanche Creek, which is importantfor mountain goats, is another high-use area formotorized recreation.Highways are a threat due to the fragmentationof habitat from both the roads and associateddevelopment, and from direct animal-vehiclecollisions. The Hellgate area on the east sideof Canyon Ferry is a hotspot for elk collisionson Highway 284. U.S. Highway 12 also crossesthe south end of the Big Belts and is a potentialsource of collisions and fragmentation.Loss of Access: Increasingly, access to publicand private lands is becoming more restricted.This leads to “privatization” of wildlife and aloss of ability for Montana Fish, Wildlife andParks to meet their target numbers for wildpopulations. In this linkage area, the White’sCreek- White Gulch- Confederate Gulch toDuck Creek elk winter range is on private land;Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks is no longerable to manage this herd.Noxious Weeds, particularly Dalmatian toadflax,Spotted Knapweed, and Leafy Spurge, are a bigissue. Their presence is negatively affectingungulate forage in grasslands and meadows.Fire suppression in the area has led to coniferencroachment, which is causing a loss ofvaluable montane parkland habitat. This couldeventually lead to a catastrophic fire.Disease: The mountain goat population hadto be transplanted after an initial die-off due

to disease transmission between domesticand bighorn sheep. There are existing grazingallotments within the linkage area thatmake areas like Trout Creek to Magpie Gulcha bottleneck. Insect borne tree diseaseconcentrates in areas like the Mount Edithand Boulder-Baldy area. There are estimatesthat 90% of the high elevation forest in theseareas has already been killed. The risk of acatastrophic fire increases.Oil and gas leases are a threat in thislinkage, from Birch Creek to Deep Creek, andparticularly in the Mount Baldy area.Grazing has led to conflicts and wildlifemortality; elk and domestic livestock competefor forage, and mountain goats and bighornsheep are very susceptible to lethal diseasetransmission from domestic sheep. There are alot of cattle ranching on the east side of the BigBelts; this area also functions as winter rangefor elk.Conservation OpportunitiesMost of this linkage area is within the HelenaNational Forest; therefore, the publiccommenting process for forest managementactivities is a great opportunity for influencinghow wildlife connectivity is factored into forestmanagement. The Helena National Forestrecently completed travel planning for the BigBelts, which should improve the off-road vehiclesituation.There are some opportunities for private landconservation along the flats area of the westcentralfoothills of the Big Belts. There mayalso be opportunity to promote conservationactivities and reduce grazing pressure inthe Russell Fork-Deep Creek area. This areais not developing as fast as other parts of thelinkage; there may still be time to get effectiveconservation and stewardship efforts in place.59

Big Belts to Little BeltsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the BirchCreek and Newlan Creek drainages fromthe Big Belt Mountains through the SmithRiver Valley. It includes Camas Creekfrom the Big Belt Mountains to where itties into the Smith River, down to wherethe Smith River ties into Sheep Creek.The western boundary is the east slopeof the Big Belt Mountains. The northernboundary is the south edge of Dry Range.The eastern boundary is the foothills ofthe Little Belt Mountains. The southernboundary cuts across the Smith RiverValley at the Park Hills and White SulphurSprings.Importance of Linkage AreaThe linkage provides for movementbetween the Big Belt Mountains and LittleBelt Mountains and includes the SmithRiver corridor, primarily through a seriesof east-west drainages flowing into eachother in the Smith River Valley. The areaalso provides connectivity for local northsouthungulate within the valley to movebetween summer to winter range, andaccess from the Smith River Valley to thehigher elevation summer range via thesouthern creek drainages.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Little Belt Mountains, Big BeltMountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage spans the upper Smith Riverbasin northwest of White Sulphur Springs.The most notable feature of this area isthe confluence of many smaller tributarystreams with the Smith River and theirrather large riparian zones, and theabundance of irrigated hay fields and croplands. Small reservoirs and stock pondshave been impounded on many of these60tributaries. Two larger reservoirs eastof this linkage provide extensive canalsystems for irrigating upland areas andcenter pivot systems are clustered butfairly widespread in the linkage. Adjacentrolling foothills are vegetated withsagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.) andgrasslands up to the lower slopes of theBig Belt and Little Belts where scatteredpatches of ponderosa pine and Douglas-firoccur. Many of the first patches of timberon the west side of the basin have beenclear-cut with less intensive harvest inother areas. A few farms and ranches arelocated in close association with irrigatedgrounds, and general access roads arepresent throughout the linkage. Averageelevation of the linkage is about 5,000feet.WildlifeThis linkage area is a checkerboardof ranchlands intermingled with stateland. It contains yearlong pronghornand elk habitat. The creeks flowing intothe valley provide movement corridorsfor moose, black bears and potentially,wolverines. The Birch Creek Bar sagegrouse lek is within this linkage area. Thevalley is good wolf habitat although nopacks currently occupy this linkage area.Black bear move between the Big BeltMountains and Little Belt Mountains alongBirch Creek and Newlan Creek. Theseareas provide good riparian cover. CamasCreek to the Smith River to Sheep Creekwas also identified as a corridor forpotential black bear movement as it ismostly native habitat and there are lowamounts of human development.Wolves: A wolf was killed west of theSmith River Wildlife Management Area.It was considered a lone wolf, probablyoriginating in the Little Belt Mountains.Also, there have been unconfirmed wolf

sightings in the Birch Creek area. There is wolfhabitat but no known packs occupying thislinkage area. There is the potential for wolfmovement east-west across the Smith RiverValley.Wolverine: This linkage area was identified asa potential movement corridor between the BigBelt Mountains and Little Belt Mountains.Elk: From the Smith River into Sheep Creek, onthe eastern edge of this linkage area, there is afairly large number of elk on private land yearround.This area is winter range for migratoryelk that move in summer to higher elevations inthe Little Belt Mountains. The entire east slopeof the Big Belt Mountains, part of which ties intothis linkage area, is excellent winter range. Elkcome out along the flanks of these foothills intothe local ranchlands. From Highway 12 northto Rock Creek (the boundaries on the north andsouth side of this linkage area) observed elknumber over 2100. Elk currently number over1500 within Hunting District 446. They moveseasonally up and down in elevation but themajority of the elk are on private land yearround.Moose: The drainages of Camas Creek - SmithRiver to Sheep Creek were identified as apotential moose movement corridor becauseof native habitat and low human development.Newlan Creek is another potential moose linkagethat crosses the Smith River Valley into thislinkage area, although it is more open habitatand less suitable for moose.Pronghorn: The Smith River Valley between theBig Belt Mountains and the Little Belt Mountainsis considered year-long pronghorn habitat. Somepronghorns move from their summer range inHunting District 450 (to the north) across DryRange corridor to Hunting District 490 (withinthis linkage area).Bald eagles nest along Camas Creek and theSmith River.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Smith River Valley ranchesare beginning to sell. Private land ownersare buying land and closing off public access.Most of Hunting District 446 is private land.The elk herds are increasing on some of thisland, expanding their range, but are generallyinaccessible by the public.Fences: Some fences on private land mayhinder movement. Elk-resistant fences havebeen constructed to keep elk out of ag-lands.Conflict: Cattle ranching dominates here, andthere is a high social intolerance for wolves.One wolf was killed on private land and denningis unlikely. Also, the potential for wolves in theLittle Belt Mountains, long-term, is very low dueto potential conflict with domestic livestock innumerous grazing allotments. Grazing conflictsbetween elk and cattle exist in both the LittleBelt Mountains and the Big Belt Mountains.Conservation OpportunitiesThe human density is low in the linkage, withonly one road going south through this linkage.Thus, the linkage is relatively intact. However,few conservation easement opportunitiesexist. The private land is being purchased forrecreational use and, consequently, privatizing/outfitting the wildlife.The only chance for the Smith River Valley andthis linkage area to be viable wolf habitat isif conservation groups work with ranchers toinstitute a compensation program.61

Boulder DrainageSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis forested linkage is set on thenortheast side of the Absaroka Range.The town of Big Timber forms thenortheast boundary, and the YellowstoneRiver is the northern boundary. Theeastern boundary runs between theBoulder River and Deer Creek south toSlough Creek. The southern boundary runsbetween Slough and Hellroaring Creeks.The western boundary swings west andnorth from Hellroaring Creek to includethe West Boulder Plateau north of thetown of Livingston.Importance of Linkage AreaThis area functions as a linkage betweenthe Yellowstone National Park to thesouth and the Crazy Mountains to thenorth. It also connects the Beartooths tothe Absarokas.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Absarokas, Beartooths, andCraziesEcological SettingThis linkage contains the entire BoulderRiver watershed, including a widediversity of habitat on a highly variablelandscape. It extends from the edgeof the Yellowstone River valley to thehigh peaks of the Absaroka BeartoothWilderness Area, adjacent to YellowstoneNational Park. Lower elevation grasslandsborder the Yellowstone River corridor,with scattered patches of skunkbrush(Rhus trilobata), chokecherry (Prunusvirginiana), sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata spp.), Ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa), and Rocky Mountain juniper(Juniperus scopulorum). Foothill areasare more consistently forested withDouglas-fir, with lodgepole pine (P.contorta), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),and whitebark pine (P. albicaulis)becoming increasingly common aselevation increases. Scattered irrigatedhay land and pasture are present in lowerriparian areas associated with largeranches. A major road up the BoulderRiver valley provides access to theStillwater platinum/palladium mine inthe headwaters of the Boulder. Severallarge wildfires in this linkage have leftextensive areas of standing dead timber.Some lower elevation timber harvest hasoccurred in the linkage with a moderateroad density. At least one-third of thislinkage is included in the AbsarokaBeartooth Wilderness Area, which hasprevented most development fromoccurring. Elevations in the linkage varyfrom about 4,800 feet to nearly 11,000feet.WildlifeThis area has great wildlife habitat andprovides both riparian and high alpinehabitat.Grizzlies occupy this area, and areexpanding their ranges. The West Boulderand Livingston Peak to Mission Creekall have grizzly bear activity, includinga recent female with cubs. In theSpringdale area, there is the potential formovement north to the Crazies.Wolves: The Moccasin Lake pack lives inthe northern part of the linkage. Thereis a lot of wolf movement between BigTimber and Livingston, particularly aroundMcLeod, Mission Creek, Mount Greeley,and the West Boulder River.Wolverines occupy this area. Wolverinesigns have been found in the UpperBoulder River, Elephant Creek and Northand South Fork of Deep Creek.63

Elk move within this linkage for winter range,and move between Mission Creek and theBoulder River, up into the Absarokas andBeartooths for summer range. Dry Creek, on theeast side of Livingston, is also a winter range.There is a small resident herd around Elk Creekthat winters along the West Boulder River. Someof the elk within this linkage originated from theYellowstone northern range herd.Moose occur along the main stem of BoulderRiver, which is great habitat. They also moveseasonally into the McLeod area and up into theAbsarokas.Pronghorn are found in the northern part of thislinkage, particularly between Springdale andLivingston, which has great sage steppe habitat.Bighorn sheep: The Haystack herd exists inUpper Boulder River.Mountain goats live in the Absarokas, in the PineCreek area, and are expanding their numberssuch that a new hunting district for mountaingoats has opened inCooke City.Harlequin ducksalso occur in thislinkage, whichrepresents theeasternmost(known) population.191 has a number of animal-vehicle collisions,particularly with pronghorns.Disease: There is some threat of diseasetransmission to bighorn sheep, but the numberof active grazing allotments near bighorn sheeppopulations is dwindling.Conservation OpportunitiesThe Federation for North American Wild Sheephas been buying out sheep allotments in thislinkage.There are many conservation easements in themain Boulder River stem.There is a watershed group in McLeod and BigTimber; this may be an avenue for living withwildlife programs.ConservationThreatsConflict: Due tothe high number ofsheep producers,and the existingwolf activity, thereis a history ofconflict betweenlivestock producersand wolves withinthe Big Timber andLivingston areas,particularly aroundthe Springdale.Highways: Highway64

Bozeman PassSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Bozeman Pass linkage area isbetween the south end of the BridgerMountains and the north end of theGallatin Range. It is bordered by theBozeman on the west and Livingston onthe east. The linkage area contains thesteep, rugged area at Bozeman Pass andthe mountainous foothills in the east andwest sides of the Pass.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Bozeman Pass is the first majorlinkage area that wildlife encounter asthey move north along the Gallatins outof Yellowstone National Park. This linkagecould provide connectivity between theisolated ranges of the eastern Hub region(Bridgers and Big Belt Mountains) to theGreater Yellowstone ecosystem.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bridger Mountains, GallatinRangeEcological SettingThe Bozeman pass linkage spans the lowmountain pass between Bozeman andLivingston. The Bozeman side of thelinkage passes through a relatively narrowsteep canyon at Jackson Creek. Theeast side follows Billman Creek throughmore open, rolling foothills. LowerJackson Creek is forested by Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) with numerouscliffs and rock outcroppings on bothsides. The upper Jackson Creek drainageis open meadow bounding a broadwillow (Salix spp.) riparian area, someof it supporting beaver pond complexes.Riparian habitat along Billman Creek isdominated by willows, aspen (Populustremuloides), and some cottonwood(Populus spp.). Uplands east of the passsupport scattered patches of Douglas-fir,65limber pine (Pinus flexilis), lodgepolepine (P. contorta), aspen, chokecherry(Prunus virginiana), and variousgrasslands. Interstate 90 passes throughthe entire length of the linkage, alongwith a railroad corridor, secondary roadsand a major power line. The Trail Creekroad bisects the east half of the linkagewhile the Jackson Creek road bisectsthe northern half. Residential and smallsubdivision development has occurredthroughout the linkage in upper JacksonCreek, Meadow Creek and all of BillmanCreek. Elevations range from about 5,500feet on the Bozeman end to 6,000 feeton the pass, to about 5,000 feet nearLivingston.WildlifeThis wildlife corridor occurs just to thenorth of an extremely rich wildlife areatheGallatin Crest and the Madison Range.These areas are fantastic wildlife habitatbordering the north side of YellowstoneNational Park; therefore, they receiveexpanding ungulate and carnivorepopulations. The Bozeman Pass area willvery likely see an increase in wildlife,particularly carnivores, as populationsincrease the need for new territories.Grizzly currently are not known tocross this linkage area; however, manybiologists believe it will happen, becausea strong, thriving, and expandingpopulation of grizzly live just to the southin the Hyalite Canyon of the Gallatins,and south of Livingston.Wolves are reported on a more incidentalbasis, with one wolf identified in KellyCanyon on the west side of the linkage.Wolves are in the adjacent Bangtails andaround Livingston, and could exist withinthe linkage. Wolves are known to movenorth-south along the Gallatins just to the

south of the linkage area.Wolverines move across this linkage. They arefound in ranges to the north (Bridgers), and tothe south (Gallatins); therefore, this linkagemay be very important for genetic connectivitybetween the groups. In fact, both ranges, andthis linkage area, may be the home range ofone breeding male. The Bridgers and Gallatinshave abundant hunter-killed carcasses andabundant ungulate populations, making the areaattractive for foraging wolverines.According to old furbearer records, lynxhistorically lived in the Bridgers and in theGallatins. Last year, lynx were documentedin Yellowstone; it is conceivable thateventually, if their populations expand, theycould cross Bozeman Pass. However, currentlynx populations in the Greater Yellowstoneecosystem are very low.Elk occur throughout this linkage and moveregularly across Bozeman Pass. A winteringground is located at Mt. Ellis, on the south sideof the linkage.Moose frequently cross Bozeman Pass on thewest side of the linkage area.Pronghorn live in small numbers in this linkagearea, particularly between Kelly Canyon andJackson Creek.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment around Bozeman Pass is high;the Bozeman area has exploded with growthover the last decade, and Livingston, on theeast side of the linkage area, is also growing.With development pressure and the Interstate,this linkage could effectively sever one ofthe most direct movement paths betweenYellowstone and the isolated mountain rangesof the eastern Hub conservation area. Thedevelopment around both Bozeman andLivingston is already encroaching upon ungulatewinter range around Mt. EllisRecreation, particularly off-highway vehicles(OHV) and snow skiing, is prolific in theBridgers on the north side of the linkage area,thus making habitat less secure for wildlifeafter they cross Interstate 90. Rock climbingoccurs in such steep and rugged terrain thatanimals would not likely be affected.Interstate 90 is one of the largest threatsin this linkage and causes frequent wildlifemortality through animal-vehicle collisions;over 700 animals have been killed in the lastfive years alone. The Interstate is also anavoidance barrier for animals unable to cross,effectively fragmenting the Bridgers from theGallatin Range.Conservation OpportunitiesConservation Awareness: Wildlife movementacross Interstate 90 is getting significantattention on Bozeman Pass. The effectivenessof a newly created underpass at Bear Canyonis being determined, and data still underway.66

BridgersSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Bridgers linkage area is bounded bythe Bangtail Mountains and the ShieldsRiver Valley to the east, Interstate 90 tothe south, and the Gallatin Valley on thewest. The northern edge of the linkagearea corresponds with the northern endof the Bridger Mountain Chain.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Bridgers linkage area provides northsouthwildlife connectivity between theheart of the northern Greater Yellowstoneecosystem (Gallatins, Madisons, andAbsaroka Mountains) and the Big BeltMountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bridgers, Bangtails, Gallatins ,Big Belts, Madisons, AbsarokasEcological SettingThe Bridger Mountains are a singlenarrow line of peaks steeply rising morethan 4,500 feet above the GallatinValley. The 3,200 foot drop into BridgerCreek is only slightly less dramatic. Thehighest elevations are bare rock andsnowfields, gradually changing to steepforested slopes and ridge tops supportingwhitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis),subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa).Engelmann spruce (Picea englemannii),lodgepole pine (P. contorta), and Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) are dominanton mid to lower slopes. Grassy parksand wet meadows are interspersedwithin the forest on the east side of thepeaks, and on lower foothills. Lowestslopes on the west side grade into patchysagebrush grasslands, ranchettes andsubdivisions. Bridger Creek, tributary tothe Gallatin river, drains the southeastside of the linkage, while Brackett Creekand Flathead Creek, tributaries to the68Shields River, drain the northeast end.All of these streams support deciduousriparian vegetation dominated by willows(Salix spp), with some aspen (Populustremuloides) and narrow-leaf cottonwood(P. angustifolia). Some intensive timberharvest has occurred west of BridgerCreek with a moderate density roadnetwork. Bridger Bowl Ski Area occupiesa subalpine basin near the Bridger Creek-Brackett Creek divide. Residentialdevelopment has occurred in BridgerCreek while widespread ranchettes andsubdivisions have been developed allalong the western foothills in the GallatinValley. High levels of both motorized andnon-motorized recreational use occurs inthe linkage due to its close proximity tothe city of Bozeman.WildlifeThis area is an island mountain range.It has local, healthy populations ofungulates. Wolverines occupy the range.This linkage could be used by carnivoreslike grizzly bear and wolves if they arepermitted to exist here.Wolves have been sighted in this linkage,particularly in Kelly Canyon. The areais full of wild ungulates, and thereforea potentially great wolf attraction. TheBridgers are expected to become a moreestablished north-south corridor forwolves traveling between the Gallatinsand areas further north, like the Big BeltMountains.Wolverines have been tracked and photodocumented within the Bridgers; theyoccupy the northerly end of the rangemoving between the Gallatins, Bridgers,and the Crazies.Elk calve and winter on the west sideof the linkage. The area from BridgerCanyon area to Brackett Creek is winter

ange for about 200 elk, and the Springhill areais winter range for a herd of 300-400 animals.The east side of the Bridgers is summer rangefor elk, particularly, Pine Creek to Slushman’sCreek.Pronghorn: There is a very small herd ofpronghorn that move between Kelly Canyon andJackson Creek Road. Pronghorn also inhabit theflatter areas of the west slope foothills.Moose winter in the Bridgers; they can be foundbetween Pine Creek and Slushman’s Creek.Mountain goats were introduced into theBridgers in the 1960’s and live within the Ross’sPeak to Sacajawea Peak area.Mule deer and whitetail deer winter throughoutthe west Bridgers, particularly the Springhillarea.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is a considerable threat to thislinkage . The explosion of development inthe Gallatin Valley, and consequent increasein people recreating among the Bridgers, willheighten the risk of human-wildlife conflict,habitat fragmentation, and reduced habitatquality.Conflict has occurred for years betweenagricultural operators and deer and elk in thislinkage area.Highways: Interstate 90 between Bozemanand Livingston is a hotspot for animal-vehiclecollisions. I-90 may be a fracture zone forwildlife moving between the Bridgers andGallatins.Recreation: The local ski area is consideringan expansion to the east side of the Bridgers.The expanded support facilities and additionalski runs would increase human presence in thearea.Conservation OpportunitiesThere may be opportunities to promote“living with wildlife” programs in the Bridgerslinkage, especially as carnivore populations inthe Greater Yellowstone ecosystem, and thelikelihood of encounters, continue to increase.Mitigation for wildlife along 1-90 has benconstructed at Bear Canyon near Bozeman.There is a high level of community awareness ofthe issues with wildlife-vehicle collisionswithin the Bozeman and Livingston communities.69

Castles to CraziesSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the entireCastle Mountains south to the northfoothills of the Crazy Mountains. Thewestern edge follows the west slope ofthe Castle Mountains south across Hwy294. The eastern edge abuts WhetstoneRidge and heads south to the east of thetown of Lennep.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides connectivityfor local ungulate movement from thefoothills into the higher elevations of theCastle Mountains. There is also northsouthmovement across Hwy 294 from theCastle Mountains to the Crazy Mountains.On a larger scale, this linkage areaconnects the Castles Mountains and theCrazy Mountains, which could potentiallyconnect animal movement from theGreater Yellowstone Ecosystem to thesouth, and the Big Belt Mountains and theRocky Mountain Front to the northwest.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Castle Mountains, CrazyMountains.Ecological SettingThe Castle Mountains occupy the northernhalf of this linkage, while the foothillsin the southern half are situated in anextensive set of parallel rocky reefsand open ridges. The Castles containthe uppermost headwaters of the southfork of the Musselshell River. Theyare forested mostly with Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta). The foothillareas support sagebrush grasslands withscattered patches of ponderosa pine,and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperusscoluporum) and limber pine (P. flexilis)on drier sites. Some timber harvest has70occurred around the perimeter of theCastles, particularly in the western part,with a moderate density road network.The core has sustained no timber harvestor roading, and habitat is intact. Riparianareas are smaller in this linkage, and hayproduction in those areas occurs at asmaller scale in the upper South Fork ofthe Musselshell River than further to theeast. Highway 294 bisects the linkagealong the South Fork Musselshell. Severalother main roads and ranch roads arepresent. Elevations in this linkage rangefrom about 5,200 feet to over 8,000.WildlifeGrizzly: Currently there are no grizzlybears within this linkage area althoughthere are consistent reports of them inthe Crazy Mountains to the south. In thenorth Castle Mountains there are a fewspringtime sedge meadows that blackbears use. To the south, black bears usenarrow, riparian corridors between theCastles and the Crazy Mountains that runinto the South Fork of the MusselshellRiver. Black bears are seen regularly in thecommunity of Lennep.Wolverines: This narrow corridor betweenranges is also a wolverine movementarea. The wolverines in the Little Beltsare of the same mitochondrial line as theCrazy Mountains, which implies movementbetween the mountains. Biologists suggestthat the same wolverines could possiblybe using the Little Belt Mountains, CastleMountains, and Crazy Mountains as ahome range. The Castle Mountains mayprovide linkage “stepping stone” for othertransient animals like the lynx, thoughnone are documented here.Elk: Currently, around 1100 elk use theentire foothills surrounding the CastleMountains for winter range. Most of the

winter range is private land on the forest landperiphery. They summer in the central CastleMountains, although it is heavily timbered withlittle forage value. On the west side of theCastle Mountains, Willow Creek to Agate Creek isimportant elk winter range. Elk calving areas arein Checkerboard Creek in the north Castles, andWarm Springs Creek in the south Castles. Elk maypotentially move between the Castles and thenorth end of the Crazy Mountains.Wolves have been reported in the CottonwoodCreek area of the Castles. Linkage area providesa movement corridor between the Castle andCrazy Mountains for wolves.Pronghorn: There is still a lot of sagebrush in theSouth Fork of the Smith River area and there arehigh numbers of pronghorn that use the area inwinter. They often move east-west across Hwy89, west of this linkage.Moose have been observed along the South Forkof the Musselshell River and Alabaugh Creek, andin the Yankee Jim ridge of the Castles.Sage grouse occur here in low numbers. Thereare several known sage grouse leks to the west ofthe linkage area, west of U.S. Highway 89.Conservation OpportunitiesPublic land access for hunting is a one of themost significant game management issues inthis area. There is quite a bit of private land inthe east end of the Castle Mountains, and 85%of the elk are on private land; elk managementis affected. An opportunity exists for managingelk in the southwest corner of the CastleMountains.Lewis and Clark National Forest Travel Plan isdue for revision. The central Castle Mountainsare currently roadless; any focus on the forestand private land at the periphery of the roadlessarea is an opportunity.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Though there are not a lot ofhouses there now, development in the Lenneparea, which is in the center of the movementarea, may funnel animals on either side.Highways: Animals must cross Hwy 294 in thislinkage area, and there is high risk of animalvehiclecollisions.Access to private lands around the CastleMountains is restricted, which limits MontanaFish, Wildlife and Parks’ ability to manage gamepopulations. High game population numberscould lead to increased wildlife disease concernsand impact the long-term sustainability ofhabitat.Forest management: The central CastleMountains is a roadless area, but nearby privateland and forest land within the Castle Mountainshave been logged.71

CheckerboardSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the areabetween the Little Belt Mountains andthe Castle Mountains from White SulphurSprings to the Checkerboard area. Thewestern edge is at the Park Hills andWhite Sulphur Springs. The northernedge follows the forest boundary to theeastern edge near Checkerboard. Thesouthern edge follows the forest boundaryof the Castle Mountains.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides connectivityfor local north-south movement betweenthe Little Belt and Castle Mountains.It also provides east-west movementalong the Musselshell River corridor fromthe center of this linkage area east toHarlowtown.This linkage provides connectivity forwildlife moving east-west from the BigBelt Mountains through the Smith RiverValley to the highest elevations in theLittle Belt Mountains via the north forkof the Smith River. It also connects theLittle Belt and Crazy Mountains. Thiscould therefore, be one of the linkagesthat potentially connects the GreaterYellowstone Ecosystem (south) with theRocky Mountain Front (northwest).Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Little Belt Mountains, CastleMountains, Crazy Mountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage occupies the southernfoothills of the Little Belt Mountainsnortheast of White Sulphur Springs.Open sagebrush (Artemisia tridentataspp.) and native grasslands dominate theuplands with numerous riparian stringerstributary to the uppermost headwatersof the Smith River and the Musselshell73River. The large wet meadow complexeson the floodplain of the Smith Riverand on several other tributaries are themost striking features of this linkage.Scattered stands of Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum) andlimber pine (Pinus flexilis) are foundon some ridges in the area. Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepolepine (P. contorta) habitat increases withelevation further to the north. Significanttimber harvest and road developmenthas occurred in the northern part of thelinkage. Irrigated hay fields and pasturehave been developed in most of the largeriparian areas, in some places replacingthe native willow (Salix spp.) ripariancommunities. Highways 89 and 12 passthrough the linkage with numerous otherranch roads present. A few residencesand ranches are scattered in the linkage,mostly adjacent to hay lands and pasturealong the river tributaries. Elevation inthe linkage ranges from about 5,100 feetto over 8,000 feet.WildlifeCheckerboard is a unique area withvery large ranches and abundant winterrange.Bald eagles nest on Lake Sutherlin, justoutside of White Sulphur Springs, andthere are wintering bald eagles fromWhite Sulphur Springs to Harlowton,primarily along the Mussellshell River.Black bears are found in both the LittleBelt Mountains and Castle Mountains; theyuse this linkage area to move betweenthe ranges.Wolverine: The Little Belt Mountainwolverines are of the same mitochondrialline as the Crazy Mountains, which impliesmovement between them. Biologistssuggest that the same wolverines could

e using the Little Belt Mountains, CastleMountains, and Crazy Mountains as a homerange.Wolves have been reported in both the LittleBelt and Castle Mountains. This area providespotential linkage between the two mountainranges.There is an important elk winter range northof Highway 12 between the Park Hills andVolcano Butte. There is another winter rangesouth of Highway 12 on the north side of theCastle Mountains between Willow Creek andCheckerboard Creek. There are several hundredelk in this winter range. Many of these same elksummer in the Little Belt Mountains. Several elkcalving areas are also located in this linkage.Moose are seen along the north fork of theSmith River.Pronghorn: At White Sulphur Springs alongthe east and west side of Highway 89 there ispronghorn winter range. This area has goodsagebrush habitat. There is general pronghornmovement between White Sulphur Springs andCheckerboard across open prairie land. Theyfrequently move north-south across Highway 12.Volcano Butte sage grouse lek is within thislinkage on private land. There are about 12male sage grouse currently using this lek but thepopulation has declined over the last 40 years.the next ten years.Highways: Elk move between the Park Hills andButler Hill across Highway 89. Elk also moveacross Highway 12. There is an increasing risk ofanimal-vehicle collisions, but currently trafficvolumes are low.Conservation OpportunitiesElk are tolerated by landowners in this areaand they own very large ranches that are wellused for winter range. Opportunities exist forconservation easements in the future.The Volcano Butte sage grouse lek is on privateland and there may be opportunity to preventthe further decline of the sage grousepopulation.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is limited in this area.Hunting access is a concern in portions of thislinkage area.Conflict occurs between cattle and elk, whichcompete for grazing. There are also domesticsheep allotments near this corridor, whichincreases the risk of livestock-carnivore conflict.Landowner tolerance for wolves is expected to below in this area.Disease: In the Studhorse Creek area there is ahigh concentration of beetle killed trees.Energy Development: Though there is noproposal project yet, wind power on Highway 12is a threat because of high windfield potential.Power lines could impact corridors here within74

Clearwater Junction to Rogers PassSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis is a forested east-west orientedlinkage north of the Garnet Range.Clearwater Junction forms the westernboundary. The linkage extends east ofLincoln to Alice Creek. Highway 200 runsthrough the linkage area. The southernboundary runs from the town of Lincolnto Helmville, before turning north againin the Elevation Mountain area. Thenorthern boundary runs between MontureCreek, eastward to the North Fork of theBlackfoot River, and continuing to RogersPass.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area is important forconnecting wildlife moving south ofthe core habitat of the Bob Marshalland Scapegoat Wilderness areas, intothe more isolated Boulder and GarnetMountains. It also provides connectivityfor wildlife moving east-west alongthe Blackfoot River Corridor into theHelmville Valley.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Swan Mountains (Bob Marshalland Scapegoat Wilderness areas),Boulders, General Robert E. LeeMountains, and Garnet MountainsEcological SettingThis linkage includes the upperBlackfoot River valley from Ovando tothe Continental Divide at Rogers Pass.Kleinschmidt Lake, Browns Lake, andnumerous other permanent potholewetlands are scattered on glacial outwashat several places in the river valley.Wetland areas are surrounded by bigsagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.)communities. The broad riparian zoneof the Blackfoot River supports a mix of76black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa)and willow (Salix spp.) communities,although some of this habitat has beenconverted to agricultural lands. Thedensity of forest cover, predominantlyDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) andlodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) withsome ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), isdependent on aspect and elevation inthis area. South-facing slopes are moreopen with interspersed areas of bigsagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) andgrasslands whereas north-facing slopesand higher elevations are fairly denselyforested. Insect infestations combinedwith drought are causing large areasof dead and dying conifers near theContinental Divide. extending onto theeastern slopes. The broad Blackfoot Rivervalley is widely developed with numerousdispersed residences and farms/ranchesalong Highway 200, including the townof Lincoln. Agricultural pasture and haylands are common around Lincoln. Amajor power line corridor parallels thehighway through the linkage. Timberharvest has occurred throughout thearea using a widespread road network.Elevations in the linkage range from 4,500along the Blackfoot River, 5,600 feet atRogers Pass, and 8,000 to 9,000 feet southand north of the valley.WildlifeWildlife connectivity in this linkagearea exists primarily in three “tongues”of habitat: From the Bob Marshallcomplex west to the Blackfoot WildlifeManagement Area and to the Garnetsat Elevation Mountain. The second areais from the Scapegoat area southeastacross Highway 200 into the Lincoln areaand the Ge. Robert E Lee mountains justwest of MacDonald Pass. Finally, animalsmove south along the Rocky Mountain

Front south along the Continental Divide. TheKeep Cool Hills, west of Landers Fork, and theridge between Alice Creek and Landers Forkfunnels wildlife into this linkage area that aremoving south from the Rocky Mountain Front/Northern Continental Divide ecosystem. RogersPass,Anaconda Hills, Mitchell Mountain and theBlackfoot Canyon/Kershaw/Marcun Mountainarea are specific major wildlife movement areasand important ungulate winter ranges withinthe linkage. Ward Creek, to the east side ofKleinschmidt Flats, is an important movementarea for pronghorn, grizzly bear, elk, andmoose. The North Fork of the Blackfoot Riveris a “wildlife highway” for all species found inthis linkage. In the southwest part, a linkagezone consists of intermountain canyons betweenHelmville and the Douglas basin, which isimportant for wolves, mule deer, and elk.Grizzly can be found throughout this linkage,but the most activity is north of Highway 200in the Blackfoot Valley. Bears move southfrom the Scapegoat, through the east part ofthis linkage, and into the Robert E. Lee thensouth to the Boulder Mountains. Year around,bears move between Seeley Lake and RogersPass in drainages like Monture Creek, ArrastraCreek, Landers Fork, and Poorman’s Creek. Thefoothills within the entire valley are importantto grizzlies that move towards the East Garnetsand Robert E. Lee Mountains. The mouth ofLincoln Canyon, between Highways 141 and 200,and the town of Lincoln, is a key movementarea for grizzly. Red Mountain, west of Landers’Fork, has an army cutworm moth site that isvery important for grizzly in the late summerand fall. Grizzly bear denning habitat existsthroughout this linkage zone.Wolverine: This area could be considered corehabitat for wolverines, and is important formovement. Trapping records show persistentpresence of lynx in this linkage area.The highest quality habitat for wolverine, lynxand mountain lions can be found in Dunham,Monture, and Copper Creeks. The greatsnowshoe hare habitat at Marken Mountain isalso high quality lynx habitat.The Marcun Mountain to Lincoln area is greatwinter range for elk, mule deer, whitetail deer,and moose. Consequently, this same area isalso great for wolves, which follow the ungulateprey. Monture Creek to Ovando Mountain,Brown’s Lake, Douglas Creek, Manley Mountain,Arrastra Creek, Raster Creek, and Landers Forkall provide high quality elk winter range. Theentire Paws Up Ranch alone provides winterrange for between 1/4th-1/2 of all elk in thislinkage. The area between Blacktail Mountainand the north end of the Helmville Valley is atransitional movement area for elk betweensummer and winter range. Scapegoat WildernessArea, McCabe Mountain and Mulkey Gulch areimportant for elk summer range.Wolves move south from the Continental Dividein the eastern part of the linkage.Moose are scattered throughout this linkage inall riparian areas.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment potential on industrial timberlands in this linkage could fragment habitat.The Lincoln area is starting to develop; thistown is essentially within a wildlife corridor,and increased development will likely lead tomore conflicts between wildlife and humans.In particular, the south side of the Lincoln areashould be addressed, as it lies outside of theofficial grizzly bear recovery zone.Public land access is an issue that concernswildlife managers responsible for maintainingreasonable game population levels. This areahas had a lot of logging over the last fifty years,which pushed the elk onto private land, wherethey have stayed. Currently, because of theprivate lands and easements that do not providepublic access, there are over 1700 elk just in thewestern end this linkage, which is double theestimated number that can live there withoutdamaging habitat. Consequently, there is highsocial intolerance of carnivores and elk in thislinkage.Highway 200 and Highway 83 are threats interms of both habitat fragmentation and directmortality caused by animal-vehicle collisions.In the last four to five years, three grizzly bearswere killed by animal-vehicle collisions within77

this linkage along Highway 200 near Lincoln andHighway 141; elk are killed more frequently.Forest roads are a problem for grizzly and othermore “secretive” wildlife, encouraging humanpresence in normally wild landscape.Illegal trapping of lynx has been the greatestsource of lynx mortality in this linkage area.In the Scapegoat area, biologists state thatinterspecific competition between lynx andmountain lion is a moderately high threat toexisting lynx populations.There are active gold mining activities in thislinkage, with more develop proposals betweenLincoln and Roger’s Pass. This area used to havesilver and gold mines that leached cyanide intothe Blackfoot River, causing great ecologicaldamage.Conservation OpportunitiesThe Blackfoot Challenge is a cooperativeconservation effort that has over 8,000acres of conservation easements in theworks. The Blackfoot Challenge is alreadyworking collaboratively between agencies,timber companies, and private landowners.From Bonner to Rogers Pass there is muchconservation on-going with the BlackfootChallenge but there is an opportunity still tokeep working with the USFS on the Forest Plan.78

Clinton to DrummondSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area runs the length ofInterstate 90 from the town of Clintoneast to the town of Drummond. Itencompasses the foothills of the JohnLong Mountains on the south side ofInterstate 90, and the south face of theWest Garnet Range on the north side ofInterstate 90. The northern boundaryon the east end of the linkage area is atDouglas Creek and the south end of theHelmville Valley. The southern boundaryis on the south side of Interstate 90.The eastern edge of the linkage areaencompasses part of the Antelope Valleyand with the East Garnet Range to thenorth and Douglas Mountain to the south.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides connectivityfor wildlife moving north-south acrossInterstate 90 from the Garnet Rangeinto the John Long Mountains and northinto the Helmville Valley. It also providesconnectivity for wildlife moving eastwestalong the Clark Fork River corridorinto Antelope Valley to the east. On alarger scale, this linkage connects thewildlife habitat the crest of the SapphireMountains from Lost Trail Pass to thenorth of Interstate 90 and potentially theMission Mountain Wilderness, connectingthe High Divide to the Crown of theContinent through the Hub.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Garnet Range, John LongMountains, Sapphires, Missions, BobMarshall Wilderness.Ecological SettingThe Clinton to Drummond linkagerepresents the area where forestedhabitats reflect a shift from wetter todrier habitats. The western half of the79linkage is broadly forested with a widediversity of conifers, including Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), ponderosapine (Pinus ponderosa), and western larch(Larix occidentalis), with a diversity ofunderstory shrubs such as mountain maple(Acer glabrum), ocean spray (Holodiscusdiscolor), snowberry (Symphoricarpusalbus), and elderberry (Sambucus spp.).The eastern half becomes progressivelydrier, with more Rocky Mountain juniper(Juniperus scopulorum) and limber pine(Pinus flexilis), and loses much of themoist-site shrub understory. Steep southfacingslopes switch from being forested,even on rocky scree slopes, to beingopen grasslands. The Clark Fork Riverand Rock Creek support a mix of ripariancommunities including black cottonwood(Populus trichocarpa), red-osier dogwood(Cornus stolonifera), and various willows(Salix spp.). Interstate 90, a railroad, andtwo major power line corridors follow theriver corridor through the length of thelinkage. Several small communities andwidespread residential and commercialdevelopment are present along thehighway. Timber harvest has occurredthroughout the linkage with a moderatedensity road network. Several recentwild fires have left large areas of standingdead timber, some of which have salvageharvested. Elevations in the linkagerange from 3,200 feet below Clinton toabout 6,000 on either side of the river.WildlifeEntire upper Clark Fork River andeverything that drains from the ClarkFork is the least developed landscape andhas tremendous wildlife value. Also, it iscentrally located with several adjoiningvalleys.Grizzly bears occasionally use the ClarkFork River corridor for movement to the

south. This area has late summer/early fallforaging habitat with a lot of riparian shrubberries.A radio-collared male from the MissionMountains to the north remained in this area forone and a half months. In terms of north-southmovement, from the mouth of Rock Creek toBear Creek along Interstate 90, grizzly bearsare possibly using bridges at Tyler Creek, RyanCreek, and Bateman Creek. There is verifiedgrizzly bear movement and activity into theJohn Long Mountains through the central portionof this linkage area, west of Drummond. TheWest Garnet Range connects to Lower WillowBasin across Antelope Valley. Significant grizzlybear movement and activity occurs from theheadwaters of Douglas Creek (N of Drummond)to Saddle Mountain, connecting the WestGarnets with the East Garnets.Wolves move from Hall to Helmville to Maxville,to the north of this linkage, frequently. Butthere are often conflict situations that impedetheir presence. A very important and littleknown wolf movement area is bounded by FlintCreek, connecting the Garnet Range to the JohnLong Mountains.Elk: The Clark Fork River valley bottom onthe north side of Interstate 90 is a long, eastwestelk winter range. Within this range aresmaller herds that are not interchanging, withthe exception of the young bulls. Elk use theBearmouth area for fall, winter, and spring,and then will summer in Union Creek to thenorth. The elk near Clinton winter at WallaceCreek to Cramer Creek and then summer northin Ashby Creek. Both summer ranges are withinthe linkage area to the north. At Drummond, thesouth face of the Garnets is elk winter range,and some elk move from the north to winterhere depending on the snow depth. Northwestof Drummond, at Mulkey Gulch and RattlerGulch, is elk winter range. Their summer rangeis currently the Helmville Valley to the north.East of Drummond is a new developing winterrange; elk are dispersing from Helmville to here.Moose are throughout the Garnets to the FlintCreek RangeBighorn Sheep: The Clark Fork/lower RockCreek bighorn sheep herd are an introduced80herd. Their habitat has a low rating due toInterstate 90 and conflicts with domestic sheepallotment.Pronghorn: Drummond is the western boundaryof Antelope Valley. Pronghorns are not seen westof this area. They winter here; then the buckstake off and wander up into the Blackfoot. Thisopen space is historically part of the key linkagearea for pronghorn coming up through AntelopeValley, north of Drummond, to KleinschmidtFlats. From Deerlodge to Drummond, this isthe largest population along the western edge.There are about 300 pronghorns in the entirearea. Some of the pronghorn here (about 50 to200) are local and not migratory, and are tightlyassociated with agricultural land in the area.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is a significant threat, and themouth of Rock Creek has many developmentthreats. Private land owners want to build 500lots in Wallace Creek (next to Cramer Creek)and this is elk winter range.Highways: Interstate 90, a railroad, and twomajor power line corridors follow the rivercorridor through the length of the linkage. Thereare pronghorn routinely on Interstate 90, andthe section between Milltown and Drummond isa critical crossing section for many carnivoresand the lower Rock Creek bighorn sheep.There are many vehicle collisions.Conflict: There are existing conflicts withblack bears in this area and a high potentialfor conflict with grizzly bears. Wolves are nottolerated and have many conflicts with domesticlivestock. Bighorn sheep conflict with domesticsheep.Conservation OpportunitiesThere is opportunity for a special interestgroup to address the Interstate 90 crossings,especially at the mouth of Rock Creek, just eastof Clinton. There is one group out of Drummondbut few people are working here. There may bepublic and private opportunities involving thiscritical movement area, in an area where arefour big ranches and no present development.

There has been a settlement with AtlanticRichfield Company for damage and a portion ofit is goes toward reclamation.81

CraziesSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the CrazyMountains and the surrounding foothills.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides connectivityfor local ungulate movement from thefoothills into the higher elevations of theCrazy Mountains. There is also northsouthmovement through the mountains.On a larger scale, this linkage areaconnects the Crazy Mountains to theCastles and Little Belt Mountains, andpotentially to the Absaroka Range to thesouth, and subsequent connection to theGreater Yellowstone Ecosystem and theRocky Mountain Front.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Crazy Mountains, Little BeltMountains, Absarokas.Ecological SettingThe Crazy Mountains are a set ofspectacular peaks rising steeply fromthe Yellowstone River Valley and thesurrounding plains northwest of BigTimber. The linkage includes sagebrushgrasslands at lowest elevations withscattered patches of limber pine(Pinus flexilis), Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum), andponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), mostlyon rock outcrops and ridges. Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) is expanding onthe lower mountain slopes, and increaseswith elevation along with lodgepole pine(P. contorta), and subalpine fir (Abieslasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii) and whitebark pine (P.albicaulis) at highest elevations. Alpinebasins contain numerous small lakes witha variety of wet meadows and open parks.Drainages are steep, with perennial82streams that support willow (Salix spp.)and aspen (Populus tremuloides) riparianhabitats. A few primary access roadsenter the linkage, and a few ranchesare located in the lower foothills. Sometimber harvest and road developmenthave occurred in the north end of thelinkage in the upper Shields River basinbut overall, the linkage is undeveloped.Elevation in the linkage ranges from about6,000 feet to over 10,000 feet.WildlifeGrizzly: There are persistent reportsof grizzly bears in the Crazy Mountains,although none revealed in surveys. Theyare thought to be coming from the south.The Crazy Mountains are less contiguoushabitat for potential grizzly bear habitatand movement. There are many blackbears in the Crazy Mountains as well asmountain lions.Wolverines: The Crazy Mountains aregreat high alpine wolverine habitat,consistently reported in surveys for threeprevious winters. Cottonwood Creek,the upper Shields River, Duck Creek,and Sweet Grass Creek are excellentwolverine habitat. Loco Mountain andCinnamon Peak have some historictrapping data. As an isolated mountainrange, lower numbers of wolverines arerecorded in the Crazies than in otherranges further west. The Little Belt,Big Belt and Crazies wolverine are ofthe same mitochondrial line; the samewolverines possibly use the Little BeltMountains, Castle Mountains, and CrazyMountains as home range.Wolves: There has been some wolfactivity in the north Crazies, and onecollared female wolf has ranged fromYellowstone National Park to the CrazyMountains.

Mountain Goats: The highest density ofmountain goats in Montana is located in the ofthe Crazies. The herd currently numbers about300.Elk: The west side of the Crazies is excellentwinter range habitat with 1,500 elk using thisarea. From Elk Creek, elk move into the Craziesthrough Cottonwood Creek. On the north sideof the Crazies, elk and mule deer use the lowerelevations between Comb Butte and CinnamonPeak.Moose: The steep drainage areas of thenorthern Crazies have good moose habitat.Cottonwood Creek, on the west side of theCrazies, has many moose. Previous fires haveopened up new foraging areas.Conservation ThreatsConflict: Limited access for hunting hasinhibited Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks frommeeting elk population objectives.Recreation: Wolverine may be threatened bywinter ski and snowmobiling activities in theCrazy Mountains and the upper Shields River.Habitat: The mountain goats in the CrazyMountains are reaching the capacity threshold ofthe landscape.Forest management: There is some logging onprivate land within this linkage area.Climate change may lessen the snow pack in theCrazies linkage and affect sensitive wolverinedenning behavior.Conservation OpportunitiesAny land protection strategies that increasewolverine habitat and that decrease humanactivity intrusions in the winter would bebeneficial.The upper Shields River has numeroussnowshoe hare and old growth forest thatcould provide habitat for lynx.The Gallatin Forest Service is enforcing theirtravel plan and making access closures.83

DeweySpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Dewey linkage covers the Big HoleRiver Valley between the very northeastportion of the East Pioneer Mountains,Fleecer Mountain, and the FleecerWildlife Management Area (WMA). Thearea extends to Jerry Creek, west toState Road 569/Fishtrap, and from the BigHole River north to the southern extremeof the Mt. Haggin Wildlife ManagementArea (WMA).Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage allows north-south wildlifemovement between the Mount Haggin-Fleecer Mountain area into the PioneerMountains and east- west movementbetween the Divide area and the UpperBig Hole River Valley.Ecological SettingThe Dewey linkage spans a section of theBig Hole River where it passes through amountainous canyon between the PioneerMountains and the Fleecer Mountainarea. Highway 43 follows the rivercorridor through the linkage and providesaccess to the small communities of WiseRiver, Thompson Corner and Dewey.Dispersed residential development andranches are found all along the corridor,along with a Forest Service campgroundand several MFWP fishing access sites.Roading in the linkage is limited bysteep topography and lack of accessfrom Highway 43 northward across theBig Hole River. Mountain slopes onboth side of the river are dominated byDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) withlodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) commonat higher elevations. Rocky outcropsin the lower canyon support extensivestands of curlleaf mountain mahogany(Cercocarpus ledifolia). Mountain big84sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata vasayana)stands throughout the linkage have beenseriously reduced in size by Douglas-firencroachment. The Wise River is a majortributary that runs onto the Big Hole Riverat mid-linkage. Recent wildfires haveburned in the southwestern part of thelinkage, and combined with expandingareas of insect infestations, have resultedin large of areas of standing, dead timber.Elevations in the linkage rang from about5400 feet near Divide to over 7900 feet.WildlifeElk and black bear move between thePioneers and Mt. Haggin/Fleecer Mountainarea. The south side of this linkageprovides good elk winter range, especiallyon the Fleecer WMA. This is a majormigration corridor between the Anaconda-Pintlers and the Fleecer WMA. This areaprovides secure calving areas and the wetareas and meadows provide good blackbear habitat.Wolverine move across Dewey linkagearea and between the Anaconda-Pintlers,Pioneers (south of the linkage), and Mt.Haggin-Fleecer WMA. All of these aresuitable wolverine habitat, with goodsized contiguous wildlands, a late springsnow pack, and available connectivity forwolverines.Bighorn sheep and mountain goats movethrough Dewey linkage between thePioneers and Fleecer WMA although thehabitat is marginal for both species.Moose habitat is good throughout thelinkage due to the many creeks andproductive wet areas. The Wise Riverarea is the most important moose habitatof the lower 3rd and 4th order streamdrainages.Grizzly bear occupancy in this area is

suspected in very low levels, even though theproductive wet areas, meadows, and whitebarkpine stands are potential habitat.Wolves move throughout this linkage.Conservation ThreatsInsect disease is affecting the conifer standsin this area. Spruce budworm is attackingDouglas fir while a major mountain pinebeetle infestation is attacking lodgepole pinethroughout southwest Montana. Lower areas arealso affected by conifer encroachment.Moose populations are declining in thisregion due to hunting pressure and otherenvironmental factors.Mining speculators are increasing explorationfor molybdenum in the Pioneers.Climate change may lessen the snow pack in theDewey linkage, and affect sensitive wolverinedenning behavior.Any land management activities that varyungulate populations in this area could have anegative effect on wolverine populations.Trapping is the biggest threat to wolverinepopulations in the Dewey linkage. There iscurrently significant trapping pressure on thispopulation.Conservation OpportunitiesThe Dewey linkage area is publicly owned forthe most part, with large contiguous blocksof great wildlife habitat nearby. The publiccommenting process in resource managementplans, forest travel plans, and forestmanagement plans should emphasize wildlifeconnectivity considerations.85

DivideSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage connects the westernfoothills of the Highland Mountains to thePioneer Mountains and Fleecer Mountain,and extends from Buxton on the north toCamp Creek, Melrose and Trapper Creekon the south.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage supports wildlife movementbetween core habitats in the Highlandsand Pioneers. Mountain rangesconnected in this linkage: PioneerMountains, Highland Mountains, andFleecer MountainEcological SettingThis linkage spans the Continental Dividenorth and south of Feeley Hill, along thewest face of the Highland Mountains, andincludes the section of the Big Hole Rivervalley between Divide and Melrose. Thenarrow bottleneck of habitat on MooseCreek Hill and Maiden Rock in mid-linkageis the shortest link from east to west.The diverse habitats in this linkage rangefrom high elevation lodgepole pine (Pinuscontorta) forest near Table Mountain at10,000 feet to narrowleaf cottonwood(Populus angustifolia) riparian habitatalong the Big Hole River at 5,200 feet.Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) isthe dominant conifer and is widespreadthroughout the linkage, and in manyplaces, is encroaching into big sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata spp.) and grasslandhabitat, particularly from Camp Creekthrough Moose Creek, and west of the BigHole River. The huge, monolithic granitespires of Humbug Spires Wilderness StudyArea provide a unique mix of habitats in arugged and relatively inaccessible setting.Both Humbug Spires and Table Mountainare proposed wilderness areas. Extensive86areas of curlleaf mountain mahogany(Cercocarpus ledifolia) are found in thesoutheast parts of the linkage, and onMaiden Rock and Goat Mountain. Droughtand insect infestations in Douglas-fir andlodgepole pine are resulting in large areasof standing dead timber throughout thelinkage. The Interstate 15 corridor is amajor development area bisecting thelinkage. Along with the highway andfrontage roads, there are four powerline corridors, a proposed 500kv powerline corridor, a railroad, and expandingsubdivisions and residential development.Outside of the interstate corridor, timberharvest and mining have fragmentedhabitat and left a fairly high density ofroads. Due to the proximity to Butte andthe Big Hole River, this linkage receivessignificant yearlong recreational use.WildlifeThe Fleecer Mountain and Mt. Haggingame ranges, in the western half of thislinkage, provide a smaller “core habitat”within the linkage that supports seasonallylarge numbers of elk, mule deer andmoose.Bighorn sheep: This linkage area hasprovided yearlong and migration habitatfor bighorn sheep known as the Highlandherd. This population of sheep commonlyuses Moose Creek, Soap Gulch, and CampCreek drainages in the Highlands, MaidenRock, Canyon Creek and Trapper Creek inthe Pioneers, and are occasionally seen onthe flanks of Fleecer Mountain.Moose seasonal use occurs throughout thelinkage, and movement is associated withthe major riparian corridors such as theBig Hole River, Canyon Creek, Moose Creekand Camp Creek.Grizzly bear, wolves and wolverine:This linkage provides a high probability

dispersal corridor for all of these species. ThePioneers and Fleecer Mountains are sufficientlylarge to provide yearlong habitat for grizzly andwolverine, and this linkage provides access tothat habitat from the east.Black Bear: Black bear are common throughoutthe linkage, often in association with seasonal elkhabitats and riparian corridors.Mule deer: Mule deer winter in this linkage area,primarily in the foothills of the Highlands, theMaiden Rock area of the Pioneers, and on thesouth end of the Fleecer WMA. These are primewinter ranges with movement occurring betweenthem.Elk are present throughout the linkage duringthe winter. Primary use areas are from upperMoose Creek south into Camp Creek, and fromCattle Gulch through Canyon Creek. The FleecerGame Range supports a major proportion ofthe wintering elk population in the Fleecer/Mt.Haggin elk management unit.Pronghorn antelope are present most of the yearfrom the Melrose area northward and west ofI-15. Most animals migrate south to Fleecer WMAto winter.Mountain goats occasionally winter in lowerCanyon Creek. Bald eagles are winter residentsalong this portion of the river.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Private ranch lands in the linkagearea are increasingly vulnerable to subdivisiondue to the proximity of Butte and the BigHole River. New roads to access residencesand subdivisions south of Buxton are furtherfragmenting habitat. Overall human presence inthe linkage area is increasing, particularly withrecreational use in the Big Hole River corridor.Vehicle collisions and wildlife mortality: Trafficon I-15 constrains wildlife use of this linkage.Road kills were common on Moose Creek Hillwhen bighorn sheep and mule deer populationswere higher in the area, and still occur.Power line construction: The construction of alarge 500kV power line would require additionalservice roads and create a collision hazard forwaterfowl, eagles and other birds where itcrosses the Big Hole River.Fences: Crossing the interstate and railroadcorridor east to west over Moose Creek Hill(approximately two miles) requires negotiatingat least nine wildlife barrier fences. Livestockpasture fences elsewhere are additional barriersto wildlife movement.Bighorn mortality: Mortality in the bighornsheep population is continuing to suppressrecovery efforts following a mid-1990s dieoff.The effects of long-term drought on forageavailability and exposure to domestic sheep areprobable contributing factors.Conservation OpportunitiesConservation awareness: The number ofconservation-oriented people living in orclose to the linkage is increasing and createsthe opportunity to create a place-basedconstituency.Highway crossing projects: Fencing to influencewildlife crossing points on the highway couldbe effective. Underpasses are available.Additional highway signage, advising motoristsof collision risks, could be justified.Conservation management: Potential expansionof the Fleecer Game Range, or conservationeasements on adjacent private lands, couldfurther enhance habitat security in this portionof the linkage.87

Dry RangeSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Dry Range linkage area is betweenthe Big Belt and Little Belt Mountains.The linkage is a forested ridge that runseast to west; the Big Belt Mountains areon the west, and the Little Belts are tothe east. Beaver Creek runs along thesouthern border of the linkage area,and Rock Creek runs along the northernboundary. The Smith River forms theboundary on the east end of the linkage.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area functions to connectwildlife east-west between the Little BeltMountains, the Dry Range, and thus theBig Belt Mountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Big Belts and Little BeltMountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage is a small mountainousarea spanning the middle portion ofthe Smith River watershed. The areais characterized by forested plateausand rugged limestone with canyonsthat contain deeply entrenched andmeandered tributaries to the Smith River.Spectacular cliffs are common in mostof these canyons. The Smith River flowsalong the eastern edge of the linkage.Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) is thedominant tree species but with someDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) oncooler and moister sites, and at higherelevations. Grasslands and wet meadowsare widely interspersed with forest lands.Timber harvest has been widespread andintensive using a high density network ofroads in the southern half of the linkage,often on a checkerboard pattern of landownership. Outside of timber harvestareas, few roads are available. The Smith89River has become a primary destinationfor float fishing and receives substantialrecreational use. Elevations in thislinkage range from 4,300 feet to over6,200 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions as a localizedmovement corridor for black bear,elk, mule deer, pronghorn, and possiblywolverine and wolf. There is very lowhuman population in this area and istherefore great for wildlife connectivity.Black Bear especially use this corridor,particularly around the Smith.Wolves may be using this area to movebetween the Little Belts and Big Belts.Currently, the long term ability for wolvesto establish packs in this area is lowbecause of intolerance.Elk winter in the western part of thelinkage along the flanks of the Big BeltMountains, particularly around the RockCreek area and Freeman Creek area. RockCreek has native rangeland, and thus, highquality grazing for elk and other ungulatessuch as Pronghorn. Elk also winter in thesouthern parts of this linkage area.Pronghorn move south across Rock Creekto winter south of Beaver Creek.Wolverine may be using the area to movebetween the Big and Little Belts, since therest of the Smith River Valley is very wideand open.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is limited, however, thereare issues with some private landownersin the area blocking access to adjacentpublic lands and essentially creatingprivate hunting reserves. Montana Fish,Wildlife and Parks is therefore limited inits ability to manage game populations in

the area. Hunting access in general is an issue inthis area.Conflict occurs between cattle and elk, whichcompete for grazing. There are also domesticsheep allotments near this corridor, whichincrease the risk of livestock-carnivore conflict.Wolf tolerance is expected to be low.Conservation OpportunitiesThere are opportunities to put wolfcompensation programs in place that mayincrease tolerance for wolves, and opportunitiesfor additional conservation easements in thefuture.90

ElkhornsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Elkhorn linkage area is comprisedmostly of the Elkhorn mountain rangeand the foothills surrounding the valley,including the Limestone Hills to the east.Interstate 15 runs along the western sideof the linkage, and Highway 12/287 runsalong the eastern boundary. The westside of the linkage includes the easternfoothills of the Boulder Mountains west ofthe towns of Clancy and Corbin.Importance of Linkage AreaRegionally, this linkage area providesfor wildlife connectivity between theContinental Divide to the west with theElkhorn Range.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Boulders, Elkhorns, EisenhowerMountainsEcological SettingThe Elkhorn Mountains are an isolatedmountain range bordered by the BoulderRiver valley on the southwest, theMissouri River valley on the south andeast, the Helena valley on the north, withthe only mountainous, forested habitatconnection being to the northwest.Lower elevation, foothills habitatssupport a variety of grasslands, somesagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.)habitat, and ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) forest. Mid to higher elevationforest is dominated by extensive standsof lodgepole pine (P. contorta) intermixedwith natural meadows and riparianstringers, some associated with oldbeaver complexes. The highest elevationsubalpine areas support very littlevegetation on bare rock and scree slopes.Recent large wildfires have left extensiveareas of standing dead timber on the91north and southwest sides of the linkage,but these same fires have stimulatedaspen (Populus tremuloides) regenerationin some areas. The linkage has sustainedcomparatively little human developmentwith only localized timber harvest. Roaddensity is light and used primarily forgeneral access. Some surface miningactivity has occurred at the Elkhornghost town in the south central part ofthe linkage, and just west of Townsend.A major power line corridor crossesthe southwestern part of the linkage.Interstate 15 bisects the western sideof the linkage from Boulder to Helena.Residential development is increasing inthe foothills above Boulder and along theI-15 corridor. Elevations in the linkagerange from 4,600 feet near Townsend toalmost 9,500 feet on Crow Peak.WildlifeThis area provides connectivity for elkbetween winter and summer range. Thecentral Elkhorns are especially goodelk habitat, with a great mix of wetvegetation areas and very few roads. TheBrooklyn Bridge Ridge (between MontanaCity and Clancy on the west side of thelinkage), is a major movement area forwildlife between the Continental Divide inthe Boulders and the Elkhorn Mountains,particularly ungulates like elk, mule deer,and pronghorn, and carnivores like blackbear, mountain lions, and wolverine.Grizzly occupancy in this area is low.Although the linkage area has greatpotential habitat, it is a relativelyisolated range and therefore does nothave the contiguous large habitat areasto support a large population of bears.Grizzly bears moving west-southwest offthe Continental Divide are most likely touse Mike Horse Creek area to the northwhich connects to the Continental Divide

with the Elkhorns.Wolverines are known to be present, due toconsistent trapping records. They have beenlocated in the Brooklyn Bridge that connectsthe Elkhorns to MacDonald Pass - ContinentalDivide. Crow Peak is a prime habitat areas forwolverines as this area has the latest springsnow in the Elkhorns.Elk are abundant in the linkage, with apopulation of about 1,500 animals. The eastand west sides of the linkage area are moreproductive for elk than the south end, which isdrier habitat. Elk winter in the foothills of theElkhorn Mountains and summer at the higherelevations. There are several distinct winterranges, with areas like Devil’s Fence, KimberGulch, Pole Creek, Dutchman Creek, SouthCrow Creek to Muddy Lake Creek, Elkhorn (thetown) and Emerson Peak. The Eagle Creek herdwinters in the North Crow area and moves intoClear Creek in the summer. Other importantsummer range areas include Beaver Creek, theTizer Basin, and High Peak. Areas like Johnny’sGulch are important for elk year-round. Thereare areas outside the Helena National Forestthat are also important winter range, such asPrickly Pear Creek, Southwest of the Elkhorns,and winter range from Ryan Mountain toHadley Park. The Brooklyn Bridge Ridge, LumpGulch, and Boulder Pass are major movementareas between the Boulders and the ElkhornMountains. The entire area between the townsof Unionville, Corbin, Wickes, and Jefferson Cityhas a lot of elk moving back and forth betweenthe Boulders and Elkhorn mountain ranges.Although elk generally move shorter distances(up and down slope), one radio-collaredbull moved from the Elkhorns to Unionville;similarly, a cow elk moved from the Elkhorns toWoodsworth.Pronghorn: The Brooklyn Bridge Ridge andMontana City area are major movement areasbetween the Boulders and the Elkhorn MountainsBighorn Sheep: The Elkhorns bighorn sheepherd has undergone a recent collapse dueto disease, with an approximate 90% herdreduction. The habitat is good, and there islimited hunting and poaching.92Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is increasing, particularly alongthe east and northeast sides of the linkage areaalong Highway 12/287. On the western sideof the linkage area, private land subdivisionis increasing between Montana City andJefferson City, particularly between JeffersonCity and Alhambra. Elk winter range, whichis the limiting factor for sustainability of elkpopulations, often occurs on private land. Thedevelopment of private land inholdings withinthe Forest is also a threat; winter range aroundSaddle Mountain is being lost to subdivision. Inthe Lump Gulch to Park Lake area, a developeris purchasing old mining claims; this willexacerbate the loss of connectivity between theElkhorns and the Boulders.Highways are increasingly an issue; as exurbandevelopment increases, so does traffic. Animalvehiclecollisions are increasing along Highway287/12 between Helena and Townsend, andalong I-15 between Montana City and JeffersonCity, particularly near Clancy. Another animalvehiclecollision hotspot is along Highway 69 justsouth of the town of Boulder.Conflict has been occurring between livestockoperators and the elk; likewise, because ofthe number of livestock operators, there islow tolerance for wolves; packs have unable toestablish long term in this linkage area.Mining: The Montana Tunnels gold mine, westof this linkage, is active, with expansion plans.Depending on the gold extraction methods, goldmining can pose a significant threat to streamwater quality and loss of habitat, due to themine and associated roads directly fragmentinghabitat and also because increased activity in anarea will cause wildlife to avoid the area.Disease: The Elkhorns bighorn sheep herd hasundergone a recent collapse due to diseasetransmission between domestic and bighornsheep. There are existing grazing allotmentswithin the linkage area. Insect-borne treedisease is also a big issue in the Muskrat Creekarea of the Boulder Valley.Fire suppression in the area has led to coniferencroachment, which is causing a loss of

valuable montane parkland habitat. This couldeventually lead to a catastrophic fire.Noxious Weeds are an indirect threat in thislinkage. More insidious is the use of goatsand sheep on public lands to control noxiousweeds because domestic sheep and goatstransmit diseases to bighorn sheep which in turncauses high mortality among the wild sheeppopulations.Conservation OpportunitiesMost of this linkage area is within the HelenaNational Forest or under Bureau of LandManagement ownership;The public commenting process for forestmanagement activities is a great opportunity forinfluencing how wildlife connectivity is factoredinto forest management. Main considerations forwildlife connectivity under these public landsmanagement planning efforts include how tomanage recreational needs with wildlife needs,how to restrict or divert access and travelroutes across wildlife corridors, and how todetermine the suitability and capacity of grazing(particularly by domestic sheep) within publiclands.There may be opportunities for downsizingthe number of domestic sheep on publicallotments in the Johnny’s Gulch area. Thereis a memorandum of understanding betweenthe Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management,and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks towork together as partners to appropriatelymanage the mountain range. Ensuring that thispartnership happens may facilitate the longterm sustainability of wildlife populations in thislinkage area.There may be an opportunity to expand publicownership in the drainage upstream fromthe Greymont mine; a great opportunity forsecuring wildlife habitat. There have alreadybeen some land exchanges between the ElkhornWildlife Management Area and the MariettaMine (facilitated by the Rocky Mountain ElkFoundation).There are ranch owners that may be open toworking toward promoting wildlife stewardshipand conservation practices.There are some initial efforts at a citizen’sworking group in the Clancy area.Elkhorn Ridge - Photo by Phil Knight93

FleecerSpeciesGeographic BoundaryFleecer is a mountain/valley complexbounded by the Fleecer Mountain, FleecerWildlife Management Area (WMA) andInterstate 15 to the east. It covers theMt. Haggin WMA area, north to Anacondaand State Road 1. It crosses Mt. Hagginwest to the Anaconda Range, and thensouth to Anaconda-Pintler Wilderness. Thesouthern boundary of the linkage areaincludes the extreme north end of the BigHole Valley near Pintler Creek, and skirtsthe north end of the Dewey linkage area.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage provides north-southconnectivity between the Anaconda-Pintlers and the Pioneers, and the FlintCreek Range and the Mount Haggin WMA.It also provides east-west connectivitybetween Fleecer WMA, the Mt. HagginWMA, and the Anaconda-Pintlers. Thewest end connects the Sapphires to theMt. Haggin area across the GeorgetownLake area, with potential for connectingthe Hub to the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem and Bitterroots.Mountain Ranges Connected: AnacondaPintlers, Pioneers, Boulders, SapphireEcological SettingThe Fleecer/Mt. Haggin linkage areaspans the Continental Divide between theBig Hole River and the upper Clark ForkRiver. At an average elevation of 7,000-8,000 feet, this area supports a broaddiversity of forest habitat interspersedwith wet meadow, sagebrush grasslands,aspen stands and complex riparianhabitats. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)are the dominant conifer species, andsome timber harvest has occurred area-95wide, but most intensively in the Big HoleValley at the west end of the linkage, andaround Mt. Haggin to the northeast. Theeffects of historic copper smelting activityin Anaconda is still reflected in the lackof extensive conifer cover in the northernparts of the linkage. Road developmenthas occurred throughout the linkage butis at relatively low densities. The MillCreek-Deep Creek road bisects the linkagebetween Anaconda and the Big Hole River.The Pegasus Gold mine was a relativelylarge scale open-pit operation in thenortheast corner of the linkage. Thismine is now shut down and undergoingenvironmental cleanup. The north andeast boundaries of the linkage adjoinincreasing industrial and commercialdevelopment. Residential developmentand some subdivision is occurring aroundthe perimeter on the entire linkage,but most prominently on the northeastcorner of the linkage –from Divide throughBuxton and Ramsey to Anaconda – in theInterstate 15 and 90 corridors.WildlifeThis is high quality habitat for mountaingoats, grizzly bears, wolverine, and biggame.Elk are abundant. They move seasonallyeast-west across the linkage area,summering in the Anaconda-Pintler, movingto the Mt. Haggin area to calve, andwintering in the lower Fleecer area andUpper Rock Creek area. The Ralstonfoothills along the lower Big Hole Valleyare another important elk calving area.The main migration corridor for seasonalelk movement is between Pintler Creekand the Fleecer WMA. The Porters Corner-Georgetown Lake to the east fork of RockCreek is important for elk connectivity;this corridor connects elk between theFlint Creek and Anaconda-Pintler Ranges.

Within the Mt. Haggin WMA, there is a criticalelk winter range in the Fairmont area and NortonCreek area (just west of Ramsey).Moose: The Mt. Haggin WMA east of the ContinentalDivide is critical winter range, and providesyear-round habitat. Mill Creek is also veryimportant moose winter range, especially in thelower drainages, as are the Cabbage Gulch, GermanGulch, and Willow Creek areas of the Mt.Haggin WMA. Moose cross I-15 to move betweenthe Fleecer WMA and the Highlands and are alsofound around Georgetown Lake.Pronghorn migrate from winter range nearBannock Dam and the Big Hole River to summerin Mt. Haggin WMA. Additionally, a herd of approximately60 pronghorn live in the Gregsonand Fairmont Hot Springs area and move as faras the Fleecer WMA and Divide area to winter,while another herd stays in the Fleecer WMAyear-round.The Lost Creek bighorn sheep herd lives in theAnaconda area. The herd appears to be recoveringfrom a prior die-off. It moves betweenthe southern end of the Flint Creek Range, theAnaconda-Pintlers, and west to Rock Creek. TheWest Valley/Lost Creek/Hearst Lake corridor istheir core habitat and winter range. The herdmoves across State Road 1 to the Mill Creek areanear West Valley. There is some interchangebetween the Lost Creek herd and the Garrisonbighorn sheep herd.Wolverines exist in the Fleecer linkage, andhave been trapped in Fishtrap Creek, SeymourCreek, and Mill Creek. Wolverine movementcould happen anywhere within the linkage.Due to persistent spring snow, the spine of themountains between Flint Creek and the BeaverheadMountains may be key environment.Grizzly: The Fleecer linkage area is very goodgrizzly bear habitat with berry crops and standsof whitebark pine for food sources. Unconfirmedgrizzly bear sightings have occurred inseveral locations throughout this linkage area.A grizzly bear was poached in 2005 in the MillCreek-Joiner Gulch drainage, and was identifiedas a five year old male Northern ContinentalDivide bear by genetic analysis. The area betweenGeorgetown and Anaconda is particularly96good [potential] habitat for a variety of wildlife,including grizzly bears, lynx and elk. There aremany black bears in this linkage area.Wolves move throughout the Fleecer linkage.Packs have been surviving within the area longerthan two years due to large numbers of overwintering elk and large areas of protected habitatadjacent to the linkage. There are severalconfirmed breeding packs in this area.Conservation ThreatsForest succession and climate change willaffect the quality of habitat for mountaingoats and other species. The mountainpine beetle is causing massive mortality oflodgepole pine in this area.Development: The Georgetown Lake, WiseRiver ski area, Fleecer area, Fishtrap,West Valley, and Mill Creek/ Highway274 area of this corridor are becomingincreasing developed both residentially andrecreationally, and especially on private landsadjacent to the WMA’s and in the Buxton area.Any land management actions or developmentthat affects ungulate populations are likely toaffect wolverine and wolf populations as well.Due to hunting pressure and otherenvironmental factors, moose populationsappear to be declining in this area.Fencing is an issue for pronghorn between theDivide and Fairmont Hot Springs area.Disease transmission: The existence ofmany domestic sheep in the AnacondaValley increases the risk of deadly diseasetransmission to wild sheep herds.Conservation OpportunitiesThis linkage area has great portion of landin public ownership, with large contiguousblocks of prime wildlife habitat nearby. Thus,the public commenting process in resourcemanagement plans, forest travel plans,and forest management plans should focuson considerations for wildlife connectivity.Over 10,000 acres of private land are underconsideration for a conservation purchase.Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks have

negotiated grazing agreements on the east endof the linkage area, and additional conservationefforts are possible. There have been recentconservation efforts in the Flint Creek-MillCreek area. Due to the large amount of publicownership, establishing a safe passage acrossI-90 would make this area very secure and thuswould be a valuable use of conservation dollars.Several groups are interested in the preservationof the valuable wildlife/open space in Fleecerlinkage, including the Anaconda Sportsman’sClub, the Foundation for North American WildSheep, and Five Valleys Land Trust. Deerlodgecounty commissioners are looking at exurbanprivate land subdivision from the cost to taxpayersstand point; this may encourage smartgrowth practices.Also, there are a strong number of wetlandrestoration efforts underway at the UpperClark Fork River Basin Superfund site withinthe Deerlodge Valley, which may present anopportunity for collaborating on mitigation andconservation easements.97

Gallatin CanyonSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage extends along the GallatinRiver from Four Corners west of Bozemanto the Gallatin-Porcupine WildlifeManagement Area at the confluence ofBeaver Creek and Porcupine Creek withthe Gallatin River. Highway 191 runsthrough the middle of the linkage area.Importance of Linkage AreaThis narrow linkage lies betweentwo areas of core habitat, and largeradjoining linkages, in the northwesterncorner of the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem. It is a critical link tomaintaining regional population andhabitat integrity, particularly for largecarnivores.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Gallatin Range, Spanish Peaks,and Madison Range.Ecological SettingThis narrow linkage follows the GallatinRiver from the Four Corners area, westof Bozeman, upstream to just above BigSky. The river corridor is bounded bysteep forested mountains and riparianhabitat is dominated by conifer andherbaceous species, primarily Engelmannspruce (Picea engelmannii), ratherthan deciduous species. Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta) are common on thelower slopes adjoining the river. Highway191 follows the river corridor throughoutthe linkage, and supports significanttraffic yearlong. Dispersed residences,small subdivisions, and businesses havedeveloped on private lands along theriver, partly as an outgrowth of the BigSky resort at the southern end of thelinkage. As a result of this development,there are places where roads parallel98both sides of the river. Elevation of thelinkage ranges between 5,000 feet and7,000 feet.WildlifeAlthough this is a small linkage, it iscritical to wildlife movement acrossthe Gallatin River, and throughout thewhole area. Wildlife movement betweenseasonal habitats is constrained to thenorth by development at the mouth ofthe Gallatin Canyon and further into theGallatin Valley, and to the southwestby development around the Big SkyResort. The area lies within yearlongand seasonal habitat for wolves, grizzlybear, wolverine, elk, moose, bighornsheep, and black bear, and nearly anylong range movement within the arearequires passing through Gallatin Canyon.Habitat for any of these species withina half mile of the Gallatin River itself isrendered unsuitable simply because of thelevel of traffic on Highway 191 and humandisturbance.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Private lands within theriver corridor are being developed forresidences or businesses.Recreation: Even though a large portionof the linkage lies on public lands wheredevelopment is precluded, the level ofhuman presence, either along the highwayor on the river, potentially displaceswildlife use.Highways: Wildlife mortalities fromvehicle collisions are commonplace in thecanyon, and nearly all species of wildlifenoted above have been involved. Thisnot only represents an ecological loss butalso is a serious threat to human safety.Highway 191 is a primary route to WestYellowstone and southeastern Idaho, and

traffic volumes are increasing significantly.Conservation OpportunitiesLand use planning: Maintaining habitatintegrity on public lands adjoining the linkagewill be essential, considering the escalatingdevelopment on private lands in the area.Conservation management: Some landownersin the linkage recognize the ecological valueof their lands and could be approached aboutconservation easements or other managementstrategies that would be compatible withmaintaining the linkage.Highways: Highway signing at strategic points,advising motorist of collision hazards couldreduce wildlife mortalities, and human safetyrisks.99

GallatinsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Gallatin linkage includes all of theGallatin Range, extending from theGallatin River on the west to the northernfoothills south of Bozeman, to Livingstonand along the western side of theParadise Valley to the north side of TomMiner basin.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage is a large intact tract ofsecure core habitat at the northwestcorner of the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem. It provides a secure“jumping-off” site for animals,particularly large carnivores, expandingout of occupied habitat to potentialhabitats further to the north and west.Combined with the Tom Miner Basinlinkage, the Gallatin Range encompassall of the flagship wildlife values forwhich the GYE is noted, as well as all theconflicts with those values from humandevelopment and management.Mountain ranges connected in thisGallatin Range linkage: Absaroka Range,Madison Range, and Spanish PeaksEcological SettingThe Gallatin linkage encompasses anexpansive mountainous area between theYellowstone River south of Livingston andthe upper Gallatin River valley northwestof Yellowstone NP. The lower northeastcorner of the linkage is bisected by theYellowstone River and Highway 89, wherethey pass through the narrow canyonat the north end of the Paradise Valley.The area is broadly forested by Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta) with Engelmannspruce (Picea engelmannii), subalpine fir(Abies lasiocarpa) and whitebark pine (P.albicaulis) present depending on aspect100and elevation. Willow (Salix spp.) andaspen (Populus tremuloides) riparianareas, large wet meadow complexes,and open parks and high elevationgrasslands are intermixed with forestedareas. Timber harvest has occurred inthe western and northern portions of thelinkage using a moderate density roadnetwork, and several main access routesfurther fragment the linkage. The TrailCreek road bisects the northeast corner ofthe linkage between I-90 and the ParadiseValley. The northern part of the linkageadjoins the Gallatin Valley at Bozeman,and foothill areas on private lands arewidely developed with residences,subdivisions and some agriculturallands. This area, as well as most of thelinkage, also sustains significant yearlongrecreation use. Elevations in the linkagerange from about 5,000 feet in the lowerYellowstone and near Bozeman to over10,000 feet in several locations.WildlifeWolverine: The Gallatins is a strongholdof secure habitat for wolverines that isbecoming increasingly surrounded bydevelopment, particularly at Big Skyresort and in the Paradise Valley. Thelarge size of the linkage and the presenceof large ungulate populations as a foodsource makes this prime wolverinehabitat.Canada lynx: Some quality habitat ispresent particularly in the north half ofthe linkage but occupancy is spotty andundocumented.Grizzly bear: The linkage is occupiedhabitat but habitat quality is variable.Eightmile Creek to Wineglass Creekappears to be a high use area.Wolf: There is at least one resident wolf

pack in the linkage. The large size of the areawith large ungulate populations makes thisimportant core habitat.Moose are widespread but numbers aredeclining in part due to loss of low elevationwinter ranges to development. Portal Creek inthe Gallatin remains as a high use area.Elk: the linkage supports large numbers of elkyearlong. Major winter ranges are along theGallatin Front from Hyalite Canyon to BozemanCreek where road closures have enhancedsecurity, from Wineglass Creek to EightmileCreek, and near Cokedale.Mountain goat: Mountain goats are found allalong the crest of the Gallatin Range. Thepopulation is stable, increasing, and hasoccupied this area since the early 1990’s.Bighorn sheep: Part of the Point of Rocksbighorn sheep herd occupies high qualityhabitat in the southeast corner of the linkage,with some movement to the Hyalite area. Thissheep population has remained stable for manyyears and has not succumbed to the populationdeclines that have affected most other regionalbighorn sheep herds.Mountain lion, black bear: Both of theselarge carnivores are fairly common throughoutarea, particularly at lower elevations wherethey are in increasing contact with humansand development. They are increasingly seencrossing Highway 89 in the lower Yellowstonesouth of Livingston.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Even though the largest partof this linkage is public land, development ofprivate lands has a significant effect on wildlifeuses. There is increasing emphasis on privateland timber harvest and road development.Urban development in the foothills nearBozeman is displacing winter big game use,particularly moose. The proposed AmeyaPreserve development would displace elk fromhigh quality summer and winter habitat.Recreation: Snowmobiling is displacingwolverine use from critical high country habitat.High levels of human recreational activitylinkage-wide is displacing some importantwildlife uses, and creating more instances ofhuman contacts, particularly with bears.Disease: Contact between cattle and elk onlower elevation winter and calving habitatsraises the issue of potential brucellosistransmission. There is increasing socialintolerance of large numbers of elk on ornear private lands since the State brucellosismanagement plan will require increasedexpenses and monitoring for ranchers.Conservation OpportunitiesPublic land management: Maintaining habitatintegrity and wildlife values on large blocks ofpublic lands will ensure long-term connectivity.Photo by Phil Knight101

Positive changes to control motorize accessthrough the Gallatin NF travel plan, along witha proposed wilderness study area in the Hyalitearea, greatly enhances wildlife connectivity andhabitat uses.Conservation management: There is increasinginterest by residents in the lower Yellowstoneto maintain habitat and wildlife connectionsbetween the Gallatin and Absaroka ranges.Conservation easements in Strickland Creek areanticipated that will preclude development onimportant seasonal elk habitat.102

Garnets to BouldersSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Garnets to Boulders linkage areaencompasses the valley between theFlint Creek Range and the BoulderMountains. The north boundary is parallelto Highway 12 until it meets I-90, andthen across the valley and south end ofthe Garnets to the Flint Creek Range.The town of Avon is along the northeastboundary, the Boulder Mountains formthe east boundary. Deer Lodge is inthe center of the south boundary, andthe Flint Creek Range forms the westboundary. Both the Little Blackfoot Riverand the Upper Clark Fork River are [inpart] within this linkage area.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Garnets to Boulders linkage areaprovides connectivity via two majorriver drainages between three mountainranges. Animals moving west fromthe Continental Divide in the BoulderMountains must cross this linkage area toreach other mountainous habitats.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Boulder Mountains, the GarnetsRange, and the Flint Creek Range.Ecological SettingThis linkage occupies the Clark ForkRiver valley and foothills between DeerLodge and the confluence with the LittleBlackfoot River at Garrison Junction.This is an area of open grasslandsand scattered patches of Douglas-fir,(Pseudotsuga menziesii), limber pine(Pinus flexilis), and Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum). Spottedknapweed (Centaurea stoebe), aninvasive noxious weed is well establishedin the linkage. Small stringers ofwillow (Salix spp.) and aspen (Populus103tremuloides) and cottonwood (Populusspp.) riparian habitat follow streamcourses tributary to the Clark ForkRiver. Much of the river bottom riparianhabitat along the Clark Fork River hasbeen altered or removed by agriculturalpractices, and railroad and highwayconstruction. Interstate 90 follows theClark Fork River corridor, with Highway12 and a railroad following the LittleBlackfoot River. A major power linecorridor, gravel mining operations,irrigated hay fields and yearlong ranchoperations along the Clark Fork havefragmented habitat in the linkage.Expanding subdivision and residentialdevelopment is occurring in the heart ofthe Garnets to Boulders linkage, centeredon Beck Hill. The average elevation isabout 4800 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions as a northsouthmovement corridor for grizzly bearand wolves.The Clark Fork River corridor in the northend of the Garnets to Boulders linkagearea is thought to be important for grizzlybear in late summer and fall. A grizzlybear was killed here in 1980. This is a keylinkage area located between the GarnetMountains and the John Long Mountains.Garrison to Avon Creek has high potentialfor grizzly bear connectivity. A tightcanyon between Avon and Garrison crossesHighway 12 and is potentially importantfor grizzly bear movement. This areaprovides connectivity for bears betweenthe east Garnets and the Boulders. Thesouth end of the Avon Valley and LittleBlackfoot River area are also importantgrizzlyconnectivity.There are verified reports of grizzly alongthe ridgeline between Spotted Dog and

Telegraph Creeks.The Little Blackfoot River connects the Garnetsto the Continental Divide-Boulder Mountains.A male grizzly bear was recently spotted in theGarnets to Boulders Creek area south of Highway12. This area, southeast of Garrison Junction, isimportant for grizzly bear connectivity betweenthe Garnets and the Boulder Mountains andcould increasingly become more important asgrizzly bears continue to expand their range.Wolves: The triangle formed from Avon toDeerlodge to the Boulder River (Avon/CastleRock/Garnets to Boulders area) was importanthistorical wolf pack range. Three packs havetried to recolonize this area, but have not beensuccessful due lethal control as a result oflivestock conflict. No pack currently occupiesthis part of Garnets to Boulders linkage. Wolvesmove north-south between the Garnets and theFlint Creek Range and in the valley betweenHelmville and Avon. This is open country andlarge parcels of rural land allow wolves to moveeasily. A movement corridor along the LittleBlackfoot River connects the Garnets to theContinental Divide-Boulder Mountains.Lynx: North of I-90 is considered occupied lynxhabitat.Elk: Big game, such as elk, cross I-90 nearIndependence and Old Gold Creek. Theycommonly move between Garrison and theHelena area. Many elk use the Deerlodge Valleybottom between Garrison and Opportunity.Bighorn Sheep: A self-colonizing herd is locatedat Garrison; possibly from the Anaconda/UpperRock Creek area. There is movement betweenthe Lost Creek herd and the Garrison herd.Pronghorn: One of the largest herds (300animals) in western Montana is in the valleybetween Deerlodge and Drummond, particularlynear Willow Creek. The bucks winter betweenDrummond and Garrison and summer up nearthe Little Blackfoot area. The pronghorn areclosely associated with agricultural lands withinthe valley.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment and winter recreation: Thereis great potential for subdivision developmentin this valley, particularly along the Clark ForkRiver, which could affect ungulate winter range.Private development interests are attempting tobuy up significant land parcels to create a resortarea. One owner owns a significant portion ofClark Fork-Little Belt River at Garrison Junction.Highways: Animal-vehicle collisions are athreat. Wildlife must cross I-90 and Highway12 to move east-west across the linkage area.Most road kill occurs between Avon and Garrisonalong Highway 12, and along I-90 betweenMilltown and Drummond (especially carnivores).Bighorn sheep are crossing near Garrison.Conflicts: Livestock conflicts have beennumerous, particularly in the Avon Valley,leading to lethal control of wolf packs andintolerance of grizzly bears.Disease: Many domestic sheep reside in thevalley, particularly between Garrison andDempsey. The presence of domestic sheep couldincrease the likelihood of disease transmissionto wild bighorn sheep. There is much insectdisease (mountain pine beetle) in the LittleBlackfoot drainage.Water: Water quality is a significant issue fromthe Clark Fork River south to Butte.Conservation OpportunitiesThere are four major ranchland owners in thelinkage area between Drummond-Gold Creek-Garrison; the large ranch sizes are allowing agreat deal wildlife habitat open.A portion of a $168 million settlement withAtlantic Richfield Company (Arco) for minereclamation may be available for conservationpurposes.104

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GeorgetownSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Georgetown linkage encompassesthe south end of the Flint Creek Rangeinto the Pintlers, the territory west toGeorgetown Lake, and as far as the southside of West Valley. The town of Anacondaforms the eastern boundary.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Georgetown linkage providesconnectivity between the Flint CreekRange and the Anaconda-PintlerWilderness Area/Mt. Haggin WildlifeManagement Area.Mountain ranges connected by thislinkage: Anaconda-Pintlers, Pioneers,Flint Creeks, and Mt. Haggin WildlifeManagement Area.Ecological SettingThe general appearance of this linkageis of widespread and intensive timberharvest and road development. Foresthabitat, primarily lodgepole pine (Pinuscontorta) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) has been broadly fragmented,often on distinct private property lines(checkerboard). Road densities are high,particularly south of Highway 1, oftenextending right to the boundary of theAnaconda-Pintler wilderness area. Somehistoric mining activities are still evidentbut current operations are very localizedand small scale. Residential developmentand limited subdivision has occurredall along Mill Creek and Highway. 1from Anaconda to Georgetown Lake,and bisects this linkage east to west.Discovery Basin ski area and its accessroad adjoin the northwest corner of thislinkage.106WildlifeThe area between Georgetown andAnaconda is particularly good habitatfor a variety of wildlife including grizzlybears, lynx and elk.Bighorn Sheep: The Lost Creek bighornsheep herd lives in the Anaconda areaand appears to be recovering from somedegree of die-off. The herd movesbetween the southern end of the FlintCreek Range, the Anaconda-Pintlers, andwest to Rock Creek. Their core habitatis centered on their winter range in theWest Valley/Lost Creek/Hearst Lakecorridor. The sheep move across StateRoad 1 near West Valley to the Mill Creekarea. There is some interchange betweenthe Lost Creek herd and the Garrisonbighorn sheep herd.Elk winter in the Upper Rock Creek area,summer in the Anaconda-Pintler and FlintCreek Ranges, and calve on the interfaceof forestlands and private lands. ThePorters Corner-Georgetown Lake to eastfork of Rock Creek has a high value for elkconnectivity; this corridor connects elkbetween the Flint Creek and Anaconda-Pintler Ranges.Moose are found around Georgetown Lakeand throughout the Flint Creek area andPintlers. There is a lot of high qualityriparian habitat well-suited to moose andgrizzly bears.Grizzly Bear: The narrow area betweenSilver Lake and Warm Springs Creek hascontiguous forested habitat with low (butincreasing) traffic volumes and could bea linkage area for grizzly bear betweenthe Anaconda-Pintlers and the Flint Creekrange.Wolverines exist in Georgetown linkage.The spine of the mountains between FlintCreek and the Beaverhead Mountains has

persistent spring snow and may be key denninghabitat.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: The Georgetown Lake, SilverLake, West Valley area, and Anacondaare becoming increasing developed bothresidentially and recreationally. The Springhillarea is owned by developers and is currently forsale.Fragmentation: Many old forest highwaysfragment habitat.Conservation OpportunitiesMontana Fish, Wildlife and Parks is making aneffort to purchase key conservation landsbetween the National Forest boundary andOlsen Gulch. Preservation of wildlife/openspace values is an interest of the AnacondaSportsman’s Club, the Foundation for NorthAmerican Wild Sheep, Five Valleys Land Trustand other groups.107

Helmville to FlintsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Helmville to Flints linkage areaextends north-south from the northernextent of the Flint Creek Range, acrossthe southern end of the Garnet Rangeand the Robert E. Lee Mountains, endingin the Helena National Forest around thetown of Lincoln. The Clark Fork Riverruns through the southern part of thelinkage area; Nevada Creek runs throughthe central-northern part of the linkagearea. The heart of this linkage betweenthe Garnets and Flints is through the GoldCreek area.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area serves to connectthe more isolated mountain rangesof the southwestern Hub region withthe Continental Divide and the large,continuous mountain complex of theScapegoat Wilderness.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Central Garnets, Flint CreekRange, Boulder Mountains, and theScapegoat Wilderness Area and Robert E.Lee Mountains.Ecological SettingThe south end of this linkage extendsfrom the forested foothills of the FlintCreek Range across open grassland slopeswith stringers of cottonwood (Populusspp.) and willow (Salix spp.) riparianhabitat along perennial streams tributaryto the Clark Fork River. North of theClark Fork, habitat becomes a mix of drysagebrush/grasslands and scattered RockyMountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum),limber pine (Pinus flexilis) and Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii). Forest coverbecomes progressively denser in largerstands further to the north. The densityof forest cover, predominantly Douglas-fir108(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepole pine(Pinus contorta), is dependent on aspectand elevation in this area. South-facingslopes are more open with interspersedareas of big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata) and grasslands whereas northfacingslopes and higher elevations arefairly densely forested. The linkageis bisected by Nevada Creek and theBlackfoot River with broad riparian zones ofthe Blackfoot River and Nevada Creek thatsupport a mix of black cottonwood (Populustrichocarpa) and willow (Salix spp.)communities, although some of this habitathas been converted to agricultural lands.Widespread and intensive timber harvesthas occurred throughout the linkageoften using a high density, road networkon distinct checkerboard land ownershippatterns. Few large intact forest patchesare available that have not been harvestedor roaded. The Blackfoot River valleybisects the linkage with Highway 200, amajor power line, the town of Lincoln andwidely dispersed residences and ranches.Agricultural pasture and hay lands arecommon around Lincoln. Highway 141passes through the Nevada Creek valley.Elevations in the linkage range from about4,200 feet along the Clark Fork River to9,000 feet north of Lincoln.WildlifeThis area currently functions as amovement corridor for grizzly bear,wolves, and lynx.Grizzly: This linkage area is veryimportant for grizzly bear movingsouthwest out of the Blackfoot RiverBasin towards the Garnets-Flint CreekRange. Nevada Lake and Nevada Creekfunction as specific movement corridorsfor bears; likewise, grizzly move throughHelmville and Ovando towards the

Garnets. The Clark Fork River Corridor hasabundant chokecherries, providing great latesummer and fall habitat for bears. There was abear captured in a river bottom near Drummondsouth of Carten Creek. Cottonwood Creek inthe Garnets and Gold Creek in the Flints areconsidered important habitat for grizzly withinthis linkage area.Wolves move north-south through the linkagearea between the Flint Creek Range and theGarnets. In the area between Hall-Helmville-Alice Creek, wolves show up frequently butpacks cannot be sustained for more than a fewyears because of recurrent conflicts. Currently,there is a small pack ranging between Hall andGarrison, particularly around Douglas mountain.Mountain Lions move between Garrison andGold Creek.Wolverine: They are present in the Garnets; butthey may be relatively isolated in this range.Lynx: The Garnets are occupied lynx habitat,specifically in the spruce-fir habitat of thelinkage area. From the Placid Creek to UnionCreek/Helmville area south, the lynx habitat isnot as suitable, and their occupancy would be atlower levels.Pronghorn: There is a herd that moves throughthe valley between the Kleinschmidt Flats inthe north and Drummond and Garrison southof the linkage area. The pronghorns winter inDrummond and Garrison.Elk: The east Garnets (Hoodoo Mountain area)have at least two separate elk herds and theirnumbers are increasing.Moose: The east Garnets-Hoodoos are importanthabitat for moose.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: There is high potential forsubdivision development in this linkage area,particularly along the Clark Fork River, whichcould affect ungulate winter range, andbetween Garrison and Drummond. Highway 200is also an area where there could be increaseddevelopment. The Lincoln area is starting todevelop; this town is essentially within a wildlife109corridor, and increased development will likelylead to more conflicts between wildlife andhumans. In particular, the south side of theLincoln area should be addressed, as it liesoutside of the official grizzly bear recoveryzone. There is also a resort development aroundGarrison Junction.Highways: Animal-vehicle collisions are athreat; wildlife must cross I-90 as they movenorth-south across this linkage area. Thehighest amounts of road kill occur between GoldCreek and Garrison (particularly carnivores inthis area). The east Garnets are also heavilyroaded, fragmenting forest habitat. Anotherarea where animals crossing roads frequently iseast of Helmville along Highway 141.Trapping/Poaching: By catch of lynx in trapsmeant for other furbearers is an issue in theGarnets. One-third of all known lynx mortalitiescome from poaching in this area.Weeds: Noxious weeds (leafy spurge,Dalmatian toadflax, and spotted knapweed)are problematic in this linkage area. In someareas, elk winter range is especially affected byspotted knapweed, which the elk avoid.Conflict: Grizzly bears and wolves have comeinto conflict with humans around the BlackfootValley.Conservation OpportunitiesA cooperative road management group is tryingto keep road density down. An existing weedadvisory group is tackling noxious weed issues.The Blackfoot Challenge is a cooperativeconservation effort that is occurring to the northof this linkage. There may be opportunitiesto update that conservation group with thisinformation, which could have a positive effecton conservation in this linkage.There are conservation easements on privateranchland near Gold Creek.

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Horseshoe HillsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Horseshoe Hills linkage is locatedwest of the southern end of the BigBelts and the northern end of theBridger Mountains. It is bounded bythe East Gallatin River and Interstate90 on the south, by the Missouri Riveron the west, Dry Creek on the east, andSixteenmile Creek on the north.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area is important forungulate movement to and from theadjacent ranges- Bridger Mountains andBig Belt Mountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bridgers, Big BeltsEcological SettingHorseshoe Hills is an area of openrolling foothills, ridges and rocky reefsextending from the Missouri River tothe northern end of the Bridger Range,and north of the Gallatin River. Thearea is primarily sagebrush grasslandhabitat with scattered patches of limberpine (Pinus flexilis) and Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum), with afew patches of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) on north-facing slopes. Somegrassland areas have been converted todry land crop farming and pasture land. Afew general ranch roads are found in thewestern half of the linkage. The easternpart of the linkage, mostly east of the DryCreek road, has been widely developedwith subdivisions, small acreages andranchettes. Average elevation in thislinkage is about 5,000 feet.WildlifeAbout 200-300 elk live within this linkagearea and move east to the Bar None111ranch for winter range. There is a lot ofinterchange of elk between this linkagearea and the Bridger Mountains.Mule deer are found throughout thislinkage.This area provides excellent habitat forpronghorn, which move throughout thelinkage area.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment from the Gallatin Valley iscreeping into this linkage, much of whichis private land; the remaining publicland is becoming increasingly difficult toaccess.Fencing is a big issue for pronghorn andyoung elk moving in this linkage area.Highways: Interstate 90, south of thislinkage, fractures population connectivityfor pronghorn , which traditionallyintermingled with pronghorn populationssouth of the interstate.Energy development is starting to beproposed, particularly for oil and naturalgas wells.Conservation OpportunitiesThere may be opportunities to promotewildlife friendly fencing in the HorseshoeHills linkage.Much of the land is held largeprivate ranch owners; there may beopportunity to promote wildlife friendlystewardship.

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Hound CreekSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Hound Creek linkage area lies westof the northern end of the Little BeltMountains. It is bordered on the south byRock Creek, on the east by Millegan Roadand the Smith River, and on the West byHound Creek. The northern boundary runseast-west between Millegan Road andHound Creek in the Porcupine Creek area.Importance of Linkage AreaThis area provides important winter rangefor ungulates summering in the Big Beltsor the Smith River Valley.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Big Belts, Little BeltsEcological SettingThis linkage includes most of the HoundCreek watershed which is an extensionof prairie grassland habitat that extendssouthward between the Big Belt andLittle Belt mountains. The area consistsof expansive benches with relativelydeep drainages, some of which containsmall streams. The area supports largegrassland areas, with some sagebrushcommunities. Some drainages containother tall shrub communities, such asbox elder and green ash more typicalof the plains environments further eastand north. A few patches of ponderosapine (Pinus ponderosa) are present onsome north-facing slopes. The linkageis generally undeveloped, supportingmostly ranchlands and some small areasof irrigated hay land and dry land crops.The upper Millegan and Adel roads arethe only main routes through the area.Elevations in this high, open linkagerange from about 4,000 feet to over7,000 feet.WildlifeThe Hound Creek area has high qualitynative grasslands and mountain foothillhabitat. It is an important area forwhitetail and mule deer, black bear,mountain lions, and bobcats.Wolves are living in the Lingshire area.This area has low human population, isnative rangeland, relatively undisturbed,and may be one of the few places in thisarea of the Hub where wolves have achance to survive.Elk, mule deer and pronghorn winteralong the Adel area. Because of the largenumbers of ungulates in this area, it isalso an important area for mountain lions.Elk also concentrate on the southwestside of this linkage area, particularlyaround the Birch Creek area (the easternslopes of the Big Belts) because of theexcellent winter range. Currently, thereare an estimated 1500 elk wintering inthe southwest part of the linkage. Elkalso move between the Rock Creek, TwoCreek, and Freeman Creek.Pronghorn can be found throughoutthe valley areas. They move seasonallybetween this linkage south, across the DryRange Linkage, to the Smith River Valley.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment has been increasing in theAdel area. Access across private landsto adjacent public lands is increasinglylimited, thus making it more difficultfor Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks tomanage game populations in the area.Conflict occurs between livestockoperators and elk, which competewith cattle for grazing. There are alsodomestic sheep allotments near thiscorridor, which increase the risk of113

livestock-carnivore conflict. Because of thelivestock operations in this area, and thus theincreased risk of conflicts, it may be challengingfor wolves to ever successfully establish packs inthis linkage area.Conservation OpportunitiesThere could be opportunities to work withranchers on a compensation program to lead tomore carnivore tolerance.114

Jefferson SloughSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Jefferson Slough linkage spansthe Jefferson River valley from westof Whitehall to Cardwell. The area isbounded by the South Boulder River onthe east and from Point of Rocks to theWhitetail Road on the west.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage is a potential northern routefor grizzly bear moving out of the GreaterYellowstone Ecosystem toward theBoulder and Elkhorn Mountains.Mountain Ranges connected by thelinkage: the north end of the TobaccoRoot Mountains with Bull Mountain andthe Boulder MountainsEcological SettingThis linkage crosses the JeffersonRiver valley between Whitehall andCardwell. The area is widely developedwith small subdivisions, residences,farms and ranches. The Jefferson River,Highways 55 and 41, and Interstate90 bisect the linkage. Foothills in thelinkage support scattered stands ofDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),limber pine (Pinus flexilis), and juniper(Juniperus scopulorum), along withscattered patches of sagebrush (Artemisiaspp.), black greasewood (Sarcobatusvermiculatus), and needle-and-thread(Stipa comata) grasslands. The Jeffersonand South Boulder River bottomssupport extensive stands of narrowleafcottonwood (Populus angustifolia) andjuniper, as well as irrigated pasture andhay land. The Piedmont Swamp is a largenatural wet meadow/wetland area on theJefferson River floodplain immediatelysouth of Whitehall that has remained ina natural condition while surrounded by115development. Average elevation in thislinkage is about 4,400 feet.WildlifeWildlife use in the Jefferson River valleybetween the Tobacco Roots and BullMountain is constrained by the amountof human development and highwaytraffic that is present. The JeffersonRiver corridor supports numerous sandhillcranes, waterfowl, songbirds and raptors,and is a major flyway for spring and fallmigrations of sandhill cranes, snow geeseand swans.Moose are present in the Jefferson andSouth Boulder river bottoms seasonally.White-tailed deer are overly abundantthroughout the Jefferson River bottom.Pronghorn antelope and mule deer:Foothills habitat supports yearlongantelope and winter mule deer use allaround the linkage.Elk: Some elk winter use occurs in theMayflower Mine area of the north TobaccoRoots, and around Bull Mountain to thenorth.Mountain lion and black bear appearoccasionally in the linkage area.Bald eagles and osprey: Cottonwoodhabitats in the Jefferson River corridorsupport numerous osprey nestingterritories and yearlong bald eagle use.River otter and beaver are present in theJefferson River.Merriam’s turkeys have beentransplanted into the area and areexpanding on both sides of I-90 within thelinkage.Wolves and wolverine: The linkageprovides a potential corridor for wolfand wolverine movement between twoareas of potential habitat in the Tobacco

Roots and habitat further north in the BoulderMountains. Neither of these areas is really largeenough to provide yearlong home ranges foreither species.Conservation ThreatsResidential development and subdivision: Thecontinuing increase of human presence in theJefferson River corridor serves to displace manypotential wildlife uses. Resident wildlife speciesare primarily those that are highly mobile or areadaptable to human activities.Roads and highways: Significant traffic volumeson I-90 constrain wildlife movement throughthis linkage and are increase the risk for animalvehiclecollisions.Mining and energy development: The expansiveGolden Sunlight mine on public lands north ofthe highways has fragmented habitat continuityand altered habitat quality; toxic waste pondshave caused mortality in birds. Although themine may be closing down, habitat continuitycontinues to be interrupted. A major wind farmon those lands is now being proposed. A major500 kV power line from near Townsend has beenproposed for construction through this linkage,either continuing west over Homestake Pass orsouth up the Jefferson River valley.Conservation planning: With the increasinglybroad population base in the Jefferson Valley,many more people are conservation andrecreation-oriented. Several parcels of landin the river bottoms are under conservationeasement, including the Piedmont Swamp,and other potential lands are available. Thisprovides opportunities to encourage communitybasedconservation efforts and organization.The Jefferson watershed committee provides aforum to address local land use issues that atleast initially are water-quality related. Federalauthorization of future reclamation work orenergy development in the linkage will provideopportunities for local involvement.Limited private land access: Private landsthat are maintained as roadless or with limitedaccess provide secure pockets of disturbancefreehabitat within the linkage.116

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John LongsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe John Longs linkage area is primarilya mountain chain that runs north southbetween the Garnet range to the north,and the Sapphire mountains to the westand south. The Philipsburg Valley runs tothe east.Importance of Linkage AreaNorth-south connectivity is importantbetween Garnets and Lost Trail Crest.The John Longs linkage is similar to theSapphires in this respect.Mountain ranges connected by thislinkage: John Longs, Garnets, andSapphiresEcological SettingThis mountainous linkage supports awide diversity of forest habitat withDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) andlodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) as thedominant conifer species. Engelmannspruce (Picea engelmannii) , westernlarch (Larix occidentalis), subalpine fir(Abies lasiocarpa), and ponderosa pine(P. ponderosa) are present dependingon specific sites, aspect and elevation.Localized grasslands and shrubscommunities on steep south-facing slopesprovide important habitat diversity. Thislinkage includes most of the lower RockCreek watershed, which steeply bisectsthe area north to south. Cottonwood/willow communities are intermixed withspruce and lodgepole pine in riparianhabitats along Rock Creek. The RockCreek road follows the stream corridorthroughout the linkage, and providesaccess to a few scattered residences,campgrounds and small ranches. A largepower line traverses the northeastcorner of the linkage, and some timberharvest and road development has118occurred in the eastern and northernpart of the linkage. Most of this arearemains undeveloped to protect the blueribbontrout fishery in Rock Creek. Thenorthwestern part of the linkage adjoinsthe Welcome Creek Wilderness Area.Elevations in this linkage range widelyfrom 8,000 feet to 3,600.WildlifeBighorn sheep: A metapopulation ofbighorn sheep exist in the John Longslinkage, with a year round herd of about300 animals around Ram Mountain. Someof the largest rams in the state areharvested here. Several bands of sheepmove between the Sandstone Ridge andScotchman Gulch areas and Tyler Creekin the east part of the linkage, and theValley of the Moon area to Sawmill/Solomon Gulch in the west. They movesouth to the main stem of Rock Creekand, at times, they will move downstreamtowards Highway 38. Key winter andsummer range locations are BabcockMountain, Spring Creek Ridge and GoldenMountain. The Bighorn sheep that movebetween the Lower and Upper Rock Creekarea are considered a combined herd.Bighorn are crossing the Clark Fork Riverand Interstate 90 to move north andcolonize the Bearmouth area.Elk move from the winter range on LowerRock Creek to the Harvey Ridge calvingarea in the east part of the linkage. Insummer, elk move into Smart Creek,Lower Willow Creek, Harvey Creek, TylerCreek, and Black Pine Ridge. Elk andmoose live year around in Upper WillowCreek.Wolves move north to south betweenthe Cabinet-Purcells region to the northand the High Divide region to the south.There are at several packs in the JohnLongs linkage: the Sapphire and Upper

Willow packs moved here from the populationsintroduced in central Idaho, and the Bearmouthpack is present. The John Longs linkage is greatwolf habitat.Grizzly bear activity is verified here. The areawest of Drummond in the north end of thelinkage area, moving into Antelope Valley, wasidentified as a grizzly bear “crossing” area; thisconnects the west Garnet Mountains to LowerWillow Basin.Between the Garnets and the John Longs, themain wildlife connectivity pathway is boundedby Flint Creek and Willow Creek.Conservation ThreatsLivestock- wolf conflicts are frequent. Manypacks have had to be lethally controlled.Bighorn sheep-vehicle collisions are a high riskas sheep move across Interstate 90 near theBearmouth area.Development threat is a high risk in the RockCreek Valley, especially in the lower end of thestream.Conservation OpportunitiesThere is opportunity for the developmentof predator-livestock conflict avoidanceprograms.Stream protection in the Rock Creek Valley isthe focus of a new Montana Fish, Wildlife andParks position.There are opportunities for promoting wildlifesafe passage mitigation work in well-definedareas where bighorn sheep are crossing majorroads.119

Little BeltsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage encompasses the Little BeltMountains.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage provides connectivity forlocal ungulate movement north-southand east-west movement into the higherelevations of the Little Belt Mountainsfrom winter range to summer range.This linkage could potentially connectthe Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem(south) with the Rocky Mountain Front(northwest).Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Little Belts, Big Belts, CastlesEcological SettingThis linkage is primarily forested habitat.Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), arecommon. Whitebark pine (P. albicaulis)is present at highest elevations andEngelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni)exists in more moist sites. Major insectinfestations have killed large areas oftimber in the southern part of the linkagearea. The linkage has been intensivelylogged with a widespread road network.Primary forest roads extend the fulllength of the Little Belts’ crest. Highway89 bisects the linkage at Kings Hillwhere the Showdown ski area has beendeveloped. A major power line corridoralso follows the crest. Elevations in thelinkage range from about 6,500 feet to8,000 feet.WildlifeElk and mule deer are commonthroughout the Little Belts. Ungulatesmove either north-south or east-westfrom winter range areas located infoothills habitat on the periphery of theLewis & Clark National Forest to higherelevation summer range on the nationalforest. Important elk winter rangeareas include the Judith River WMA, theHaymaker WMA, the Antelope/WaiteCreek area, the Limestone Butter area,and the Sheep Creek area. Large numbersof elk may also be found on private landyear round in some areas.There are no known grizzly bears in theLittle Belts. Black bears and mountainlions are common throughout the LittleBelts.Wolverine have historically beentrapped in the Chamberlain Creek andDaisy Narrows areas. Wolverine trackshave been observed on the Divide Road.Potential denning habitat exists in theBig Baldy Mountain, Yogo Peak, QuartziteRidge and Barker Mountain areas.Moose are present in most of the majordrainages in the Little Belts. Importantareas include the drainages around BeltPark, Moose Creek, the Smoky Mountainarea, and the Deadhorse Creek area.Lynx: The Little Belt Mountains arecurrently considered unoccupied lynxhabitat. However, there are periodicreports of lynx in the Little Belt Mountainsand there is a considerable amount ofpotential lynx habitat in the Little Belts.Wolves: Wolf reports have becomecommon throughout the Little Belts area.While no packs are currently known toexist, it is probably just a matter of timebefore a pack does form. Because of120

the high potential for conflict with domesticlivestock, it is expected that tolerance forwolves will be low in this area.Pronghorn are found in the foothills and plainsareas surrounding the Little Belt Mountains.Westslope Cutthroat trout: The Little BeltMountains remain a stronghold for westslopecutthroat trout. Currently, there are 90 to 99%pure populations in tributaries of the South Forkof the Judith River, tributaries of TenderfootCreek and other areas in the Little Belts.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: There is potential for theDry Fork of Belt Creek to be subdivided anddeveloped. There is also potential for furtherdevelopment in the Belt Park and Monarch toNeihart areas.Recreation: The Little Belt Mountains areheavily used for motorized recreation includingOHVs during the summer and snowmobiles inthe winter. Illegal OHV use off of designatedroutes can negatively impact ungulate habitateffectiveness. Snowmobile use in the wintermay negatively impact wolverines, particularlyaround denning habitat.Highways: U.S. Highway 89 bisects the LittleBelt Mountains from north to south and there issome wildlife mortality from vehicle collisions.Grazing conflicts exist between elk and cattleon both national forest land and on private landthat surrounds the Little Belt MountainsLivestock/carnivore issues are a problem insome areas, and conflicts would be expected toincrease if wolves settle in the area.Sanitation issues and black bear conflicts areproblems in the Monarch and Neihart areas andin some USFS campground areas.Mining: The Barker-Hughesville mining districtis a superfund site and is a persistent, low-levelthreat to wildlife.Lack of adequate hunter access to privateland and in some areas public land has reducedMontana Fish, Wildlife and Parks ability tomanage elk populations in some areas.Forest Management: The lack of fire and timbermanagement has resulted in a decline in habitatquality for ungulates in many areas.Conservation OpportunitiesThere is an opportunity to convert privateinholdings in the Dry Fork of Belt Creek areainto public land. There is an opportunity forthe USFS, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, andTenderfoot Land Trust to acquire private landin the lower Tenderfoot drainage and convertit into public ownership. Possible opportunityin the future for the USFS to block up checkerboardedUSFS parcels in the Sheep Creek areathrough land exchanges.New US Forest Service travel plan will helpreduce OHV and snowmobile conflicts withwildlife. There may be an opportunity forconservation easements in the future in someareas. Fencing opportunities to protectwestslope cutthroat trout streams from conflictswith livestock grazing. Prescribed burn andtimber management projects on USFS toimprove habitat conditions for ungulates. Alsopotential exists for aspen habitat improvementprojects.US Forest Service food storage ordinance toimprove sanitation issues on US Forest Servicecampgrounds to reduce black bear conflicts.Might be an opportunity to educate the publicabout sanitation issues and black bears.There is a need for better access to US ForestService land on the northeast side of the LittleBelts.121

Little Belts to CraziesSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area includes the easternpart of the Castle Mountains in theWhetstone Ridge and Pasture Gulchareas, the southern part of the Little BeltMountains in the Spring Creek area, andsouth along the Muddy and Cottonwoodcreek drainages to the north-centralfoothills of the Crazy Mountains.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides connectivityfor wildlife moving from the Little BeltMountains into the Castle Mountains,and from the Castles into the CrazyMountains. Because this linkage areaconnects the Little Belt Mountains tothe Crazy Mountains, there is potentialfor animals movement between theRocky Mountain Front and the GreaterYellowstone Ecosystem.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Little Belt Mountains, CastleMountains, and Crazy Mountains.Ecological SettingThe Little Belts to the Crazy Mountainslinkage spans the North Fork andSouth Fork of the Musselshell Riverwest of Martinsdale, and extends upCottonwood Creek to the foothills ofthe Crazy Mountains. This foothillsarea is a mix of sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata spp.) and grassland habitatwith scattered patches of Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), ponderosa pine(Pinus ponderosa) and Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum). Wetmeadows and willow (Salix spp.) riparianareas are common throughout the area.Cottonwood Creek and the south fork ofthe Musselshell River (from its confluencewith Cottonwood Creek) are dominated123by cottonwoods (Populus trichocarpa).The area is primarily ranchland. Irrigatedhay lands and pasture have beendeveloped in the larger riparian areas,often removing the native shrubs, andwhere water diversion is feasible, uplandnative grasslands have come under hayproduction. Numerous stock ponds andsmall reservoirs impound water on rivertributaries for irrigation use. Highways12 and 294 bisect the linkage and bothforks of the Musselshell River. Elevationin the linkage ranges from 4,800 feet toabout 6,300 feet.WildlifeGrizzly and Black bear: Currently thereare no verified accounts of grizzly bearswithin this linkage area although thereare consistent reports of them in theCrazy Mountains to the south. Black bearsuse the Cottonwood Creek corridor formovement between the Castle Mountainsand the Crazies, and the Pasture Gulch/Spring Creek corridor of movementbetween the Castles and the Little BeltMountains.Wolverines in the Little Belts are of thesame mitochondrial line as the CrazyMountains, which implies movementbetween the two ranges. Biologistssuggest that the same wolverinescould possibly be using the Little BeltMountains, Castle Mountains, and CrazyMountains as home range. The mostimportant major linkage that wouldconnect these island mountain rangesis Pasture Gulch, east of Checkerboard,south to Cottonwood Creek. This linkagemay also be used by moose, and wolves.Wolves: There are no wolves activelydenning in this area, although wolfactivity is occasionally reported.Elk winter along the southeast end of

the Castle Mountains south of Whetstone Ridge.Elk also winter in the Spring Creek area on thesouth end of the Little Belts. The whole areaaround Muddy Creek to the Musselshell River isalso elk and mule deer winter range. The southend of Whetstone Ridge is an important muledeer winter range.Moose have been observed in the CottonwoodCreek area.Mountain Lions are routinely harvested fromthe Whetstone Ridge and Pasture Gulch area.Pronghorn are found in large numbers west ofCottonwood Creek and on the east side of theCastle Mountains.Bald Eagles winter from White Sulphur Springsto Harlowtown, primarily along the MusselshellRiver.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Currently, there are some housesand fences along Hwy 12 and development islow.Highways: Highway 12, between Checkerboardand Two Dot is in poor condition, which keepstraffic numbers low. There are some incidencesof animal-vehicle collisions.Conflict: There are many domestic sheep/carnivore issues around Martinsdale.Energy Development: There is high potentialfor wind development along Hwy 89 to the east,possibly within the next ten years.Conservation OpportunitiesMontana Department of Transportation willbe improving Hwy 12 in the next few years;therefore, the opportunity exists to discuss themitigation of animal-vehicle collisions. Threedrainages (Flagstaff Creek, Whetstone Creek,and Cooper Creek) across the highway andcould possibly be connected; there may be anopportunity to install wildlife-friendly bridges inthis area.Currently, no conservation efforts exist in theCheckerboard area, but there are conservationopportunities on some private land alongthe Little Belt and Castle Mountains. Privateland access for hunting is a significant gamemanagement issue in this area; this limits theability of Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks tomanage elk. Opportunities may exist to work onpublic access.There is a significant amount of public land inthe Checkerboard area of this linkage; theremay be an opportunity for agencies to blockup areas of state land with land exchangesto increase public access. There also may beopportunities for conservation easements in thearea.124

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Lolo to TurahSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses thenorthern most part of the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness and the BitterrootRange surrounding the north end ofthe Sapphires and the town of Lolo.The Idaho/Montana state line formsthe western boundary. The northernboundary runs across the Bitterroot Valleyhalfway between Lolo and Missoula inthe Deadman Gulch area. The southernboundary of the linkage is acrossthe Bitterroot Valley at the town ofStevensville. Across the valley to the eastthis linkage abuts the Sapphire Mountainsand Rock Creek, and includes WelcomeCreek Wilderness. The linkage areaconnects with the linkage that runs fromTurah to Placid Creek to the northeast.The Bitterroot River runs north-souththrough this linkage.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage connects the BitterrootRange to the west with the Sapphire andthe John Long Mountains to the east.This linkage area provides connectivityfor wildlife moving north-south along thecrest of the Bitterroot Mountains and theMontana/Idaho border, and north southmovement along the Bitterroot River,It also connects the Selway-BitterrootWilderness north into the Cabinet andYaak Mountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bitterroot Range, John LongMountains, Sapphire Mountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage spans the BitterrootValley from south of Missoula to aboutStevensville. Cumulatively, habitat in thisarea has been significantly altered andfragmented. Subdivisions are expandingfrom Lolo, Florence, Stevensville andin other intervening areas. Highway 93is a high-speed four lane highway, andresidential and commercial developmentin the corridor is extensive. Dispersedresidences and roads, some to supporttimber harvest, are scattered throughoutthe mountains in the eastern part ofthe linkage, while extensive timberharvest has occurred in the foothills inthe western portion. Riparian habitatalong the Bitterroot River supportsnarrowleaf cottonwood (Populusangustifolia) communities while uplandssupport scattered ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa) stands, intermixed withgrasslands. Foothills forest is dominatedby Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa),Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),and several other less abundant coniferspecies, including western larch (Larixoccidentalis) on specific sites. Wherenative habitat still occurs in the foothills,it is a combination of grasslands andpockets of shrubs such as chokecherry(Prunus virginiana), currant (Ribesspp.), and snowberry (Symphoricarpusoccidentalis). Noxious weeds, primarilyspotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe)and leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) havebecome well-established on ranchettesand in disturbed areas, and have spreadinto some remaining native upland andriparian habitats. Elevation in thislinkage ranges from 3,200 feet to about5,600 feet.126

WildlifeEast-west connectivity is intact in only twoplaces: in between Miller Creek and DeadmanGulch, and further south between Davis Creekand the Lantern Ridge area north of CarltonCreek. The riparian corridor alongside theBitterroot River provides connectivity from thevalley sides into the river for many bird species,ungulates, mountain lions, and mesocarnivoreslike foxes.Grizzly: A grizzly bear was observed in 2002on multiple occasions south of Lolo in theStevensville area. This bear had traveled fromthe Rock Creek area. Another bear was killedin the Kelly Creek area near Lolo Pass in fall2007 by a black bear hunter, just to the north ofthis linkage. The Bitterroot ecosystem has thepotential to become occupied habitat if grizzlycould get to it- one route is through this linkage.Wolves: This linkage is important to wolfmovement because it is the west end of itsrange in Montana, and it is, and historically hasbeen, where wolves come east from Idaho andmove further east into the rest of the range inMontana. Wolves move across the Bitterrootmountain ridgeline from Idaho into Montana,and use the parallel drainages funneling downinto the Bitterroot Valley. Big Creek is a wide,important movement area. From the BitterrootValley, there is potential movement northeastto the Seeley-Swan through Turah and the SwanValley. There are at least twelve known wolfpacks operating in the Bitterroot Valley.Wolverine: The Bitterroot Range is consideredwolverine core habitat. Lolo Hot Springs andLolo Peak area are particularly importanthabitat. In terms of wolverine movement, thepath diverges at Lolo Peak, heading north to theCabinet and Yaak Mountains, and northeast atLolo around Missoula. Movement to the south isthrough the Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness andacross the top of the Bitterroot mountain chain.The most likely path of connectivity are areas ofpersistent late spring snow pack.Lynx: There are conflicting reports about lynxwithin this linkage; it may server as a potentialarea of dispersal.Fisher inhabit the Lolo Hot Springs area. Theentire Selway-Bitterroot Wilderness westto Idaho along the Montana/Idaho border isfisher core habitat. There is the only large,continuous, native population in Montana.Elk: There are about 8000 elk in the BitterrootValley. The entire valley is winter range, withexclusions in areas of private land subdivisiongrowth. This linkage area, the north end ofthe Bitterroot Valley contains several specificareas of elk winter range. On the west side ofthe valley, elk would historically winter in Davisand Eightmile Creeks from Lolo. They currentlyuse Lolo Creek/Lolo Hot Springs. The ThreemileWildlife Management Area (WMA) was createdto provide elk winter range. There are spots ofconcentrated elk presence between ThreemileWMA) south to Burnt Fork. The elk on the eastside summer up in Burnt Fork Creek, AmbroseCreek, Welcome Creek WMA and ClevelandMountain. Elk and mule deer on the west sideof the Bitterroot Valley use the Lantern Ridgearea and Lolo Creek drainage.Moose are present within this linkage area,particularly along the Bitterroot River corridor.In the winter, moose winter range is in everymajor drainage on the sides of the valley.Conservation ThreatsThe Bitterroot Valley is one of the mostextreme examples of wildlife habitatfragmentation due to exurban private landsubdivision. Land use planning and zoning inthe Bitterroot Valley is in the beginning stages,with mixed public support. There is a lot ofdevelopment and traffic activity along Highway93. Wildlife crossing the highway betweenHamilton and Missoula have an increased risk ofanimal- vehicle collisions.Development: Overall, the Bitterroot Valley isan exclusion area for elk winter range becauseof private land subdivision growth. Ten acreparcels throughout the Bitterroot Valley are athreat to and encroach upon ungulate winterrange. There is a lot of construction activityon the east side of the valley as it is veryconducive to building. There is a private landsubdivision threat through the Blue Mountain127

path; this could further fragment wildlifeconnectivity that is already threatened byexisting development.There is a planned development in the LoloPeak area for a 3000 home ski resort. Thisproposed location is at the diverging point ofwolverine movement to the north.Recreation: There are a lot of public accessand Off-highway Vehicle (OHV) issues here.Depending upon intensity of use, winterrecreation at Lolo Ski area may threatenwolverine denning activities.Highways: Traffic volumes are increasingdramatically. MaCalla Creek crossing onHighway 93 is an animal-vehicle collisionhotspot. There are 30,000 commuters dailyalong Highway 93, affecting wildlife dispersaland increasing the risk of animal-vehiclecollisions.Conflict: The Brooks wolf pack was removedbecause of depredation. In the east part ofthe valley, wolves are more prone to problemsbecause they come into more contact withdomestic livestock. It will become increasinglymore difficult for wolves to move through thevalley without encountering conflict becauseof the increased human presence, along withhobby farms and domestic pets.Forest management: In the Lolo Hot Springsarea there is active logging and issues withnoxious weeds. Any land management practicesthat impact ungulates, like lowering food onthe landscape in the winter, is a threat toboth ungulates and carnivores. Also, thereare conflict issues with wolves on public landwhere there are domestic sheep and grazingallotments.Noxious Weeds in the Bitterroot Valley are ahuge threat, with one of the highest infestationrates of spotted knapweed and leafy spurgeareas in the state.Conservation OpportunitiesThere are conservation opportunities withinthis linkage involving land development. Areaslike Lolo north to Grave Creek, and LanternRidge would be ideal for targeting conservationpurchases as relatively few purchases couldsecure areas with high wildife utility.Forest Plan and travel planning revisions in theBitterroot National Forest, are an opportunityto influence management of public lands forwildlife connectivity.There are social opportunities in the Missoulaarea and the Bitterroot Valley. There are manygroups working on various initiatives/projectsthat influence land use patterns and wildlifehabitat connectvity, such as the MissoulaCounty Commissioners, Montana Department ofTransportation, Sonoran Institute, HeadwaterMountains, the Western Watershed Assessment,Bitterroot Open Lands Board, Ravalli CountyCommissioners, Montana Fish, Wildlife andParks, Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, FiveValleys, and Missoula Land Trust.Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks needsassistance with public outreach for human/wolfco-existence.The greatest single factor, specific to wolverineviability, is increasing Wilderness Areas.Any land protection areas that will increasewolverine habitat is hugely important. Also,in terms of wolverine conservation, MontanaFish, Wildlife and Parks has improved wolverinetrapping efforts in this area.There are some wildlife safe passagesopportunities along Highway 93.128

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Lost TrailSpeciesGeographic BoundaryLost Trail is a heavily forested linkagesandwiched between the south end ofthe Bitterroot Valley on the northwestside, the Beaverhead mountains on thesouth, and the Big Hole Valley on theeast. The Anaconda-Pintler range liesto the northeast, and the Sula Valleyimmediately to the north.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Lost Trail linkage area functions asa regional “hub” of connectivity due toits geographical placement between twomajor valleys, three mountain chains,and wilderness/significant wildlifemanagement areas. Animals can moveeast- west and north south within thisconnectivity complex.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: The Bitterroot Mountains,Sapphire Mountains, the BeaverheadMountains, the Salmon-Selway ecosystem,the Anaconda- Pintlers.Ecological SettingThis high elevation linkage is dominatedby coniferous forest along both sidesof the Continental Divide. Lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta) communities aredominant on the Montana side usuallyextending to edge of the Big Hole Valleywhere they adjoin sagebrush/grasslandsand extensive aspen/willow riparianhabitats. Ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa)is common at the lower tree limit inthe Salmon and Bitterroot River valleyswhere it adjoins shrub lands dominatedby curlleaf mountain mahogany(Cercocarpus ledifolius) and various bigsagebrush (Artemisia tridentata spp.)and grassland communities. Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), subalpinefir (Abies lasiocarpa) and Engelmann130spruce (Picea engelmannii) are commonthroughout the linkage area dependingon slope, aspect and elevation. Severallarge wildfires have recently burned northof Highway 43, leaving extensive areas ofstanding dead timber. The central andnorthwestern portions of this linkage areheavily roaded from past timber harvest.Highway 93 passes through the westernpart of the linkage between Gibbonsville,ID and Sula, MT while Highway 43 bisectsthe linkage between Chief Joseph Passand Wisdom, MT. The two highwaysintersect at Lost Trail ski area on LostTrail Pass. The northeastern end of thelinkage adjoins the Anaconda-PintlerWilderness Area. The elevations in thislinkage area range from about 5,000 feetto just over 10,000 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions as amovement corridor for wolves, elk andwolverine, and has a high potential forgrizzly bear, lynx and fisher use.Grizzly: This linkage could function asa pathway for grizzly bear movementbetween the Bitterroot and theBeaverhead Mountains.Wolves: Wolves are moving from the WestFork of the Bitterroot in Idaho, thoughDarby and Sula, south to the Beaverhead.The Trail Creek pack is known to inhabitthis area, but it is difficult to discernout the existence of other packs. Thegeneral north-south movement of wolvesthrough this linkage area is importantfor connecting wolf populations betweenthe High Divide and the Hub conservationregions.For wolverines, who area dependent onspringtime snow pack for denning, thisarea is of maximum importance. Thehigh level of snow pack connects many

mountain ranges, and the springtime snow packhistorically persists into the second week of May.The spine of the mountains between Flint Creekand the Beaverheads are areas that have primeconditions for supporting wolverine populations.Lynx: This area also has high potential as lynxhabitat.Elk: The entire lower end of the Bitterroot Valleyand Lost Trail Camp has a high density of elk;there is elk movement between the Bitterroot,Salmon Valley, the Big Hole, and the Frank ChurchWilderness. Elk are mostly concentrated to thewest side of the Big Hole Valley, particularly fromPlimpton Creek southward.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Currently, this area is somewhatundeveloped, but there could be creepfrom the south end Bitterroot and SalmonValleys, and nearby ski areas. Any privateland subdivision in these areas threatensconnectivity for carnivores; the risk of humanwildlifeencounters would increase.Winter recreation may also threatenwolverine, especially when recreationalistsenter areas where female wolverine aredenning. In the foothills of the adjacentvalleys (Salmon, Bitterroot, Big Hole), there isthe potential for conflicts between humans andwolves.Conservation OpportunitiesThis linkage is primarily all National Forest land;therefore, by working with the municipalitiesaround the Conner and Sula corridors, a largemovement corridor could remain intact. Thereis enough public land in this area to sustain wolfpacks despite the high probability of humanconflicts.Chaffin CreekCreekPiquettSpade CreekW Fork Bitterroot ROverwh ich CreekBlind DrawLaird CreekCreekWilesConnerSmoke CreekCreekHug hesBITTERROOTRANGECreekIndianRye C r eek£¤ 93 SulaMaynard CreekSula CreekCamp CreekCreekPraineHart CreekLost Trail CampHughes CreekHull CreekTwin CreekCreekCameronLost TrailPassCONTINENTAL DIVIDE£¤ 93TraiSAPPHIREMTNSRiverBitterroot East ForkTolan CreekMay CreekS heep CCreekMartinCreekMeadowl Cre ekCow CreekreekSwift Creek131CreekTieButler CreekSign CreekR uby C reekLick CreekAnaconda-PintlerWildernessHell Roaring CreekCreekBenderJohnson CreekCreekMoosePlimpton Creek¬« 43 BIG HOLEVALLEYRiverHole Big North ForkMifflin CreekBEAVERHEADMOUNTAINSRock CreekClam CreekBig CreekLakeVLand CoverLost Trail LinkageI DU. S. Forest ServiceMontana Fish,Wildlife & ParksorIdaho Fish & GameState LandsU.S. Bureau ofLand Mgmt.Private Land/OtherWilderness (USFS& USFWS)ConservationEasementsU.S. Fish & WildlifeServicePlum Creek TimberCompany0 1.25 2.5 5MilesM TThe HubW Yµ

MacDonald Pass toFleecer/Mt. HagginSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area extends from Highway12 as it crosses the Continental Divide atMacDonald Pass in the Boulder Mountains,south along the west side of the Boulders,across the valley west of Butte, and endsat the east end of the Mt. Haggin WildlifeManagement Area (WMA) and the FleecerWMA. The west side of the linkage isbounded by the foothills of the DeerlodgeValley; the east side is bounded byInterstate 15 as it runs south through theBoulder Mountains. Interstate 90 runsthrough the south end of the linkagearea.Importance of Linkage AreaOn a regional scale, this linkage areaprovides connectivity for wildlife movingnorth-south along the ContinentalDivide between the Sawtooths (BobMarshall Wilderness) in the North andthe Pioneers/Anaconda-Pintlers to thesouthwest of the linkage area. It alsoconnects the Pioneers/ Anaconda-Pintlers, and the Sawtooths to the ElkhornMountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Boulders, Rocky Mountain Front,Elkhorns, Fleecer Mountain- Mt. HagginWMA, and PioneersEcological SettingThe MacDonald Pass to Fleecer linkageparallels the east side of the DeerlodgeValley. The northern portion of thelinkage follows the Continental Divide.The linkage is broadly forested at anaverage elevation of 6,000 to 7,000 feet,with Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) asthe dominant conifer species. As in muchof this larger area, south-facing slopeshave less tree cover, often interspersedwith sagebrush/grasslands, and more132forest cover on north-facing slopes. Themost continuous forest habitat is presentin the northern end of the linkage. Wherethe linkage intersects the Clark Fork Rivervalley near Ramsey, forested habitat isdominated by Rocky Mountain juniper(Juniperus scopulorum) with scatteredpatches of Douglas-fir. The stunted andnarrow tree growth form in this areareflects the long-term soil and air qualityimpacts from historic copper smelting andmining activity in the Butte area. Timberharvest has been widespread and oftenintensive, particularly in the northern halfof the linkage, with a fairly high densityroad network. Severe insect infestationsin lodgepole pine are causing large areasof tree mortality throughout the linkage.Highway 12 traverses the north end ofthe linkage at MacDonald Pass, withInterstate 90 bisecting the linkage westof Butte. Railroads and numerous powerline corridors follow both highways. Amajor power line corridor passes throughthe middle of the linkage east of DeerLodge. The intersection of Interstates 15and 90 near Ramsey at the south end ofthis linkage supports significant industrial,commercial and residential development,as well as superfund site cleanup andhabitat restoration on Silver Bow Creek.This has severely fragmented or convertedhabitat.WildlifeThis area currently functions as amovement corridor for grizzly bear,wolves, wolverine, lynx, moose, andelk. The east-west movement across thelinkage area from Elliston to TenmileCreek is very important; the variedtopography of canyons and mountainranges is great for wildlife movement.Wildlife also moves south along thelinkage area above and east of Elliston,wildlife follow the Little Blackfoot River

west towards the Garnet Range. The FairmontHot Springs to Brown’s Gulch area in thesouth end of the linkage, just west of Butte,is a wildlife corridor that animals use to movebetween the Boulders and the Mt. Haggin area.Grizzly: The Little Blackfoot River drainage isgreat habitat for grizzly. Former Montana Fish,Wildlife and Parks biologists state grizzly bearpresence in Tenmile Creek near Rimini, andthere are grizzly in Blackfoot Meadows area onthe west side of the Continental Divide, andaround Electric Peak. There are accounts ofgrizzlies making their way to the south end ofthis linkage area. A grizzly was killed in CabbageGulch within the Blackfoot Wildlife ManagementArea near Anaconda.Wolves: There are young wolves withinTelegraph Creek.Wolverines are moving through the area.Genetic samples from two separate malewolverines were collected near the Divide atMacDonald Pass in the winter of 2008. TheLittle Blackfoot River drainage is great habitatfor wolverine. There is important denninghabitat for wolverine near the BlackfootRoadless Area and in the Boulder River-Thunderbolt Creek area. Wolverine have alsobeen located in the Brooklyn Bridge Ridge area.Lynx: A male lynx within the Telegraph Creekarea has been very active; this is a localizedpatch of excellent lynx habitat.Elk: The Little Blackfoot River, PricklyPear Creek, Elk Park Boulder River, and Mt.Haggin are great habitat for elk. There areapproximately 1000 west of the divide and 1200east of the divide.Moose are found throughout this linkagebut are prevalent along the west side of theContinental Divide in this linkage, where thehabitat is wetter than the east side. They followthe Little Blackfoot River up to Electric Peakand into Little Blackfoot Meadows. The areaaround Silver Bow Creek, between the BoulderMountains and Butte is good moose habitat.Fisher: There have been a few tracks foundaround the Tenmile area, although the fisherhabitat in this area is marginal.133Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Within this linkage area, manyprivate in-holdings and old mining claimswithin the Forest exist and could be developed(particularly around the Rimini area). Thereis also a lot of private land in subdivision anddevelopment in the southern end of the linkagearea, between Anaconda and Butte.Recreation: There is pressure to open thisentire area to recreational vehicle use,particularly around the Hahn Creek area nearthe Continental Divide. There are many roadswithin the Forest and the easy road accessfor snowmobiling and late spring skiing couldnegatively affect wolverine and lynx, especiallyif development and populations continueto increase. Snowmobile activity aroundCottonwood Lake is particularly an issue. Thereis a lot of motorized off road activity in thearea near Thunderbolt/Electric Peak. A biathlonfacility is being proposed for the narrowestpart of the wildlife corridor at MacDonald Pass,which is just to the immediate north of thelinkage area; the corridor is only a mile and ahalf wide at this point, and, if this facility isbuilt, the remaining connectivity of the area willpotentially weaken.Highways: Interstate 90, in the south end ofthe linkage area, significantly fragments habitatand cause animal-vehicle collisions. There is apush to create a scenic loop within the Riminiarea; biologists fear this would increase humanpresence, traffic volume, and further habitatfragmentation. Currently, animals are beingkilled as they cross Highway 12 in the northend of the linkage area. In the last few years,wolves, lynx, and ungulates have been killed (aswell as ungulates). The highest level of road killoccurs between Avon and Garrison. Elk regularlycross Highway 12 between Garrison and Helena.Conflict: There is a lot of intolerance forwolves in the Boulder Mountains.Mining: There is the ever-present threat ofmining in this linkage. Currently, there is ahuge Environmental Protection Agency arseniccleanup plan in the Tenmile Creek/Rimini areajust south of this linkage. There are 150 mining

claims within the area and 75 are being cleanedup, starting near Beaver Creek. Currently, minewaste is being hauled along Minnehaha CreekRoad to the Lutrell Pit, which is an open pitmine on the Continental Divide. The MontanaTunnels gold mine is also expanding near BoulderPass. There is a proposed gold mine on theBoulder River near Bernice.Conservation OpportunitiesThe northern half of this linkage area is withinthe Helena National Forest and the southernhalf is in the Beaverhead National Forest.Public commenting/Travel Plans: The publiccommenting process for forest managementactivities is a great opportunity for influencinghow wildlife connectivity is factored into forestmanagement. The Helena National Forest isinitiating travel planning for the ContinentalDivide area and the Blackfoot, which lies inthis linkage. Main considerations for wildlifeconnectivity under these forest managementrevisions include: how to manage recreationalneeds with wildlife need, and how to restrict ordivert access and travel routes across wildlifecorridors. Forest Service biologists are workingon aspen treatment projects in the Boulders,near the Little Blackfoot River.Community Working Groups are active in thearea; the Tenmile Watershed group is activein the Rimini cleanup; the Continental Divideworking group is active in trying to protect theContinental Divide near MacDonald Pass fromfurther development. The Clancy-UnionvilleCitizens Task Force has been active in forestmanagement.Land Conservation: In the last two years therehas been successful private lands conservationaround the Continental Divide. Any conservationeasements or stewardship agreements thatcould be negotiated on private lands close tothe Continental Divide will benefit wildlife.There are several large ranches between Butteand Anaconda for sale; any conservation onprivate land would be beneficial.134

Maudlow LinkSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Maudlow linkage area is locatedbetween the Big Belt Mountains andthe Bridger Mountains. The northernboundary is Deep Creek/Highway12 within the Big Belt Mountains,and the southern boundary is at thevery northern end of the Bridgers atBlackwater Creek/Horsethief Mountain.The western boundary is formed bythe northern reaches of Sixmile Creekon the southwest side of the Big Belts,extending south along the Dry CreekRoad area to Blacktail Creek. Theeastern boundary is formed by Hay Creekon the southeast side of the Big Belts,south to Indian Creek and the ElkhornRidge on the northeastern corner of theBridgers.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage is a pathway connectingwildlife that move north-south betweenthe Greater Yellowstone and NorthernContinental Divide Ecosystems.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Big Belt Mountains and BridgerMountainsEcological SettingThe Maudlow link occupies the southernend of the Big Belt Mountains betweenHighway 12 and the Bridger Range. Thelinkage is mostly forested by Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosapine (Pinus ponderosa) with scatteredlodgepole pine (P. contorta) at higherelevations, and intermixed with openmeadows and riparian valleys. Southfacingslopes are typically less heavilyforested than north-facing slopes.Foothills are drier with scattered RockyMountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum)and limber pine (P. flexilis) and a varietyof shrubs on some sites. At the lowest135elevations, all tree cover gives way tograsslands and scattered big sagebrushstands (Artemisia tridentata spp).Timber harvest has occurred throughoutthe linkage using a widespread andmoderate density road network.Highway 12 crosses the north end of thelinkage, and an abandoned railroad gradebisects the southern end. Elevations inthe linkage range from about 5,000 feetto about 6,500 feet.WildlifeMuch of the western side of this linkageis important for ungulate winter range,including mule deer and elk. The DeepCreek area, running across the northernend, is important for carnivores. Thispart of the linkage is the main corridorfor wildlife moving south along the BigBelts.Elk: An estimated 5000+ elk winter infour separate areas within and aroundthe linkage area, particularly on thenorthwest side. About 300 live within theSixteenmile Creek area. In the summer,elk move between Maudlow and FairyLake in the Bridgers. For year-aroundelk movement, the areas betweenDeep Creek, Dry Creek, and Greysonare important. Elk also move from theHorseshoe Hills into the Bar None Ranchwinter range.Moose: The Deep Creek area is importantfor moose in the southern Big Belts; theyalso exist in Cabin Gulch, Sulphur Bar,and the Hay Creek drainage.Bighorn sheep can be found just to thenorth of this linkage in the Edith Lakearea; it is conceivable that they mayeventually (or may already) move theMaudlow linkage.Pronghorn occur in the SixteenmileCreek in small numbers.

Conservation ThreatsDevelopment could be a threat in this linkage.A large subdivision is proposed in Maudlow, andmuch of the land is privately owned. Accessto public hunting areas is also an issue in thislinkage. There is a large amount of private landin the Russell Fork/Deep Creek area that couldbe vulnerable to future development.Highways/Recreation: Currently, Highway 12 inthe Big Belts is lightly traveled. Animal-vehiclecollisions may increase if proposals go throughto upgrade and improve roads. Currently,moose are frequently killed in this area.Conflict between humans and black bears ismore frequency occurring within the GrassyMountain subdivision in the south Big Belts.Another large subdivision is proposed inMaudlow. There is a history of elk and cattlerancher conflict in the Sixteenmile Creek area.Noxious Weeds: Dalmatian toadflax, leafyspurge, and spotted knapweed are foundthroughout the forestlands in this linkageand are an issue. The weeds cause valuablegrassland loss.Conifer encroachment, caused by firesuppression, and results in a loss of valuablemontane parkland. The buildup of fuels andincrease in conifers can lead to catastrophicfire.Disease transmission between domestic sheepand bighorns is an issue where sheep grazingallotments exist in this linkage area withbighorn sheep just to the north.The Birch Creek (north of this linkage) to DeepCreek area may have potential for oil and gasleasing.Conservation Opportunitiesmay be an opportunity to discuss sheep grazingallotments and future stewardship of the area.The Bar None Ranch, which is in conservationeasement, is great habitat for wildlife; thefences and cattle have been removed, and itprovides great winter range for mule deer andelk.The Deep Creek-Highway 12 area may be verysuitable for wildlife crossing mitigation workif the road is upgraded. The Grassy Mountainsubdivision would be a great target for “livingwith wildlife” outreach and education. Arancher in the Russell Fork/Deep Creek area, ofthe southeast Big Belts, owns eighteen sectionsof land and may downsize in operation; it136

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MaxvilleSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Maxville linkage area is located atthe northern end of the Philipsburg Valleybetween the John Longs Mountains tothe west and the Flint Creek Range tothe east. The Clark Fork River lies to thenorth. The northern linkage boundary runsacross the valley near Hall; the southernboundary runs between the mountains atPhilipsburg.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage provides east-west wildlifeconnectivity between the Flint CreekRange, the John Long Mountains, northsouthconnectivity between the northend of the Philipsburg Valley and theDrummond area.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: John Long Mountains and theFlint Creek RangeEcological SettingThe Maxville linkage spans the FlintCreek Canyon between the PhilipsburgValley and the Clark Fork Valley atDrummond. This area of relatively lowmountains is forested primary by Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta), and has sustainedsignificant habitat fragmentation fromtimber harvest and roads, power linecorridors and mining activity. Highway1 bisects the linkage along Flint Creek,and the overall road density of improvedand unimproved roads is high. Yearlongranching operations bound the linkage toboth the north and south with irrigatedhaylands and pasture in many areas southof Drummond and north of the linkage.Elevations in the linkage range from 4800feet on lower Flint Creek to over 8300 feetnear the Flint Creek Range.138WildlifeThe Maxville linkage is a movementcorridor for wolves, elk, pronghorn, andbighorn sheep. The foothills betweenFlint Creek and Willow Creek are veryimportant, as is the narrow corridor nearMaxville with nearly continuous forestthrough the John Long Mountains and FlintCreek Range.Grizzly Bears may have high potentialfor connectivity in the future. Thebottleneck of forest at Maxville isthought to be important for grizzly bearmovement between the John Longs andFlint Creek Range. A male grizzly bearwas recently trapped by Montana Fish,Wildlife and Parks. In Drummond to thenorth of this linkage area, there was averified grizzly bear in the John Longs.There were also several unverified grizzlybear movements between the Flints andJohn Long Mountains.Wolves: The Philipsburg Valley wasimportant historical wolf range. Thereis both north/south and east/westmovement through the valley. The north/south movement is very important forconnecting the High Divide region in thesouth, with the upper end of the Hubregion/lower Cabinet Purcells. Thereare multiple existing packs, includingthe Upper Willow Creek, Sapphire, andBearmouth packs. A small pack roams thearea from Hall to Garrison and DouglasMountain (north end of Flint Creek,including Gold and Wallace Creek).Elk: Elk summer in the central FlintCreek Range and winter on the public/private land interface on the east side ofthe Philipsburg Valley. In winter the elkare especially concentrated along thefoothills of the Flint Creek Range betweenPhilipsburg and Maxville. A population

of about 500 elk live in the area from Hall toGarrison and Douglas Mountain.Moose: The lower drainages of the Flint CreekRange between Philipsburg and Maxville aregood moose habitat.Bighorn Sheep: There is movement betweenthe Lower Rock Creek and Philipsburg area. Thebighorn sheep in this western end of the Hubmay be functioning under a metapopulationdynamic.Pronghorn: There is pronghorn migrationbetween the Philipsburg Valley and theKleinschmidt Flats to the north of the linkagearea. The south end of the Philipsburg Valley hasthe largest pronghorn winter range in the area.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Residential development is increasingin the Philipsburg Valley and there is no land useplanning. The entire pronghorn winter range in thePhilipsburg Valley is on private land and owned byeight people. There is also new developmentinterest in the Maxville area; this is a keycorridor for carnivores.Recreation: The Discovery Ski Area inPhilipsburg may encourage more development inthe valley. There is significant off-road vehicleactivity around Philipsburg; so far, it is notaffecting elk population viability.Social issues: Considerable intolerance forcarnivores due to some livestock conflicts. TheUpper Willow Creek pack has been lethallycontrolled.Access: The privatization of wildlife isincreasing due to limited access across privatelands to reach the adjacent public lands. Thesporting outfitter, Cabelas, is pursuing soleaccess to much of the private land in the area.Conservation OpportunitiesCommunity Conservation Interests: The FlintCreek Watershed group has been meeting forthree to four years and has a growing, optimisticmembership. The group covers the geographicalarea from Hall to Philipsburg.139

Norris HillSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area lies between core habitatareas in the Madison and Tobacco Rootranges, roughly between the towns ofNorris and McAllister, Montana. BeartrapCanyon and the Madison River representthe eastern edge of this linkage area.The southern boundary coincides withthe northern end of the Madison Valleyat Ennis Lake and the head of BeartrapCanyon. The north end is less well-definedbut is approximately at the break intothe rolling grassland foothills north of HotSprings Creek and Beartrap Creek.Importance of Linkage AreaPersistence of the linkage betweenthe Tobacco Roots and the MadisonRange is vital to prevent the TobaccoRoots from developing into an isolated,island ecosystem, and to ensure futurewolverine and grizzly bear expansion, andforest carnivore connectivity. This linkagearea represents the only direct route forlarge forest carnivores to move betweenthe Madison and Tobacco Roots ranges.Mountain ranges connected by thislinkage: Tobacco Roots, MadisonsEcological SettingNorris Hill, the ridge connecting theTobacco Roots and the Madison range,defines the northern end of the MadisonValley. This is one of the windiestplaces in southwest Montana. Thisridge is dominated by open grasslandcommunities and scattered patches ofaspen (Populus tremuloides), Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and limberpine (Pinus flexilis). The east side ofthe Tobacco Roots, including NorrisHill, supports widespread moist shrubcommunities including mock orange(Philadelphus syringa) and mountain140maple (Acer glabrum). Beartrap Canyoncontains the Madison River below EnnisLake and is a steep, narrow, and ruggedwilderness area dominated by Douglas-firon the east and moist shrub communitieson the west. Big sagebrush communities(Artemesia tridentata spp.) are limitedto the west end of this linkage areaadjacent to the lower forested slopes ofthe Tobacco Roots. The elevation in thislinkage area ranges from about 4,500feet in the lower Beartrap to about 7,000feet along the foothills of the TobaccoRoots.WildlifeWildlife connectivity within thislinkage is constrained by their abilityto negotiate the Madison River andBeartrap Canyon. The habitat west ofBeartrap Canyon supports seasonal muledeer, pronghorn and elk use. Winterhabitat between Hot Springs Creek andNorth Meadow Creek supports mule deerand elk while pronghorn that summerin this area generally move to winterhabitats further north or south althoughsoutherly movements are being severelyconstrained by subdivision and otherdevelopments. Forested habitat east ofBeartrap Canyon supports bears, wolves,wolverine, mountain lion, and seasonaluse by elk, mule deer and mountaingoat. The Madison Valley funnelsmillions of waterfowl, raptors, andsongbirds over Norris Hill during springand fall migrations.Conservation ThreatsPrivate land subdivision is the greatestthreat in this area. There is a 3200-acre development planned near Norris,Montana, and development in NorthMeadow Creek continues to expand.Although public lands in the linkage aremanaged to maintain open space and

wildlife connectivity, private land developmentis compromising that management. Windpower generation projects are underwayin Bradley Creek. Increasing humandevelopment on Virginia City Hill, the onlyother natural wildlife linkage to the TobaccoRoots from the GYE, makes the preservation ofboth of these corridors even more crucial forregional wildlife connectivity. Increasing trafficon Highway 287 over Norris Hill is becoming awildlife mortality risk.Conservation OpportunitiesMFWP has identified this as a prioritylinkage for conservation. Madison County isconsidering wildlife habitat, open spaceand conservation needs in the MadisonValley including the Norris Hill area.Conservation efforts in this linkage wouldbe a logical extension of efforts by MadisonValley Ranchlands, The Nature Conservancy,Wildlife Conservation Society and otherexisting groups in the Madison Valley. Manyproperties are being purchased for recreationand conservation, rather than productionpurposes, so new landowners represent apotential source of conservation support andstewardship management. Highway signingand potential crossing projects should bepursued to reduce vehicle collisions andwildlife mortality. Additional conservationwork in this area would be an efficient use offunds, leveraging the existing areas alreadyprotected from development, such as the MSURed Mountain Agricultural Experiment Stationand Flying D ranch.141

PipestoneSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the areabetween the Boulder Mountains and BullMountains in the north and the HighlandMountains to the south. Interstate 90 runsthrough the linkage area. The easternboundary runs east of the Pipestone HotSprings area. Butte forms the westernboundary. The Continental Divide runsacross this linkage area; thus bothHomestake Pass and Pipestone Pass arewithin this linkage area.Importance of Linkage AreaOn a regional scale, this linkage areaprovides connectivity for wildlife movingnorth to south along the ContinentalDivide between the Sawtooths (BobMarshall Wilderness) in the North andthe uppermost mountain ranges of theHigh Divide. On a sub regional scale, thislinkage connects the Continental Divide/Boulder Mountains/Elkhorns with theHighlands Mountains, which is a gatewayrange into the eastern High Divide region.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Boulders, Sawtooths, Elkhorns,Highlands and Bull Mountains.Ecological SettingThis small linkage centers on theHomestake and Pipestone Passes on theContinental Divide east of Butte. Thearea is heavily forested by lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta) and Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), with someEngelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)on wetter, colder sites. Infestations ofpine bark beetle and spruce budworm areleaving extensive areas of dead and dyingtrees throughout this linkage. Aspen(Populus tremuloides) is widely scatteredon small, moist sites and in some riparianareas. The western half of this area isvery rugged due to the granite outcrops,boulder fields and monoliths that extendnorthward through Homestake Pass fromthe Highland Mountains. Interstate 90passes over Homestake Pass, along witha railroad, while Highway 2 passes overPipestone Pass along with an abandonedrailroad alignment. Three major powerline corridors pass through the linkage,and a much larger 500kV power line isproposed for construction through thisarea. Dispersed residential developmentis expanding in the east half of thelinkage. Elevations in the linkage rangefrom about 4,800 feet to over 7,500 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions as amovement corridor for elk, black bear,and moose. Homestake Pass and PipestonePass have natural high potential forwildlife connectivity between the Huband High Divide conservation areas, but isfragmented by I-90. There is a significantwildlife movement area along BlacktailCreek between the Continental Divide andRoosevelt Drive.Grizzly: There is a low, historical levelof occupancy. There is a high potentialfor north-south movement along theContinental Divide, particularly aroundHomestake Pass.Wolves are moving north-south along theContinental Divide. On a regional scale,this linkage is thought to be a potentialnorth-south corridor for wolves movingbetween the High Divide region andNorthern Continental Divide ecosystem.Elk occur throughout the Pipestone areain the winter. They move into agriculturalareas in the eastern parts of the linkagein the dry parts of late summer.142

Moose occur throughout the Big Pipestone Creekupstream from Highway 2, and in WhitetailCreek; they winter on the west side of thelinkage (east of Butte).Pronghorn occur in the Pipestone area, but thehabitat is marginal; the herd currently existsprimarily on private land.Conservation ThreatsRecreation: There is a lot of pressure to openup this entire area to recreational vehicleuse, particularly from spring through fall inthe Pipestone area. There are many usercreatedroutes in this linkage and very littleenforcement of off road vehicles (ORV’s) onundesignated routes. In 2007 alone, 10,000 feetof user-created two track routes were createdin the Pipestone area. The current Beaverhead-Deerlodge Forest travel management plan haseffectively deemed the area around the LittleBoulder River as a “sacrifice” zone for off-roadvehicle use. The soils in much of this area areprone to displacement by ORV use. Road densityin the south end of the Boulders is very high, upto 2.5miles/square mile. This causes both directhabitat fragmentation and a loss of habitatsecurity for elk.Highways: Interstate 90 is a significant threatto wildlife as it fragments habitat and createsa barrier. Interstate 90 is a source of animalvehiclecollisions, particularly around Pipestoneand Homestake Pass. Highway 2 in the canyonand around Toll Mountains, from the ContinentalDivide to Roosevelt Drive, is a hotspot forcollisions. This road was recently repaved;animals from porcupine to moose are gettingkilled by vehicles in this area.Conflict has been occurring between livestockoperators and the elk, particularly betweenPipestone and the Whitetail area in late summerwhen elk move to agricultural lands; likewise,because of the number of livestock operators,there is low tolerance for wolves. Packs havenot been able to establish long term in thislinkage area.Forest management practices have allowedconifer encroachment in areas like LittleWhitetail Creek, thus lowering the habitatvalues for elk.Conservation OpportunitiesMost of this linkage area is within theBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest(BHDL); therefore, the public commentingprocess for forest management activitiesis a great opportunity for influencing howwildlife connectivity is factored into forestmanagement. The BHDL Forest is working ontravel planning by ranger districts. Within thislinkage area, the Jefferson Ranger District ofthe BHDL Forest is attempting to re-inventoryall the roads from a 2001 effort; this willcreate a baseline map of motorized use withinthe forest. Main considerations for wildlifeconnectivity under these forest managementrevisions include how to manage recreationalneeds with wildlife needs andhow to restrict ordivert access and travel routes across wildlifecorridors.Homestake Pass and Pipestone are two areaswhere wildlife crossing mitigation efforts maygreatly benefit wildlife connectivity and humansafety.143

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Placid Creek to OvandoSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis is a forested east-west orientedlinkage northeast of Missoula, MT.It stretches from the Flathead IndianReservation/Mission Mountains in thewest to east of Monture Creek (throughthe Cottonwood Creek drainage) in theSwan Range within the Lolo NationalForest. The linkage area boundaryextends south to Ovando and Highway200. The southern boundary runs southof the Blackfoot-Clearwater WildlifeManagement Area (WMA), and followsBlanchard Creek westward to theFlathead Reservation. The southern endof the Seeley-Swan Valley and SeeleyLake are within this linkage area.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area is important forseasonal movement by ungulates, andfor movement of carnivores betweenseveral core habitat areas, including theMission and Swan Mountains, and theBlackfoot Clearwater WMA. Seeley Lakeis another key wildlife habitat area inthe approximate center of this linkage.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Mission Mountains, Swan Range,Rattlesnake Mountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage includes the middleBlackfoot River above its intersectionwith the Clearwater River throughthe Horseshoe Hills and the BlackfootClearwater WMA, and the lowerClearwater River valley below SeeleyLake. A unique area of pothole wetlandsand small lakes surrounded by wetmeadows, grasslands, and sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata spp.) occupyglacial outwash at the mouth of MontureCreek above Clearwater. Forested areas145outside of river valleys have sustainedintensive and widespread timber harvestand roads are common throughoutthe linkage. South-facing slopes atlower elevations are sparsely forested.Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) andponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) arethe dominant species with scatteredpatches of lodgepole pine (P. contorta).Highways 83 and 200 and a major powerline corridor pass through the linkage.Scattered residential development occursalong both highways, along with thesmall communities of Greenough, Sunset,Clearwater, and Ovando. Elevations inthe linkage range from about 4,000 feetto about 7,000 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions as amovement corridor for grizzly bear,wolves, wolverine, lynx, and elk. PlacidCreek to the crest of the Swan Mountainsmay be important for fisher.Grizzly: This entire linkage area isimportant for grizzly bear, particularlythe western half, which includes SeeleyLake, Placid Creek, Boles Creek, and thesouthern end of the Mission Mountains.Wolves: There are two to three packsliving within the Swan Range. Anotherexisting pack within the Squeezerdrainage moves both southwest towardsthe Bitterroot Valley and north towardsthe Seeley-Swan. They primarily prey onwhitetail deer in the region, which areassociated with mature forests.Wolverines: This area is great wolverinehabitat, particularly around the westernend of the linkage area, such as theSeeley Lake area. The spine of themountains, from Lolo Peak moving northinto the Cabinet Yaaks, is very importantfor wolverine connectivity because of the

persistent snow pack.Lynx: Boles Creek is an important area forlynx; historic trapping records indicate thatPlacid and Owl Creeks east to Alice Creek havea consistent population of lynx. Dunham Creekand Monture Creek are very high quality lynxhabitat.Elk are dispersed from Placid Creek to theEast Fork of Monture Creek, the HorseshoeHills, and throughout Blanchard Creek and LostPrairie in the summer; they move southeast towinter range in the Blackfoot-Clearwater WMA,which is critical habitat. The corridor betweenthe summer and winter ranges is used heavilyby elk. In the winter, the Squeezer drainagehas high elk concentrations.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment around Seeley Lake andClearwater Junction is encroaching uponungulate winter range. There was a largesubdivision proposed just southwest ofClearwater in the Woodchuck Canyon.Forest Management: A widespread effort tothin the forest is wiping out lynx habitat. Fireand thinning has degraded much of the lynxhabitat in this linkage area but, if subdivisioncan be held at bay, the habitat will eventuallyrebound.Highways: Both Highway 200 and 83 may effecthabitat fragmentation and animal-vehiclecollisions. Highway 83 has been deadly for deer;unfortunately, the road-killed deer often attractother species, like bald eagles, then perching inharm’s way.be encouraged. The Blackfoot Challengeconservation effort is well established in theBlackfoot Valley.Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks has workedwith Montana Department of Transportationon establishing a wildlife corridor under thepowerline easement that will cross Highway83. This corridor will connect the BlackfootClearwater WMA-Horseshoe Hills with theMissions.Within Poverty Flats between Salmon andSeeley Lake, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parkshas been working with Timber and MontanaDepartment of Transportation to establish acorridor. This will connect the Horseshoe Hillswith the Double Arrow Hills.There is land in the Beta Mountain area thathas been placed into conservation as animportant wildlife moverment area.Missoula County has placed emphasis onthe Woodchuck Canyon area southwestof Clearwater as an important wildlifemovement area for big game species and forestcarnivores.Conservation OpportunitiesMuch of this linkage area is within NationalForest and Wildlife Management Areas, andthus is protected. The Swan Travel ManagementPlan opens soon for public comment; this is animportant document for public participation;travel management will affect ungulate winterrange and vegetation management (importantfor lynx). The Legacy Project is an opportunityto influence management guidelines for 41% ofall private lands in the county. Concentratedzones for real estate development should146

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Potter BasinSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the entirePotter Creek basin, from Ringling south toWilsall. The western edge of the linkageborders Sixteenmile Creek Road. Theeastern edge follows the Shields River andthe west slope of the Crazy Mountains.Importance of Linkage AreaPotter Basin provides connectivity forlocal ungulate movement east-westacross Highway 89 into the foothills andhigher elevations of the Crazy Mountains.There is also movement on the west sideof Highway 89 moving further west intoSixteen Mile Creek. There is potentiallylarge-scale movement across the PotterBasin from the Big Belt Mountains andBridger Range to the Crazy Mountains.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bridger Range, Crazy Mountains.Ecological SettingThe Potter Basin linkage spans Highway89, between Wilsall and Ringling, andincludes the upper watershed of theShields River. The linkage is an area ofparallel ridges and reefs extending northand south through the entire valley.Vegetation is open sagebrush grasslandwith a few scattered small patches ofDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), RockyMountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum),and limber pine (Pinus flexilis). Most ofthe area is used for livestock grazing andis broadly fenced into pastures. Whereit has been feasible to divert water fromstreams, upland grasslands have beenconverted to irrigated pasture and hayland. Some dry land farming is alsopresent. A few ranches are scatteredin the linkage, mostly located near theShields River and other large riparian148areas. The average elevation of thelinkage is approximately 5,280 feet.WildlifeWolves: There is intermittent wolfuse in this area and in the north CrazyMountains, but it is unknown whetherwolves could survive here or why thereis no reproduction occurring. Due tolimited development, wolves could travelthrough the Shields River Valley so thereis possible east-west movement.Elk: Potter Basin is elk winter range.The majority move across Highway 89,to the Crazy Mountains into summerrange habitat. Those elk that winter inFlathead Creek, utilize summer rangehabitat to the west in Sixteenmile Creek.Moose: The upper Shields River is amoose “hotspot”.Pronghorn: Potter Basin has a lot ofsagebrush and native grasslands, makingit excellent habitat for pronghornhabitat. Pronghorn are abundant andare continually moving east-west acrossHighway 89 throughout the Shield’s RiverValley. The Shields River Valley providespronghorn with access to the foothills ofthe Bridger Range and Crazy Mountains.Pronghorn also occupy habitat eastof Wilsall, although this area is moreagricultural and is not of as high qualityfor pronghorn as Potter Basin.Sage grouse: This linkage provides highquality sage grouse habitat, with atleast four sage grouse leks present: theNorth Ringling lek (north of Ringling),the Battle Creek lek (west of Ringling),and the Road Sign and Over the Hill leksbetween Ringling and Wilsall.

Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: The west side of Potter Basin isvulnerable to private land subdivision.Highways: There is an increased risk of animalvehiclecollisions as pronghorn move freqentlyacross Highway 89.Energy Development: There is oil and gasexploration from Ringling to Wilsall, with deepwell development and associated infrastructureoccurring in the Shields River Valley. The socialimplications to energy development, suchas an increase in human population, privateland subdivision, roads could threaten wildlifeconnectivity in this linkage in the future. Thearea has high potential for wind developmentalong Highway 89 within the next ten years.Conservation OpportunitiesMost of this landscape has already beenconverted to agricultural land but there areareas of hih quality sagebrush and nativegrasslands habitat. Much of the vulnerableprivate land is consolidated through largeranches, so any conservation/stewardshipefforts on these large parcels could secure largetracts of open space. The Shields WatershedGroup is working on resources in the entireShields River Valley.Potter Basin, photo by Grace Hammond149

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ReefsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Reefs linkage area is locatedbetween the junction of the DearbornRiver, the Missouri River, and theLewis and Clark National Forest in theSteamboat Mountain and Twin Buttesarea. The southern tip of the linkage isin the Wolf Creek area, and lower eastboundary of the linkage is the MissouriRiver. The upper eastern boundaryroughly follows the Dearborn River untilit meets Flat Creek. The boundary thenruns north along Flat Creek until roughlyMillford Colony. The northern boundaryruns from Millford Colony westward tothe Sheep Mountain area. The westernboundary runs along the National Forestedge back to Wolf Creek.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area functions to connectwildlife moving south from the RockyMountain Front into the isolated mountainranges of the eastern part of the Hubregion.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Sawtooths, Rocky MountainFront, and Big Belt MountainsEcological SettingThe area gets it name from the extensivenetwork of exposed rock reefs andridges that are the most striking featurein this open landscape. They parallelHighway 287 from north of Wolf Creekto Bowman’s Corner, and are also calledthe Birdtail Hills. The Reefs linkage is anexpansive native and domestic grasslandarea encompassing the lower DearbornRiver watershed. Tributaries in the lowerfoothills above the Dearborn River-MissouriRiver confluence are deeply entrenchedand forested with ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa) and Rocky Mountain juniper151(Juniperus scopulorum). Highways 200and 287 bisect the linkage and intersectat Bowman’s Corner. Ranch roads arecommon with scattered ranch buildingsand a few residences. Some of the largerriparian areas adjoining the few streams inthe linkage have been developed for hayland. Numerous stock ponds have beendeveloped in drainages to provide waterfor livestock. A large part of this linkageis privately owned or controlled by theDearborn Ranch. Interstate 15 and theMissouri River bound the southern edge ofthis linkage.WildlifeCarnivores move more north-south alongthis linkage area, while ungulates tendto move more east-west. The entire WolfCreek-Craig-Cascade Canyon-MissouriRiver area is a major riparian river bottomcorridor that provides both food andshelter for wildlife.Grizzly bears move south from the RockyMountain Front to the Holter Dam area.Biologists predict that in the next tenyears this may be one of the biggestareas for grizzly bears moving southwardout of the Northern Continental Divide/Rocky Mountain Front. A grizzly bear wastrapped in the Wolf Creek area in spring2008.Wolves move north-south along thewestern boundary of this linkage area.Elk winter range extends from the BirdtailHills to the south fork of the DearbornRiver; this area is also used by mule deer.Pronghorn can be found throughout thevalley areas.Bighorn sheep specifically inhabit theBirdtail Hills between Wolf Creek andBowman’s Corner. There is some dispersalacross Interstate 15 and Flat Creek, withevidence of reproductive success.

Mountain goats exist in small pockets in theBirdtail Hills and Flat Creek (Birch Creek).Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is big threat on the southernedge of the Rocky Mountain Front, over thenorth boundary of this linkage. Highway 424 toInterstate 15, the Dearborn River, Craig, and WolfCreek are particularly prone to development;especially near Wolf Creek, development couldinfringe on ungulate winter range.Highways: Interstate 15 is a threat for animalvehiclecollisions, particularly for elk and bighornsheep.Conflict has been occurring between alfalfagrowers and the elk and mule deer. There aremany hobby farms along the Missouri River in thesoutheast part of the linkage which increase riskof livestock- wildlife conflict.Sanitation is an issue in the Missouri Rivercorridor; apple trees in developed areas areattracting bears.Disease transmission is a threat between wildbighorn sheep, mountain goats, and domesticsheep.Genetic inbreeding may be a problem forbighorn sheep in this linkage; the populationstems from two transplanted ewes. Geneticinbreeding can decrease the likelihood of longterm herd viability.Conservation OpportunitiesConservation easements at the southern endof the Rocky Mountain Front, where it meetsthe “Hub”- in the region of Haystack Butte toHighway 200, would be fantastic for preservingthe integrity of wildlife connectivity betweenthe Hub and the Northern Continental Divideecosystem. In particular, easements that couldbe procured north of Holter and Wolf Creekwould especially benefit bighorn sheep and elk.Conservation around the Birdtail Hills to Highway434 would be desirable for bighorn sheep.152

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Rocky Mountain Front to Big BeltMountainsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area runs northwest tosoutheast between the southeastcorner of the Scapegoat Wilderness,south through Alice Creek-Rogers Pass-Anaconda Hills complex, to the Gates ofthe Mountains Wilderness in the northernBig Belt Mountains. The town of WolfCreek lays long the northern boundary asthe linkage runs southeast. Holter Lake,and the Beartooth Wildlife ManagementArea (WMA), the Sleeping Giant proposedwilderness, and Missouri River all occurwithin this linkage.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area could function as thefastest route between the Rocky MountainFront and the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Boulders, Sawtooths, andElkhorns, Rocky Mountain Front, Robert E.Lee Mountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage spans the Missouri River fromthe north end of the Big Belt Mountainsthrough the Gates of the Mountainson the Missouri River and northwesttoward Rogers Pass and the ScapegoatWilderness Area. The area is comprisedof rugged, forested mountains on thesoutheast, crossing through a deepriver canyon with spectacular cliffs andspires on the Missouri River, and into thefoothills of the Rocky Mountain front.The area supports a variety of forestedhabitat depending on elevation, but isdominated by ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii). Lower elevations supportextensive grassland areas interspersedwith sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata154spp.), chokecherry (Prunus virginiana),snowberry (Symphoricarpus alba) andvarious other shrubs depending on sitecharacteristics. The Missouri River bisectsthe linkage and supports significantrecreational use during the summer.The Gates of the Mountains WildernessArea is located in the central part of thelinkage. Interstate 15, Highway 279,the Sieben Canyon Road and severalother secondary routes pass through thelinkage. Old mineral exploration andmining activity, some timber harvest androad development, and widely dispersedresidential development are present inthe linkage. Elevations in the linkagerange from about 3,500 feet on theMissouri, below Wolf Creek, to almost7,200 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions as a yearlongmovement corridor for grizzly bear, elk,and bighorn sheep. The habitat aroundWolf Creek is intact, and down to SilverCity, is a permeable area for wildlife tomove from the Rocky Mountain Front intothe Boulder Mountains. Another majorwildlife crossing occurs between theBeartooth WMA and near Ming Bar. Priorto constructions of Holter Dam, this wasa natural shallow area where animals likebighorn sheep and pronghorn crossedthe Missouri River. The north end ofMeriwether Canyon to the upper end ofHolter Lake is another major crossing areafor bighorn sheep, mountain goats, andmountain lions.Grizzlies are thought to live and movethrough this area towards the Big BeltMountains. In late summer and early fall,there is grizzly activity in the Rogers Passarea due to the abundance of forage(whitebark pine and biscuit root). AliceCreek to Stemple Pass has grizzly bear

movement south along the ContinentalDivide. The area west of Marysville, on theedge of this most heavily forested area, isoccupied by grizzly bear. In 2003, a radiocollared grizzly was verified moving throughthis corridor near Sieben; this same year,there was a grizzly- human conflict nearNevada Lake. In summer 2008, a grizzlybear was trapped in Little Wolf Creek afterdepredating poultry. Former Montana Fish,Wildlife and Parks biologists state thata female is known to have had multiplelitters of cubs in the Lyons Creek area. TheAnaconda Hills, near Lyons Creek, has a lotof grizzly sign- digs, scats, etc. Two grizzlyhave been verified in that area; it is greathabitat with a lot of wetlands and mostlyroadless. Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parkshave received numerous, but unverifiedreports of grizzly bears between Marysvilleto MacDonald Pass. Grizzlies are thought tooccasionally cross the Missouri River in theHolter Lake region. A young grizzly bear wastracked around Nevada Creek by MontanaFish, Wildlife and Parks biologists.The Wolf Creek-Sieben-to Gates of theMountains area (“Gates”) is a major corridorfor elk and wolves. Wolves are consistentlyseen around Flesher Pass and Stemple Pass.Wolves also use Little Prickly Pear Creek tomove across the linkage area to the Gatesareas. Wolves also move south, along theContinental Divide from Flesher Pass toMarysville, and Greenhorn Mountain to SilverCity area.Wolverines and wolves are known to movethrough the Anaconda Hills, near the LyonsCreek.Lynx occupy the northern end of this linkage(and include both local, resident animals andtransitory animals).Elk winter in the Sieben area. Elk also winterin the foothills of the Beartooth WMA, alongwith mule deer and pronghorn. They can alsobe found in the Lower Beaver Creek area.In the higher elevations of the Gates of theMountains, there is also abundant forage andwet habitats, which create very nice summer155range.Pronghorn live in this linkage on the east sideof Interstate 15 in the Sieban-Hilgar Flats area.The Ming Bar to Hilger Flats area is betterhabitat, but the pronghorn have trouble crossingInterstate 15. Pronghorn also occur in the SilverCity area.Bighorn sheep regularly cross Interstate 15at Wolf Creek. A herd exists in the SleepingGiant area and Dart Gulch. These bighorn arecontiguous with the population in the Reefarea. The Gates of the Mountains area andthe Beartooth WMA are important habitat forbighorn along the east side of the Missouri River.Bighorns are known to move from the SleepingGiant area along the ridge north of Lyons Creekand through the Anaconda Hills area to get tothe Rocky Mountain Front.Mountain goats occur in isolated pockets in thislinkage both east and west of the Missouri River,particularly in the Gates area.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is increasing in the area,especially around Holter Dam. Much of theland has already been subdivided; areasthat previously had weekend cabins are nowbeing converted to large residential homes.Development in the Wolf Creek/Cascade area isencroaching upon winter range.Oil and gas exploration is prevalent in the LyonsCreek area.There is conflict between ungulates anddomestic sheep operators, particularly in theSieben and Sleeping Giant areas, where a wildbighorn population lives adjacent to privatesheep herds. There has been wolf depredation inthe Sieben area.Interstate 15 is a threat; bighorn sheep crossregularly at Wolf Creek, increasing the risk ofanimal-vehicle collisions.Noxious Weeds are a problem in this linkage.Dalmatian toadflax, spotted knapweed, andleafy spurge are all causing a loss of grasslands/montane parklands.(continued next page)

Disease between bighorn sheep and domesticsheep is an issue in this linkage. The SleepingGiant bighorn herd is currently strugglingbecause they are suffering from disease relatedto contact with domestic sheep.Grazing allotments in the high elevations of theBig Belts-Gates area can lead to conflict withcarnivores.Conservation OpportunitiesLand trusts in the area are already trying towork on land conservation that could abatesome of the livestock- sheep issues. Sixeasements already exist, and contribute toconnectivity of the area. Large ranchlandowners appear to be willing to work withagencies and conservation groups to findsolutions to wildlife –livestock conflict. Thereare some existing conservation easementsin the Ming Bar area. Any conservationeasements that could be procured around theGates of the Mountains/Big Belts would bevery beneficial to wildlife. There are activeconservation-oriented organizations in thearea that could be useful in collaborativeefforts, such as Backcountry Horsemen, RussellCounty Sportsmen, and Helena Hunters andAnglers. There may be an opportunity to workwith Montana Woolgrowers to tackle the issueof sheep allotments in close proximity to wildbighorn populations.156

Rogers Pass To MacDonald PassSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area is almost entirelyforest. It extends from the town ofLincoln in the north and continues souththrough the Helena National Forest tothe town of Elliston along Highway 12.The Continental Divide runs through thecenter of the linkage area.Importance of Linkage AreaThe Rogers Pass to MacDonald Pass linkageconnects the Sawtooth Range of theScapegoat/Bob Marshall Wilderness withthe Boulder Mountains. It also connectsanimals moving out of the Sawtoothsthat want to move east towards theBig Belt Mountains, or west toward theGarnets/Flint Creek Range. On a regionalscale, the linkage connects the NorthernContinental Divide with the GreaterYellowstone Ecosystem.Mountain ranges connected in RogersPass to MacDonald Pass linkage:Boulders, Sawtooths (Rocky MountainFront), includes Robert E. Lee MountainsEcological SettingRogers Pass to MacDonald Pass linkageroughly follows the Continental Dividefrom Rogers Pass to MacDonald Pass. Atan average elevation of about 6,000feet, the density of forest cover in thislinkage is predominantly Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta), dependent onaspect and elevation. South-facingslopes, particularly at the southernend of the linkage, are more open withinterspersed areas of big sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata) and grasslands.North-facing slopes and higher elevationareas are more densely forested. Insectinfestations combined with drought arecausing large areas of dead and dying157conifers particularly near Rogers Pass.Timber harvest has been widespread inthe linkage often with a fairly high densityroad network and on a checkerboardland ownership pattern. Highway 200traverses the north end of the linkageat Rogers Pass, with several power linecorridors, a railroad, and Highway 12 atMacDonald Pass in the southern end of thelinkage.WildlifeThis area is a north-south movementcorridor for grizzly bear, lynx, wolves,wolverine, elk, and moose. The areabetween Dog Creek and Snowshoe Creek(near the Continental Divide) retains snowinto late spring, which is important forwildlife like lynx and wolverine. dependupon snow conditions in this area. Animalsmove east - west between Elliston andTenmile Creek. Wildlife also move southalong the Divide, then follow the LittleBlackfoot River west towards the GarnetRange.Grizzly: Originally, the grizzly bearrecovery program considered extendingthe recovery zone line all the waythrough Canyon Creek to Helena. Forpolitical reasons, it was not included butnevertheless indicates the importanceof this linkage area for grizzly bear. Inspring, grizzly bear activity is especiallyprominent; the elevation is not as highas other occupied areas. In the NevadaMountain area, there is confirmed grizzlybear activity; radio-collared data,diggings, etc. A female grizzly bearis particularly active in the Sauerkrautdrainage. Former Montana Fish, Wildlifeand Parks biologists identified additionalgrizzly bear activity in the Dog Creekaround Skelly Gulch north of Highway 12,all the way down to the Rimini area in thelinkage zone to the south. Throughout

the linkage, grizzly bear forage in abundant midsummer meadow vegetation and locations thathave army cutworm moths.Wolves: This linkage is important for northsouthconnectivity of wolf populations. Reportsof wolf movement through the linkage date backto the mid 1980s. Lost Horse Creek and EmpireCreek are two key movement areas for wolves.Due to abundant ungulate populations, NevadaMountain to Little Prickly Pear Creek is a mainarea of wolf activity. The wolves spill out intothe Avon Valley, where they get into trouble withlivestock. There was a den site, and wolf packnear the Marysville area, and waves consistentlyoccur in the Flesher Pass area. However, the densite was abandoned after the alpha female waskilled on Highway 12 at MacDonald Pass.Wolverine: While this is not consideredexcellent wolverine habitat, wolverine aremoving through the area. Genetic samples fromtwo separate male wolverines were collectednear the Divide at MacDonald Pass in the winterof 2008.Lynx: This area is considered occupied lynxhabitat; there is good forest cover but suitabledenning habitat is harder to find. The besthabitat for lynx in this linkage is betweenHighway 200 south to Bison Mountain in theLittle Blackfoot Drainage. Lynx tracks have beenfound repeatedly near the Continental Dividebetween Mullan Pass and Hahn Creek, in thelinkage zone to the south.Elk are abundant, with approximately 1,000in this area: Baldy Mountain, south of Lincoln,is winter elk range, as is Little Prickly PearCreek to Canyon Creek. Dog Creek was ratedmoderately high for elk habitat. Elk regularlycross Highway 279 near Silver City, and Highway12 near Blue Cloud.Moose live in this linkage area, particularly onthe west side of the Divide, but are expandingacross the east slopes of the Divide.Fisher: There have been two verified reportsof fisher in the last 16 years around Myers Hilland Dog Creek, although this is atypical fisherhabitat. There was another fisher sightingaround Round Top Mountain.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Around the Marysville area,interspersed public/private land makes itdifficult to ensure permeability for animalslike grizzly bears. Private land developmentaround Canyon Creek could open up an areafor development all the way to the centralHelena Valley. Highway 12 west of Helena tonear MacDonald Pass and Rimini is developing.Current development has already affectedwildlife; additional development will furtherreduce the permeability of the lower end of thelinkage area.Recreation: Snowmobiling and late springskiing on the many roads within the Forestcould negatively affect wolverine and lynx,especially if development and populationscontinue to increase. North of Highway 12 bothAerial photo of Elliston-Avon Valleyfrom MacDonald Pass, April Johnston158

east and west of the Continental Divide, thereis intensive off-road vehicle use, including many“user-created” routes, especially around Austin/Myers Hill and Dog Creek. This is wet habitat,and very desirable for wildlife. Summertime offroadvehicle traffic is reducing habitat quality,particularly in wet meadows. A biathlon facilityis being proposed for the narrowest part of thewildlife corridor at MacDonald Pass; the corridoris only a mile and a half wide at this point, and,if the facility is built, the remaining connectivityof the area may be weakened.Highways: Animals are getting killed as theycross Highway 12 and Highway 200; in the lastfew years, wolves, grizzly bear, and lynx haveall been killed (as well as ungulates). Thehighest amount of roadkill occurs betweenAvon and Garrison. Elk regularly cross Highway12 between Garrison and Helena. The road toMarysville has a proposed upgrade. There areconcerns for wildlife safety with increasedtraffic capacity and increased development. Elkcross Highway 279 daily.Railroad: A multiple track railroad crosses theDivide near Mullan Pass/Blossburg. Moose havebeen killed along the stretch of the railroadnear Austin.Conflict: Wolves have been unable to establishpacks long-term in this linkage area, particularlyon private lands in the northeast and southwestsides of the linkage.Noxious Weeds: Weeds, particularly Dalmatiantoadflax, Spotted Knapweed, and Leafy Spurge,are a big issue. They negatively affect thegrasslands/meadows that ungulates graze on.Disease: Insect-borne tree disease is asignificant issue in the Boulder Mountains. Bothspruce budworm and mountain pine bettle arecausing tree mortality; nearly all lodgepole pinein the area are forecast to die, along with 20-30% of the ponderosa pine. If the dying treessubsequently burn, habitat for grizzly bear andlynx, as well as other species, would changesignificantly.Grazing: This linkage area is overgrazed andtherefore many biologists are concerned thislinkage area has been degraded. Large numbersof grazing livestock have affected stream waterquality.Mining: There is an ever-present threat ofmining in this linkage. Historically, gold andsilver mines caused much ecological damagealong the Blackfoot River due to cyanide heapleachingextraction processing. There is nowrenewed interest in mining here, particularlynear Lincoln and Marysville. The EnvironmentalProtection Agency has a toxic waste cleanupprogram in the Rimini area just south of thelinkage. Currently, there is a open pit where thecontaminated soil from this project located onthe Continental Divide south of MacDonald Pass.Conservation OpportunitiesPublic commenting/Forest Plans: Since most ofthis linkage area is within the Helena NationalForest, public commenting process for forestmanagement activities is a great opportunity forFrom MacDonald Pass looking to Mt. Helena,Elizabeth WIlliamson159

influencing how wildlife connectivity is factoredinto forest management. There will be a ForestPlan revision of the Lolo National Forest; also,the Helena National Forest is initiating travelplanning for the Continental Divide area,which lies in this linkage. Main considerationsfor wildlife connectivity under these forestmanagement revisions include: how to managerecreational needs with wildlife need, and toconsider restrictions to preserve and protectwildlife corridors.Land Conservation: There may be opportunitiesfor conservation on private lands west of SilverCity near Marysville. This would benefit elkthat cross Highway 279 on a daily basis, and,if private land could be conserved, there maybe more incentive for Montana Department ofTransportation to place wildlife mitigation alongHighway 279.In the last two years, private lands aroundMullan Pass have been placed in conservationeasement. Any conservation easements orstewardship agreements on private lands nearthe Continental Divide will benefit wildlife.Community Working Groups: There are somecommunity working groups that are active inthe area; the Tenmile Watershed group is activein the Rimini cleanup; the Continental Divideworking group is actively in trying to protect theContinental Divide near MacDonald Pass fromfurther development.160

SapphiresSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Sapphire linkage area encompassesa central mountain range, the SapphireMountains, and two distinct valleystheBitterroot Valley to the west andPhilipsburg Valley to the east. The linkagearea is bordered on the south by the Sulaarea, the southeast by the Anaconda-Pintler Range, and the north by the JohnLong Mountains.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area provides north-southconnectivity through the SapphireMountains from the John Longs/BlackfootValley to the Lost Trail/Anaconda-Pintler Range. It also provides east-westconnectivity between the Bitterrootvalley and the Philipsburg Valley.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Sapphires, John Longs.Anaconda-PintlersEcological SettingThe Sapphire Mountains are a vastforested area relatively undisturbedby human development. The linkagecontains the upper watershed of RockCreek, a nationally-known blue ribbontrout fishery and adjoins the Anaconda-Pintler Wilderness Area to the southeast.Timber harvest and intensive forestroading have occurred in many areas.Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) is thedominant conifer species area-wide butwith a broad diversity of other speciespresent depending on elevation andmoisture. Dry, lower elevation foothillsadjoining the Bitterroot Valley on thewest support higher proportions ofponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) that isreplaced by lodgepole pine (P. contorta)at higher elevations. Engelmann spruce161(Picea englemannii), subalpine fir (Abieslasiocarpa), grand fir (A. grandis) andwestern larch (Larix occidentalis) areother common species. Western foothillssupport a diversity of grasslands andshrub communities including localizedstands of curlleaf mountain mahogany(Cercocarpus ledifolia). Valley bottomson the east side of the linkage in upperRock Creek support diverse willow(Salix spp.), cottonwood (Populus spp.)and aspen (P. tremuloides) ripariancommunities, often associated withwet meadow grasslands that supportsome hay production and pasture. TheSkalkaho road is the only major road thattraverses all the way across the linkagefrom Philipsburg to Hamilton, but thisroute is only open to traffic seasonally.Residential development encroachesinto the linkage in the foothills of theBitterroot Valley and to a much lesserextent near Philipsburg. Elevations inthe linkage range from about 4600 feetin the Bitterroot Valley foothills to over8500 feet near the Anaconda – Pintlerwilderness.WildlifeElk: The Calf Creek game range wascreated to provide elk winter range. TheSkalkaho, Sleeping Child drainages, UpperRock Creek, Middle Fork of Rock Creek,and the area from Ross Fork to East Forkof Rock Creek are very important elkwinter range with many elk wintering inupper Rock Creek. The Porters Corner-Georgetown-East Fork of Rock Creekconnects the Flint Creek Range with theAnaconda Pintler Range and this area hashigh elk connectivity value.Moose are present throughout theSapphires; their winter range is within thedrainages of the mountain flanks.

Several bighorn sheep herds form ametapopulation in the Sapphire linkage. TheSkalkaho herd has some interchange betweenthe East Fork of the Bitterroot herd. The UpperRock Creek herd moves around east of SandstoneRidge and Scotchman Gulch southward to themain stem of Rock Creek and Highway 38.There are about 300 bighorn sheep in the UpperRock Creek-Ram Mountain area; these weretransplants from the Sun River area. Some ofthe biggest rams in the state are harvestedfrom this area. The Lost Creek bighorn herdmoves from the southern end of the Flint CreekRange in the east, to the Anaconda-Pintlers inthe west, and Rock Creek area to the north.This same herd can often be seen along theroad near the West [Philipsburg] Valley, crossingat Mill Creek. They interact with the Garrisonherd.A few pronghorn live in the Bitterroot Valley.They move across Rock Creek at the low saddleat Pine Hollow Creek/ Hogback Saddle intoPhilipsburg Valley. They migrate through thePhilipsburg Valley to Kleinschmidt Flats area tothe north of the linkage area.Grizzly bear numbers are low in the Sapphirelinkage, but a key area is Silver Lake to WarmSprings, a narrow, 1 ½ mile wide area thatconnects the Flint Creeks to the Anaconda-Pintlers. The entire Sapphire area has thepotential to provide linkage habitat for grizzlybear.Wolverines exist in the Sapphire linkage. Veryimportant habitat centers on the Upper RockCreek and Sand Basin areas.Wolves are present in the Martin Creek, RyeCreek, and Sleeping Child Creek drainages,where there are the Sapphire, Upper Willow,and Bearmouth packs. Connectivity for wolvesin this area is bounded by Flint Creek andWillow Creek. The foothills in this area are veryimportant, but not well recognized.The Georgetown to Anaconda part of the linkagearea has high berry production, and is veryvaluable wildlife habitat for grizzly bear, lynxand elk.162Conservation ThreatsIntermountain valley in transition: On thewest side of this linkage, the Bitterroot Valleyhas been called an intermountain valley intransition. It is changing from its logging/agricultural past into a bedroom community forMissoula. Use of land use planning tools thatwould address wildlife connectivity and exurbangrowth are in the very beginning stages withinthis linkage area.Limited connectivity: As population increases,winter ranges of ungulates along the foothills ofthe valleys are squeezed, and connectivity forthe ungulates, and their carnivore predators,becomes increasingly limited.Animal-vehicle collisions along Highway 93 arefrequent, especially for bighorn sheep north ofDarby. There are 30,000 commuters a day alongHighway 93, so this threat is likely to continueto increase.Disease transmission between domestic andbighorn sheep is a threat, especially with theincreasing number of hobby farms. Invasiveweeds are also an issue.Habitat fragmented by logging: For years, themountains in this linkage area (the Sapphiresand Flint Creek) were heavily logged. The oldlogging roads still have potential for fragmentinghabitat, especially with intense off-highwayvehicle use.Livestock-carnivore conflicts: The UpperWillow wolf pack has had some lethal controlbecause of livestock conflict; the risk of conflictis high among landowners with livestock. Thereare some conflicts with wolves and sheepgrazing on public land allotments in this linkage.Because of the history of livestock-carnivoreconflicts, social intolerance for wolves is highin this linkage. Some biologists stated that theSkalkaho wolf pack is also likely to experienceconflicts in the future.Development: The aesthetics and amenabletopography of the Sapphire linkage puts theentire area under threat of development,especially the Philipsburg Valley, and muchprivate land from Silver Lake, Lost Creek andHerst Creek is very vulnerable to development.

Winter recreational use, in the form of bothsnowmobiling and the development of a ski areaat Philipsburg, is also listed as a threat. Thereare proposals to pave Highway 38 (SkalkahoRoad) where it runs across the Sapphires andconnects the Bitterroot Valley to the PhilipsburgValley; if this happens, it would have thepotential to sever the connectivity in half andwould increase development in the PhilipsburgValley.Increasingly, access to wildlife on publiclands for hunting is becoming limited. Theungulate winter range habitat between Darbyand Missoula is going to be lost to exurbandevelopment and infrastructure (traffic- related)development to support increased exurbanpopulations.Fencing is an issue for ungulate movementwithin the linkage area. The Georgetown toMill Creek area has increased private landsubdivision.Conservation OpportunitiesThe Sapphire Mountains are a large block ofpublic land thatis great wildlifehabitat. There areopportunities toadvance privateland conservationin the Trout Creek-Porters Corners toEast Fork of RockCreek.A watershed groupin Granite Countyis beginning togrow. A Flint CreekWatershed groupis forming. Thereare communityopportunities in theLower Willow Creekarea (west of Hall).Transportationplanning will bea key factor indetermining thelong term ability forwildlife to co-exist in the Bitterroot Valley withpeople. There are some discussions of commuterprojects to help alleviate traffic pressure fromStevensville to Missoula.In the Bitterroot Valley, some countycommissioners are pushing for zoning. Thereare several land trusts, sportsman’s clubs, andspecies-specific conservation groups interestedin conservation of this area. In the Philipsburgarea, there have been recent land conservationefforts between the Flint Creek Range and theAnaconda-Pintlers.163

Silver StarSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe linkage area is bounded by theTobacco Root Mountains on the east, theHighlands Mountains on the west, andconsists primarily of the Jefferson Rivervalley between Ironrod Bridge on Highway41 and Fish Creek south of Whitehall.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area is another steppingstone for potential large carnivoremovement from the Greater Yellowstonearea through the Gravellies and TobaccoRoots to the “Central Linkage Ecosystem”of the Highland-Elkhorn-Boulder ranges.The most undeveloped portion of theSilver Star linkage is between Waterlooand Silver Star.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Tobacco Root Mountains andHighland MountainsEcological SettingOpen alluvial fans and river terraceson the east side of the Jefferson Rivervalley are predominantly dry blue grama(Bouteloua gracilis) and needle-andthread(Stipa comata) grasslands. Somecenter pivot irrigation systems havebeen developed on these terraces forhay production. Cottonwood (Populusangustifolia) and willow (Salix spp.)riparian communities dominate theriver corridor. Irrigated pasture and hayland is interspersed throughout most ofthe river bottom. Small subdivisions,residences and farm buildings occurthroughout the linkage, increasing indensity from Ironrod Bridge northwardtoward Whitehall. The rugged HellsCanyon watershed and Bulldog Mountainare the key topographic features thatare the closest to the Tobacco Roots thatattract wildlife movement from the east.164Highway 287 and a seldom-used railroadspur line bisect the linkage parallel tothe river. The west side of the valleygrades into the rocky granitic foothills ofthe Highland Mountains where vegetationis dominated by scattered stands ofDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),limber pine (Pinus flexilis), and RockyMountain juniper (Juniperus scopulorum),and Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisiatridentata wyomingensis), blacksage (A. nova) and curlleaf mountainmahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) shrubcommunities.WildlifeWildlife use in the Jefferson River valleybetween the Tobacco Root and HighlandMountains is constrained by the amountof human development and highwaytraffic that is present. The river corridorsupports numerous sandhill cranes,waterfowl, songbirds and raptors, andis a major flyway for spring and fallmigrations of sandhill cranes, snow geeseand swans.Wolves and wolverine: The linkageprovides a likely corridor for wolf andwolverine movement between two areasof potential habitat in the Tobacco Rootsand habitats further south and east,and the Highlands and habitats furthernorth /west. Neither of these areas isreally large enough to provide yearlonghome ranges for either species, althoughpotential wilderness designation in theHighlands and Tobacco Roots would securehigh quality habitat.Moose are present yearlong in theJefferson River bottom and along the eastfront of the Highlands, particularly in BigPipestone Creek.White-tailed deer are overly abundantthroughout the Jefferson River corridor.

Pronghorn utilize uplands on the western sideof the Tobacco Roots yearlong, and during thesummer on the Highland side of the linkage.Mule deer winter use occurs on the west sidebetween Hells Canyon and Cherry Creek, and onthe east side between Point of Rocks and MillCreek.Elk yearlong use occurs in the upper HellsCanyon area with seasonal, mostly winter useand calving, occurring northward through FishCreek.Mountain lion and black bear are present areawidewherever elk and mule deer use occurs.Bighorn sheep summer use occurs on Big Ridgeabove Hells Canyon, at the far southwest end ofthis linkage.Bald eagles and osprey: Cottonwood habitatsin the river corridor support numerous ospreynesting territories and yearlong bald eagle use,including at least two nesting territories.River otter and beaver are present in theJefferson River and Hells Canyon Creek.Conservation ThreatsResidential development is increasingthroughout the Jefferson Valley and adjoiningfoothills between Whitehall and Twin Bridges.Most subdivision pressure has been on the FishCreek flats north of Silver Star, and along theJefferson River between Silver Star and IronrodBridge.Energy corridor development: A 500 kV powerline is proposed for construction along the westside of the Jefferson Valley through BulldogMountain and Hells Canyon. This representsa potential collision/mortality hazard formigrating birds and waterfowl. Roads: Highway41 is a heavily-used shortcut for traffic from I-15at Dillon to I-90 at Whitehall, and significantnumbers of wildlife/vehicle collisions areoccurring. Heavy ATV use is occurring in thenorthwestern corner of the linkage, particularlyaround Toll Mountain.Conservation OpportunitiesConservation planning: The Jeffersonwatershed committee has been organized toaddress water quality issues in the JeffersonRiver. They are considering other issues suchas subdivisions and road management asopportunities arise.Land use planning: MFWP has identified thisas a priority linkage area for conservation.Madison County has been responsive toconservation needs in the Madison Valley, andsimilar land use planning and developmentshould be emphasized in the Jefferson and RubyValleys. The Beaverhead-Deerlodge NF travelplanning process will be designating open travelroutes. The B-D Forest Plan has recommendedwilderness designation for the Table Mountainarea in the northwest Highlands.Land ownership changes: Many propertiesare being purchased for recreation andconservation, rather than production purposes,so new landowners represent a potential sourceof conservation support.Reducing highway mortalities: Highwaysigning and potential crossing projects should bepursued to reduce vehicle collisions and wildlifemortality.165

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Smith RiverSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Smith River linkage area is locatedon the northeast edge of the Little BeltMountains. It consists of the north-southriparian corridor surrounding the SmithRiver. It extends from the junction ofMing Coulee and the Smith River in thenorth, to the Rock Creek area (just northof Dry Range) in the south. The easternboundary is the Little Belt Mountains, andthe western boundary is Milligan Road.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area functions to connectwildlife east-west between the LittleBelt Mountains, the Dry Range, andthus the Big Belt Mountains.Ecological SettingThe Smith River linkage follows themeandering river through a relativelydeep (500-700 feet deep) and oftenspectacular limestone canyon forapproximately 20 miles along thenorthwest corner of the Little BeltMountains. The river is bounded bygrasslands and scattered patches ofDouglas-fir (Psuedotsuga menziesii),with sparse willow (Salix spp.) andmoist herbaceous riparian vegetationon the floodplain. Adjoining slopesand upper benches support fairly densestands of Rocky Mountain juniper(Juniperus scopulorum) and Douglasfir,and some ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa), depending on slope andaspect. Tributary drainages are deeplyentrenched and generally forested.Roads access several residences andranch buildings on the river, and inseveral drainages, roads parallel theriver channel. Aside from access roadsand a few buildings, this linkage isrelatively undeveloped.167WildlifeThis area currently functions as alocalized movement corridor for blackbear, elk, mule deer, and raptors. Theentire river corridor is extremely goodwildlife habitat. In the southern endof the linkage area, the Smith Riverlinkage runs into the Dry Range; thisarea funnels wildlife between the LittleBelts and Big Belts.Black Bear are found throughout theriver corridor.Wolves are thought to be living in lownumbers between the Little Belts andthe Big Belt Mountains. Their longtermability to establish packs in this area isvery low because of intolerance.Elk winter along the private lands inthe flatter parts of the linkage area,particularly in the very northeastern partof the linkage - Blankenbaker to BlackButte, Ming Coulee to Rock Creek. RockCreek west to Craig is native rangeland,and thus, high quality grazing for elk andother ungulates like pronghorn.Raptors: There are two peregrine falconeyries along the high cliff walls in thislinkage area.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is limited on the SmithRiver.Recreation, mostly float trips andcampers, is causing this corridor to be“loved to death”. Sanitation issues withthe campers that float the Smith Riverhave caused lethal control of blackbears. There is also illegal off roadvehicle use on the private lands withinthe linkage area.Conflict: Bears, habituated to eatinghuman food and trash have been lethally

controlled. In recent years, approximately sixblack bears and a mountain lion have beenlethally controlled each year. In addition,this area could serve as a corridor for othercarnivores like wolves, but there is very highsocial intolerance for wolves. There is a historyof game (elk) damage to crops in the area;yet increasingly, public hunting access is beinglimitedForest management is a big issue; there isnot much public support for prescribed fireor logging. Habitat is degrading, especiallymeadow systems and aspen stands, as forestmanagers are unable to appropriately managevegetation in the forest.Conservation OpportunitiesThere could be opportunities to work withranchers on a compensation program; thismight lead to more carnivore tolerance. Forestbiologists in the area would love to initiate a“Smith River Challenge”, akin to the BlackfootChallenge, but capacity to initiate this effortdoes not currently exist.There may be opportunities to engage theTenderfoot Land Trust and the Rocky MountainElk Foundation in conservation activities inthis area.There is a new Smith River management planthat has been written to address recreationaluse on the Smith River.168

Spanish PeaksSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage occupies the entire northend of the Madison Range. It extends toHighway 84 on the north, Madison Riverand Beartrap canyon on the west, JackCreek and Big Sky on the south and theGallatin canyon on the east.Importance of Linkage AreaSpanish Peaks is a large intact tract ofsecure core habitat at the far northwestcorner of the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem. It provides a secure “jumpingoff” site for animals, particularly largecarnivores, expanding out of occupiedhabitat to potential habitats further tothe north and west.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Gallatin Range, Madison RangeEcological SettingThe Spanish Peaks linkage lies at thenorthern end of the Madison Rangebetween the Gallatin and Madison rivers.The area extends from the foothillsagebrush and grasslands along Highway84 to the high alpine habitats and smalllakes amid the Spanish Peaks, north of BigSky Resort. A diverse mix of Douglas-fir(Pseudotsuga menziesii), Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum), andlimber pine (Pinus flexilis), along withshrubs such as chokecherry (Prunusvirginiana), skunkbrush (Rhus trilobata),and snowberry (Symphoricarpus alba)are scattered throughout lower elevationfoothills on the north end of the linkage.Mid to upper elevation forests are typicalof the area, with Douglas-fir, lodgepolepine (P. contorta), subalpine fir (Abieslasiocarpa), Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii), and whitebark pine (P.albicaulis) common, depending on thesite. The upper half of the linkage in169the Spanish peaks is included in theLee Metcalf Wilderness Area, and thewestern boundary is in the BeartrapCanyon Wilderness Area. The linkageis largely undeveloped, with a primaryaccess road to a public campground andtrailhead in the South Fork of SpanishCreek. Some grassland sagebrush habitatalong Highway 84 has been converted todry land grain crops and pasture lands.Elevations in the linkage range from 5,000feet to over 10,700 feet.WildlifeWolverine: The Spanish Peaks area is alarge block of secure occupied wolverinehabitat that is becoming increasinglysurrounded by development, particularlyat Big Sky resort. The large size of thelinkage, the relatively low levels ofrecreational use and the presence of largeungulate populations makes this primewolverine habitat.Canada lynx: Persistent reports of lynx inthe North Fork of the West Fork GallatinRiver have not been confirmed, buthabitat is quite suitable to sustain somelynx use.Pine marten and fisher: High numbersof pine marten occur in the linkage inheavy lodgepole forest, and habitat is alsosuitable to support fisher, although theirpresence has not been verified.Grizzly bear: The Spanish Peaks area isthe northern extension of occupied grizzlyhabitat in the Madison range. Movementinto the Tobacco Root Mountains tothe west would likely pass through thishabitat.Wolf: Wolves have become wellestablishedin the linkage and the MadisonValley just to the southwest. At least twopacks have utilized part of this linkageuntil they succumbed to lethal control

esulting from livestock depredations in theMadison.Elk, mule deer, and moose: Large numbers ofall three species utilize Spanish Peaks linkageyearlong, moving from high elevation summerhabitat in the Peaks to high quality winterhabitat in the northern foothills on the Flying DRanch.Mountain goat: A small population of mountaingoats occupies the Spanish Peaks, with somemigrating down slope to the west, to occupywinter habitat in Beartrap Canyon.Bighorn sheep: Bighorn sheep are wellestablishedin the southeast corner of thelinkage near the Gallatin Canyon and Big Sky,and are part of a larger population that occursfurther east in the Gallatins (Point of Rocks) andTom Miner Basin. Winter habitat is limited forthese bighorns and they are often seen on, andhit by vehicles, on Highway 191 near Big Sky.Some of those bighorns have become habituatedto human activity and have been fed on privatelands.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Continuing growth of the Big SkyResort and potential development in MoonlightBasin and Jack Creek threatens to severconnectivity between Spanish Peaks and theMadison Range to the south. Any improvementof the Jack Creek Road, or designating it as athrough route, would have significant adverseeffects on wildlife movements. Habituation ofbears and bighorn sheep to human activities andpresence threatens the security of individualanimals and long-term occupancy of adjoininghabitats.Disease: The presence of bison and largenumbers of elk on the Flying D Ranch areperceived as potential sources of brucellosis,but management under the State brucellosismanagement plan should mitigate thoseconcerns.Conservation OpportunitiesConservationists should attempt to collaboratewith Madison County government to prevent orminimize improvement, or public designation,ofthe Jack Creek Road.Securing conservation easements on privatelands in Jack Creek/Moonlight basin wouldprovide significant benefit to maintainingconnectivity. The conservation easementson the Flying D Ranch and the designation ofthe Lee Metcalf Wilderness Area have securedconnectivity in a large portion of the linkage.Extending those benefits to any adjoining landswill further enhance that protection.One idea that was brought up to protect wildlifearound the Big Sky area is to stipulate in thebankruptcy proceedings for the Yellowstone Clubthat any future financial support is contingenton specific wildlife habitat management plansdeveloped to maintain and enhance all wildlifeuses, and on mitigating all other uses lost orcompromised by past development.170

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StickneySpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Stickney linkage area consists of aforested area north of the BeartoothWildlife Management. Hound Creekruns along the eastern boundary of thelinkage area. The northern boundary isthe foothills area south of Hardy, MT. Thewestern boundary is the Missouri River.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area functions to connectwildlife moving south from the RockyMountain Front into the isolatedmountain ranges of the eastern part ofthe Hub region.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Sawtooths, Rocky MountainFront, and the Big Belt Mountains.Ecological SettingThe Stickney linkage is the last forestedand mountainous area on the southside of the Missouri River before itenters the plains habitat near Cascade. The area supports moderateto sparse forest cover of Ponderosa pine(Pinus ponderosa) and scattered Douglasfir(Pseudotsuga menziesii) in a highlydissected landscape. Drainages aredeep and narrow. Lower slopes supportRocky Mountain juniper (Juniperusscopulorum) and scattered sagebrushstands (Artemisia tridentata spp.) amidrather continuous grasslands. Roaddensity in the linkage is moderate but isused primarily for access since relativelylittle development has occurred. A fewdispersed residences are found alongthe Missouri River below Holter Dam.The Missouri River, Interstate 15 andthe small community of Craig bound thenorthwest side of the linkage.172WildlifeThe Devils Kitchen area is a corridorfrom the Big Belt Mountains to Hardy.The north half of this corridor is summerrange for elk, mule deer, and whitetaildeer. Black bear and mountain lionsmove throughout this area following theungulate prey. The entire Wolf Creek-Craig-Cascade Canyon-Missouri River areais a major riparian river bottom corridorthat provides both food and shelterfor wildlife, including whitetail deer,beaver, muskrats, and neotropicalmigrant bird species. The Hound Creekarea is important for whitetail and muledeer, black bear, mountain lions, andbobcats. The ranchlands southeast ofDevils Kitchen are part of an ungulatemovement corridor. This area has highquality native grasslands and mountainfoothill habitat.Grizzly bears could potentially use theStickney Creek area as a movementcorridor.Pronghorn can be found throughout thevalley areas of this linkage.Bighorn sheep also use the DevilsKitchen corridor. There is some dispersalacross Interstate 15 and Flat Creek, withevidence of reproductive success.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is a threat to wildlifeconnectivity in this linkage area. Theareas between Cascade, Craig, andWolf Creek are particularly prone todevelopment, which could infringe onungulate winter range. Private landsubdivision is increasing in the northwestdrainages of Stickney Creek.Highways: Interstate 15 on the westernedge of this linkage area is a threat foranimal-vehicle collisions, particularly for

elk and bighorn sheep.Conflict has occurred between agriculturalproducers and ungulates, particularly forbighorn sheep around the Stickney Creek area.There are many hobby farms along the MissouriRiver in the southeast part of the linkagewhich increase the risk of wildlife conflict. Thedomestic sheep allotments in this linkage areamean the potential for disease transmissionto wild bighorns, and the increased risk oflivestock-carnivore conflict.Sanitation is an issue in the Missouri Rivercorridor; apple trees growing in developedareas attracts bears and can lead to conflictsand removal.Disease transmission between wild bighornsheep, mountain goats, and domestic sheep is athreat.Conservation OpportunitiesEasements that could be procured north ofHolter and Wolf Creek would especially benefitbighorn sheep and elk. Conservation around theBirdtail Hills to Highway 434 would be desirablefor bighorn sheep.A Devil’s Kitchen community working groupconsists of hunters, landowners, Montana LandAlliance, and agencies. They focus on elk andthe Beartooth Wildlife Management Area.173

SulaSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe Sula linkage area encompasses thesoutheast end of the Bitterroot Valley(south of Rye Creek). The Lost Trail Passlinkage area is to the south. The SapphireMountains are to the north, and theAnaconda-Pintler Range is to the east.Importance of Linkage AreaThis area connects the southeast endof the Bitterroot Valley and John Long/Sapphire Mountains with Lost TrailPass-Beaverhead Mountains. It alsoconnects the west end of the Anaconda-Pintler Range with the West Fork of theBitterroot linkage area.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Sapphire Mountains, Anaconda-Pintlers, and Bitteroots.Ecological SettingThis linkage area represents the foothillsintersection of heavily forested,mountainous habitat extending downfrom the Continental Divide and lowerelevation shrublands and grasslandsat the head of the Bitterrroot Valley.Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) andDouglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)dominate the forested habitat that ismostly limited to north-facing slopes,with Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperusscopulorum), big sagebrush (Artemesiatridentata spp.), mountain mahogany(Cercocarpus ledifolia) and antelopebitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) occurringon south-facing aspects. Understorygrassland communities in much of thearea are dominated by cheatgrass(Bromus tectorum) and spotted knapweed(Centaurea stoebe). The East Fork of theBitterroot River area has been heavilylogged historically, resulting in high roaddensities. Much of this linkage areahas burned in recent years, removing174large areas of the shrub understory andexpanding cheatgrass communities.Salvage of standing dead timber has alsooccurred on many of these burned areas.Expanding residential developmentis occurring in the East Fork of theBitterroot River around Sula and in FrenchBasin in the southern and central portionsof the linkage area. Highway 93 and theE.F. Bitterroot River border the westernedge of the linkage. The eastern edge ofthis linkage area adjoins the Anaconda-Pintlar Wilderness Area. Elevations in thisarea range from about 6000 feet in theheadwaters of the E.F. Bitterroot River toabout 4300 feet at Connor.WildlifeThe entire area between the towns ofConner and Sula, and down to Lost Trail,are important for carnivore connectivitybetween the Beaverheads, Sapphires,Bitterroots, and Anaconda-Pintlers.Wolverine and wolf occur within andmove through this linkage are. A residentwolf pack lives within this linkage inthe East Fork of the Bitterroot area,and wolves are moving through Darby,this linkage, and into the BeaverheadMountains and Big Hole valley. Wolverinesare known to move from Lost Trail,through the Sula linkage, and into theBitterroots. The unique vegetation makesthis linkage attractive to ungulates, andtherefore the carnivores that follow theprey. This area is winter range for elk,mule deer, and bighorn sheep, especiallyin the valley/mountain interface of RyeCreek; the Middle Fork of Rock Creek andEast Fork of the Bitterroot are importantareas for elk movement. Moose arenumerous in the French Basin area. Thereare bighorn sheep populations, includingthe East Fork of the Bitterroot herd,which is currently about 200 animals.

Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: There is a large amount ofprivate land and high potential for residentialdevelopment in this linkage. There is one largeranch in the northwestern part of this linkagethat constitutes the largest contiguous stretchof ungulate winter range; biologists viewretention of this winter range is critical for localungulate populations.Conflict: Many livestock being raised in thearea, and there have been several lethalcontrols in cases of livestock/wolf conflicts.Animal-vehicle collisions occur frequently onHighway 93 , particularly with bighorn sheep.Conservation OpportunitiesThere is a local ranch that is very wildlifefriendly. There is a lot of existing communityoutreach regarding increasing knowledge aboutliving with wildlife. There are some efforts toacquire conservation easements in the area topreserve ungulate habitat.175

Tom Miner to Mill CreekSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage extends from the Tom MinerBasin in the upper Paradise Valley, acrossthe Yellowstone River, and along thewestern face of the Absaroka Range toMill Creek, and along the lower easternfoothills of the Gallatin Range.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage, combined with the Gallatinlinkage, encompasses all of the wildlifevalues for which the Greater YellowstoneEcosystem (GYE) is noted. Major elk,bison, wolf, and grizzly bear seasonalhabitats and movement corridors existwithin the linkage, and connect withcritical adjoining habitat and linkagesis all directions. Maintaining habitatvalues here is critical to maintaining theecological functioning of the northernhalf of the GYE.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Gallatin Range, Absaroka RangeEcological SettingThis linkage spans the upper end of theParadise Valley on the Yellowstone Riverjust north of Yellowstone National Park.Topography in the linkage ranges fromthe broad river bottom across alluvialfans and benches into steeply-risingslopes that extend to high alpine areasamong spectacular peaks. The easternand southern part of the linkage adjoinsthe Absaroka Beartooth WildernessArea. Elevations in the linkage rangefrom about 5,000 feet at the Mill Creek-Yellowstone confluence to over 10,000feet. The Yellowstone River floodplainsupports a moderately extensivecottonwood (Populus spp.) and willow(Salix spp.) riparian community whileadjoining upland benches support drygrasslands and some sagebrush (Artemisia176tridentata spp.) patches. Lower foothillssupport scattered stands of limber pine(Pinus flexilis) and Rocky Mountainjuniper (Juniperus scopulorum). Lowerto mid elevation mountain slopes supportextensive Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii) and lodgepole (P. contorta)forest mixed with Engelmann spruceon wetter sites. At highest elevations,subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) becomesmore common, with whitebark pine (P.albicaulis) on the highest ridgetops neartimber line. Highway 89 and a varietyof other roads bisect the linkage alongthe Yellowstone River. The ParadiseValley is widely developed with scatteredranches, dispersed residences, andseveral subdivisions. Irrigated hay landand pasture have been developed. Someof these lands are now being subdivided.Some timber harvest has occurred, mostlyin the Tom Miner Basin and west side ofthe Gallatin range. This linkage lies atthe northern gateway to YellowstoneNP are receives significant seasonalrecreational use and tourist traffic.WildlifeWolverine: The upper half of the linkageis quality wolverine habitat but is notlarge enough to sustain permanentoccupancy. Ungulate populationscould provide a good prey base forwolverines, but at lower elevationshuman disturbance is a limiting factor.This linkage is particularly important formaintaining connectivity with adjoininghabitats.Canada lynx: Suitable habitat is availablethat has been occupied in the past, andcould serve as an important connection toadjoining areas. Sporadic observations oftracks are currently seen on the west sideof the linkage. A lone female lynx is using“non-typical” habitat in Mill Creek.

Grizzly bear: The linkage is occupied habitatin the southern half, away from development.Rock Creek to Cinnabar Creek and MulherinCreek has seen a significant increase in grizzlyactivity in recent years.Wolf: There are at least two resident wolfpacks in the linkage. The large size of the areacombined with large ungulate populations makesthis important core habitat.Elk: Habitat in this linkage is critical forresident elk as well as those migrating from thenorthern ranges in Yellowstone National Park(YNP). Population numbers have gone overmanagement objectives for years. Importantseasonal habitats are from Mill Creek to Six MileCreek, Dome Mountain, Mill Creek to Pine Creek,Eightmile Creek to Big Creek.Bighorn sheep: Seasonal winter and springuse occurs at Point of Rocks and CinnamonMountain, with year-round use in Tom MinerBasin, Yankee Jim Canyon, and LaDuke Springs.These populations have been stable to slightlyincreasing in recent years.Pronghorn: A small isolated herd of lessthan 100 antelope occupy habitat yearroundbetween Carbella Creek and RockCreek. Migratory routes through Yankee JimCanyon back into Yellowstone National Parkare sporadically used. Local alfalfa fields andpastures are now supporting these pronghorn.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Subdivision encroachment onwinter range habitats has displaced some winterelk use, and may be cutting off antelope accessto YNP and the Lamar Valley.Recreation: Snowmobiles and motorcycles areaffecting wolverine, grizzly, moose and possiblylynx in Tom Miner basin.Highways: High traffic volume on Highway 89,particularly during summer months, displaceswildlife use, and represents a mortality risk forbighorn sheep in Yankee Jim Canyon.Disease: Mange is controlling the size of somewolf packs. The public concern over potentialbrucellosis transmission between elk, bison andcattle is causing conflict. Potential fencing to177prevent contact between cattle and elk wouldthreaten wildlife connectivity in this area.Social intolerance: High elk numbers on, oradjacent to, private lands is increasing socialintolerance because of forage competitionwith cattle and potential disease transmission.Conflicts between adjoining landowners areaggravating intolerance. Wolf depredation onlivestock has been an issue since wolves werefirst reintroduced into Yellowstone NationalPark.Conservation OpportunitiesConservation management: Easements in TomMiner and Paradise Valley are creating smallsecure areas of habitat within developed areas.A Dome Mountain landowner is supportiveof sustained elk numbers on winter range.Adoption of a Park County growth policy alreadyfocuses on natural values which can spin-off intomaintaining habitat connectivity.Public land management: Brucellosismanagement plan implementation will generateopportunities to collaboratively determine localworking groups.

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Toston to Milligan CreekSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThe linkage extends across the southernfoothills of the Elkhorn Mountains fromthe Boulder River on the west, northeastto the Missouri River valley betweenCanyon Ferry Reservoir and Townsend,south along Highway 287 to Toston,southwest to upper Milligan Creek at I-90,and west to the mouth of the BoulderRiver.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage provides an open-countrylinkage from the north and east sidesof the Tobacco Root Mountains to theElkhorn Mountains and the southern endof the Big Belts. It serves as a northwardlink for grizzly bear and wolves movingfrom the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem(GYE) northward. It also provides corehabitat for pronghorn antelope, andseasonal habitat for mule deer.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Elkhorn, Big Belt, and TobaccoRoot Mountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage includes the open foothillshabitat between the Boulder River andthe Missouri River south of the ElkhornMountains. The area is primarilygrassland with scattered big sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata spp.) communities,with a few small scattered patchesof Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperusscopulorum), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii), and limber pine (Pinusflexilis) in the far south end of thelinkage. The linkage has been widelydeveloped for dry land grain crops andmuch of the native vegetation has beenconverted. Farm roads are commonin the northeastern corner betweenRadersburg and Townsend with general179access roads available elsewhere.Interstate 90 bisects the south end of thelinkage. Residential development hasoccurred along Highway 287 east of thelinkage and adjacent to the Missouri RiverValley, but large-acreage subdivisionshave recently expanded into farmlandin upper Milligan canyon and northwestof the Three Forks exit on I-90. Averageelevation in this linkage is about 4,800feet.WildlifePronghorn and mule deer are widelydispersed in the linkage yearlong.Wolves and grizzly bears: This linkageconnects the Elkhorns and Tobacco Rootsas a suitable corridor for northwardmovement and expansion by both species.The Jefferson River canyon at Lewisand Clark Caverns up to CottonwoodCanyon and Dougherty Mountain maybe a potential grizzly bear movementarea northward from the Tobacco Roots.However the open character of thehabitat, coupled with the amount ofhuman disturbance, limits the potentialfor that use throughout the linkage.Sharp-tailed grouse: The interspersionof sagebrush and native grasslandssupport sharp-tailed grouse in upperMilligan Creek and along the edge of theMissouri River valley between Toston andTownsend. However, this is becomingmore constrained by habitat conversion.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Large subdivision inthe south and east sides of the linkageare developing native habitat, as wellas increasing human presence anddisturbance. This affects pronghorn,mule deer and sharp-tailed grouseuse. Recreational demand on thesurrounding area also increases with that

development. Subdivision, fencing and furtherconversion of native sagebrush and grasslandssouth of I-90 could result in displacement ofmost pronghorn use and loss of suitable habitat.Power line construction: The proposedconstruction of a 500kV power line fromTownsend to Boulder or Whitehall wouldrequire additional service roads, and representsa potential collision hazard for migratingsongbirds, waterfowl and bats, particularly atnight.Livestock fencing represent a barrier tomovementOil and gas leasing: Potential oil and gasdevelopment in the Elkhorn foothills wouldfurther fragment habitat and increase humandisturbance.Conversion of sagebrush habitat into dryland crops is displacing some of that wildlifeuse, particularly as winter habitat. However,croplands may also provide an alternate shorttermfood source.Conservation OpportunitiesLand use planning: Broadwater County isinitiating a land use planning process that couldguide future development in critical areas.180

Townsend FlatsSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area is a valley locatedsoutheast from Helena and northof Townsend. Canyon Ferry Lake ison the eastern boundary, the ElkhornMountains border to the southwest,and the northern part of the linkage isbounded by the Lake Helena-Devils ElbowRecreation Area, where the Missouri Riverflows into Canyon Ferry Lake.Importance of Linkage AreaThis linkage area connects the northernElkhorns to the Big Belts. It also connectsthe Helena Valley with the large valleyarea between the Boulder River andMissouri River to the south.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Big Belts, ElkhornsEcological SettingThis linkage is primarily the foothillshabitat between the Elkhorn Mountainsand the Missouri River (Canyon Ferryreservoir). Open sagebrush grasslandsoccur throughout the area with scatteredpatches of limber pine (Pinus flexilis)and Rocky Mountain juniper (Juniperusscopulorum) on rocky ridges andoutcrops. Some cropland and hay fieldshave been developed in the linkagewhere water diversion or wells havemade irrigation feasible. Highway 287and the Montana Rail Link railroad runthe length of the linkage with severalsmall subdivisions and commercialareas adjoining the corridor. Severalroads leading to the Elkhorns bisectthe linkage. Elevation in the linkageaverages about 4,500 feet.WildlifeThis area currently functions asa movement corridor for elk and181pronghorn.Elk use Antelope and Beaver Creek tomove between winter range and summerrange in the northeast Elkhorns. Themost heavily used river crossing area isin the very northern end near the Hauserdam, in the El Dorado Heights area.Pronghorn move north-south along thiscorridor between Canyon Ferry and EastHelena. This is primarily winter andtransitional range for pronghorn. Thebest pronghorn habitat in this linkage isbetween Winston and Townsend. TheSpokane Hills have been called the“Causeway” for antelope because oftraditionally good pronghorn habitat.However, development is changing theavailability of this area for pronghorn.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment is rapidly increasinghere; thus the long-term viability ofpronghorn populations in this linkage isthreatened. Biologists consider the cityof Helena an exclusion area for wildlife,due to development, traffic, and socialconflict. Sprawl from Helena ranchettes(exurban growth) is fragmenting a lotof habitat. The northwest end of thelinkage, at Montana City, is alreadydegraded habitat, and is slated formore development. The Scratch GravelHills northwest of this linkage usedto be great pronghorn habitat, butextensive development has displacedthe pronghorn. There is extensivedevelopment from Interstate 15, BirdsEye Road, and the Spokane Hills. In theEl Dorado area, near Hauser Dam, thereis a lot of private land and development,a worrisome issue since elk favorthis area to move into the Big Belts.Development pressure has reduced thepronghorn herd between Winston and

Townsend from 1000 to 300 animals. There aredevelopment proposals in the Townsend areaand from Helena to Lakeside.Highway 12 and Highway 287 run through thelinkage. Pronghorn cross these roads frequentlyand are in danger of vehicle collisions.Fencing is an issue for pronghorn throughoutthis entire linkage.Conservation OpportunitiesThere may be opportunities to promote(change to) wildlife friendly fencing betweenToston and Winston. The Helena Opens LandCommittee can be approached to discussintegrating needs for wildlife movement.The Smart Growth Coalition is very active inthe Helena area; working with this coalitioncan advance the concept of developingareas in a way that is sustainable for wildlifeconnectivity. The Lewis and Clark countycommissioners passed a resolution in June 2008to consider wildlife connectivity along theContinental Divide west of Helena; thus theymay be open to discussions about protectingkey connectivity areas in the valley.182

Turah to Placid CreekSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses the westsection of the Garnet Range and thevery northern parts of the Sapphire andJohn Long Mountains. The southern partincludes part of Interstate 90 from Bonnerto Clinton. Running east-west throughthe central part of the linkage area isHighway 200 and the Blackfoot River fromBonner to Clearwater. From Clearwatereast to Ovando the linkage runs along thesouth side of Highway 200 with the PlacidCreek to Ovando linkage area just north.Importance of Linkage AreaOn a regional scale, this linkage areaprovides connectivity for wildlife movingnorth-south across Interstate 90 into thewest section of the Garnet Range andnorth into the Rattlesnake Wilderness.This linkage also connects the Sapphiresand John Longs to the Garnet Range andnorth to the Seeley-Swan through theSqueezer drainage, or to the northeastthrough the Blackfoot-Clearwater WMAinto the Scapegoat Wilderness and theBob Marshall Wilderness.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Garnet Range, John LongMountains, and Sapphire Mountains,Mission Mountains, RattlesnakeWilderness.Ecological SettingThis linkage, both north and south ofthe Blackfoot River, is characterizedby widespread and intensive timberharvest with moderate to high-densityroad networks. There are very few largeintact forest stands that have not beenaffected. South-facing slopes at lowerelevations are sparsely forested, havenot generally been harvested but are stillroaded to provide access. Douglas-fir183(Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosapine (Pinus ponderosa) are the dominantspecies with scattered stands of lodgepolepine (P. contorta). South of the Blackfoot,the linkage occupies a mountain ridgebetween the lower Blackfoot River andCamas Prairie, north of Highway 200.Camas Prairie is primarily in agriculturalproduction. There is considerableresidential development along Highway200 from McNamara to Potomac. Elevationin this linkage ranges from 3,000 feet to5,800 feet.WildlifeBecause of logging activities in thislinkage, regrowth of shrub habitats andconcomittant road closures has provedbeneficial for wildlife species, especiallybig game, bears, and as forest continuesto regrow, other forest carnivores.Grizzly: This linkage area is borderingthe southern edge of the grizzly bearRecovery Zone. The west section of theGarnet Range has productive shrub fields(regrowth from past logging); occasionallygrizzly bears use this linkage to movesouth from the Recovery Zone. In thefuture, this area may be used more. Mostimportant is the Lubrecht Link, northsouthbetween Potomac and Greenoughthrough Lubrecht Camp. Grizzly bearsmove through this one to connect to apubically-owned riparian corridor calledthe Blackfoot Recreastion Area/BelmontCreek Corridor and the BLM land aroundElevation Mountain. Elevation Mountain/Wales Creek is core grizzly bear habitat,where they are living there year-round.There are additional important links inthis area between Bonner and Potamacwhere there is no development and theland connects to public land - LefreyCreek, Heyers Creek, Johnson Creek,Wisherd Ridge and Sunflower Mountain.

These appear to be important for grizzlybear and other species like elk, fisher, andwolverine. These links cross the Clark ForkRiver, Highway 200, Interstate 90, and theBlackfoot River from north to south. A radiocollaredgrizzly bear used the Clark Fork facefor movement between Turah and Clinton.Greenough Creek, Donovan Creek, Kendalland Turah Creeks are potentially importantcreeks for grizzly bear connectivity. Grizzlybear activity has been recorded in Rock Creek;these bears most likely traveled south from theGarnet Range. Once grizzly bears get acrossthe fracture zones of the lower Clark Fork andBlackfoot Rivers they have a greater chance ofsuccess fully recolonizing historic range.Transient wolves move through this area buthave not attempted to establish packs. Thepotential for wolf movement through this areais from the Bitterroot Valley north throughTurah and north to the Seeley-Swan. Withinthis linkage there are high concentrations ofungulate prey. Another wolf pack within thislinkage area is the Elevation Mountain pack.Elevation Mountain is the west part of theirhome range, going from the Garnets to DouglasCreek. This “triangle” area is an importanthistorical area for wolves.Wolverine: The river bottom is important forpotential north-south wolverine movementbetween Turah and Clinton. Wolverines maycross at the lower Clark Fork and lowerBlackfoot Rivers. This linkage area connectsnorth to the Seeley Lake area across Highway200.Lynx occupy a part of the linkage area fromthe Scapegoat Wilderness to Clinton. Themost important habitat within this linkage isChamberlain and Union Creeks in the WestGarnet Range, above 5000 ft. This area haspatches of boreal forest, and supports the onlyknown population of endemic lynx on BLM land.There are very few individuals. There has neverbeen documented lynx movement between theWest Garnet Range and Chamberlain Creek.Elk summer and winter throughout this area.There are several distinct herds that use specificwinter ranges. On the very western edge ofthe linkage there is the Mount Jumbo elk winterrange. A small number of elk move up the eastside of Rattlesnake Creek to Sheep Mountain/Wisherd Ridge and to summer range in WoodyMountain. Within the West Garnet Range, about200 elk move between Cramer Creek in thewinter and Ashby Creek in the summer. To thenorth, Kendall Creek and Bonner Mountain haveyear-round herd of about 100 elk. Elk movebetween this area down to Bear Creek andPotomac. Morrison Peak also has year-round elkpopulations. To the west, elk winter on privateranch land south of the Blackfoot-ClearwaterWildlife Management Area (WMA). Elk moveup into Fish Creek for the spring, summer andfall. The upper Chamberlain Creek elk herdunit summer in the high elevations and theirwinter range is at Blacktail Mountain. Elk movebetween winter ranges in the Bearmouth area,the Myers Ranch, and the south face of theGarnet Range to summer range in Union Creek.These elk herds are separate from each otherand from the elk herds in the East GarnetRange. There are some other elk movementpatterns from Woodchuck Canyon to the GarnetRange at Greenough. There is a lot of northsouthelk movement across Highway 200 fromthe Blackfoot-Clearwater WMA.Moose: This entire linkage area is important formoose, particularly along the intersection ofMonture Creek and the Blackfoot River.Bighorn Sheep: The Milltown Bighorn sheepwere an introduced herd.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Though there is currentlyrelatively limited development within thislinkage, some of the areas like Gold Creek andBelmont Creek owned by the Plum Creek TimberCompany are not part of the Legacy Project.Highways: Highway 200 and Interstate 90 causeshabitat fragmentation and animal-vehiclecollisions. Numerous elk and bighorn sheep (atMilltown) are getting hit. And if developmentoccurs, there would be increased impact onanimals crossing Highway 200.Energy Development: Silver and gold minesleached cyanide into the Blackfoot Riverupstream near Lincoln, causing great ecological184

damage. The river is now revived but there isthreat of renewed mining interest.Forest management: State and BLM own mostof the lynx habitat here; the BLM has beendoing a lot of forest thinning, which threatensremaining habitat. The Garnet Range is heavilyroaded from past logging. There is a lot of PlumCreek Timber Company land within this linkage.Winter range management in this forest iscritical, and affects, ungulates and carnivores,especially wolves. On the Plum Creek TimberCompany land there is massive, large-scalehabitat thinning, which could wipe out the lynxhabitat.Climate change is a threat. As spring snowmeltoccurs earlier every year it affects natal denninghabitat of wolverines. A decrease in cold nights,and subsequent increase in bug kill, wouldtotally affect lynx habitat. Boreal forest isintolerant of fire, and could be removed if a fireoccurs.Noxious Weeds (leafy spurge, spottedknapweed, Dalmatian toadflax) are a big issue.West of the Continental Divide in Montana,with elk populations increasing, noxious weedsaffect elk use. Elk will avoid winter range withsignificant spotted knapweed.Conservation Opportunitiesand focus on zoning, with possibly smartgrowth development on Plum Creek TimberCompany land. It is also an opportunity towork with Plum Creek on forest managementthat supports wildlife. The Blackfoot Challengeis already working collaboratively betweenagencies, timber companies, and privatelandowners. From Bonner to Rogers Pass there ismuch conservation on-going with the BlackfootChallenge but there is an opportunity still tokeep working with the USFS on the ForestPlan.In the 1970s and 1980s, Montana Fish, Wildlifeand Parks did a management study on elk andlogging, and moose in the Chamberlain Creekarea. This happened before Plum Creek TimberCompany roaded the area. It has been roadedsince then but there is a cooperative roadmanagement group trying to keep road densitydown. There is also a weed advisory groupfocusing on chemical and bio-control to enhancethe weed condition here.The Milltown Dam Removal project will resultin a new state park in the area. This park willbe managed by Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parksand may provide opportunity to work towardwildlife friendly management objectives.There is relatively limited development withinthis linkage area, which is important for longdistance movement for animals like wolverines.There is relatively limited development andstill an opportunity to protect several importantmovement links across Highway 200 from Bonnerto Ovando.There is an opportunity to work with someprivate landowners on an elk management.The Elevation Mountain area is public landowned by the BLM. This area appears to beimportant grizzly bear and elk habitat, and itis critically important to lynx. Public pressureon the BLM to preserve the boreal forest isimportant.Though Plum Creek Timber Company sold offsome of the lynx habitat to the State, this mayhelp open the door of opportunity to engage185

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West Fork BitterrootSpeciesGeographic BoundaryWest Fork of the Bitterroot is a heavilyforested linkage south of the BitterrootValley. The Lost Trail Pass linkage area isto the east. This linkage area is borderedon west and south by the Bitterroot/Salmon River Mountains and the FrankChurch Wilderness area.Importance of Linkage AreaThis area is a critical linkage thatconnects the south end of the BitterrootValley with the Salmon River Mountainsto the south, the Sapphire Mountains andAnaconda-Pintlers to the east. It alsoconnects the Salmon River Mountains tothe Lost Trail linkage area.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Bitterroot, Sapphire, SalmonRiver, Anaconda-Pintlers.Ecological SettingThe West Fork Bitterroot linkage is arugged, heavily forested mountain areaspanning the Continental Divide generallybetween Horse Creek Pass and Lost TrailPass, and extending northward to aboutDarby, at the south end of the BitterrootRiver valley. This high elevation, remotearea supports extensive conifer forestdominated by lodgepole pine (Pinuscontorta), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii), Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii), and subalpine fir (Abieslasiocarpa) at higher elevations, andponderosa pine (P. ponderosa) andwestern larch (Larix occidentalis) atlower elevations. Several wild fires haveburned in this linkage leaving large areasof standing dead timber and shrub fieldsof red alder (Alnus rubra), menziesia(Menzeisia ferruginea) and othershrubs. Beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax)is locally common in this linkage area.The backcountry of this area is largelyunroaded although the West Fork roadbisects the area from Highway 93 throughPainted Rocks State Park and over theContinental Divide into the upper SelwayRiver. Highway 93 and Lost Trail Ski Areaare located just east of this linkage.Elevations in the linkage range from about4,000 feet near Darby to about 8,000 feetalong the Continental Divide.WildlifeThis area is great wildlife habitat, withdeep snow, riparian bottoms, and meadowcomplexes.Elk are dispersed in small groups of20-30 animals throughout the winter,moving into Lost Trail and the FrankChurch Wilderness in the summer. Someelk migrate through this linkage as theymove between the Bitterroot and BigHole valleys. Elk also winter in the TinCup area near Darby; this area is veryproductive area and can sustain 200-300wintering elk. Overwhich and HughesCreek drainages are major wintering areasfor moose.Bighorn Sheep: There are five separatebands of native bighorn sheep. ThePainted Rocks herd (about 150 sheep) isessentially a non- migratory herd, whilethe Nez Perce herd moves between thislinkage area and the Selway ecosystemin Idaho, with 15-20 of these bighornsheep consistently wintering in Montana.This area has heavy conifer cover, andtherefore is not great wintering habitat,but is still critical for them sincestatewide, numbers of bighorn sheep(particularly native populations) are low.Wolf: There is a wolf pack that centers onLittle Blue Joint that moves between thislinkage and the Frank Church Wilderness.187

Other existing packs include the Wood’s Creekpack, the Coal Creek/ Hughes Creek pack, andthe Tin Cup pack. There is also wolf movementbetween Darby and Sula. Because of the largeamount of core wilderness area (habitat) nearby,wolf packs are able to be sustained despitelethal removal.Wolverine are known to move through this area.Because of the winter snow pack and adjacentwilderness area, this area is great wolverinehabitat. Although there is not any documentedmovement, this area could serve as linkage forgrizzly bears if they continue to move southfrom northwest Montana. This area is also partof the largest, most continuous, and likely corehabitat for fisher.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: This area is essentially upstreamfrom Hamilton, Darby, Connor, and Sula. Inplaces, like the Tin Cup area near Darby, privateland development is beginning to encroach onelk winter range.Within this linkage, many river and creekbottoms have mining claims just now beingdeveloped. There are some weeds issues withinthe linkage.Disease issues with bighorn sheep are a concernin this linkage because of the populations ofbighorn, and the increasing number of hobbyfarms that keep domestic sheep. There aresome grazing allotments in Woods Creek andCoal Creek, where there are also known wolfpacks, so there is an increased risk of domesticlivestock-wildlife conflict.Wintertime motorized recreation couldthreaten wolverine denning in this area.Conservation OpportunitiesThis linkage is primarily all National Forestland; therefore, by working with themunicipalities around the Conner and Sulacorridors, a large movement corridor wouldremain intact. There is enough public land inthis area that wolf packs will be able to persisteven with conflicts.188

WhitetailSpeciesGeographic BoundaryThis linkage area encompasses thesoutheast section of the BoulderMountains, known as the Bull Mountains.Interstate 15 forms the northern andwestern boundary from the town ofBoulder south to Butte. Interstate 90forms the southern boundary. The easternboundary runs along Highway 69 in theBoulder Valley. The Continental Divideskirts the southwestern side of thelinkage near Butte. The Elk Park Valleylies along the western edge, the WhitetailReservoir and Little Boulder River liewithin the center.Importance of Linkage AreaOn a regional scale, this linkageprovides connectivity for wildlife movingnorth-south along the Continental Dividebetween the Sawtooths (Bob MarshallWilderness) in the North and theuppermost mountain ranges of the HighDivide.Mountain ranges connected in thislinkage: Boulders, Sawtooths (RockyMountain Front), Elkhorns, Highlands,Robert E. Lee Mountains, and BullMountains.Ecological SettingThis linkage includes a wide variety oftopography and vegetation, as well ashuman activities. The western part ofthe linkage north of Butte and west ofI-15 includes the upper watershed ofthe Boulder River. The area is heavilytimbered by lodgepole (Pinus contorta)and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)forest but with rather widespreadnatural openings and meadows, mostassociated with riparian areas anddrainages. Elk Park, on I-15, is by farthe largest of these meadow complexes,189lying on the Continental Divide justoutside of Butte. It has the reputationof being one of the coldest places inthe region during winter months. Eastof I-15, mountains are quite steepand rugged, and forested with nearlymonotypic stands of lodgepole pine.This area is the northern end of thegranite outcrops and monoliths thatextend southward through HomestakePass and into the Highland Mountainssouth of I-90. Whitetail Creek is a largeopen drainage that bisects the linkagenorth of Whitehall and separates BullMountain from the more mountainousterrain to the west. Bull Mountain isthe watershed divide between WhitetailCreek and the lower Boulder River, andsupports a patchy Douglas-fir forest.Dry grasslands and scattered sagebrush(Artemisia tridentata spp.) habitat inthe Whitetail Creek drainage and onthe east slopes of Bull Mountain reflectthe rain shadow effect of significantlyless precipitation that falls on the eastside of the Continental Divide. TheBoulder River flows northward in itsheadwaters, turns east above Berniceto flow through Basin and Boulder, thenturns to flow south to its confluence withthe Jefferson River at Cardwell, thusnearly encircling the entire linkage. Theriver supports significant cottonwood(Populus spp.), aspen (P. tremuloides)and willow (Salix spp.) riparian habitatthroughout its length. Timber harvestand road development have occurredarea-wide, but mostly in the west.Significant open pit, underground andplacer mining activity has occurred inthis area. Interstate 15 passes throughthe center of the linkage and I-90 boundsthe linkage on the south. Highway 69follows the Boulder River from Cardwellto Boulder. Irrigated hay land andpasture are present along Whitetail

Creek and the Boulder River south of Boulder,and have often been converted from woodyriparian habitat. The large Golden Sunlightopen pit gold mine is located on the south endof Bull Mountain above I-90 and the JeffersonRiver. Residential development and subdivisionis widespread on private lands, particularlyin the southern and eastern portions of thelinkage. With this level of human occupancyand the proximity to larger population centersof Helena and Butte, recreational use of thislinkage is high, and off-road vehicle use issignificant.WildlifeThis area currently functions as a movementcorridor for both carnivores and ungulatesmoving off the Continental Divide. Much theentire northern end of the linkage area, fromBoulder to Walkerville, is intact, open, greatwildlife habitat. The area between Basin andBernice along the Boulder River is great habitatfor elk, moose, bighorn sheep, and mountaingoats. Homestake Pass, in the southern end ofthe linkage area, has naturally high potentialfor wildlife connectivity between the Huband High Divide conservation areas, but isfragmented by I-90.Grizzly: There is a historical level ofoccupancy. There is potential for grizzly bearhabitat in the Basin area, and there is a highpotential for north-south movement alongthe Continental Divide, particularly aroundHomestake Pass.Wolves are moving across the Elk Park areabetween the west and east sections of theBoulder mountains. They are also moving northsouthalong the Continental Divide.Wolverines are moving through the area. Thereis potential for wolverine habitat in the Basinarea, although most of this linkage area is toodry, has a low carrion base, and therefore, notthe best wolverine habitat.Lynx tracks were verified by a Montana Fish,Wildlife and Parks biologist along the LittleBoulder River south of Basin.Elk winter in the lower areas of the WestBoulder Mountains and move into the Elk190Park area in the summertime. Many elk movebetween the towns of Bernice and Basin, acrucial calving area within the linkage. Elkuse Little Whitetail Creek to move betweenthe Boulder and Bull Mountains. The UpperWhitetail Creek connects the Bull Mountainswith the Whitetail basin and there is yeararoundelk movement between those areas.In the south end of the linkage area, elkinhabit the Pipestone -Whitetail Creek area.Ratio Mountain is an important movementcorridor for elk between these two areas. Inlate summer, elk move back and forth. TheWhitetail Reservoir is an important calvingarea. The Boulder River corridor is importantfor elk movement between mountain ranges.Moose winter range occurs primarily east ofI-15 in the south and west side of the linkagearea. Moose also occur between the LittleBlackfoot River and Basin, and throughoutthe Whitetail Peak and Little Boulder Rivercorridor, which has significant, but declining,willow habitat. Moose also occur throughoutthe Pipestone -Whitetail Creek area.Pronghorn occur in the Pipestone area, butthe habitat is marginal; the herd currentlyexists on private land. There are also about300-400 pronghorn living between the eastBull Mountains and Highway 69; this is the bestpronghorn habitat in the linkage.The westernmost population of white-tailedprairie dogs occurs in this linkage.Conservation ThreatsDevelopment: Within this linkage area, manyprivate in-holdings and old mining claimswithin the Forest are beginning to develop. TheForest is required to provide access, and anyopportunities to close roads and create blocksof unroaded, secure habitat can be eliminated.Expanding development in the creek drainagesalong Highway 69 in the east side of the linkagearea could fragment pronghorn habitat. In theLittle Whitetail Creek area, there is privateland subdivision in the Bull Mountains near thevalley bottom.Recreation: Social pressure is mounting toopen up the entire area to recreational vehicle

use, particularly in the Pipestone area. Thereare many user-created routes with very littleenforcement of off-highway vehicles (OHV’s)restrictions. In 2007 alone, 10,000 feet ofuser-created two track routes were created inthe Pipestone area. The current Beaverhead-Deerlodge Forest travel management planhas effectively deemed the area around theLittle Boulder River a “sacrifice” zone foroff-road vehicle use. The soils are prone todisplacement by OHV use in much of the area.Highways: Elk, moose, bighorn sheep, andmountain goats are frequently struck alongInterstate 15 in the Elk Park area; wolveshave also been killed there. Interstate 90, inthe south end of the linkage area, fragmentshabitat and causes animal-vehicle collisions,particularly around Pipestone and HomestakePass. Road density is high around Basin andother sections.Conflict between livestock operators and theelk is occurring, especially between Pipestoneand Elk Park, and in the Whitetail Creek area inlate summer when elk move onto agriculturallands. Livestock operators have a similar lowtolerance for wolves; packs have been unableto establish long term in this linkage area.Mining: There is the ever-present threat ofmining in this linkage.Forest management practices have allowedconifer encroachment in areas like LittleWhitetail Creek, which lowers the habitat valuefor elk. This has exacerbated the infestation oflodgepole pine by mountain pine beetle.Conservation Opportunitiesfor wildlife connectivity under these forestmanagement revisions include how to managerecreational needs with wildlife requirementsand how to restrict or divert access and travelroutes across wildlife corridors.Highway closure: Interstate 15 at Basin hasbeen periodically closed due to high levels ofelk use. Officials recognize the danger to bothhumans and wildlife and may set importantprecedents.There are opportunities for conservationeasements in this area. The Rocky Mountain ElkFoundation may have some easements interestsin the area. Prairie dogs occur in this area and,although this is not a migratory species, theirpresence has facilitated the establishment of aconservation easement.Established community leaders workingwith the Forest Service in the central BoulderMountains could help facilitate the developmentof good grazing and forest management plans.Homestake Pass and Pipestone are two areaswhere wildlife crossing mitigation efforts mayhave a big reward in terms of enhancing wildlifeconnectivity and human safety.Most of this linkage area is within theBeaverhead-Deerlodge National Forest (BHDL).The public commenting process for forestmanagement activities is a great opportunity forinfluencing how wildlife connectivity is factoredinto forest management. The BHDL Forest isdeveloping travel planning according to rangerdistricts. Within this linkage area, the JeffersonRanger District of the BHDL Forest is attemptingto re-inventory all the roads from a 2001 effort.This will create a baseline map of motorizeduse in the forest. The main considerations191

192

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Appendix 1.Table 1Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific NameWater shrewSorex palustrisWandering or Vagrant shrewS. vagransMasked shrewS. cinereusDusky shrewS. monticolusShrews Preble's shrewS. prebleiDwarf shrewS. nanusHayden's shrewS. haydeniMerriam's shrewS. merriamiPygmy shrewS. hoyiCony or PikaOchotona princepsWhite-tailed jackrabbitLepus townsendiiLagomorphsSnowshoe hareL. americanusBlack-tailed jackrabbitL. californicusMountain cottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiPygmy rabbitBrachylagus idahoensisYellow-bellied marmotMarmota flaviventrisMarmots Hoary MarmotM. caligataWoodchuckM. monaxColumbian ground squirrelSpermophilus columbianusRichardson's ground squirrelS. richardsoniUinta ground squirrelS. armatusGolden-mantled ground squirrelS. lateralisIdaho ground squirrelS. brunneusSquirrelsRed tree squirrelTamiascurus hudsonicusEastern gray tree squirrelSciurus griseusBlack-tailed prairie dogCynomys ludovicianusEastern fox squirrelSciurus nigerThirteen-lined ground squirrelSpermophilus tridecemlineatusWyoming ground squirrelSpermophilus elegansFlying tree squirrelGlaucomys sabrinusNorthwestern or Yellow-Pine chipmunk Tamias amoenusChipmunksLeast chipmunkT. minimusRed-tailed chipmunkT. ruficaudusUinta chipmunkT. umbrinusPocket GopherIdaho pocket gopherThomomys idahoensisNorthern pocket gopherThomomys talpoidesWestern harvest mouseReithrodontomys megalotisHouse mouse (exotic)Mus musculusDeer mousePeromyscus maniculatusWestern jumping mouseZapus princepsPennsylvania meadow voleMicrotus pennsylvanicusMiceLong-tailed meadow mouse/voleM. longicaudusMountain meadow mouse/voleM. montanusHeather mouse/volePhenacomys intermediusNorthern bog lemmingSynaptomys borealisNorthern red-backed mouse/voleClethrionomys gapperiNorthern grasshopper mouseOnychomys leucogasterPrairie voleMicrotus ochrogaster197

Appendix 1 (cont.).Table 1Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific NameWater voleMicrotus richardsoniWhite-footed mousePeromyscus leucopusMice, cont'd Great Basin pocket mousePerognathus parvusOlive-backed pocket mousePerognathus fasciatusSagebrush mouse/voleLemmiscus curtatusRatsBushy-tailed woodrat or packratNeotoma cinereaBrown or Norway ratRattus norvegicusBeaver Beaver Castor candensisMuskrat Muskrat Ondata zibethicaPorcupine Porcupine Erethizon dorsatumRaccoon Raccoon (exotic) Procyon lotorCoyoteCanis latransCanidsGray wolfC. lupusSwift foxVulpes veloxRed foxVulpes vulpesBearsBlack bearUrsus americanusGrizzly bearU. arctosFisherMartes pennantiMartenM. americanaLong-tailed weaselMustela frenataShort-tailed weaselM. ermineaMinkM. visonWeaselsWolverineGulo guloBadgerTaxidea taxusSpotted skunkSpilogale gracilisStriped skunkMephitis mephitisBlack-footed ferretMustela nigripesLeast weaselMustela nivalisRiver otterLontra canadensisCanada lynxLynx candensisFelidsBobcatLynx rufusCougar or mountain lion, puma, panther Puma concolorElk or wapitiCervus canadensisMule deerOdocoileus hemionusWhite-tailed deerO. virginianus or leucurisMooseAlces alcesUngulates PronghornAntilocapra americanaBisonBos bisonMountain goatOreamnos americanusBighorn sheepOvis canadensisWoodland CaribouRangifer tarandus caribou(Adapted from Baker et al, 1961; Mathews 2003; Elias 2002; Montana's Official State Website)198

Appendix 2.Table 2Home Ranges for Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific NameHomeRange (ha)Home Range(square km)Water shrewSorex palustrisWandering or Vagrant shrew S. vagrans 0.11 0.0011Masked shrewS. cinereusDusky shrew S. monticolus 0.11 0.0011Shrews Preble's shrewS. prebleiDwarf shrewS. nanusHayden's shrewS. haydeniMerriam's shrewS. merriamiPygmy shrewS. hoyiCony or Pika Ochotona princeps 0.35 0.0035White-tailed jackrabbitLepus townsendiiLagomorphsSnowshoe hare L. americanus 5.93 0.0593Black-tailed jackrabbit L. californicus 145.55 1.4555Mountain cottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiPygmy rabbitBrachylagus idahoensisYellow-bellied marmot Marmota flaviventris 0.31 0.0031Marmots Hoary MarmotM. caligataWoodchuckM. monaxColumbian ground squirrelSpermophilus columbianusRichardson's ground squirrelS. richardsoniUinta ground squirrelS. armatusGolden-mantled ground squirrelS. lateralisIdaho ground squirrelS. brunneusSquirrelsRed tree squirrel Tamiascurus hudsonicus 1.1 0.011Eastern gray tree squirrel Sciurus griseus 0.3 0.003Black-tailed prairie dogCynomys ludovicianusEastern fox squirrelSciurus nigerThirteen-lined ground squirrelSpermophilus tridecemlineatusWyoming ground squirrelSpermophilus elegansFlying tree squirrelGlaucomys sabrinusNorthwestern or Yellow-Pine chipmunk Tamias amoenusChipmunksLeast chipmunkT. minimusRed-tailed chipmunkT. ruficaudusUinta chipmunk T. umbrinus 1.87-5.12 0.02-0.05Idaho pocket gopherThomomys idahoensisPocket GopherNorthern pocket gopher Thomomys talpoides 0.02 0.0002Western harvest mouseReithrodontomys megalotisHouse mouse (exotic)Mus musculusDeer mousePeromyscus maniculatusWestern jumping mouseZapus princepsPennsylvania meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus 0.12 0.0012Long-tailed meadow mouse/voleM. longicaudusMountain meadow mouse/voleM. montanusMiceHeather mouse/volePhenacomys intermediusNorthern grasshopper mouseOnychomys leucogasterPrairie voleMicrotus ochrogasterWater voleMicrotus richardsoniWhite-footed mousePeromyscus leucopusGreat Basin pocket mousePerognathus parvusOlive-backed pocket mousePerognathus fasciatusNorthern bog lemmingSynaptomys borealis199

Appendix 2 (cont.).Table 2Home Ranges for Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific NameHomeRange (ha)Home Range(square km)Mice, cont'dRatsNorthern red-backed mouse/voleBushy-tailed woodrat or packratClethrionomys gapperiNeotoma cinerea0.25 0.0025Sagebrush mouse/voleBrown or Norway ratLemmiscus curtatusRattus norvegicusBeaver Beaver Castor candensisMuskrat Muskrat Ondata zibethicaPorcupine Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum 11.29 0.1129Raccoon Raccoon (exotic) Procyon lotor 113.73 1.1373Coyote Canis latrans 7597.57 75.9757CanidsGray wolf C. lupus 78000 780Swift foxVulpes veloxRed fox Vulpes vulpes 387.34 3.8734BearsBlack bear Ursus americanus 2413.09 24.1309Grizzly bear U. arctos 10000-70000 100-700Fisher Martes pennanti 1000-10000 10-100Marten M. americana 209.31 2.0931Long-tailed weasel Mustela frenata 111.29 1.1129Weasels Short-tailed weasel M. erminea 20.64 0.2064Mink M. vison 14.1 0.141Wolverine Gulo gulo 10000-50000 100-500Badger Taxidea taxus 849.87 8.4987Spotted skunkSpilogale gracilisStriped skunk Mephitis mephitis 294.67 2.9467Weasels,Black-footed ferret Mustela nigripes 40.47 0.4047cont'dLeast weaselMustela nivalisRiver otterLontra canadensisCanada lynx Lynx candensis 1852.4 18.524FelidsBobcat Lynx rufus 5860/8330 58.6(f)/83.3(m)Cougar or mountain lion, puma, panther Puma concolor 29733.33 297.3333Elk or wapiti Cervus canadensis 1292.54 12.9254Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus 285.27 2.8527White-tailed deer O. virginianus or leucuris 196.06 1.9606Moose Alces alces 1609.53 16.0953Ungulates Pronghorn Antilocapra americana 1060.47 10.6047BisonBos bisonMountain goatOreamnos americanusBighorn sheep Ovis canadensis 1433.4 14.334Woodland CaribouRangifer tarandus caribou(Adapted from Baker et al, 1961; Mathews 2003; Elias 2002; Harestad and Bunnell, 1979; Montana's Official State Website)200

Appendix 3.Table 3Migration Distances for Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific Name LocationRound TripMigration Distance(km)Mean LongestWater shrewSorex palustrisWandering or Vagrant shrew S. vagransMasked shrewS. cinereusDusky shrewS. monticolusShrews Preble's shrewS. prebleinon-migratory or no data availableDwarf shrewS. nanusHayden's shrewS. haydeniMerriam's shrewS. merriamiPygmy shrewS. hoyiCony or PikaOchotona princepsWhite-tailed jackrabbitLepus townsendiiLagomorphsSnowshoe hareL. americanusBlack-tailed jackrabbitL. californicusnon-migratory or no data availableMountain cottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiPygmy rabbitBrachylagus idahoensisYellow-bellied marmotMarmota flaviventrisMarmots Hoary MarmotM. caligatanon-migratory or no data availableWoodchuckM. monaxColumbian ground squirrel Spermophilus columbianusRichardson's ground squirrel S. richardsoniUinta ground squirrelS. armatusGolden-mantled ground squirrel S. lateralisIdaho ground squirrelS. brunneusSquirrelsRed tree squirrelTamiascurus hudsonicusEastern gray tree squirrel Sciurus griseusnon-migratory or no data availableBlack-tailed prairie dogCynomys ludovicianusEastern fox squirrelSciurus nigerThirteen-lined ground squirrel Spermophilus tridecemlineatusWyoming ground squirrel Spermophilus elegansFlying tree squirrelGlaucomys sabrinusNorthwestern chipmunkTamias amoenusChipmunksLeast chipmunkT. minimusRed-tailed chipmunkT. ruficaudusnon-migratory or no data availableUinta chipmunkT. umbrinusPocket GopherIdaho pocket gopherThomomys idahoensisNorthern pocket gopherThomomys talpoidesnon-migratory or no data availableWestern harvest mouseReithrodontomys megalotisHouse mouse (exotic)Mus musculusDeer mousePeromyscus maniculatusWestern jumping mouseZapus princepsPennsylvania meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicusLong-tailed meadow mouse/vole M. longicaudusMountain meadow mouse/vole M. montanusNorthern grasshopper mouse Onychomys leucogasterMice Prairie voleMicrotus ochrogasternon-migratory or no data availableWater voleMicrotus richardsoniWhite-footed mousePeromyscus leucopusGreat Basin pocket mouse Perognathus parvusOlive-backed pocket mouse Perognathus fasciatusHeather mouse/volePhenacomys intermediusNorthern bog lemmingSynaptomys borealisNorthern red-backed mouse/vole Clethrionomys gapperiSagebrush mouse/voleLemmiscus curtatusRatsBushy-tailed woodrat or packrat Neotoma cinereaBrown or Norway ratRattus norvegicusnon-migratory or no data availableBeaver Beaver Castor candensis non-migratory or no data availableMuskrat Muskrat Ondata zibethica non-migratory or no data availablePorcupine Porcupine Erethizon dorsatum non-migratory or no data availableRaccoon Raccoon (exotic) Procyon lotor non-migratory or no data availableCoyote Canis latrans Jackson Hole, WY 70 80Brooks Range, AK 370Gray wolfC. lupusCanidsBathhurst region, NWT 743BearsWeaselsSwift foxBlack bearFisherVulpes veloxUrsus americanusMartes pennantiRed foxGrizzly bearMartenVulpes vulpesU. arctosM. americananon-migratory or no data availablenon-migratory or no data availablenon-migratory or no data available201

Appendix 3 (cont.).Table 3Migration Distances for Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific Name LocationRound TripMigration Distance(km)Mean LongestLong-tailed weaselMustela frenataShort-tailed weaselM. ermineaMinkM. visonWolverineGulo guloBadgerTaxidea taxusWeasels, cont'dSpotted skunkSpilogale gracilisnon-migratory or no data availableStriped skunkMephitis mephitisBlack-footed ferretMustela nigripesLeast weaselMustela nivalisRiver otterLontra canadensisCanada lynxLynx candensisFelidsBobcatLynx rufusnon-migratory or no data availableCougar, mountain lion, panther Puma or Felis concolor Sierra Nevada, CA 60Banff, AB, Canada 73 138Yellowstone, WY 70 220Olympic, WA 60Elk or wapitiCervus canadensis (elaphus?) Selway Drainage, ID 64Sun River, MT 96Absaroka Divide, WY 90Jackson Hole, WY 200 220Green River Basin, WY 168 288Salmon-Trinity Alps, CA 42 70Cheery Creek, MT 11UngulatesMissouri River Breaks, MT 12Klickkitat Basin, WA 56Great Basin, NV 141 280Mule deerOdocoileus hemionusSilver Lake, OR 60 256Piceance Basin, CO 65 220Lory State Park, CO 58Transverse Rangers, ID 52Paunsaugunt Plateau, UT 102 144Kaibab Plateau, AZ 45 116Round Valley, CA 134 192San Bernadino Mtns, CA 23Ungulates,cont'dWhite-tailed deerMoosePronghornBisonMountain goatO. virginianus or leucurisAlces alcesAntilocapra americanaBos bisonOreamnos americanusAlgonquin, ON 60Cheery Creek, MT 14 26Hiawatha Forest, MN 10Superior Forest, MN 34Old Crow, YT 246 392Lower Koyukuk, AK 84 136Upper Susitna, AK 96 186White Mountains, AK 130 204Nelchina Basin, AK 70 220North Slope, YT 194 276Tanana Flats, AK 120 280Northeast Alberta 40Mooseleuk and St. Croix,ME 14Northwest Minnesota, MN 20Northwest Minnesota, MN 12Gravelly Mountains, MT 14Tetons, WY 61 114Upper Snake River Plain, ID 89Wupatki, AZ 30Cordes Junction, AZ 30 80Mingus Mountain, AZ 26 40Saskatchewan 220Red Desert, WY 128 164Tetons, WY 434 548Yellowstone, WY 44Grand Teton, WY 70 75Henry Mountains, UT 50Mount Baker, WA 12Barometer Mountain, WA 29 29Ungulates,cont'dBighorn sheepWoodland CaribouOvis canadensisRangifer tarandus caribou(Adapted from Baker et al, 1961; Mathews 2003; Elias 2002; Berger, 2004; Montana's Official State Website)McCullough Mountains, NV 60 64River Mountains, NV 7Highland Mountains, MT 19Salmon River Moutains, ID 74 75Sheep Range, NV 32Grand Cache, AB 136 300Birch Mtn, Alberta 56 142Lake Nipigon, ON 92 160Aikens Lake, Manitoba 0202

Appendix 4.Table 4Dispersal Distances for Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific NameNatal Dispersal MaximumDistance (km)Water shrewSorex palustrisWandering or Vagrant shrewS. vagransMasked shrewS. cinereusDusky shrewS. monticolusShrews Preble's shrewS. prebleiDwarf shrewS. nanusHayden's shrewS. haydeniMerriam's shrewS. merriamiPygmy shrewS. hoyiCony or PikaOchotona princepsWhite-tailed jackrabbitLepus townsendiiLagomorphsSnowshoe hare L. americanus 20.1 male/femaleBlack-tailed jackrabbit L. californicus 45 male/femaleMountain cottontailSylvilagus nuttalliiPygmy rabbitBrachylagus idahoensisYellow-bellied marmotMarmota flaviventrisMarmots Hoary MarmotM. caligataWoodchuckM. monaxColumbian ground squirrelSpermophilus columbianusRichardson's ground squirrel S. richardsonii 0.975 male/ 0.525 femaleUinta ground squirrelS. armatusGolden-mantled ground squirrelS. lateralisIdaho ground squirrelS. brunneusSquirrelsRed tree squirrel Tamiascurus hudsonicus 0.60 male/femaleEastern gray tree squirrelSciurus griseusBlack-tailed prairie dog Cynomys ludovicianus up to 9.66Eastern fox squirrelSciurus nigerThirteen-lined ground squirrelSpermophilus tridecemlineatusWyoming ground squirrelSpermophilus elegansFlying tree squirrelGlaucomys sabrinusNorthwestern or Yellow-Pine chipmunk Tamias amoenusChipmunksLeast chipmunkT. minimusRed-tailed chipmunkT. ruficaudusUinta chipmunkT. umbrinusPocket GopherIdaho pocket gopherThomomys idahoensisNorthern pocket gopherThomomys talpoidesWestern harvest mouseReithrodontomys megalotisHouse mouse (exotic)Mus musculusDeer mousePeromyscus maniculatusWestern jumping mouseZapus princepsPennsylvania meadow voleMicrotus pennsylvanicusLong-tailed meadow mouse/voleM. longicaudusMountain meadow mouse/voleM. montanusHeather mouse/volePhenacomys intermediusMiceNorthern grasshopper mouseOnychomys leucogasterPrairie voleMicrotus ochrogasterWater voleMicrotus richardsoniWhite-footed mousePeromyscus leucopusGreat Basin pocket mousePerognathus parvusOlive-backed pocket mousePerognathus fasciatusNorthern bog lemmingSynaptomys borealisNorthern red-backed mouse/voleClethrionomys gapperiSagebrush mouse/voleLemmiscus curtatus203

Appendix 4 (cont.).Table 4Dispersal Distances for Mammals of the Northern Rocky Mountains (excluding bats)Group Common Name Scientific NameNatal Dispersal MaximumDistance (km)RatsBushy-tailed woodrat or packratNeotoma cinereaBrown or Norway ratRattus norvegicusBeaver Beaver Castor candensis 40.6 male/femaleMuskrat Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus 3.37 male/femalePorcupine Porcupine Erethizon dorsatumRaccoon Raccoon (exotic) Procyon lotor 265.5 male/femaleCoyote Canis latrans 176.0 male/232.2 femaleCanidsGray wolf C. lupus 432.0 male/79.0 femaleSwift fox Vulpes velox 11.0 male/femaleRed fox Vulpes vulpes 394.5 male/302.0 femaleBearsBlack bear Ursus americanus 225.0 male/28.8 femaleGrizzly bear U. arctos 134.0 male/82.0 femaleFisher Martes pennanti 23 male/22.6 femaleMarten M. americana 61.0 male/femaleLong-tailed weaselMustela frenataWeasels Short-tailed weasel M. erminea 5.6 male/1.0 femaleMink M. vison 45.1 male/45.0 femaleWolverine Gulo gulo 300.0 male/femaleBadger Taxidea taxus 110.0 male/52.0 femaleSpotted skunkSpilogale gracilisStriped skunk Mephitis mephitis 10.1 male/21.7 femaleWeasels,Black-footed ferretMustela nigripescont'dLeast weaselMustela nivalisRiver otter Lontra canadensis 42.0 maleCanada lynx Lynx candensis 90-616FelidsBobcat Lynx rufus 56.0 femaleCougar or mountain lion, puma, panther Puma concolor 274.0 male/155.0 femaleElk or wapiti Cervus canadensis 18.5 male/femaleMule deer Odocoileus hemionus 7.34 male/8.22 femaleWhite-tailed deer O. virginianus or leucuris 11.74 femaleMoose Alces alces 118.0 male/femaleUngulates PronghornAntilocapra americanaBisonBos bisonMountain goatOreamnos americanusBighorn sheepOvis canadensisWoodland CaribouRangifer tarandus caribou(Adapted from Baker et al, 1961; Mathews 2003; Elias 2002; Sutherland et al, 2000; Montana's Official State Website)204

Appendix 5.Studies Demonstrating the Positive Effects of ConnectivityAuthor(s) Article Title EffectBaum, K.A., K.J. Haynes, F.P. Dillemuthand J.T. CroninCoffman, C.J., J.D. Nichols and K.H.PollockCrooks, K.R. and M.E. SouleDixon, J.D., M.K. Oli, M.C. Wooten, T.H.Eason, J.W. McCown, and D. PaetkauHale, M.L., P.W.W. Lurz, M.D.F. Shirley,S. Rushton, B.M.Fuller, K. WolffHilty, J.A. and A.M. MerenlenderJames, A.R.C. and A.K. Stuart-SmithKeller, I. and C.R. LargiaderKinley, T.A. and C.D. AppsLomolino, M.V. and D.R. PeraultMech, S.G. and J.G. HallettThe matrix enhances the effectivenessof corridors and stepping stonesPopulation dynamics of Microtuspennsylvanicus in corridor-linkedpatchesMesopredator release and avifaunalextinctions in a fragmented systemEffectiveness of a regional corridor inconnecting two Florida black bearpopulationsImpact of landscape management onthe genetic structure of red squirrelpopulationsUse of riparian corridors and vineyardsby mammalian predators in northernCaliforniaDistribution of caribou and wolves inrelation to linear corridorsCorridors increased dispersal, but thedegree of increase was dependent uponthe matrixMovement increased when corridorswere constructed between fragmentedpatchesPredation changes: fragmentationintroduced a mesopredator to thehabitatCorridors facilitated genetic flowbetween subpopulations.Fragmentation led to a genetic drift inpopulations; introduction of a corridorto the landscape showed populationgenetics returning to original statePredators were much more likely totraverse the landscape using corridorsthan nearby vineyardsPredation changed due tofragmentationRecent habitat fragmentation caused bymajor roads leads to reduction of gene Decreased genetic flow betweenflow and loss of genetic variability in populations fragmented by highwaysground beetles.Mortality patterns in a subpopulation of Predation changed due toendangered mountain cariboufragmentationBody size variation of mammals in a Decreased body size due tofragmented temperate rainforest fragmentationEvaluating the effectiveness ofcorridors: a genetic approachCorridors facilitated genetic flowbetween subpopulations for habitatspecialistsStudies Demonstrating the Positive Effects of ConnectivityAuthor(s) Article Title EffectAbundance, body size and movementNeckel-Oliveira, S. and C. Gasconpatterns of a tropical tree frog in Decreased body size due tocontinuous and fragmented forests in fragmentationthe Brazilian AmazonPardini, R., S. Marques de Souza, R.Braga-Neto, J.P. MetzgerReh, W. and A. SeitzRuefenacht, B. and R.L. KnightThe role of forest structure, fragmentsize and corridors in maintaining small Decreased species' abundance due tomammal abundance and diversity in an fragmentationAtlantic forest landscapeThe influence of land use on the geneticDecreased genetic flow betweenstructure of populations of the commonpopulations fragmented by highwaysfrog Rana temporariaInfluences of corridor continuity andwidth on survival and movement ofdeer miceChoice of corridor travel was based onvegetation rather than corridor width orcontinuity205

Appendix 5 (cont.).Studies Demonstrating the Positive Effects of FragmentationAuthor(s) Article Title EffectBelisle, M. and C.C. St. ClairCumulative effects of barriers on the Fragmentation facilitated themovements of forest birdsmovement of red-breasted nuthatchesSeparating ecological effects of habitatCaley, M.J., K.A. Buckley and B.P.Abundance of trapezid crabs increasedfragmentation degradation and loss onJonesin response to habitat fragmentationcorral commensalsCollins, R.J. and G.W. BarrettMcGarigal, K. and W.C. McCombNeckel-Oliveira, S. and C. GasconTrzcinski, M.K., L.Fahrig and G.MerriamWolff, J.O., W.M. Schuaber and W.D.EdgeEffects of habitat fragmentation onmeadow vole (Microtuspennsylvanicus ) population dynamicsin experiment landscape patchesRelationships between landscapestructure and breeding birds in theOregon coast rangeAbundance, body size and movementpatterns of a tropical tree frog incontinuous and fragmented forests inthe Brazilian AmazonIndependent effects of forest cover andfragmentation on the distribution offorest breeding birdsEffects of habitat loss andfragmentation on the behavior anddemography of gray-tailed volesFemale vole numbers were higher infragmented landscapes than incontinuous landscapesAbundance of birds was higher infragmented landscapes than incontinuous landscapesIncreased movement and increasedinterbreeding occurred betweenfragmented subpopulationsHabitat fragmentation's effects variedby bird species with 2 species showingincreased abundance with increasedhabitat fragmentationGray-tailed vole populations increasedfollowing fragmentation of their habitat206

Appendix 6Acronyms used in the Priority Linkage AssessmentAWL: American WildlandsBMW: Bob Marshall WildernessGYE: Greater Yellowstone EcosystemMDOT: Montana Department of TransportationMFWP: Montana Fish, Wildlife and ParksNCDE: Northern Continental Divide EcosystemNF: National ForestNP: National ParkPLA: Priority Linkage AssessmentRMF: Rocky Mountain FrontUSFS: United States Forest ServiceUSFWS: United States Fish and Wildlife ServiceWMA: Wildlife Management AreaYNP: Yellowstone National Park207

American Wildlands ~ Winter 2008