Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and Vegetables, Second ...

This page intentionally left blank

Controlled Atmosphere Storage ofFruits and Vegetables, Second EditionA. Keith Thompson

CABI is a trading name of CAB InternationalCABI Head OfficeCABI North American OfficeNosworthy Way875 Massachusetts AvenueWallingford7th FloorOxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139UKUSATel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875E-mail: cabi@cabi.orgE-mail: cabi-nao@cabi.orgWebsite: www.cabi.org© CAB International 2010. All rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically,mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, withoutthe prior permission of the copyright owners.A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,London, UK.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataThompson, A. K. (A. Keith)Controlled atmosphere storage of fruits and vegetables / A. Keith Thompson. – 2nd ed.p. cm.First ed. published 1998.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-1-84593-646-4 (alk. paper)1. Fruit–Storage. 2. Vegetables–Storage. 3. Protective atmospheres. I. Title.SB360.5.T48 2010635’.0468–dc222010007890ISBN: 978 1 84593 646 4Commissioning editor: Meredith CarrollProduction editor: Shankari WilfordTypeset by AMA Dataset, Preston, UK.Printed and bound in the UK by MPG Books Group.

ToElara, Maya, Ciaran, Caitlin and Cameron,to whom I owe much more than they will ever know

This page intentionally left blank

ContentsAbout the AuthorPrefaceAcknowledgementsxiixiiixv1 Introduction 1CA Storage History 12 Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 11Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen Damage 13High Oxygen Storage 17Carbon Dioxide Shock Treatment 18Total Nitrogen or High Nitrogen Storage 19Ethylene 20Carbon Monoxide 22Temperature 22Humidity 22Delayed CA Storage 23Interrupted CA Storage 23Residual Effects of CA Storage 243 CA Technology 26Temperature Control 28Humidity Control 29Gas Control Equipment 30Oxygen Control 31Carbon Dioxide Control 31Generating Equipment 35Static CA 35Dynamic CA 35Membrane Systems 37Sealed Plastic Tents 37vii

viiiContentsFruit Ripening 38Hypobaric Storage 38Hyperbaric Storage 40Modelling 41Safety 414 Harvest and Preharvest Factors 43Fertilizers 43Temperature 44Water Relations 44Harvest Maturity 445 Pre-storage Treatments 46High Temperature 46N-dimethylaminosuccinamic Acid 471-Methylcyclopropene 47Aminoethoxyvinylglycine 586 Flavour, Quality and Physiology 60Flavour 60Off-flavours 61Volatile Compounds 62Acidity 63Nutrition 64Respiration Rate 687 Pests and Diseases 71Physiological Disorders 71Diseases 76Bacteria 78Insects 788 Modified Atmosphere Packaging 81Film Types 82Film Permeability 82Gas Flushing 83Quantity of Product 84Perforation 84Adjustable Diffusion Leak 84Absorbents 86Humidity 87Temperature 88Chilling Injury 88Shrink-wrapping 88Vacuum Packing 88Modified Interactive Packaging 89Minimal Processing 90Equilibrium Modified Atmosphere Packaging 91Modelling 91Some MA Packaging Recommendations 93Safety 113

Contents ix9 Recommended CA Storage Conditions for Selected Crops 116Apple 116Apricot 137Apricot, Japanese 138Artichoke, Globe 139Artichoke, Jerusalem 139Asian Pear, Nashi 139Asparagus 140Aubergine, Eggplant 140Avocado 140Banana 142Bayberry, Chinese Bayberry 144Beans: Runner Bean, Green Bean, French Bean, Kidney Bean, Snap Bean 144Beet 144Blackberry 144Blackcurrant 145Blueberry, Bilberry, Whortleberry 145Breadfruit 146Broccoli, Sprouting Broccoli 146Brussels Sprout 148Butter Bean, Lima Bean 148Cabbage 148Cactus Pear, Prickly Pear, Tuna 150Capsicum, Sweet Pepper, Bell Pepper 150Carambola, Star Fruit 150Carrot 150Cassava, Tapioca, Manioc, Yuca 151Cauliflower 151Celeriac, Turnip-Rooted Celery 152Celery 152Cherimoya 153Cherry, Sour Cherry 153Cherry, Sweet Cherry 153Chestnut, Chinese Chestnut 155Chestnut, Sweet Chestnut, Spanish Chestnut, Portuguese Chestnut,European Chestnut 155Chicory, Endive, Belgian Endive, Escarole, Witloof Chicory 155Chilli, Chilli Pepper, Hot Pepper, Cherry Pepper 156Chinese Cabbage 156Citrus Hybrids 157Cranberry 157Cucumber 157Durian 158Feijoa 158Fig 158Garlic 159Gooseberry 159Grain Storage 159Grape 160Grapefruit, Pummelo 160Guava 161Horseradish 161

xContentsJujube 161Kiwifruit, Chinese Gooseberry, Yang Tao 161Kohlrabi 162Lanzones, Langsat 163Leek 163Lemon 163Lettuce 163Lime 163Litchi, Lychee 164Mamey 164Mandarin, Satsuma 164Mango 165Mangosteen 168Melon 168Melon, Bitter 168Mushroom 169Mushroom, Cardoncello 169Mushroom, Oyster 169Mushroom, Shiitake 169Natsudaidai 169Nectarine 170Okra, Lady’s Fingers 171Olive 171Onion 171Orange 173Papaya, Pawpaw 173Passionfruit 174Pea, Garden Pea, Mange Tout, Snow Pea, Sugar Pea 175Peach 175Pear 176Pepino 178Persimmon, Sharon Fruit, Kaki 178Pineapple 178Plantain 179Plum 180Pomegranate 181Potato 181Quince 183Radish 183Rambutan 184Raspberry 184Redcurrant 184Roseapple, Pomerac, Otaheite Apple 185Salsify 185Sapodilla 185Soursop 185Spinach 186Spring Onion, Escallion, Green Onion 186Squash 186Strawberry 187Swede, Rutabaga 188Sweetcorn, Babycorn 188

Contents xiSweet Potato 189Sweetsop, Sugar Apple 189Tomato 189Turnip 191Turnip-rooted Parsley 191Watermelon 191Yam 19110 Transport 192CA Transport Technology 193Cronos CA Containers 195CA Transport Trials 198Hypobaric Containers 200Ozone 201MA Packaging 201Glossary 202Atmosphere Measurement and Control 202Controlled Atmosphere 203MA Films 204Modified Atmosphere Packaging 208References 210Index 259

About the AuthorA. Keith Thompson formerly: Professor ofPlant Science, University of Asmara, Eritrea;Professor of Postharvest Technology, CranfieldUniversity, UK; team leader, EU projectat the Windward Islands Banana Developmentand Exporting Company; PrincipalScientific Officer, Tropical Products Institute,London; team leader and expert for the UNFood and Agriculture Organization in theSudan and Korea; advisor to the Colombiangovernment in postharvest technology of fruitand vegetables; Research Fellow in Crop Science,University of the West Indies, Trinidad.xii

PrefaceOver the last 80 years or so, an enormous volume of literature has been published on the subjectof controlled atmosphere storage of fruits and vegetables. It would be the work of a lifetimeto begin to do those results justice in presenting a comprehensive and focused view,interpretation and digest for its application in commercial practice. Such a review is in demandto enable those engaged in the commerce of fruits and vegetables to be able to utilize this technologyand reap its benefits in terms of the reduction of postharvest losses, and maintenanceof their nutritive value and organoleptic characteristics. The potential use of controlled atmospherestorage as an alternative to the application of preservation and pesticide chemicals is ofcontinuing interest.In order to facilitate the task of reviewing the literature, I have had to rely on a combinationof reviewing original publications and consulting reviews and learned books. The latterare not always entirely satisfactory since they may not give their source of information and Imay have inadvertently quoted the same work more than once. Much reliance has been madeon conference proceedings, especially the International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference,held every few years in the USA; the European Co-operation in the Field of Scientificand Technical Research (COST 94), which held postharvest meetings throughout Europebetween 1992 and 1995; and the International Society for Horticultural Science’s regular internationalconferences; and, in particular, on CAB Abstracts.Different views exist on the usefulness of controlled atmosphere storage. Blythman (1996)described controlled atmosphere storage as a system that ‘amounts to deception’ from the consumer’spoint of view. The reason behind this assertion seems to be that the consumer thinks thatthe fruits and vegetables that they purchase are fresh and that controlled atmosphere storagetechnology ‘bestows a counterfeit freshness’. Also the consumer claims that storage may changeproduce in a detrimental way and cites changes in texture of apples, ‘potatoes that seem wateryand fall apart when cooked and bananas that have no flavour’. Some of these contentions are trueand need addressing, but others are oversimplifications of the facts. Another view was expressedby David Sainsbury in 1995 and reported in the press as: ‘These techniques [controlled atmospherestorage] could halve the cost of fruit to the customer. It also extends the season of availability,making good eating-quality fruit available for extended periods at reasonable costs’.The purpose of this book is primarily to help the fresh produce industry in storage andtransport of fruit and vegetables, but it provides an easily accessible reference source for thosexiii

xivPrefacestudying agriculture, horticulture, food science and technology, and food marketing. It willalso be useful to researchers in this area, giving an overview of our present knowledge of controlledatmosphere storage, which will indicate areas where there is a need for furtherresearch.Some criticisms can be made of the approach to controlled atmosphere storage and modifiedatmosphere packaging used in this book. Perhaps more interpretation or criticisms of thedata in the literature should be made. The approach used in this book comes from my experience,starting in the 1970s on a 2-year assignment in the Sudan, 1 year in Korea and 2 years inColombia. In all these three countries advice had to be given on postharvest aspects of a widerange of fruit and vegetables, most of which I had no first-hand experience of. Therefore I hadto rely on the literature as a basis for that advice to farmers and those in the marketing chain.Conflicting information in the literature led me to the approach of accumulating as much informationas possible, then giving advice based on the market situation and my own experience.So the objective of this book is to provide as much background information to provide a basisfor informed decisions. Textbooks such as this are primarily used for reference and this structureadmirably suits this use. There are controlled atmosphere storage recommendations forcrops that perhaps would never be stored, and in some cases these are relevant to basic data onmarket situations related to modified atmosphere packaging.

AcknowledgementsDr Graeme Hobson for an excellent review and correction of the first edition. Dr John Stow,Dr Alex van Schaik, Dr John Faragher, Dr Errol Reid and David Johnson for useful referencesadvice and comments on parts of the manuscript. David Bishop, Allan Hilton, Dr R.O. Sharples,Dr Nettra Somboonkaew and Dr Devon Zagory for photographs and tables, and especiallyTim Bach of Cronos for permission to include photographs and text from their controlledatmosphere container manual. Pam Cooke and Lou Ellis for help in typing the first edition.xv

This page intentionally left blank

1IntroductionThe maintenance or improvement of the postharvestquality and the postharvest life of freshfruits and vegetables is becoming increasinglyimportant. This has been partly as a responseto a free-market situation where the supply ofgood-quality fruits and vegetables constantlyexceeds demand. Therefore to maintain orincrease market share there is increasingemphasis on quality. Also consumer expectationin the supply of all types of fresh fruitsand vegetables throughout the year is oftentaken for granted. This latter expectation ispartly supplied by long-term storage of manycrops but also by long-distance transport. Withgrowing awareness and concern for climatechange, long-distance transport of fruit andvegetables is being questioned.Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage hasbeen shown to be a technology that can contributeto these consumer requirements, inthat, in certain circumstances, with certainvarieties of crop and appropriate treatment,the marketable life can be greatly extended.An enormous amount of interest and researchhas been reported on CA storage and modifiedatmosphere (MA) packaging of fruit andvegetables to prolong their availability andretain their quality for longer. For examplethe Tenth Controlled and Modified AtmosphereResearch Conference in Antalya, Turkeyin April 2009 had over 500 participantsfrom 72 countries. Saltveit (2003) stated:. . . the natural variability in the raw materialand its dynamic response to processing andstorage conditions may render it impossible toidentify a truly optimal storage atmosphere.Additional refinements in recommendationsfor the CA and MA storage of fruits andvegetables will continue to accrue throughempirical observations derived fromtraditional experiments in which the sixcomponents of the storage environment (i.e.duration, temperature, relative humidity, O 2,CO 2and ethylene levels) are varied inwell-defined steps.This book seeks to evaluate the historyand current technology reported and used inCA storage and MA packaging and its applicabilityand restrictions for use in a variety ofcrops in different situations. While it is notexhaustive in reviewing the enormous quantityof science and technology which has beendeveloped and published on the subject, itwill provide an access into CA and MA forthose applying the technology in commercialsituations. The book can also be used as a basisfor determination of researchable issues in thewhole area of CA storage and MA packaging.CA Storage HistoryThe scientific basis for the application of CAtechnology to the storage of fresh fruit and© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits andVegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson) 1

2 Chapter 1vegetables has been the subject of considerableresearch, which seems to be progressivelyincreasing. Some of the science onwhich it is based has been known for over200 years, but was refined and applied commerciallyfor the first time in the first half ofthe 20th century.Early knowledge of the effectsof gases on cropsThe effects of gases on harvested crops havebeen known for centuries. In eastern countries,fruits were taken to temples where incense wasburned to improve ripening. Bishop (1996)indicated that there was evidence that Egyptiansand Samarians used sealed limestonecrypts for crop storage in the 2nd century bc.He also quotes from the Bible, questioningwhether the technology might have been usedin Old Testament Egypt during the sevenplagues wrought by God in order to facilitatethe release of the children of Israel. Dilley (1990)mentioned the storage of fresh fruit and vegetablesin tombs and crypts. This was combinedwith the gas-tight construction of the innervault so that the fruit and vegetables wouldconsume the oxygen (O 2) and thus help topreserve the corpse. An interpretation of thispractice would indicate that knowledge of theres piration of fruit pre-dates the work describedin the 19th century (Dalrymple, 1967). Wang(1990) quotes a Tang dynasty 8th century poemthat described how litchis were shown to keepbetter during long-distance transport whenthey were sealed in the hollow centres of bamboostems with some fresh leaves. Burying fruitand vegetables in the ground to preserve themis a centuries-old practice (Dilley, 1990). In Britaincrops were stored in pits, which wouldhave restricted ventilation and may haveimproved their storage life.Currently CA research and commercialCA storage is used in many countries, andsome background on this is given as follows.FranceThe earliest-documented scientific study ofCA storage was by Jacques Etienne Berard atthe University of Montpellier in 1819 (Berard,1821). He found that harvested fruit absorbedO 2and gave out carbon dioxide (CO 2). Healso showed that fruit stored in atmospherescontaining no O 2did not ripen, but if theywere held for only a short period and thenplaced in air they continued to ripen. Theseexperiments showed that storage in zero O 2gave a life of about 1 month for peaches,prunes and apricots and about 3 months forapples and pears. Zero O 2was achieved byplacing a paste composed of water, lime andiron sulfate (FeSO 4) in a sealed jar, which, asDalrymple (1967) pointed out, would alsohave absorbed CO 2. Considerable CA researchhas been carried out over the interveningperiod in France; however, Bishop (1996)reported that it was not until 1962 that commercialCA storage started in France.USAIn 1856 Benjamin Nyce built a commercialcold store in Cleveland, USA, using ice tokeep it below 1 °C (34 °F). In the 1860s heexperimented with modifying the CO 2andO 2in the store by making it airtight. This wasachieved by lining the store with casingsmade from iron sheets, thickly painting theedges of the metal and having tightly fitteddoors. It was claimed that 4000 bushels ofapples (a bushel is a volumetric measurewhere 1 US bushel = 2150.42 cubic inches =35.24 l; 1 imperial bushel = 2219.36 cubicinches = 36.37 l) were kept in good conditionin the store for 11 months. However, he mentionedthat some fruit were injured in a waythat Dalrymple (1967) interpreted as possiblybeing CO 2injury. The carbonic acid level wasso high in the store (or the O 2level was solow) that a flame would not burn. He alsoused calcium chloride to control the moisturelevel in the mistaken belief that low humiditywas necessary.Dalrymple (1967) stated that R.W. Thatcherand N.O. Booth, working in WashingtonState University around 1903, studied fruitstorage in several different gases. They foundthat ‘the apples which had been in CO 2werefirm of flesh, possessed the characteristic

Introduction 3apple color, although the gas in the jar had aslight odor of fermented apple juice, and werenot noticeably injured in flavor’. The applesstored in hydrogen (H 2), nitrogen (N 2), O 2andsulfur dioxide (SO 2) did not fare so well. Theysubsequently studied the effects of CO 2onraspberries, blackberries and loganberries and‘found that berries which softened in threedays in air would remain firm for from 7 to10 days in carbon dioxid [sic]’.Fulton (1907) observed that fruit couldbe damaged where large amounts of CO 2were present in the store, but strawberrieswere ‘damaged little, if any . . . by the presenceof a small amount of CO 2in the air of thestorage room’. Thatcher (1915) published apaper in which he described work in whichhe experimented with apples sealed in boxescontaining different levels of gases, and concludedthat CO 2greatly inhibited ripening.G.R. Hill Jr reported work carried out atCornell University in 1913, in which the firmnessof peaches had been retained by storagein inert gases or CO 2(Hill, 1913). He alsoobserved that the respiration rate of the fruitwas reduced and did not return to normal fora few days after storage in a CO 2atmosphere.C. Brooks and J.S. Cooley working for the USDepartment of Agriculture stored apples insealed containers in which the air was replacedthree times each week with air plus 5% CO 2.After 5 weeks’ storage they noted that thefruits were green, firm and crisp, but were alsoslightly alcoholic and had ‘a rigor or an inactivecondition from which they do not entirelyrecover’ (Brooks and Cooley, 1917). J.R. Magnessand H.C. Diehl described a relationshipbetween apple softening and CO 2concentration,in that an atmosphere containing 5% CO 2slowed the rate of softening, with a greatereffect at higher concentrations, but at 20% CO 2the flavour was impaired (Magness and Diehl,1924). Work on CA storage which had beencarried out at the University of California atDavis was reported by Overholser (1928). Thiswork included a general review and some preliminaryresults on Fuerte avocados. In 1930Overholser left the university and was replacedby F.W. Allen, who had been working on storageand transport of fresh fruits in artificialatmospheres. Allen began work on CA storageof Yellow Newtown apples. Yellow Newtown,like Cox’s Orange Pippin and Bramley’s Seedlinggrown in the UK, was subject to low temperatureinjury even at temperatures higherthan 0 °C. These experiments (Allen andMc Kinnon, 1935) led to a successful commercialtrial on Yellow Newtown apples in 1933 atthe National Ice and Cold Storage Company inWatsonville. Thornton (1930) carried out trialswhere the concentration of CO 2tolerated byselected fruit, vegetables and flowers wasexamined at six temperatures over the rangefrom 0 to 25 °C (32 to 77 °F). To illustrate thecommercial importance of this type of experiment,the project was financed by the Dry IceCorporation of America.From 1935 Robert M. Smock worked inthe University of California at Davis on apples,pears, plums and peaches (Allen and Smock,1938). In 1936 and 1937, F.W. Allen spent sometime with Franklin Kidd and Cyril West at theDitton laboratory in the UK and then continuedhis work at Davis, while in 1937 Smockmoved to Cornell University. Smock and hisPhD student Archie Van Doren conducted CAstorage research on apples, pears and stonefruit (Smock, 1938; Smock and Van Doren,1938, 1939). New England farmers in the USAwere growing a number of apple varieties,particularly McIntosh. McIntosh is subject tochilling injury and cannot be stored at orbelow 0 °C (32 °F). It was thought that if therespiration rate could be slowed, storage lifecould be extended, lengthening the marketingperiod, and CA storage was investigated toaddress this problem (Smock and Van Doren,1938). Sharples (1989a) credited Smock withthe ‘birth of CA storage technology to NorthAmerica’. In fact it was apparently Smockwho coined the term ‘controlled atmospherestorage’, as he felt it better described the technologythan the term ‘gas storage’, which wasused previously by Kidd and West. In theCornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin,Smock and Van Doren (1941) stated:There are a number of objections to the use ofthe term gas storage as the procedure is calledby the English. The term controlled atmospherehas been substituted since control of thevarious constituents on the atmosphere is thepredominant feature of this technique. Asubstitute term or synonym is modifiedatmosphere.

4 Chapter 1The term controlled atmosphere storagewas not adopted in Britain until 1960 (Fidleret al., 1973). Smock also spent time with Kiddand West at the Ditton laboratory. The CAstorage work at Cornell included strawberriesand cherries (Van Doren et al., 1941). Adetailed report of the findings of the Cornellgroup was presented in a comprehensive bulletin(Smock and Van Doren, 1941), whichgave the results of research on atmospheres,temperatures and varietal responses of fruit,as well as store construction and operation. Inaddition to the research efforts in Davis andCornell, several other groups in the USA werealso carrying out research into CA storage.CA storage research on a variety of fruits andvegetables was described by Miller andBrooks (1932) and Miller and Dowd (1936).Work on apples was described by Fisher(1939) and Anon. (1941), work on citrus fruitby Stahl and Cain (1937) and Samisch (1937),and work on cranberries by Anon. (1941).Smock’s work in New York State Universitywas facilitated in 1953 with the completion oflarge new storage facilities designed specificallyto accommodate studies on CA storage.Commercial CA storage of apples in theUSA began in New York State with McIntosh.The first three CA rooms with a total capacityof 24,000 bushels were put into operation in1940, with Smock and Van Doren acting asconsultants. This had been increased to100,000 bushels by 1949, but the real expansionin the USA began in the early 1950s. Inaddition to a pronounced growth in commercialoperations in New York State, CA storeswere constructed in New England in 1951, inMichigan and New Jersey in 1956, in Washington,California and Oregon in 1958, and inVirginia in 1959 (Dalrymple, 1967). A CA storefor Red Delicious was set up in Washingtonstate in the late 1950s in a Mylar tent, wheresome 1000 bushels were stored with goodresults. By the 1955/1956 season the total CAstorage holdings had grown to about 814,000bushels, some 684,000 bushels in New Yorkstate and the rest in New England. In thespring of that year Dalrymple did a study ofthe industry in New York state and foundthat, typically, CA stores were owned by largeand successful fruit farmers (Dalrymple,1967). The average total CA storage holdingsper farm were large, averaging 31,200 bushelsand ranging from 7500 to 65,000 bushels. Anaverage storage room held some 10,800 bushels.A little over three-quarters of the capacityrepresented new construction while the otherquarter was remodelled from refrigeratedstores. About 68% of the capacity was rentedout to other farmers or speculators. In 2004 itwas reported that some 75% of cold stores inUSA had CA facilities (DGCL, 2004).UKSharples (1989a), in his review in ClassicalPapers in Horticultural Science, stated that‘[Franklin] Kidd and [Cyril] West can bedescribed as the founders of modern CA storage’.Sharples described the background totheir work and how it came about. Dalrymple(1967), in reviewing early work on the effectsof gases on postharvest fruit and vegetablesstated: ‘The real start of CA storage had toawait the later work of two British scientists[Kidd and West], who started from quite adifferent vantage point’.During the First World War concern wasexpressed by the British government aboutfood shortages. It was decided that one of themethods of addressing the problem should bethrough research, and the Food InvestigationOrganisation was formed at Cambridge in1917 under the direction of W.B. Hardy, whowas later to be knighted and awarded the fellowshipof the Royal Society (Sharples, 1989a).In 1918 the work being carried out at Cambridgewas described as:a study of the normal physiology, at lowtemperatures, of those parts of plants whichare used as food. The influence of thesurrounding atmosphere, of its content of O 2,CO 2and water vapour was the obvious pointto begin at, and such work has been taken upby Dr. F. Kidd. The composition of the air infruit stores has been suspected of being ofimportance and this calls for thoroughelucidation. Interesting results in stoppingsprouting of potatoes have been obtained,and a number of data with various fruitsproving the importance of the composition ofthe air.(Anon., 1919)

Introduction 5One problem that was identified by theFood Investigation Organisation was the highlevels of wastage which occurred during thestorage of apples. Kidd and West were workingat that time at the Botany School in theUniversity of Cambridge on the effects onseeds of CO 2levels in the atmosphere (Kiddand West, 1917), and Kidd was also workingon the effects of CO 2and O 2on sprouting ofpotatoes (Kidd, 1919). Kidd and West transferredto the Low Temperature Laboratory forResearch in Biochemistry and Biophysics(later called the Low Temperature ResearchStation) at Cambridge in 1918 and conductedexperiments on what they termed ‘gas storage’of apples (Sharples, 1986). By 1920 theywere able to set up semi-commercial trials ata farm at Histon in Cambridgeshire to testtheir laboratory findings in small-scale commercialpractice. In 1929 a commercial gasstore for apples was built by a grower nearCanterbury in Kent. From this work theypublished a series of papers on variousaspects of storage of apples in mixtures ofCO 2, O 2and N 2. The publications includedKidd and West, 1925, 1934, 1935a,b 1938, 1939and 1949. They also worked on pears, plumsand soft fruit (Kidd and West, 1930). In 1927Kidd toured Australia, Canada, the USA,South Africa and New Zealand, discussinggas storage. By 1938 there were over 200 commercialgas stores for apples in the UK.The Food Investigation Organisation wassubsequently renamed. ‘The first step towardsthe formation of the [Food Investigation]Board was taken by the Council of the ColdStorage and Ice Association’ (Anon., 1919).The committee given the task of setting up theFood Investigation Board consisted of Mr W.B.Hardy, Professor F.G. Hopkins, Professor J.B.Farmer FRS and Professor W.M. Bayliss ‘toprepare a memorandum surveying the field ofresearch in connection with cold storage’. Theestablishment of a ‘Cold Storage ResearchBoard’ was approved. Since the title did notdescribe fully the many agents used in foodpreservation, it was renamed the Food InvestigationBoard with the following term of reference:‘To organise and control research intothe preparation and preservation of food’.Work carried out by the Food In vestigationBoard at Cambridge underDr F.F. Blackman FRS consisted of experimentson CA storage of strawberries at varioustemperatures by Kidd and West at theBotany School (Anon., 1920). Results weresummarized as follows:Strawberries picked ripe may be held in coldstore (temperature 1 °C to 2 °C) in a goodmarketable condition for six to seven days.Unripe strawberries do not ripen normally incold storage; neither do they ripen whentransferred to normal temperatures after aperiod of cold storage. The employment ofcertain artificial atmospheres in the storagechambers has been found to extend thestorage life of strawberries. For example,strawberries when picked ripe can be kept inexcellent condition for the market for three tofour weeks at 1 °C to 2 °C if maintained:1. in atmospheres of O 2, soda limebeing used to absorb the CO 2given off inrespiration;2. in atmospheres containing reducedamounts of O 2and moderate amounts of CO 2obtained by keeping the berries in a closedvessel fitted with an adjustable diffusion leak.Under both these conditions of storage thegrowth of parasitic and saprophytic fungi ismarkedly inhibited, but in each case thecalyces of the berries lose their green aftertwo weeks.CA storage at low temperature of plums,apples and pears was described as ‘has beencontinuing’ by Anon. (1920), with large-scalegas storage tests on apples and pears. It wasreported that storage of plums in total N 2almostcompletely inhibited ripening. Plums can tolerate,for a considerable period, an almost completeabsence of O 2without being killed ordeveloping an alcoholic or unpleasant flavour.Anon. (1920) describes work by Kiddand West at the John Street store of the Port ofLondon Authority on Worcester Pearmainand Bramley’s Seedling apples at 1 °C and85% relative humidity (rh), 3 °C and 85% rhand 5 °C and approximately 60% rh. SterlingCastle apples were stored in about 14% CO 2and 8% O 2from 17 September 1919 to 12 May1920. Ten per cent of the fruit were consideredunmarketable at the end of November for thecontrols, whereas the gas-stored fruit hadthe same level of wastage 3 months later (bythe end of February). The Covent Garden

6 Chapter 1laboratory was set up as part of the EmpireMarketing Board in 1925. It was situated inLondon, close to the wholesale fruit market,with R.G. Tomkins as superintendent. Anon.(1958) describes some of their work onpineapples and bananas, as well as prepackagingwork on tomatoes, grapes, carrotsand rhubarb.Besides defining the appropriate gasmixture required to extend the storage life ofselected apple cultivars, Kidd and West wereable to demonstrate an interaction. Theyshowed that the effects of the gases in extendingstorage life varied with temperature, inthat at 10 °C gas storage increased the storagelife of fruit by 1.5–1.9 times longer than thosestored in air, while at 15 °C the storage lifewas the same in both gas storage or in air.They also showed that apples were moresusceptible to low-temperature breakdownwhen stored in controlled atmospheres thanin air (Kidd and West, 1927a).In 1929 the Ditton laboratory (Fig. 1.1)was established by the Empire MarketingBoard, close to the East Malling Research Stationin Kent, with J.K. Hardy as superintendent.At that time it was an outstation of theLow Temperature Research Station at Cambridge.The research facilities were comprehensiveand novel, with part of the stationdesigned to simulate the refrigerated holds ofships in order to carry out experiments on seafreight transport of fruit. Cyril West wasappointed superintendent of the Ditton laboratoryin 1931. West retired in 1948 and R.G.Tomkins was appointed superintendent (laterthe title was changed to director) until hisretirement in 1969. At that time the Dittonlaboratory was incorporated into the EastMalling Research Station as the fruit storagesection (later the storage department), withJ.C. Fidler as head. When the Low TemperatureResearch Station had to move out of itsDowning Street laboratories in Cambridge inthe mid-1960s, part of it was used to form theFood Research Institute in Norwich. Subsequentlyit was reorganized in November 1986as the Institute of Food Research. Most of thestaff of the Ditton laboratory were transferredelsewhere, mainly to the new Food ResearchInstitute. The UK government’s AgriculturalResearch Council had decided in the mid- tolate 1960s that it should reorganize its researchinstitutes on a crop basis, rather than byFig. 1.1. The Ditton laboratory at East Malling in Kent. The photograph was taken in June 1996after the controlled atmosphere storage work had been transferred to the adjacent HorticultureResearch International.

Introduction 7discipline. For example, Dr W.G. Burton, whoworked on postharvest and CA storage ofpotatoes at the Low Temperature ResearchStation at Cambridge and subsequently at theDitton laboratory, was appointed deputydirector at the Food Research Institute. Someof the Ditton laboratory staff thought thisgovernment action was just a ploy to dismemberthe laboratory as it had got out ofcontrol. Apparently at one time visitors fromAgricultural Research Council’s headquarterswere not met off the train nor offered refreshment(John Stow, personal communication).B.G. Wilkinson, R.O. Sharples and D.S.Johnson were subsequent successors to thepost of head of the storage department at EastMalling Research Station. The laboratory continuedto function as a centre for CA storageresearch until 1992, when new facilities wereconstructed in the adjacent East MallingResearch Station, and the research activitieswere transferred to the Jim Mount Building. In1990 East Malling Research Station had becomepart of Horticulture Research International,and subsequently it became ‘privatized’ toEast Malling Research. In an interview on24 July 2009, D.S. Johnson indicated that theteam of scientists and engineers he joined atEast Malling in 1972 ‘has come down to me’,and he was about to retire (Abbott, 2009).Although Kidd and West collaboratedon 46 papers during their lifetimes, theyrarely met outside the laboratory. Kidd wasan avid walker, a naturalist, gardener andbeekeeper. He also wrote poetry and painted.West was interested in systematic botany andwas honoured for his contribution to thatfield (Kupferman, 1989). West retained anoffice in the Ditton laboratory until the 1970s,from which he continued to pursue his interestsin systematic botany (John Stow, personalcommunication).AustraliaIn 1926 G.B. Tindale was appointed by thestate of Victoria to carry out research in postharvestof fruit. He collaborated with Kiddduring his visit there in 1927. The Council forScientific and Industrial Research Organizationwas formed about the same time, andF.E. Huelin and S. Trout from the CSIROworked with Tindale on gas storage of applesand pears. For example, in one study in 1940they used 5% CO 2+ 16% O 2for storage ofJonathan apples by controlled ventilationwith air and no CO 2scrubbing. Huelin andTindale (1947) reported on gas storage researchof apples, and CA work was subsequentlystarted on bananas (McGlasson and Wills,1972), but the work was not applied commerciallyuntil the early 1990s. In Australia mostcommercial fruit storage until 1968 was in air,and in 1972 CA generators were introduced.So the reality was that commercial CA storagewas probably not used before 1968 and presumablynot to any significant extent untilafter 1972. It seems the real problem of introducingCA storage technology was that theold cold stores were leaky (Little et al., 2000;John Faragher, personal communication) andtherefore not easily adapted to CA.CanadaHoehn et al. (2009) reported that Charles Eavesworked on fruit and vegetable storage in NovaScotia and initiated the construction of thefirst commercial CA store in Canada in 1939 atPort Williams in Nova Scotia. Eaves was bornin England but studied and worked in NovaScotia and then spent a year in England withKidd and West at the Low TemperatureResearch Station in Cambridge in 1932–1933.On returning to Canada he was active in theintroduction of CA technology (Eaves, 1934).The use of hydrated lime for removing CO 2inCA stores was also first developed by him inthe 1940s. He was involved, with others, in thedevelopment of a propane burner to reducerapidly the O 2concentration in CA stores. Heretired in 1972. CA is important in Canada,especially for apples, and in November 2009there were 398,324 t of apples in CA storage,157,334 t in refrigerated storage and 8 t incommon storage (Anon., 2010).China and South-east AsiaIt was reported that, in 1986, the first CA storewas established in Yingchengzi in China, to

8 Chapter 1contain some 1000 t of fruit (DGCL, 2004). InThailand some CA research is currently carriedout at Kasetsart in Bangkok, most of it onrambutan, but there is no commercial CAstorage (Ratiporn Haruenkit, personal communication).In the Philippines CA transporttrials by the Central Luzon State Universitywere reported for mango exports by AngelitoT. Carpio, Freshplaza, 12 September 2005, butresults were not published.NetherlandsA considerable amount of CA research wascarried out by the Sprenger Institute, whichwas part of the Ministry of Agriculture andFisheries, and eventually was incorporatedwithin Wageningen University. Although theeffects of CA on flowers dates back to work inthe USA in the late 1920s (Thornton, 1930),much of the research that has been appliedcommercially was done by the Sprenger Institute,which started in the mid-1950s (Staden,1986). From 1955 to 1960 research was carriedout at the Sprenger Institute on ‘normal’ CAstorage of apples, which meant that only theCO 2concentration was measured and regulated.Also at this time the first commercialCA stores were developed and used withgood results. From 1960 both O 2and CO 2were measured and controlled, and severaltypes of CO 2scrubbers were tested, includingthose using lime, molecular sieves, sodiumhydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide(KOH). For practical situations lime scrubberswere mainly used and gave good results.From 1967 to 1975 active carbon scrubberswere used, which gave the opportunity todevelop central scrubber systems for multiplerooms. From 1975 to 1980 the first pull-downequipment was used in practice, mainly usingthe system of ammonia cracking called ‘Oxydrain’,which produced N 2and H 2gases. TheN 2gas was used to displace storage air tolower O 2levels. At this time most apple varietieswere stored in 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2. From1980 to 1990 an enormous development in CAstorage occurred, with much attention on lowO 2storage (1.2%), sometimes in combinationwith low CO 2. In this system the quality ofthe stored apples improved significantly(Schouten, 1997). There was also improvementin active CO 2scrubbers; gas-tight rooms;much better pull-down systems for O 2,in cluding membrane systems; pressure-swingadsorption; and centralized measurementand controlling systems for CO 2and O 2. From1990 to 2000 there was further improvementof the different systems and the measurementof defrosting water. During 2000 to 2009 therewas further development of the dynamiccontrol system, using the measurement ofethanol as the control method for the O 2concentration. This enables the level to belowered sometimes down to 0.4% in commercialstorage. A lot of sophisticated ultra-lowoxygen (ULO) storage rooms use this techniquewith very promising results. At thesame time the use of 1-methylcyclopropene(1-MCP) was introduced in combination withULO storage (Alex van Schaik, personalcommunication).IndiaOriginally established in 1905, the IndianAgricultural Research Institute initiated acoordinated project on postharvest technologyof fruits and vegetables in late 1970.Currently the head is Dr R.K. Pa, and a considerableamount of research has been carriedout on several fruit species, including workon CA. Jog (2004) reported that there were alarge number of cold storages in India andsome of the old ones had been revamped andgenerators added, and that the availabilityCA and MA facilities was increasing, but CAstores remained rare.MexicoIn countries like Mexico, crops are not widelystored, partly because of long harvestingseasons. However, CA storage is increasinglyused, for example in Chihuahua andCoahuila for apples. It was estimated byYahia (1995) that there were about 50 CA

Introduction 9rooms there, storing about 33,000 t of appleseach year.needed for Cox’s Orange Pippin apples freeof bitter pit.New ZealandResearch work for the Department of Industrialand Scientific Research on gas storage ofapples between 1937 and 1949 was summarizedin a series of papers, for exampleMandeno and Padfield (1953). The firstexperimental CA shipments of Cox’s OrangePippin apples were carried out to Netherlandsand the UK in the early 1980s, supervisedby Stella McCloud. These were in reefercontainers at 3.5–4.0 °C, and a small bag oflime was placed in each box to absorb CO 2,although this presented a problem with theDutch customs, who needed to be convincedthat the white powder was in fact lime. O 2was probably controlled by N 2injection.Before that time apples were shipped only inreefer containers or reefer ships, and the useof CA was in response to the apples developing‘bitter pit’, which was controlled by theincreased CO 2levels (John Stow, personalcommunication). Subsequently the Departmentof Scientific and Industrial Researchdeveloped predictive levels of fruit calciumSouth AfricaKidd and West (1923) investigated the levelsof CO 2and O 2in the holds of ships carryingstone fruit and citrus fruit to the UK fromSouth Africa. However, the first commercialCA storage facilities in South Africa wereinstalled near Cape Town in 1935 (Dilley,2006). Others were commissioned in 1978,and by 1989 the CA storage volume hadincreased to a total of 230,000 bulk bins, cateringfor >40% of the annual apple and pearcrop (Eksteen et al., 1989).TurkeyIn Turkey CA research started in YalovaCentral Horticultural Research Institute in1979, initially on apples, and subsequently atTÜBİTAK and various Turkish universities.Commercial CA storage also started nearYalova, and one private company was reportedto have some 5000 t CA capacity. Currentlythere are perhaps 25 commercial CA stores,Fig. 1.2. New laboratories at the Low Temperature Research Station in St Augustine, Trinidad in 1937.Photo: Tucker Picture Production Ltd (Wardlaw and Leonard, 1938).

10 Chapter 1with a total capacity of approximately 35,000 t(Kenan Kaynaş, personal communication).West IndiesIn 1928 the Low Temperature ResearchStation was established in St Augustine inTrinidad at the Imperial College of TropicalAgriculture, at a cost of £5800. The initialwork was confined to ‘. . . improving storagetechnique as applied to Gros Michel[bananas] . . . for investigating the storagebehaviour of other varieties and hybridswhich might be used as substitutes for GrosMichel in the event of that variety being eliminatedby the epidemic spread of PanamaDisease’. Due to demand the work wasextended to include ‘. . . tomatoes, limes,grapefruit, oranges, avocados, mangoes,pawpaws, egg-plant fruit, cucurbits of severalkinds and to the assortment of vegetablesthat can be grown in the tropics’ (Wardlawand Leonard, 1938). An extension to thebuilding was completed in 1937 (Fig. 1.2), ata cost of £4625. ‘Dr F. Kidd and Members ofthe Low Temperature Research Station atCambridge gave assistance and advice intechnical and scientific matters’, and CAstorage work was carried out using importedcylinders of mixtures of N 2, O 2and CO 2. ProfessorC.W. Wardlaw was officer-in-charge,and a considerable amount of work was carriedout by him and his staff on fresh fruitand vegetables, including work on CA storage(Wardlaw, 1938).With the formation of the University ofthe West Indies in the 1960s, work in Trinidadcontinued mainly under the supervision ofProfessor L.A. Wilson, and subsequently byDr Lynda Wickham, on postharvest of fruitand vegetables. There has been considerablework on MA packaging but limited work onCA storage. Dr Errol Reid carried out experimentsin 1997 on CA transport of bananas inreefer containers from the Windward Islandsand subsequently supervised the use of CAreefer ships in 1998. CA reefer ships are stillbeing used today for transport of bananasfrom the Windward Islands to the UK(50,000–60,000 t year −1 ), often combined withbananas from the Dominican Republic toreduce the risk of dead-freight.

2Effects and Interactions of CA StorageCA storage is now used worldwide on a varietyof fresh fruits and vegetables. The stimulationfor its development was arguably therequirement for extended availability of fruitand vegetables, especially certain cultivars ofapple that were subject to chilling injury,which reduced the maximum storage period.CA storage has been the subject of an enormousnumber of biochemical, physiologicaland technological studies, in spite of which itis still not known precisely why it works.CA storage has been demonstrated toreduce the respiration rate of fruit and vegetablesin certain circumstances. For somecrops in certain conditions, high CO 2or lowO 2can have either no effect or an increasingeffect on respiration rates. The reasons for thisvariability are many. Interactions with temperaturewould mean that the metabolism ofthe crop could be changed so that it would beanaerobic and thus higher. The same wouldapply where the O 2content was too low. Highlevels of CO 2can actually injure the crop,which again could affect its rate of respiration.These effects on respiration rate couldalso affect the eating quality of fruit and vegetables.Generally, crops stored in controlledatmospheres have a longer storage lifebecause the rate of the metabolic processesis slower. Particularly with climacteric fruitthis would slow ripening and deterioration,so that when they have been stored forprotracted periods they may well be less ripethan fruits stored in air.The actual effects that varying the levelsof O and CO 2 2in the atmosphere have oncrops vary with such factors as the:© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits andVegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson) 11●●●●●●●●●species of cropcultivar of cropconcentration of gases in storecrop temperaturestage of maturity of crop at harvestdegree of ripeness of climacteric fruitgrowing conditions before harvestpresence of ethylene in storepre-storage treatments.There are also interactive effects of the twogases, so that the effect of CO 2 and O 2 inextending the storage life of a crop may beincreased when they are combined. Theeffects of O 2on postharvest responses of fruit,vegetables and flowers were reviewed andsummarized by Thompson (1996) as follows:●●●●●●●●reduced respiration ratereduced substrate oxidationdelayed ripening of climacteric fruitprolonged storage lifedelayed breakdown of chlorophyllreduced rate of production of ethylenechanged fatty acid synthesisreduced degradation rate of solublepectins

12 Chapter 2●●●formation of undesirable flavour andodoursaltered texturedevelopment of physiological disorders.Thompson (2003) also reviewed some of theeffects of increased CO 2levels on stored fruitsand vegetables as follows:●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●decreased synthetic reactions in climactericfruitdelaying the initiation of ripeninginhibition of some enzymatic reactionsdecreased production of some organicvolatilesmodified metabolism of some organicacidsreduction in the rate of breakdown ofpectic substancesinhibition of chlorophyll breakdownproduction of off-flavourinduction of physiological disordersretarded fungal growth on the cropinhibition of the effect of ethylenechanges in sugar content (potatoes)effects on sprouting (potatoes)inhibition of postharvest developmentretention of tendernessdecreased discoloration levels.The recommendations for the optimum storageconditions have varied over time duemainly to improvements in the control technologyover the levels of gases within the stores.Bishop (1994) showed the evolution of storagerecommendations by illustration of the recommendationsfor the storage of the apple cultivarCox’s Orange Pippin since 1920 (Table 2.1).CA storage is still mainly applied toapples, but studies of other fruits andvegetables have shown it has wide application,and an increasing number of crops arebeing stored and transported under CAconditions. The technical benefits of CAstorage have been amply demonstrated fora wide range of flowers, fruits and vegetables,but the economic implications of usingthis comparatively expensive technologyhave often limited its commercial application.However, with technological developments,more precise control equipmentand the reducing cost, CA storage is beingused commercially for an increasing rangeof crops.The question of changes in quality offruit after long-term storage is important.Johnson (1994a) found that the storage practicesthat retard senescence changes in applesgenerally reduced the production of volatilearoma compounds. Reduced turnover of celllipids under CA conditions is thought toresult in lack of precursors (long-chain fattyacids) for ester synthesis. The lower O 2levelsrequired to increase storage duration and tomaximize retention of the desired texturalcharacteristics can further reduce aromadevelopment. Using hydrated lime or activatedcarbon to reduce the level of CO 2didnot affect aromatic flavour development,although there may be concern over continuousflushing of N 2/air mixtures. The prospectof improving flavour in CA-stored apples byraising O 2levels prior to the opening of thestore is limited by the need to retain texturalquality.Table 2.1. Recommended storage conditions for Cox’s Orange Pippinapples, all at 3.5 °C (Bishop, 1994).O 2(%) CO 2(%) Storage time (in weeks)Approximate date ofimplementation21 0 13 –16 5 16 19203 5 21 19352

Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 13Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen DamageKader (1989, 1993), Meheriuk (1989a,b) andSaltveit (1989) reviewed CO 2and O 2injurysymptoms on some apple cultivars (Table 2.2)and selected fruits and vegetables (Table 2.3).It should be noted that the exposure time todifferent gases will affect their susceptibilityto injury and there may be interactions withthe fruits’ ripeness, harvest maturity or thestorage temperature.Fidler et al. (1973) gave detailed descriptionsof injury caused to different cultivars ofapples stored in atmospheres containing lowO 2or high CO 2levels. Internal injury wasdescribed as often beginning ‘in the vasculartissue and then increases to involve largeareas of the cortex. At first the injury zonesare firm, and have a “rubbery” texture whena finger is drawn over the surface of the cutsection of the fruit. Later, the damaged tissueloses water and typical cork-like cavitiesTable 2.2. Threshold level of O 2or CO 2required to cause injury to apples and typical injury symptoms(Kader, 1989, 1993; Meheriuk, 1989a; Saltveit, 1989).CultivarCO 2injury level(%)CO 2injurysymptomsO 2injury level(%) O 2injury symptomsBoskoop >2 CO 2cavitation 1 Core browning 2 CO 2injury 5 CO 2injury 5 CO 2injury 1.5 CO 2injury 1 Core browning 6 continuous>15 for 10 daysor moreCO 2injury 1 with O 2at3 withO 215 for shortperiodsCO 2injury, corefl ush5 Unknown 5 with O 2Unknown 2.5%Red Delicious >3 Internal browning 5 Unknown 3 Core fl ush, CO 23 Internal disorders

14 Chapter 2Table 2.3. Threshold level of O 2or CO 2required to cause injury to some fruits and vegetables andtypical injury symptoms (Kader, 1989, 1993; Meheriuk, 1989a,b; Saltveit, 1989).CropCO 2injury level(%) CO 2injury symptomsO 2injury level(%) O 2injury symptomsApricot >5 Loss of fl avour, fl eshbrowningArtichoke, >3 Stimulates papusglobedevelopmentAsparagus >10 at 3–6 °C Increased elongation,>15 at 0–3 °C weight gain andsensitivity to chillingand pittingAvocado >15 Skin browning,off-fl avourBanana >7 Green fruit softening,undesirable textureand fl avourBeans: green, >7 for more Off-fl avoursnap than 24 h

Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 15CropCO 2injury level(%) CO 2injury symptomsO 2injury level(%) O 2injury symptomsLemon >10 Increased susceptibility 2 Brown stain 10 Increased susceptibilityto decay10 Softening, off-fl avour 20 Off-fl avour and odours,impaired ripening20 Surface pitting Near 0 Off-fl avour and odours,stimulation of cap openingand stipe elongationNectarine >10 Flesh browning, loss offl avour5 Increased severity ofchilling injury at 7 °C10 for shortterm, >1 forlong termAccelerated softening,rots and putrid odour5 Off-fl avour 8 May aggravate chilling 5 at 10 °CCalyx discoloration,internal browning andincreased softening10 Off-fl avour 10 Off-fl avour 1 Flesh browning 20 Not known 25 Off-fl avour, brown 25 Off-fl avour, brown 10 Off-fl avour and odours, 2 for mature–green, >5 forturning, alsodependson length ofexposure andtemperatureDiscoloration, softeningand uneven ripening

16 Chapter 2Fig. 2.1. CO 2injury on apples in the UK. (Photograph courtesy of Dr R.O. Sharples.)appear’ (Fig. 2.1). They also showed that theappearance of CO 2injury symptoms is a functionof concentration, exposure time and temperature.They describe external CO 2injurywhere ‘initially the damaged area is markedlysunken, deep green in colour and with sharplydefined edges. Later in storage the damagedtissue turns brown and finally almost black.’It may be that the injury that is referred to asspongy tissue in Alphonso mangoes and someother mango varieties may be related to CO 2injury, since they display similar morphologicalsymptoms as those described for apples.Injury caused as a result of low O 2levelsis due to fermentation, also called anaerobicrespiration, resulting in the accumulation ofthe toxic by-products alcohols and aldehydes.These can result in necrotic tissue, which tendsto begin at the centre of the fruit (Fig. 2.2).The lower O 2limit for apples was foundto be cultivar dependent, ranging from a lowof about 0.8% for Northern Spy and LawRome to a high of about 1.0% for McIntoshin cold storage. For blueberries, the lower O 2limit increased with temperature and CO 2level. Raising the temperature from 0 to 25 °Ccaused the lower O 2limit to increase fromabout 1.8% to approximately 4%. RaisingCO 2levels from 5 to 60% increased the lowerO 2limit for blueberry fruits from approximately4.5 to >16% (Beaudry and Gran,1993). Marshall McIntosh apples held at 3 °CFig. 2.2. O 2damage to apples taken from acontrolled atmosphere store. (Photograph courtesyof Dr R.O. Sharples.)in 2.5–3.0% O 2+ 11–12% CO 2developedsmall desiccated cavities in the cortex associatedwith CO 2injury (DeEll et al., 1995).Mencarelli et al. (1989) showed that high CO 2concentrations during storage (5, 8 or 12%)resulted in CO 2injury of aubergines, characterizedby external browning without tissuesoftening. Wardlaw (1938), also workingwith aubergines, showed that high CO 2can

Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 17cause surface scald browning, pitting andexcessive decay, and these symptoms aresimilar to those caused by chilling injury.Mencarelli et al. (1989) showed that thespherical-shaped aubergine cultivars BlackBeauty and Sfumata Rosa were more tolerantof high CO 2concentrations than thelong-fruited cultivar Violetta Lunga. Burton(1974a) also found that the level of CO 2thatcan cause damage varies between cultivarsof the same crop, and he put forward ahypothesis that these differences could bedue to anatomical differences rather thanbiochemical. He stated that ‘Variability inplant material prevents precise control ofintercellular atmosphere; recommendationscan be designed only to avoid completeanaerobic conditions and a harmful level ofCO 2in the centre of the least permeable individualfruit or vegetable’.High CO 2levels (10%) have been shownto cause damage to stored onions particularly,resulting in internal browning (Gadalla,1997). Adamicki et al. (1977a) suggested thatthe decomposition of the cell walls was theresult of the influence of hydrolytic enzymesof the pectinase group. Their preliminarycomparative studies on cells of sound andphysiologically disordered onions due to CO 2injury indicated destructive changes in theultrastructure of the mitochondria. The mitochondriadisplayed fragmentation, reductionin size and changes in shape from elliptical tospherical. These changes have also beenobserved in studies on the influence of CO 2on the ultrastructure of pears (Frenkel andPatterson, 1974). Elevated CO 2concentrationswere shown to inhibit the activity of succinicdehydrogenase, resulting in accumulationof succinic acid, a toxicant to plant tissues(Hulme, 1956; Williams and Patterson, 1964;Frenkel and Patterson, 1974). Adamicki et al.(1977a) showed that the highest amino acidcontent was found in the physiologically disorderedonion bulbs stored at 1 °C, with lowervalues found at 5 °C. They added that thismay be due to greater enzyme activity, especiallyin physiologically disordered bulbs.Low O 2levels (0.21% and 3.0%) in stored avocadosfrom early-season harvests could leadto severe external browning (Allwood andCutting, 1994).There may be interactions between lowO 2and high CO 2levels. Riad and Brecht(2003) reported that, at 5 °C, sweetcorn tolerated2% O 2or 25% CO 2alone for 2 weeks butmay be damaged by these two gas levels incombination.High Oxygen StorageKidd and West (1934) showed that storageof apples in pure O 2can be detrimental.Yahia (1989, 1991) showed that exposure ofMcIntosh and Cortland apples to 100% O 2at3.3 °C for 4 weeks did not enhance the productionof aroma volatiles. Pears kept in 100%O 2showed an increase in the rate of softening,chlorophyll degradation and ethyleneevolution (Frenkel, 1975). Various publicationshave shown that high O 2levels in citrusfruit stores can affect the fruit colour. Naveland Valencia oranges were stored for 4 weeksat 15 °C in a continuous flow. After 2 weeks ofstorage in 40 or 80% O 2, with the balance N 2,the endocarp of Navel, but not of Valencia,had turned a perceptibly darker orange thanfruit stored in air or in air with ethylene. Theorange colour intensified with increasedstorage time and persisted at least 4 weeksafter the fruit was removed from high O 2.Juice from Navel, but not from Valencia,stored in 80% O 2for 4 weeks was slightlydarker than juice from those stored in air(Houck et al., 1978). Storage at 15 °C for4 weeks in 40 or 80% O 2deepened the red offlesh and juice of Ruby, Tarocco and Sanguinelloblood oranges, but total soluble solidsand total acidity of the juice were not affected(Aharoni and Houck, 1982). Hamlin, ParsonBrown and Pineapple oranges showed similarresults, with the respiration rate of Pineapplebeing highest in 80% O 2and lowest in40% O 2or air (Aharoni and Houck, 1980).Ripe green tomatoes were kept at 19 °Cor at 13 °C followed by 19 °C in air or in 100%O 2at normal or reduced atmospheric pressureuntil they were fully red in colour. Fruitsoftening was exacerbated in 100% O 2andreduced pressure (0.25 atmospheres) comparedwith a normal gaseous atmosphere andreduced pressure. Removal of ethylene in airmade little difference to the fruit, but in 100%

18 Chapter 2O 2ethylene accumulation was detrimental(Stenvers, 1977). Li et al. (1973) reported thatripening of tomatoes was accelerated at12–13 °C in 40–50% O 2compared with thoseripened in air.At 4 °C the respiration rate of potatotubers was lower in 3 or 1% O 2comparedwith those in air and in 35% O 2. Sproutingwas inhibited and sugar content increased in1% and 35% O 2compared with those in air,but those in 3% O 2showed no effects (Hartmanset al., 1990). Storage atmospheres containing40% O 2reduced mould infectioncompared with low O 2levels, but increasedsprouting and rooting of stored carrots(Abdel-Rahman and Isenberg, 1974). Blueberriesin jars ventilated continuously with 60,80, or 100% O 2had improved antioxidantcapacity, total phenolic anthocyanin contentsand less decay compared with those in 0 or40% O 2during 35 days’ storage at 5 °C (Yonghuaet al., 2003). Dick and Marcellin (1985)showed that bananas held in 50% O 2duringcooling periods of 12 h at 20 °C had reducedhigh-temperature damage during subsequentstorage at 30–40 °C.Day (1996) indicated highly positiveeffects of storing minimally processed fruitand vegetables in 70 and 80% O 2in MA filmpacks. He indicated that it inhibited undesirablefermentation reactions, delayed browning(caused by damage during processing)and the O 2levels of over 65% inhibited bothaerobic and anaerobic microbial growth. Thetechnique used involved flushing the packswith the required gas mixture before theywere sealed. The O 2level within the packagewould then fall progressively as storage proceeded,owing to the respiration of the fruit orvegetable contained in the pack.High O 2levels have also been used in themarketing of other commodities. For example,Champion (1986) mentioned that O 2levelsabove ambient are used to help preserve‘redness and eye appeal’ of red meat.Carbon Dioxide Shock TreatmentTreating fruits and vegetables with high levelsof CO 2prior to storage can have beneficialeffects on their subsequent storage life. Hribaret al. (1994) described experiments whereGolden Delicious apples were held in 15%CO 2for 20 days prior to storage in 1.5% O 2+1.5% CO 2for 5 months. The CO 2-treated fruitsretained a better green skin colour duringstorage, which was shown to be due to inhibitionof carotenoid production. Other effects ofthe CO 2shock treatment were that it increasedfruit firmness after storage; ethanol productionwas greater due to fermentation, buttitratable acidity was not affected. Pesis et al.(1993a) described experiments where appleswere treated with 95% CO 2+ 1% O 2+ 4% N 2at 20 °C for 24–48 h for Golden Delicious and24–96 h for Braeburn, then transferred toeither 20 °C or 5 °C for 6 weeks in air followedby a shelf-life of 10 days at 20 °C. High CO 2pre-treatment increased respiration rate andinduced ethylene, ethanol and ethyl acetateproduction in Golden Delicious fruits duringstorage at 20 °C. The fruits became softer andmore yellow but tastier than non-treatedfruits after 2 weeks at 20 °C. For Braeburn,respiration rate and ethylene production werereduced and volatiles were increased by thehigh CO 2pre-treatment during shelf-life at20 °C following 6 weeks of cold storage, andtreated fruits remained firmer but moreyellow than control fruits.In earlier experiments, two cultivars oftable grapes were stored by Laszlo (1985) inCA – Waltham Cross in 1–21% O 2+ 0–5%CO 2and Barlinka in 1–21% O 2+ 5% CO 2,both at −0.5 °C for 4 weeks. Some of the fruitwere pre-treated with 10% CO 2for 3 daysbefore storage in air at 10 °C for 1 week. Withboth cultivars the incidence of berry decay(mainly due to infections by Botrytis cinerea)was highest with fruits that had been subjectedto the CO 2treatment. The incidence ofberry cracking was less than 1% in WalthamCross, but in Barlinka it was higher withfruits that had been subjected to the CO 2treatment, high O 2concentrations and controlswithout SO 2. In a trial with PasseCrassane pears stored in air at 0 °C for 187days, internal browning was prevented bytreatment with 30% CO 2for 3 days at intervalsof 14–18 days. Also, the fruits that hadbeen subjected to CO 2shock treatment hadexcellent quality after being ripened at 20 °C(Marcellin et al., 1979). They also reported

Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 21and, consequently, the rate of ethylene evolution.The lowest ethylene evolution wasfound in fruits stored in 1% O 2+ 2% CO 2or1% O 2+ 0% CO 2, but in 3% O 2+ 0% CO 2therewas considerably more ethylene production,and in 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2ethylene productionwas markedly decreased.Before the availability of gas chromatography,it was generally thought that only climactericfruit produced ethylene. Now it hasbeen shown that all plant material can produceethylene, and Shiomi et al. (2002) foundthat ethylene production in pineapples (anon-climacteric fruit) increased the longer thefruits were stored, but the maximum productionrate was less than 1 nl g −1 h −1 .CA storage has also been shown to stimulateethylene production. After 70 days’ coldstorage of celeriac in air, the ethylene contentdid not exceed 2 ppm, but the ethylene levelin CA stores of celeriac was nearly 25 ppm(Golias, 1987). Plich (1987) found that thelowest ethylene production was in applesstored in 1% O 2+ 0 or 2% CO 2, but in 3% O 2+0% CO 2there was considerably more ethyleneproduction. Bangerth (1984), in studieson apples and bananas, suggested that theybecame less sensitive to ethylene during prolongedstorage.The levels of CO 2and O 2in the surroundingenvironment of climacteric fruit can affecttheir ripening rate by suppressing the synthesisof ethylene. In early work by Gane (1934),the biosynthesis of ethylene in ripening fruitwas shown to cease in the absence of O 2.Wang (1990) reviewed the literature on theeffects of CO 2and O 2on the activity ofenzymes associated with fruit ripening andcited many examples of the activity of theseenzymes being reduced in CA storage. This ispresumably, at least partly, due to many ofthese enzymes requiring O 2for their activity.Ethylene biosynthesis was studied in Jonathanapples stored at 0 °C in 0–20% CO 2+ 3%O 2or 0–20% CO 2+ 15% O 2for up to 7 months.Internal ethylene concentration, 1-aminocyclopropane1-carboxylic acid (ACC) levelsand ACC oxidise activity were determined infruits immediately after removal from storageand after holding at 20 °C for 1 week. Ethyleneproduction by fruits was inhibited byincreasing CO 2concentration over the rangeof 0–20% at both 3 and 15% O 2. The ACC levelwas similarly reduced by increasing CO 2concentrations,even in 3% O 2, but at 3% O 2ACCaccumulation was enhanced only in theabsence of CO 2. ACC oxidase activity wasstimulated by CO 2up to 10% but was inhibitedby 20% CO 2at both O 2concentrations.The inhibition of ethylene production by CO 2may therefore be attributed to its inhibitoryeffect on ACC synthase activity (Levin et al.,1992). In other work, storing pre-climactericapples of the cultivars Barnack Beauty andWagner at 20 °C for 5 days in 0% O 2+ 1%CO 2+ 99% N 2or in air containing 15% CO 2inhibited ethylene production and reducedACC concentration and ACC oxidase activitycompared with storage in air (Lange et al.,1993). Storage of kiwifruit in 2–5% O 2+ 0–4%CO 2reduced ethylene production and ACCoxidase activity (Wang et al., 1994). Ethyleneproduction was lower in Mission figs storedat 15–20% CO 2concentrations compared withthose kept in air (Colelli et al., 1991). LowO 2and increased CO 2concentrations wereshown to decrease ethylene sensitivity ofElstar apples and Scania carnation flowersduring CA storage (Woltering et al., 1994).Quazi and Freebairn (1970) showed thathigh CO 2and low O 2delayed the productionof ethylene in pre-climacteric bananas, butthe application of exogenous ethylene wasshown to reverse this effect. Wade (1974)showed that bananas could be ripened inatmospheres of reduced O 2, even as low as1%, but the peel failed to degreen, whichresulted in ripe fruit which were still green.Similar effects were shown at O 2levels ashigh as 15%. Since the degreening process inCavendish bananas is entirely due to chlorophylldegradation (Seymour et al., 1987), theCA storage treatment was presumably due tosuppression of this process. Hesselman andFreebairn (1969) showed that ripening ofbananas, which had already been initiated toripen by ethylene, was slowed in a low O 2atmosphere. Goodenough and Thomas (1980,1981) also showed suppression of degreeningof fruits during ripening; in this case it waswith tomatoes ripened in 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2.Their work, however, showed that this wasdue to a combination of suppression of chlorophylldegradation and the suppression of

22 Chapter 2the synthesis of carotenoids and lycopene.Jeffery et al. (1984) also showed that lycopenesynthesis was suppressed in tomatoes storedin 6% CO 2+ 6% O 2.Carbon MonoxideIt is a colourless, odourless gas which is flammableand explosive in air at concentrationsbetween 12.5% and 74.2%. It is extremelytoxic and exposure to 0.1% for 1 h can causeunconsciousness. Exposure for 4 h can causedeath. Goffings and Herregods (1989)reported that CA storage of leeks could beimproved by the inclusion of 5% CO. If addedto CA stores with O 2levels of 2–5%, carbonmonoxide (CO) can inhibit discoloration oflettuce on the cut butts or from mechanicaldamage on the leaves, but the effect was lostwhen the lettuce was removed to air at 10 °C(Kader, 1992). Storage in 4% O 2+ 2% CO 2+5% CO was shown to be optimum in delayingripening and maintaining good quality ofmature green tomatoes stored at 12.8 °C(Morris et al., 1981). Reyes and Smith (1987)reported positive effects of CO during thestorage of celery. CO has fungistatic properties,especially when combined with low O 2.Botrytis cinerea on strawberries was reducedin CO levels of 5% or higher in the presence of5% O 2or lower (El-Goorani and Sommer,1979). Decay in mature green tomatoes storedat 12.8 °C was reduced when 5% CO wasincluded in the storage atmosphere (Morris etal., 1981). They also reported that in capsicumsand tomatoes the level of chilling injurysymptoms could be reduced, but not eliminated,when CO was added to the store.TemperatureKidd and West (1927a,b) were the first to showthat the effects of gases in extending storagelife could vary with temperature. At 10 °C, CAstorage could increase the storage life ofapples compared with those stored in air,while at 15 °C their storage life was the samein both gas storage and air. The opposite effectwas shown by Ogata et al. (1975). They foundthat CA storage of okra at 1 °C did not increasetheir storage life compared with storage in air,but at 12 °C CA storage increased their postharvestlife. Izumi et al. (1996a) also showedthat the best CA conditions varied with temperature.They found that the best storageconditions for the broccoli cultivar Marathonwere 0.5% O 2+ 10% CO 2at 0 and 5 °C, and 1%O 2+ 10% CO 2at 10 °C.The relationship between CA storage andtemperature has been shown to be complex.Respiration rates of apples were progressivelyreduced by lowering O 2levels from 21 to 1%.Although lowering the temperature from 4 to2 °C also reduced the respiration rate, fruitsstored in 1 or 2% O 2were shown to be respiringfaster after 100 days at 0 °C than at 2 or4 °C. After 192 days, the air-stored fruits alsoshowed an increase in respiration rate at 0 °C.These higher respiration rates preceded thedevelopment of low-temperature breakdownin fruits stored in air, 2 or 1% O 2at 0 °C and in1% O 2at 2 °C. Progressively lower O 2concentrationsreduced ethylene production butincreased the retention of acids, total solublesolids, chlorophyll and firmness. In theabsence of low-temperature breakdown, theeffects of reduced temperature on fruit ripeningwere similar to those of lowered O 2concentrations.The quality of apples stored at4 °C in 1% O 2was markedly better than in 2%O 2; the fruits were also free of core flush(brown core) and other physiological disorders(Johnson and Ertan, 1983).HumidityKajiura (1973) stored Citrus natsudaidai at 4 °Cfor 50 days in either 98–100% rh or 85–95% rhin air mixed with 0, 5, 10 or 20% CO 2. It wasfound that at the higher humidity, high CO 2increased the water content of the peel andthe ethanol content of the juice and producedabnormal flavour and reduced the internal O 2content of the fruit, causing watery breakdown.At the lower humidity, no injuryoccurred and CO 2was beneficial, its optimumlevel being much higher. In another trial, C.natsudaidai fruit stored at 4 °C in 5% CO 2+ 7%

Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 23O 2had abnormal flavour development at98–100% rh but those in 85–95% rh did not.Bramlage et al. (1977) showed that treatmentof McIntosh apples with high CO 2in a nonhumidifiedroom reduced CO 2injury withoutalso reducing other benefits compared withthose treated in a humidified room. In a comparisonby Polderdijk et al. (1993) of 85, 90, 95or 100% rh during CA storage of capsicums, itwas found that after removal from storage theincidence of decay increased as humidityincreased, but weight loss and softeningincreased as humidity decreased. Vascularstreaking in cassava develops rapidly duringstorage, but it was almost completely inhibitedat high humidity, irrespective of the O 2level (Aracena et al., 1993).Delayed CA StorageGenerally, placing fruits or vegetables in storeas quickly as possible after harvest gives thelongest storage period. Drake and Eisele(1994) found that immediate establishment ofCA conditions of apples after harvest resultedin good-quality fruits after 9 months’ storage.Reduced quality was evident when CA establishmentwas delayed by as little as 5 days,even though the interim period was in air at1 °C. Colgan et al. (1999) also showed thatapple scald was controlled less effectivelywhen establishment of CA conditions wasdelayed. In contrast, Streif and Saquet (2003)found that flesh browning in apples wasreduced when the establishment of the CAconditions was delayed, with 30 days’ delaybeing optimum. However, softening wasquicker than in fruits where CA conditionswere established directly after harvest. Landfald(1988) recommended prompt CA storageto reduce the incidence of lenticel rot inAroma apples. Braeburn browning disorderappeared to develop during the first 2 weeksof storage, and storage in air at 0 °C prior toCA storage decreased incidence and severityof the disorder (Elgar et al., 1998). Watkinset al. (1997) also showed that the sensitivity ofBraeburn to CO 2-induced injury was greatestsoon after harvest, but declined if fruits wereheld in air storage before CO 2application.The external skin disorders in Empire applescould be reduced when fruits were held in airbefore CA was established (Watkins et al.,1997). Streif and Saquet (2003) found thatflesh browning in Elstar apples was reducedwhen the establishment of the CA conditionswas delayed for up to 40 days. A delay of30 days was optimum, but firmness loss wasmuch higher than in fruits where CA conditionswere established directly after harvest.The storage conditions they compared at 1 °Cwere: 0.6% CO 2+ 1.2% O 2, 2.5% CO 2+ 1.2%O 2, 5% CO 2+ 1.2% O 2, 0.6% CO 2+ 2.5% O 2,2.5% CO 2+ 2.5% O 2and 5% CO 2+ 2.5% O 2.Wang Zhen Yong et al. (2000) also found thatCO 2-linked disorders were reduced in Elstarby storage at 3 °C in air before CA storage, butexcessive ripening and associated loss of fleshfirmness occurred. Argenta et al. (2000) foundthat delaying establishment of CA conditionsfor 2–12 weeks significantly reduced theseverity of brown heart in Fuji apples, butresulted in lower firmness and titratableacidity compared with establishment of 1.5%O 2+ 3% CO 2.Storage of Jupiter capsicums for 5 daysat 20 °C in 1.5% O 2resulted in post-storagerespiratory rate suppression for about 55 hafter transfer to air (Rahman et al., 1995).In work on kiwifruit, Tonini and Tura(1997) showed that storage in 4.8% CO 2+1.8% O 2reduced rots caused by infectionswith B. cinerea. If the fruit was cooled to−0.5 °C immediately after harvest then theeffect was greatest the quicker the CA storageconditions were established. With a delay of30 days, the CA storage conditions were ineffectivein controlling the rots.Interrupted CA StorageWhere CA storage has been shown to havedetrimental side effects on fruits and vegetables,the possibility of alternating CA storagewith air storage has been studied. Resultshave been mixed, with positive, negative and,in some cases, no effect. Neuwirth (1988)described storage of Golden Delicious applesfrom January to May at 2 °C in 1% CO 2+ 3%O 2, 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2. These

24 Chapter 2regimes were interrupted by a 3-week periodof ventilation with air, beginning on 15 January,26 January, 17 February or 11 March, afterwhich the CA treatment was reinstated. Ventilationat the time of the climacteric in lateFebruary to early March produced largeincreases in respiration rate and volatile flavoursubstances, but ventilation at other timeshad little effect. After CA conditions wererestored, respiration rate and the productionof flavour substances declined again, sometimesto below the level of fruit stored in continuouscontrolled atmospheres.Storage of bananas at high temperatures,as may happen in producing countries, cancause physiological disorders and unsatisfactoryripening. In trials with the cultivar Poyofrom Cameroon, storage at 30–40 °C wasinterrupted by one to three periods at 20 °Cfor 12 h either in air or in atmospheres containing50% O 2or 5% O 2. Damage wasreduced, especially when fruits were storedat 30 °C and received three cooling periods in50% O 2(Dick and Marcellin, 1985). Parsonset al. (1974) interrupted CA storage of tomatoesat 3% O 2+ 0, 3 or 5% CO 2each week byexposing them to air for 16 h at 13 °C. Thisinterrupted storage had no measurable effecton the storage life of the fruit but increasedthe level of decay that developed on fruitwhen removed from storage to higher temperaturesto simulate shelf-life. Intermittentexposure of Haas avocados to 20% CO 2increased their storage life at 12 °C andreduced chilling injury during storage at 4 °Ccompared with those stored in air at the sametemperatures (Marcellin and Chaves, 1983).Anderson (1982) described experiments wherepeaches and nectarines were stored at 0 °C in5% CO 2+ 1% O 2, which was interrupted every2 days by removing the fruits to 18–20 °C inair. When subsequently ripened, fruits in thistreatment had little of the internal breakdownfound in fruits stored in air at 0 °C.Residual Effects of CA StorageThere is considerable evidence in the literaturethat storing fruits and vegetables in CAstorage can affect their subsequent shelf- ormarketable life. Day (1996) indicated thatminimally processed fruits and vegetablesstored in 70% and higher O 2levels deterioratedmore slowly on removal than thosefreshly prepared. Hill (1913) described experimentson peaches stored in increased levelsof CO 2and showed that their respiration ratewas reduced, not only during exposure;he also showed that respiration rate onlyreturned to the normal level after a few daysin air. Bell peppers exposed to 1.5% O 2for1 day exhibited a suppressed respiration ratefor at least 24 h after transfer to air (Rahmanet al., 1993a). Berard (1985) showed that cabbagestored at 1 °C and 92% rh in 2.5% O 2+5% CO 2had reduced losses during long-termstorage compared with that stored in air, butalso the beneficial effects persisted afterremoval from CA. Burdon et al. (2008) showedthat avocados that had been stored in CA hada longer shelf-life than those that had beenstored in air for a similar period.Goulart et al. (1990) showed that whenBristol raspberries were stored at 5 °C in 2.6,5.4 or 8.3% O 2+ 10.5, 15.0 or 19.6% CO 2or inair the weight loss was greatest after 3 daysfor fruit stored in air. When fruits wereremoved from CA after 3 days and held for 4days in air at 1 °C, those which had beenstored in 15% CO 2had less deterioration thanany other treatment except for those stored inair. Deterioration was greatest in the fruitswhich had previously been stored in the 2.6,5.4 or 8.3% O 2+ 10.5% CO 2treatments. Fruitsremoved after 7 days and held for up to12 days at 1 °C showed least deteriorationafter the 15.0% CO 2storage.The climacteric rise in respiration rate ofCherimoya fruit was delayed by storage in 15or 10% O 2, and fruits kept in 5% O 2did notshow a detectable climacteric rise and did notproduce ethylene. All fruits ripened normallyafter being transferred to air storage at 20 °C;however, the time needed to reach an ediblecondition differed with O 2level and wasinversely proportional to O 2concentrationduring storage. The actual data showed thatfollowing 30 days of storage in 5, 10 and 20%O 2fruits took 11, 6 and 3 days respectively toripen at 20 °C (Palma et al., 1993).Fruit firmness can be measured by insertinga metal probe into a fruit and measuring

Effects and Interactions of CA Storage 25its resistance to the insertion. This is called apressure test, and the greater the resistancethe firmer and the more immature the fruit.The plum cultivars Santa Rosa and Songoldwere partially ripened to a firmness ofapproximately 4.5 kg pressure then kept at0.5 °C in 4% O 2+ 5% CO 2for 7–14 days. Thistreatment kept the fruits in an excellent conditionfor an additional 4 weeks when theywere removed to 7.5 °C in air (Truter andCombrink, 1992). Mencarelli et al. (1983)showed that storage of courgettes in low O 2protected them against chilling injury, but onremoval to air storage at the same chillingtemperature the protection disappearedwithin 2 days.Khanbari and Thompson (1996) storedthe potato cultivars Record, Saturna andHermes in different CA conditions and foundthat there was almost complete sprout inhibition,low weight loss and maintenance of ahealthy skin for all cultivars stored in 9.4%CO 2+ 3.6% O 2at 5 °C for 25 weeks. Whentubers from this treatment were stored for afurther 20 weeks in air at 5 °C the skinremained healthy and they did not sprout,while the tubers that had been previouslystored in air or other CA combinationssprouted quickly. The fry colour of the crispsmade from these potatoes was darker thanthe industry standard, but when they werereconditioned, tubers of Saturna producedcrisps of an acceptable fry colour while crispsfrom the other two cultivars remained toodark. This residual effect of CA storage couldhave major implications, in that it presents anopportunity to replace chemical treatments incontrolling sprouting in stored potatoes. Thereverse was the case with bananas that hadbeen initiated to ripen by exposure to exogenousethylene and then immediately storedin 1% O 2at 14 °C. They remained firm andgreen for 28 days but then ripened almostimmediately when transferred to air at 21 °C(Liu, 1976a). Conversely, Wills et al. (1982)showed that pre-climacteric bananas exposedto low O 2took longer to ripen when subsequentlyexposed to air than fruits kept in airfor the whole period.Hardenburg et al. (1977) showed thatapples in CA storage for 6 months and thenfor 2 weeks at 21 °C in air were firmer andmore acid, and had a lower respiration ratethan those that had previously been stored inair. Storage of Jupiter capsicums for 5 days at20 °C in 1.5% O 2resulted in post-storage suppressionof their respiration rate for about55 h after transfer to air and a marked reductionin the oxidative capacity of isolated mitochondria.Mitochondrial activity was suppressedfor 10 h after transfer to air, but within 24 h hadrecovered to values comparable to those ofmitochondria from fruits stored continuouslyin air (Rahman et al., 1993b, 1995).

3CA TechnologyIt is crucial for the success of CA storage technologythat the precise levels of gas areachieved and maintained within the store.Where these are too high, in the case of CO 2,or too low, for O 2, then the fruit or vegetablemay be irrevocably damaged. The range ofmanifestations of the symptoms of damagevaries with the types of product and theintensity of the effect. The effects of CA storageare not simple. In many cases their effectsare dependent on other environmental factors.These include the effects of temperature,where controlled atmosphere storage may beless effective or totally ineffective at certaintemperatures on some fruits. This effect couldbe related to fruit metabolism and gas exchangeat different temperatures. From the limitedinformation available it would appear thatthe store humidity and CO 2levels could interact,with high CO 2being more toxic at highthan low store humidity. The physiologicalmechanism to explain this effect is difficultto find. CA can reduce or eliminate detrimentaleffects of ethylene accumulation, possiblyby CO 2competing for sites of ethylene actionwithin the cells of the fruit.The literature is ambivalent on the qualityand rate of deterioration of fruits andvegetables after they have been removedfrom CA storage. Most of the available informationindicates that their storage life is adequatefor marketing, but, in certain cases, themarketable life is even better than freshly harvestedproduce. The physiological mechanismthat could explain this effect has so far notbeen demonstrated.The equipment and methods used in thecontrol of the atmosphere inside stores areconstantly being developed to provide moreaccurate control. The physiological responsesof the fruits and vegetables to CA storage areincreasingly being used, and may eventuallyreplace the methods that were applied duringthe 20th century. An excellent review of thedesign, construction, operation and safety considerationsof CA stores is given by Bishop(1996). In fresh fruit and vegetable stores theCO 2and O 2levels will change naturallythrough their metabolism, because of thereduced or zero gas exchange afforded by thestore walls and door. Levels of the respiratorygases in non-CA stores have shown thesechanges. For example, Kidd and West (1923)showed that the levels of CO 2and O 2in theholds of ships from South Africa carryingstone fruit and citrus fruit arriving in the UK at3.9–5.0 °C were 6 and 14%, respectively. At2.0–3.3 °C the levels were 10.0% CO 2and 10.5%O 2. A.K. Thompson (unpublished data) hasshown that the level of CO 2in a banana-ripeningroom can rise from near zero to 7% in 24 h.Current commercial practice can be basicallythe same as that described in the earlypart of the 20th century. The crop is loaded© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and26 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

CA Technology 27into an insulated store room whose walls anddoor have been made gas-tight. The first CAstores were constructed in the same way asrefrigerated stores, from bricks or concreteblocks with a vapour-proof barrier and aninsulation layer which was coated on theinside with plaster. In order to ensure that thewalls were gas-tight for CA storage, they werelined with sheets of galvanized steel (Fig. 3.1).The bottoms and tops of the steel sheets wereembedded in mastic (a kind of mortar composedof finely ground oolitic limestone,sand, litherage and linseed oil) and, wheresheets abutted on the walls and ceiling, acoating of mastic was also applied. They weremade from wooden frames with cork, woodshavings or rockwool insulation and oftenwith wooden floors, so that O 2leaked into thestores at a faster rate than it was utilized bythe fruit, giving an equilibrium level of 5–8%Fig. 3.1. A traditional controlled atmospherestore in the UK with the walls lined withgalvanized sheets to prevent gas leakage.(Photograph courtesy of Dr R.O. Sharples.)O 2. In Australia in the early 1970s, Little et al.(2000) pointed out the difficulty of convertingrefrigerated stores to CA stores, because thecork insulation made them so leaky.Modern CA stores are made from metalfacedinsulated panels (usually polyurethanefoam and its fire-resistant form, called isophenicfoam), which are fitted together withgas-tight patented locking devices. The jointsbetween panels are usually taped with gastighttape or painted with flexible plasticpaint or resin sealants to ensure that they aregas-tight. Cetiner (2009) describes some ofthe properties of the insulated panels as rigidpolyurethane foams having a closed cellstructure and natural bonding to steel facers.In China one company used a thermal insulatingboard, which is of light structure, highstrength, good airtightness, good temperatureinsulating, convenient construction, substantiallyshorter construction period and lessconstruction cost. They used ester urethanethermal insulating board and polystyreneheat preservation board for constructing theframework.Major areas of the store where leaks canoccur are the doors. These are usually sealedby having rubber gaskets around the perimeter,which correspond to another rubber gasketaround the door jamb or frame (Fig. 3.2),so that when the door is closed the two meetto seal the door. In addition, a flexible, softrubber hose may be hammered into the inside,between the door and its frame, to give a doublerubber seal to ensure gas-tightness. Inother designs, screw jacks are spaced aroundthe periphery of the door. Some modern CAstores and fruit-ripening rooms have inflatablerubber door seals.With the constant changes and adjustmentsof the store temperature and concentrationsof the various gases inside the sealedstore, variation in pressure can occur. Pressuredifference between the store air and the outsideair can result in difficulties in retaining thestore in a completely gas-tight condition.Stores are therefore fitted with pressure-releasevalves, but these can make the maintenance ofthe precise gas level difficult, especially the O 2level in ultra-low oxygen (ULO) stores. Anexpansion bag may be fitted to the store toovercome this problem of pressure differences.

28 Chapter 3maintained until a pressure of 200 Pa hasbeen achieved, and then the vacuum cleaneror blower is switched off. The time for thepressure inside the store to fall is then taken.They recommended that the time taken forpressure to fall from 187 to 125 Pa should notbe less than 7 min, in order to consider thestore sufficiently gas-tight. If the store doesnot reach this standard, efforts should bemade to locate and seal the leaks.Temperature ControlFig. 3.2. Door of a traditional controlledatmosphere storage unit in the UK. (Photographcourtesy of Dr R.O. Sharples.)The bags are gas-tight and partially inflated,and are placed outside the store with the inletto the bag inside the store. If the store air volumeincreases then this will automatically furtherinflate the bag, and when the pressure inthe store is reduced then air will flow from thebag to the store. The inlet of the expansion bagshould be situated before the cooling coils ofthe refrigeration unit, in order to ensure the airfrom the expansion bag is cooled before beingreturned to the store.Testing how gas-tight a store is is crucialto the accurate maintenance of the requiredCO 2and O 2levels. One way of measuringthis was described by Anon. (1974). A bloweror vacuum cleaner is connected to a store ventilatorpipe and a manometer connected toanother ventilator pipe. It is essential that themanometer is held tightly in the hole so thatthere are no leaks. The vacuum cleaner orblower blows air into the store and isThe main way of preserving fruits and vegetablesin storage or during long-distance transportis by refrigeration. Controlled atmosphereand modified atmosphere packaging are consideredsupplements to increase or enhancethe effect of refrigeration. There is evidencethat the inhabitants of the island of Crete wereaware of the importance of temperature in thepreservation of food, even as early as 2000 bc(Koelet, 1992). Mechanical refrigeration wasdeveloped in 1755 by the Scotsman WilliamCullen, who showed that evaporating etherunder reduced pressure, caused by evacuation,resulted in a reduction of the temperatureof the water in the same vessel, thus formingice. Cullen then patented a machine for refrigeratingair by the evaporation of water in avacuum. Professor Sir John Leslie, also a Scot,subsequently developed the technique in 1809and invented a differential thermometer and ahygrometer, which led him to discover a processof artificial congelation. Leslie’s discoveryimproved upon Cullen’s equipment by addingsulfuric acid to absorb the water vapour, andhe developed the first ice-making machine. In1834 an American, Jacob Perkins, was granteda UK patent (Number 6662) for a vapourcompressionrefrigeration machine. CarleLinde, in Germany, developed an ammoniacompression machine. This type of mechanicalrefrigeration equipment was used in the firstsea-freight shipment of chilled beef fromArgentina in 1879 and was employed in manyof the early experiments in fruit and vegetablestores.There is evidence that CA storage is onlysuccessful when applied at low temperatures

CA Technology 29(Kidd and West, 1927a,b). Standard refrigerationunits are therefore integral componentsof CA stores. Temperature control consists ofpipes containing a refrigerant inside the store.Ammonia or chloroflurocarbons R-12 andR-22 (the R-number denotes an industry standardspecification and is applied to all refrigerants)are common refrigerants, but becauseof concern about depletion of the ozone layerin the 1980s new refrigerants have been developed,which have potentially less detrimentaleffects on the environment, e.g. R-410A,which is 50:50 blend of R-32 and R-125 and isused as a substitute for R-22. The pipes containingthe refrigerant pass out of the store;the liquid is cooled and passed into the storeto reduce the air temperature of the store as itpasses over the cooled pipes. A simple refrigerationunit consists of an evaporator, a compressor,a condenser and an expansion valve.The evaporator is the pipe that contains therefrigerant, mostly as a liquid at low temperatureand low pressure, and is the part of thesystem which is inside the store. Heat isabsorbed by the evaporator, causing therefrigerant to vaporize. The vapour is drawnalong the pipe through the compressor, whichis a pump that compresses the gas into a hot,high-pressure vapour. This is pumped to thecondenser, where the gas is cooled by passingit through a radiator. The radiator is usually anetwork of pipes open to the atmosphere. Thehigh-pressure liquid is passed through aseries of small-bore pipes, which slows theflow of liquid so that a high pressure builds up.The liquid then passes through an expansionvalve, which controls the flow of refrigerantand reduces its pressure. This reduction inpressure results in a reduction in temperature,causing some of the refrigerant to vaporize.This cooled mixture of vapour and liquidrefrigerant passes into the evaporator, socompleting the refrigeration cycle. In moststores a fan passes the store air over the coiledpipes containing the refrigerant, which helpsto cool the air quickly and distribute it evenlythroughout the store.In commercial practice, for long-term CAstorage the store temperature is initiallyreduced to 0 °C for a week or so, whatever thesubsequent storage temperature will be. Thiswould clearly not be applicable to fruits andvegetables that can suffer from chilling injuryat relatively high temperatures (10–13 °C).Also CA stores are normally designed to acapacity which can be filled in 1 day, so fruitsare loaded directly into store and cooled thesame day. In the UK the average CA store sizewas given as about 100 t, with variationsbetween 50 and 200 t, in Continental Europeabout 200 t and in North America about 600 t(Bishop, 1996). In the UK the smaller-sizedrooms are preferred because they facilitatethe speed of loading and unloading.Humidity ControlMost fruits and vegetables require a high relativehumidity when kept in storage. Generallythe closer to saturation the better, so longas moisture does not condense on the fruits orvegetables. The amount of heat absorbed bythe cooling coils of the refrigeration unit isrelated to the temperature of the refrigerantthey contain and the surface area of the coils.If the refrigerant temperature is low comparedwith the store air temperature thenwater will condense on the evaporator. If therefrigerant temperature is well below freezingthen this moisture will freeze, reducingthe efficiency of the cooling system. Removalof moisture from the store air results in thestored crop losing moisture by evapotranspiration.In order to reduce crop desiccation,the refrigerant temperature should be keptclose to the store air temperature. However,this must be balanced with the removal of therespiratory heat from the crop, temperatureleakage through the store insulation anddoors, and heat generated by fans; otherwisethe crop temperature cannot be maintained.There remains the possibility of having a lowtemperaturedifferential between the refrigerantand the store air by increasing the area ofthe cooling surface, and this may be helpedby adding such devices as fins to the coolingpipes or coiling them into spirals. In a studyon evaporator coil refrigerant temperature,room humidity, cool-down and mass lossrates were compared in commercial 1200-binapple storage rooms by Hellickson et al.(1995). They reported that rooms in which

30 Chapter 3evaporator coil refrigerant temperatures weredictated by cooling demand required a significantlylonger time to achieve desiredhumidity levels than rooms in which evaporatorcoil temperatures were controlled by acomputer. The overall mass loss rate of applesstored in a room in which the cooling loadwas dictated by refrigerant temperature washigher than in a room in which refrigeranttemperature was maintained at approximately1 °C during the cool-down period.A whole range of humidifying devicescan also be used to replace the moisture in theair that has been condensed on the coolingcoils of refrigeration units. These includespinning-disc humidifiers, where water isforced at high velocity on to a rapidly spinningdisc. The water is broken down into tinydroplets, which are fed into the air circulationsystem of the store. Sonic humidifiers utilizeenergy to detach tiny water droplets from awater surface, which are fed into the store’sair circulation system. Dijkink et al. (2004)described a system that could maintain relativehumidity very precisely in 500-l containers.They were able to maintain 90.5 ± 0.1% rhusing a hollow-fibre membrane contactor thatallowed adequate transfer of water vapourbetween the air in the storage room and a liquiddesiccant. The membrane was made ofpolyetherimide, coated on the inside with athin, non-porous silicone layer. The desiccantwas a dilute aqueous glycerol solution, whichwas pumped through the hollow fibres at alow flow rate.Another technique that retains highhumidity within the store is secondary cooling,so that the cooling coils do not come intodirect contact with the store air. One such systemis the ‘jacketed store’. These stores have ametal inner wall inside the store’s insulation,with the refrigeration pipes cooling the airspace between the inner wall and the outerinsulated wall. This means a low temperaturecan be maintained in the cooling pipes withoutcausing crop desiccation, and the wholewall of the store becomes the cooling surface.In a study of export of apples and pears fromAustralia and New Zealand to the UK, theuse of jacketed stores gave a uniform temperaturewithin c. 0.3 °C (0.5 °F) in the bulk of astack of 50,000 cases (Anon., 1937). Ice-bankcooling is also a method of secondary cooling,where the refrigerant pipes are immersedin a tank of water so that the water is frozen.The ice is then used to cool water, and thewater is converted to a fine mist, which isused to cool and humidify the store air(Neale et al., 1981).Where crops such as onions are storedunder CA conditions, they require a relativehumidity of about 70%. This can be achievedby having a large differential between therefrigerant and air temperature, of about11–12 °C with natural air circulation or between9 and 10 °C where air is circulated by a fan.Gas Control EquipmentBurton (1982) indicated that, in the very earlygas stores (CA stores), the levels of CO 2andO 2were controlled by making the store roomgas-tight with a controlled air leak. Thismeant that the two gases were maintained atapproximately equal levels of about 10%.Even in more recent times the CO 2level in thestore was controlled while the level of O 2wasnot and was calculated as: O 2+ CO 2= 21%(Fidler and Mann, 1972). Kidd and West(1927a,b) recognized that it was desirable tohave more precise control over the level ofgases in the store and to be able to controlthem independently. In subsequent work thelevels of CO 2and O 2were monitored andadjusted by hand, and considerable variationin the levels could occur. Kidd and West(1923) showed that the levels monitored in astore varied between 1 and 23% for CO 2andbetween 4 and 21% for O 2over a 6-monthstorage period. In many early stores an Orsatapparatus was used to measure the levels ofstore gases. The apparatus contained O 2- andCO 2-absorbing chemicals. As the two gaseswere absorbed, there was a change in air volume,which was proportional to the volumesof the gases. This method is very time consumingin operation and cannot be used tomeasure volumes in a CA flow-through system.The atmosphere in a modern CA store isconstantly analysed for CO 2 and O 2 levelsusing an infrared gas analyser to measureCO 2and a paramagnetic analyser for O 2. The

CA Technology 31prices of the analytical equipment have fallenover the years and they can be used to measurethe gas content in the store air constantly.They need to be calibrated with mixtures ofknown volumes of gases. Another system,which is used mainly for research into CAstorage, is to mix accurately the gases in thedesired proportions and then ventilate thestore at an appropriate rate with the desiredmixture. This method tends to be too expensivefor commercial application. Variouspieces of apparatus to measure respirationrate of fruits and vegetables have been developedthat use changes in volume of gases andthe absorption of CO 2, usually with NaOH orother hydroxides. These include ClaypoolKeiffer and Ganong’s respirometer, whichhave been replaced by chromatography andelectronic methods.R.E. Smock at Cornell University introducedthe addition of a NaOH solution to thesystem for removal of CO 2in the 1940s. Theuse of hydrated lime for removing CO 2wassubsequently developed by Charles Eaves inCanada. The Whirlpool Corporation in theUSA built ‘Tectrol’ units for apple CA stores.Tectrol and other types used the combustionof propane or natural gas to develop an atmospherelow in O 2. In the USA Donald Deweyand George Mattus developed some automaticcontrols for CA storage (Mattus, 1963).In the early 1980s a system called ‘Oxydrain’was developed in the Netherlands, whereammonia was split into N 2and H 2. The N 2was injected into the store to reduce the O 2levels rapidly. N 2generators using selectivegas-permeable membranes and N 2cylindersare now more commonly used.Oxygen ControlThe way that traditional CA storage systemswere operated was that when the O 2reached the level required for the particularcrop it was maintained at that level by frequentlyintroducing fresh air from outsideof the store. Sharples and Stow (1986)reported that tolerance limits were set at±0.15% for O 2levels below 2%, and ±0.3%for O 2levels of 2% and above. This meansthat if an O 2concentration of 1% is required,air is vented when it drops to 0.85% until itreaches 1.15%. With continuing equipmentdevelopment, the precision with which theset levels of CO 2and O 2can be maintainedis increasing. With recent developments inthe control systems used in CA stores, it ispossible to control O 2levels close to thetheoretical minimum. This is because modernsystems can achieve a much lower fluctuationin gas levels, and ULO storage(levels around 1%) is now common.Carbon Dioxide ControlThere are many different types of scrubbersthat can remove CO 2from CA stores, but theycan basically be divided into two types. Oneuses a chemical that reacts with CO 2and thusremoves it from the store, sometimes called‘passive scrubbing’, and the other is renewable,sometimes called ‘active scrubbing’.Sharples and Stow (1986) stated that the CO 2level in the store should be maintained at±0.5% of the recommended level. Burdonet al. (2005) reported that the method of CO 2control may affect the volatile composition ofthe room atmosphere, which in turn mayaffect the volatile synthesis of fruit. They comparedactivated carbon scrubbing, hydratedlime scrubbing, N 2purging and storage in airon Hayward kiwifruits at 0 °C in 2% O 2+ 5%CO 2. After storage fruits were allowed toripen at 20 °C, and although volatile profilesdiffered between CA-stored and air-storedfruits, and also among fruits from the differentCO 2scrubbing systems, the different CO 2scrubbing systems did not result in measurabledifferences in ripe fruit volatile profiles.They also reported (Lallu et al., 2005) thatthere was little effect of the CO 2removal systemon fruit softening and the incidence ofrots, but N 2flushing resulted in kiwifruit withthe lowest incidence of physiological pitting.They concluded that different CO 2removalsystems altered room volatile profiles butdid not consistently affect the quality ofkiwifruit.There are many scrubbing systems usedcommercially and these are reviewed below.

32 Chapter 3Passive scrubbingThe simplest method is to place bags or palletsof a CO 2-absorbing chemical (usuallycalcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2) inside the store,which can keep CO 2levels low (usually about1%). This method is referred to as ‘productgenerated’, since the gas levels are producedby the crops’ respiration. Ca(OH) 2reacts irreversiblewith CO 2to produce calcium carbonate(CaCO 3), water and heat.For greater control, the bags or palletsof lime may be placed in a separate airtightroom. When the CO 2level in the store is abovethat which is required, a fan draws the storeatmosphere through the room containing thebags of lime (Fig. 3.3) until the required levelis reached. After scrubbing the air shouldre-enter the store just before it passes over thecooling coils of the refrigeration unit. Theremay also be some dehydration of the air as it isFig. 3.3. A simple lime scrubber for CO 2used inmany traditional controlled atmosphere stores in theUK. (Photograph courtesy of Dr R.O. Sharples.)passed through the lime, and the air may needhumidification before being reintroduced tothe store. The amount of lime requireddepends on the type and variety of the cropand the storage temperature. For example,Koelet (1992) stated that for 1 t of apple fruit7.5 kg of high-calcium lime is needed every6–10 weeks for most cultivars. Bishop (1996)also calculated the amount of lime required toabsorb CO 2from CA stores on a theoreticalbasis. He calculated that 1 kg of lime willadsorb 0.59 kg of CO 2, but for a practicalcapacity he estimated 0.4 kg of CO 2per 1 kg oflime. On that basis the requirement of limefor Cox’s Orange Pippin apples stored in

CA Technology 33Active scrubbingActive scrubbing consists of two containersof material which can absorb CO 2. Store air ispassed through one of these containers whenit is required to reduce the CO 2in the storeatmosphere, while the CO 2is being removedfrom the other one. When one is saturatedwith CO 2the containers are reversed and theCO 2is removed from the first and the secondabsorbs CO 2from the store. Active scrubbershave the advantage of being compact and areparticularly suitable for use in CA transportsystems. Koelet (1992) described such asystem where a ventilator sucks air from thestore through a plastic tube to an active carbonfilter scrubber. When the active carbonbecomes saturated with CO 2the tube is disconnectedfrom the store and outside air ispassed over it to release the CO 2. When thisprocess is complete the active carbon scrubberis connected to a ‘lung’, which is a balloonof at least 5 m 3 capacity, depending on thesize of the equipment, which contains anatmosphere with low O 2. This process is toensure that when the active carbon scrubber isreconnected to the store it does not containhigh O 2levels. Baumann (1989) described asimple scrubber system which could be usedin stores to remove both CO 2and ethyleneusing activated charcoal. A chart was also presentedwhich showed the amount of activatedcharcoal required in relation to the CO 2levelsrequired and ethylene output of the fruit in thestore. Various methods of CO 2control areavailable and some are described as follows.Pressure-swing adsorptionPressure-swing adsorption (PSA) uses acompressor which passes air under pressurethrough a molecular sieve made fromalumino-silicate minerals called zeolites,which separates the O 2and the N 2in the air.PSA is a dual-circuit system, so that when onecircuit is providing N 2for the store, the othercircuit is being renewed.Hollow fibre technologyThis is similar to PSA but hollow fibre technologyis also used to generate N 2to injectinto the store (Fig. 3.4). The walls of thesefibres are differentially permeable to O 2andN 2. Compressed air is introduced into thesefibres and by varying the pressure it is possibleto regulate the purity of the N 2coming outof the equipment and produce an output ofFig. 3.4. Nitrogen generator in use at a commercial controlled atmosphere store in Kent, UK.

34 Chapter 3almost pure N 2. The O 2content at the outputof the equipment will vary with the throughput.For a small machine with a throughputof 5 nm 3 h −1 , the O 2content will be 0.1%; at10 nm 3 h −1 O 2it will be 1% and at 13 nm 3 h −1 itwill be 2%.Molecular sieveMolecular sieves and activated carbon canhold CO 2and organic molecules such as ethylene.When fresh air is passed through thesesubstances the molecules are released. Thismeans that they can be used in a two-stagesystem where the store air is being passedthrough the substance to absorb the ethylenewhile the other stage is being cleared by thepassage of fresh air. After an appropriateperiod the two stages are reversed. Hydratedaluminium silicate or aluminium calcium silicateis used. The regeneration of the molecularsieve beds can be achieved when they arewarmed to 100 °C to drive off the CO 2andethylene. This system of regeneration isreferred to as ‘temperature swing’, where thegases are absorbed at low temperature andreleased at high temperature. Regenerationcan also be achieved by reducing the pressurearound the molecular sieve, which is called‘pressure swing’. During the regenerationcycle the trapped gases are usually ventilatedto the outside, but they can be directed backinto the container if this is required.Coal molecular sieveIn China a carbon molecular sieve N 2generatorhas been developed (Shan-Tao and Liang,1989) that is made from fine coal powder thatis refined and formed to provide aperturessimilar in size to N 2(3.17 Å) but smaller thanO 2(3.7 Å). When air is passed through itunder high pressure, the O 2molecules areabsorbed on to the fine coal powder and theair passing through has an enriched N 2level.Temperature-swing scrubbersA 40% solution of ethanolamine can also beused in such a system and can be regeneratedby heating the chemical to 110 °C. However,ethanolamine is corrosive to metals and is notcommonly used for CA stores.Pressurized water scrubbersWater scrubbers work by passing the store airthrough a water tower which is pumped outsidethe store, where it is ventilated with freshair to remove the CO 2dissolved in it insidethe store. However, O 2is dissolved in thewater while it is being ventilated and willtherefore provide a store atmosphere of about5% O 2+ 3% CO 2. A pressurized water CO 2scrubber was described by Vigneault andRaghavan (1991), which could reduce thetime required to reduce the O 2content in aCA store from 417 h to 140 h.Hydroxide scrubbersNaOH and KOH scrubbers work when thestore air is bubbled through a saturated solution,at about 50 l min −1 , when there is excessCO 2in the store. This method requires about14 kg NaOH for each 9 m 3 of apples per weekand, since the chemical reaction whichabsorbs CO 2is not reversible, the method canbe expensive.Selective diffusion membrane scrubbersSelective diffusion membrane scrubbershave been used commercially (Marcellin andLeTeinturier, 1966) but they require a largemembrane surface area in order to maintainthe appropriate gaseous content around thefruit.Nitrogen cylindersThis is a simple system where cylinders or atank containing N 2are connected to a vaporizerand pipes leading to the CA store. There isa sampling pump and meters to monitor O 2and CO 2levels in the store room and an airpump to inject outside air. As the O 2is depleted,fresh air is introduced, and as CO 2accumulates,N 2is introduced. N 2gas, pressurized toc. 276 kPa from liquid N 2tanks, can be fedinto the room through a vaporizer, which canestablish the required O 2levels in the storequickly with purge rates of up to 566 m 3 h −1 .Care must be taken to allow adequate ventilationto avoid a potentially catastrophic

CA Technology 35over-pressurization of the room. Additionally,very high purge rates may let purge gasescape through the vent before it is completelymixed with the store air. IntroducingN 2gas behind the refrigeration coils and ventinglow on the return wall assures high mixingeffectiveness (Olsen, 1986).CO 2additionFor crops which have only a very short marketablelife, such as strawberries, the CO 2level may also be increased to the requiredlevel by direct injection of CO 2from a pressurizedgas cylinder. This is common in transportof fruit in CA containers.Generating EquipmentIn early work the method used to achieve therequired O 2and CO 2levels in CA rooms wasproduct generated. This obviously resulted ina delay in achieving the required condition,which, in turn, could reduce the maximumstorage life or increase losses during storage.One method of reducing O 2rapidly was tointroduce into the store air that had first beenpassed over a gas burner. The room was ventilatedto prevent the increase in pressure;therefore the method was referred to as gasflushing. This gave a rapid reduction in O 2,but many of the products of burning gas, suchas CO, can act like ethylene and have a negativeeffect on maximum storage life of thestored fruits or vegetables. Natural or propanegas was combined with outside air andburned, which lowered the O 2and increasedCO 2. Most of the CO 2was removed before theatmosphere was fed into the CA room. AnItalian method used an ‘Isolcell’ unit, wherethe effluent was passed through a catalyst toensure complete oxidation of any partiallyoxidized compounds to CO 2. Activated carbonwas used to scrub out most of the CO 2before the generated atmosphere entered theroom. A different type of atmosphere generatorwas developed in the Netherlands called‘Oxydrain’. This utilized ammonia (NH 3)rather than propane. The NH 3was cracked,forming N 2and H 2, and the H 2was burnedwith the O 2from the room so no CO 2was produced.The ‘Arcat’ system recirculated the airfrom the room through the natural gas or propaneburner, and there was a separate systemto scrub out the CO 2produced. The use of acarbon molecular sieve N 2generator in CAstorage was described by Zhou et al. (1992a).Static CAThe method, described earlier, where levelsof O 2and CO 2are set, constantly monitoredand adjusted has been described as ‘static CAstorage’ and ‘flushed CA storage’, to definethe two most commonly used systems (D.S.Johnson, personal communication). ‘Static’ iswhere the product generates the atmosphereand ‘flushed’ is where the atmosphere is suppliedfrom a flowing gas stream which purgesthe store continuously. Systems may bedesigned which utilize flushing initially toreduce the O 2content, then either injectingCO 2or allowing it to build up through respiration,and then the maintenance of this atmosphereis by ventilation and scrubbing. Thegases are therefore measured periodicallyand adjusted to the predetermined level bythe introduction of fresh air or N 2, or passingthe store atmosphere through a chemical toremove CO 2.Dynamic CAIn DCA storage the levels of gases are monitoredon the basis of the physiology of thefruit or vegetable and data are passed to thecontrol mechanism, which then adjuststhe atmosphere in the store.Thompson (1996) reported that in someCA stores in the UK, where they stored applesin 1% O 2, an alcohol detector was fitted,which sounded an alarm if ethanol fumeswere detected because of anaerobic (fermentation)respiration. This enabled the storeoperator to increase the O 2level and no damageshould have been done to the fruit. Thedetector technology was based on that usedby the police to detect alcohol fumes on the

36 Chapter 3breath of motorists. This technology was subsequentlydeveloped, and Schouten (1997)described a system which he called ‘dynamiccontrol of ultra-low oxygen storage’, based onheadspace analysis of ethanol levels, whichwere maintained at less than 1 ppm where O 2levels were maintained at 0.3–0.7%. This canbe detected in store and the O 2adjusted tojust above the threshold level for fermentation.A more recent method of dynamic CAstorage uses other stress-associated metabolicresponses of fruits and vegetables to low O 2levels. Therefore DCA uses the responses ofactual fruits or vegetables being stored asmonitors of the store atmosphere. The stressis detected and the storage atmosphere isadjusted to relieve this stress, usually a computerprogram that maintains the level of O 2at slightly above the stress; level is used. DCAhas allowed lower levels of O 2to be used,which may extend the postharvest life.A commercial technology based on chlorophyllfluorescence measurement of stresswhich occurs when there is insufficient O 2foraerobic metabolism has been patented andcommercialized and is called Harvest-Watch. DeLong et al. (2004) indicated thatHarvestWatch facilitated ‘what may be thehighest possible level of fruit quality retentionin long-term, low-oxygen apple storagewithout the use of scald-controlling or otherchemicals before storage’.Burdon et al. (2008) reported that afterDCA storage using chlorophyll fluorescence,Hass avocados ripened in 4.6 days at 20 °Ccompared with 7.2 days for ‘static’ CA-storedfruit and 4.8 days for fruit stored throughoutin air. They also stored Hass in DCA (0.8, and the effective CA conditions forcherry tomatoes were estimated at 4–6% O 2+3.5–10% CO 2. Under these conditions, theirstorage quality and sensory evaluation weresatisfactory without CO 2injury and/or developmentof off-flavours (Lee, H.D. et al., 2003).The incidences of stem-end rot, body rotand vascular browning of avocados werelower in DCA-stored fruit (35, 29 and 29%,respectively) than in ‘standard CA’-stored fruit(57, 52 and 49, respectively) or fruit stored inair (76, 88 and 95%, respectively) (Burdonet al., 2008). Fruit firmness of DCA-storedapples was in general significantly higherthan that of ULO-stored fruit after storage forabout 200 days (Gasser et al., 2008).Anaerobic compensation pointACP is the critical internal O 2concentrationwhere the fruit or vegetable metabolismreaches a level that results in fermentation,and is applied during DCA. Two methods ofdetecting the anaerobic compensation pointwere described by Gasser et al. (2008), basedon respiratory quotient and fluorescence signalF-a monitoring, which were used to detectthe critical O 2concentration during DCAstorage. DCA under a stress atmospheremaintains a flat fluorescence (Fa) baseline,while those with lower O 2produce a Fa spike.

CA Technology 37O 2-induced fluorescence shifts occurredquickly at the lower O 2limit of the fruit orvegetable and were measurable and returnedquickly to the pre-stressed level when the O 2was raised above the lower O 2limit (Wrightet al., 2009). Chávez Franco et al. (2004) calculatedthe mean ACP values for Hass avocadosas 1.44% at 5.5 °C and 1.81% at 20 °C. Thesevalues increased with ripening, and theyclaimed that their results could be used todefine appropriate storage conditions forHass avocado fruits in MA systems. The productionof fermentation metabolites was notexclusive to O 2concentrations below the ACP,and temperature affected the accumulation ofthese compounds, with values of 10.7 mol100 ml −1 at 5.5°C and 101.3 mol 100 ml −1 at20 ο C. The production of those metabolitessignificantly increased with ripening, and thevalues, in the post-climacteric stage, were20 and 39 times greater than in the preclimactericstage, at 5.5 °C and 20 °C, respectively.Braeburn with 0.4% O 2exhibited ahigher critical level of ACP than Golden Delicious,Elstar and Maigold, which were 0.25–0.30%. After the critical O 2limit was reached,the O 2concentration was increased by about0.1–0.3% above the critical limit. In this way,fruits were held for 200 days at O 2levels of0.3–0.6% without causing physiological disorders(Gasser et al., 2008). In storage at 7–9 °CFonseca et al. (2004) found that Royal Sweetwatermelons had a higher respiration rate at8% O 2compared with 14% O 2, indicating thatthey have a high ACP.Membrane SystemsMarcellin and LeTeinturier (1966) reported asystem of controlling the gases in store by asilicone rubber diffuser. In subsequent trialsthey reported that they were able to maintainan atmosphere of 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2+ 94% N 2with the simple operation of only gas analysis.In later work by Gariepy et al. (1984), a siliconemembrane system was shown to maintain3.5–5.0% CO 2+ 1.5–3.0% O 2. They found that,in this system, total mass loss was 14% after198 days of storage of cabbage, comparedwith 40% in air. In a commercial-scale (472 t)experiment, an ‘Atmolysair system’ CA roomwas compared with a conventional cold roomfor storing Winter Green cabbages for 32weeks at 1.3 °C. The atmosphere in the Atmolysairsystem room was 5–6% CO 2+ 2–3%O 2+ 92% N 2and traces of other gases. Thiswas compared with a cold room maintainedat 0.3 °C. The average trimming losses wereless than 10% for the Atmolysair system roombut exceeded 30% in the cold room (Raghavanet al., 1984). Rukavishnikov et al. (1984)described a 100-t CA store under 150 and300 µ PE films, with windows of membranesselective for O 2and CO 2permeability made ofpolyvinyl trimethyl silane or silicon–organicpolymers. Apples and pears stored at 1–4 °Cunder the covers had 93 and 94% soundfruit, respectively, after 6–7 months’ storage,whereas the fruit storage in air at similar temperatureshad less than 50% after 5 months.A design procedure for a silicone membraneCA store, based on parametric relationships,was suggested by Gariepy et al. (1988) forselecting the silicone membrane area forlong-term CA storage of leeks and celery. A‘modified gaseous components system’ forCA storage using a gas separation membranewas designed, constructed and tested byKawagoe et al. (1991). The membrane waspermeable to CO 2, O 2and N 2, but to differentdegrees; thus the levels of the three gases varied.A distinctive feature of the system wasthe application of gas circuit selection toobtain the desired modified gaseous components.It was shown to be effective in decreasingCO 2content and increasing O 2content,but N 2introduction to the chamber was notincluded in the study.Sealed Plastic TentsLeyte and Forney (1999) designed and constructeda tent for the CA storage of smallquantities of fruit and vegetables suspendedfrom pallet racking in a cold room. The tentscould hold two standard pallets stacked 1.8 mhigh with produce and were sealed with twoairtight zippers and a small water trough,resulting in an airtight chamber that successfullymaintained a CA storage environment.

38 Chapter 3Huang et al. (2002) described studies using asealed plastic tent inside a cold storage room.A 2 × 2 × 2 m tent made of LDPE was set upinside a 0–1 °C cold room. The composition ofthe atmosphere within the tent was maintainedat 2–6% O 2(mostly at 3%) and 3–5%CO 2(mostly at 5%). Ethylene concentrationwas controlled below 0.1 ppm using an ethylenescrubber. Due to lack of ventilation, thetemperature inside the tent was always about0.7 °C higher than the temperature in the restof the room. A company developed a systemin 1997 which involved enclosing a large trolleyin a six-sided insulating blanket (a materialwith the trade name of ‘Tempro’) whichwas closed with heavy-duty Velcro. This wasshown to maintain the product temperaturewithin 1 °C, at a starting temperature of 0 °C,during a 22-h distribution period. The innerwalls of the insulating blanket had pockets inwhich dry ice could be placed to further helpto maintain product temperature and presumablyincrease the CO 2content.Fruit RipeningDuring the 1990s there was an increasingdemand for all the fruit being offered for salein a supermarket to be of exactly the samestage of ripeness so that it had an acceptableand predictable shelf-life. This led to thedevelopment of a system called ‘pressure ripening’,which is used mainly for bananas butis applicable to any climacteric fruit. The systeminvolves the circulating air in the ripeningroom being channelled through the boxesof fruit so that exogenous ethylene gas, whichinitiates ripening, is in contact equally withall the fruit in the room. At the same time,CO 2, which can impede ripening initiation, isnot allowed to concentrate around the fruit(Fig. 3.5).Hypobaric StorageHypobaric or low-pressure storage has beenused for several decades as a way of affectingthe partial pressure of O 2in fruit and vegetablestores. Pressure is referred to as millimetresFig. 3.5. Two-tier pressure-ripening room usedfor ripening bananas.of mercury, where atmospheric pressure atsea level is 760 mm Hg. This is also referred toas 1 atmosphere, and reduced pressures as afraction or a percentage of normal pressure.Therefore 76 mm Hg = 0.1 atmosphere and O 2partial pressure = approximately 2.09%. Thewater vapour in the store atmosphere has tobe taken into account when calculating thepartial pressure of O 2in the store. To do thisthe relative humidity must be measured and,from a psychometric chart, the vapour pressuredeficit can be calculated. This is thenincluded in the following equation:P partial pressure of O1− VPD× 21 =P in the store0where:P 0= outside pressure at normaltem perature;P 1= pressure inside the store;VPD = vapour pressure deficit insidethe store.2

CA Technology 39Table 3.1. Effects of CA storage, plastic fi lmwraps and hypobaric storage on the meanpercentage of sound capsicum fruit after 20 daysat 8.8 °C followed by 7 days at 20 °C (Hugheset al., 1981).Storage treatment% sound fruit aAir control43abCA storage0.03% CO 2 + 2% O 2 42ab3.00% CO 2 + 2% O 2 39b6.00% CO 2 + 2% O 2 21c9.00% CO 2 + 2% O 2 29bcStorage in plastic fi lm wrapSarenwrap67aVitafi lm PWSS57aPolyethylene (PE 301)69aVF 7163aHypobaric storage152 mm Hg 46ab76 mm Hg 36b38 mm Hg 42aba Values followed by the same letter were not significantlydifferent (P = 0.05).A major engineering problem with hypobaricstorage is that the humidity must bekept high, otherwise the fruits or vegetableswill lose excessive moisture. The reason forthis is that the lower the atmospheric pressurethe lower the boiling point of water,which means that the water in the fruits orvegetables will be increasingly likely to bevaporized. Water will boil at 0 °C in atmospheresof 4.6 mm Hg. The air being introducedinto the store must therefore be as closeas possible to saturation (100% rh). If it is lessthan this, serious dehydration of the crop canoccur. This reduced pressure is achieved by avacuum pump evacuating the air from thestore. The vacuum pump constantly changesthe store atmosphere because fresh air is continuallyintroduced from the outside atmosphere,thus removing gases given out by thecrop. The air inlet and the air evacuation fromthe store are balanced in such a way as toachieve the required low pressure within thestore. The store needs to be designed to withstandlow pressures without imploding. Toovercome this, stores have to be strongly constructedof thick steel plate, normally with acurved interior.The control of the O 2level in a hypobaricstore can be very accurately and easilyachieved and simply controlled by measuringthe pressure inside the store with a vacuumgauge. Hypobaric storage also has theadvantage of constantly removing ethylenegas from the store, which prevents levels inthe cells from building up to those whichcould be detrimental. The effects of hypobaricstorage on fruits and vegetables has beenreviewed by Salunkhe and Wu (1975) and byBurg (1975); they showed considerable extensionin the storage life of a wide range ofcrops when it is combined with refrigerationcompared with refrigeration alone. In otherwork these extensions in storage life underhypobaric conditions have not been confirmed(Hughes et al., 1981). They found thatcapsicums stored at 8.8 °C in 152, 76 or 38 mmHg did not have an increased storage lifecompared with those stored in air under thesame conditions (Table 3.1). The hypobaricstoredcapsicums also had a significantlyhigher weight loss during storage than theair-stored ones. A system of hypobaric storagethat controls water loss from producewithout humidifying the inlet air wasdescribed by Burg (1993). This was achievedby slowing the evacuation rate of air from thestorage chamber to a level where water evaporatedfrom the produce by respiration, andtranspiration exceeded the amount of waterrequired to saturate the incoming air. Burg(2004) used this technique with roses storedat 2 °C and a reduced pressure of 3.33 × 103 Nm 2 for 21 days with or without humidificationat a flow rate of 80–160 cm 3 min −1 . Theresults were positive since he found that thevase life of these roses was not significantlydifferent from that of freshly harvested roses.Hypobaric storage of bananas was shownto increase their postharvest life. Whenbananas were stored at 14 °C their storage lifewas 30 days at 760 mm Hg, but when thepressure was reduced to 80 or 150 mm Hg thefruit remained unripe for 120 days (Apelbaumet al., 1977). When these fruits were subsequentlyripened, they were said to be of verygood texture, aroma and taste. Awad et al.(1975) showed that bananas kept in a hypobaricatmosphere for 3 h daily showed no climactericrise in respiration rate and remained

40 Chapter 3green during the 15 days of the experiment.Storage of pineapple under hypobaric conditionextended the postharvest life by up to30–40 days (Staby, 1976). Hypobaric storageat 0.1 atmospheres (76 mm Hg) extended thestorage life of tomatoes to 7 weeks, comparedwith 3–4 weeks at 760 mm Hg. Similar resultswere observed with cucumbers and sweetpeppers. Bangerth (1974) showed that hypobaricstorage of parsley at 76 mm Hg at 2–3 °Cextended its postharvest life for up to 8 weeksand improved retention of ascorbic acid,chlorophyll and protein.Hypobaric storage of grapefruit at380 mm Hg (the lower limit of the experimentalequipment) at 4.5 °C had no effect on theincidence of chilling injury (Grierson, 1971).Wu et al. (1972) showed that hypobaric storageinhibited the ripening of tomatoes andthus extended their storage life. Inhibitionwas proportional to the reduction in pressure.Physiological changes associated with ripeningwere delayed. Tomatoes could be storedat 102 mm Hg for 100 days and then ripenedat 646 mm Hg in 7 days. Hypobaric storageextended the postharvest life of guavas,mainly by inhibiting ripening (Salunkhe andWu, 1974). Ahmed and Barmore (1980)reported that Hass avocados could be storedfor 70 days at 60 mm Hg combined with lowtemperature. Lee et al. (2009) investigatedpretreatment of Yumyung and Changhowonpeaches stored in 6% O 2+ 18% CO 2in pressuresranging from 0 kPa to 294.2 kPa. Theyshowed that this treatment improved theretention of firmness in both cultivars, butdid not affect any other quality parametermeasured during subsequent storage for 3weeks in air at 7 or 10 °C. In another experimentthe muskmelon cultivar Earl’s Favouritewas stored at 10 °C in air, at low pressureof 80–100 mm Hg, in sealed PE film packs orin 2.46% O 2+ 0.98% CO 2+ 96.56% N 2; the flavourwas better in the CA storage than thehypobaric (Zhao and Murata, 1988)Hypobaric storage can affect the developmentof physiological disorders. WangZhen Yong and Dilley (2000) compared storageof Law Rome, Granny Smith, Mutsu, RedDelicious and Golden Delicious apples at 1 °Cfor up to 8 months in air or hypobaric storageof 0.05 atmospheres. They found that if fruitswere placed in hypobaric conditions within1 month of harvest, scald did not develop.After a 3-month delay, scald developmentwas similar to that of fruits stored continuouslyat normal pressures. Scald did notdevelop on any fruits in hypobaric storage,while it developed on all cultivars exceptGolden Delicious stored at normal pressures.They proposed that hypobaric ventilationremoves a scald-related volatile substancethat otherwise accumulates and partitionsinto the epicuticular wax of fruits stored in airat atmospheric pressure.Hypobaric storage has been studied formangoes. Mature green fruits of the cultivar OKrong were hydrocooled from 32.2 °C to 30, 20or 15 °C, and dipped in 0.7, 0.85 or 1.0% concentrationsof a commercial wax formulation. Thefruits were then stored at 20 °C for 2.5 weeks orat 13 °C for 4 weeks at atmospheric pressure(760 mm Hg) or at hypobaric pressures (60, 100or 150 mm Hg). Quality after storage was best infruits hydrocooled to 15 °C, dipped in wax andstored at 13 °C at 60 or 100 mm Hg (Ilangantilekeand Salokhe, 1989).Hyperbaric StorageHyperbaric tanks and chambers are mademainly for the medical and diving industries,for example by the UK company EdwinSnowden. Exposing food products, includingfresh fruits and vegetables, to high-pressurestorage (up to 9000 atmospheres) wasreviewed by Anon. (1997). This is a techniquemainly used to control microorganisms andinvolves exposure for only brief periods.Robitaille and Badenhop (1981) described acompletely autonomous storage system withCO 2removal and automatic O 2replenishmentfor hyperbaric storage. They storedmushrooms in 35 atmospheres, which did notaffect their respiration rate but significantlyreduced moisture loss and cap browningcompared with storage at normal pressure.Neither pressurization nor gradual depressurizationover 6 h injured the mushrooms.Romanazzi et al. (2008) stored Ferrovia sweetcherries for 4 h and Italia table grapes for 24 hin pressures of 1140 mm Hg (1.5 atmospheres)

CA Technology 41and compared them with fruit at 760 mm Hg.Cherries were stored at 0 ± 1 °C for 14 days,followed by 7 days at 20 ± 1 °C, and grapes at20 ± 1 °C for 3 days. In cherries the incidenceof brown rot, grey mould and blue mould wasreduced in hyperbaric storage compared withthose stored at 760 mm Hg. It also resulted ina significant reduction of lesion diameter andpercentage of Botrytis cinerea in grapes. Theyconcluded that induced resistance was likelyto be responsible for the decay reductions.ModellingModelling has been used for CA stores, andwork has been reported at the Catholic Universityof Leuven in Belgium, led by BartNicolä. Nahor et al. (2003) described a modelfor simulation of the dynamics of heat, moistureand gas exchange in CA stores consistingof three interacting systems, which are: thecooled space, the refrigeration unit and thegas-handling unit. They reported that modelpredictions were usually found to be in goodagreement with the experimental results.Owing to the inclusion of product respirationand product quality models, the advantage ofthe simulation model was that optimizationof plant performance with respect to the finalquality of the stored fruit could be carriedout. Owing to the hierarchical and objectorientedapproach, greater flexibility withrespect to model modification and reusabilitywas achieved. Nahor et al. (2005) laterreported that the Michaelis–Menten-type gasexchangemodels were appropriate for applesand pears, as opposed to the empirical ones,owing to their generic behaviour. They recommendedthat the kinetic parameters of themodel should be expressed as a function ofthe physiological age of the fruit, to includethe influence of age when the models are tobe used to simulate gas exchange of bulkstoredfruit for longer storage periods.SafetyThe use of CA storage has health and safetyimplications. One factor that should betaken into account is that the gases in theatmosphere could possibly have a stimulatingeffect on microorganisms. Also the levelsof these gases could have detrimentaleffects on the workers operating the stores.In the UK the HSE (1991) showed that workin confined spaces could be potentially dangerousand entry must be strictly controlled,preferably through some permit system.Also it is recommended that anyone enteringsuch an area should have proper trainingand instruction in the precautions andemergency breathing apparatus. Stringentprocedures need to be in place, with a personon watch outside and the formulation ofa rescue plan. Anon. (1974) also indicatedthat when a store is sealed anyone enteringit must wear breathing apparatus. Warningnotices should be placed at all entrances toCA stores and an alarm switch located nearthe door inside the chamber in the eventthat someone may be shut in. There shouldbe a release mechanism so that the door canbe opened from the inside. When the produceis to be unloaded from a store, themain doors should be opened and the circulatingfans run at full speed for at least anhour before unloading is commenced. In theUK the areas around the store chamber mustbe kept free of impedimenta, in compliancewith the appropriate Agricultural SafetyRegulations.EthyleneEthylene is a colourless gas with a sweetishodour and taste, has asphyxiate and anaestheticproperties and is flammable. Its flammablelimits in air are 3.1 to 32% volume forvolume and its auto-ignition temperature is543 °C. Care must be taken when the gas isused for fruit ripening to ensure that levels inthe atmosphere do not reach 3.1%. As addedprecautions, all electrical fitting must be of a‘spark-free’ type and warning notices relatingto smoking and fire hazards must be displayedaround the rooms. Crisosto (1997)quoted that, for the USA, ‘All electrical equipment,including lights, fan motors andswitches, should comply with the National

42 Chapter 3Electric Codes for Class 1, Group D equipmentand installation’.OxygenO 2levels in the atmosphere of 12–16% canaffect human muscular coordination, increaserespiration rate and affect one’s ability to thinkclearly. At lower levels vomiting and furtherimpediment to coordination and thinking canoccur. At levels below 6% human beings rapidlylose consciousness, and breathing andheartbeats stop (Bishop, 1996). O 2levels ofover 21% can create an explosive hazard inthe store, and great care needs to be takenwhen hyperbaric storage or high-O 2MApackaging is used.Carbon dioxideBeing in a room with higher than ambientCO 2levels can be hazardous to health. Thelimits for CO 2levels in rooms for humanoccupation were quoted by Bishop (1996),from the Health and Safety Executivepublication EH40-95, Occupational ExposureLimits, as 0.5% CO 2for continuous exposureand 1.5% CO 2for 10 min exposure.MicroorganismsMicroorganisms, especially fungi, can growon fruits and vegetables during storage andcan produce toxic chemicals. One example isthe mycotoxin patulin (4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2-c], pyran-2(6H)-one). Patulin can occur inapples and pears that have been contaminatedwith Penicillium patulum, Penicilliumexpansum, Penicillium urticae, Aspergillus clavatusor Byssochlamys nivea and stored for longperiods. Morales et al. (2007) inoculatedGolden Delicious apples with P. expansumand stored them at 1 °C for up to 2.5 monthsin either low O 2or ultra-low O 2. Generally,bigger lesions were observed under ultra-lowO 2than under low O 2, but no patulin wasdetected in either condition. There was anincrease in lesion size when fruits were subsequentlystored at 20°C and patulin wasdetected, but there was no difference in patulincontent between ULO and low O 2.

4Harvest and Preharvest FactorsThe causes of variability in storage recommendationsfor fruits and vegetables includethe conditions in which they are grown. Factorsthat might affect this include soil, climate,weather and cultural conditions in which theyare grown and when and how they are harvested.For example, Johnson (1994a) foundthat the ester content of Cox’s Orange Pippinapples was influenced by growing season andsource of fruit. Delaying harvesting maximizedflavour potential, but harvesting toolate reduced storage life and had adverseeffects on textural quality. Johnson (2008) alsoreported that the significant variabilitybetween orchards in internal ethylene concentrationand quality of Bramley’s Seedlingapples treated with 1-MCP demonstrates theneed to maximize storage potential throughattention to preharvest factors. In the Republicof Moldova, Tsiprush et al. (1974) found thatthe place where Jonathan was grown affectedthe optimum storage conditions. They recommended5% CO 2+ 3% O 2for fruit from theKaushanskii and Kriulyanskii regions and 5%CO 2+ 7% O 2for fruit from the Kotovskiiregion, all at 4 °C and 83–86% rh.FertilizersThe chemical composition of fruits andvegetables is affected by the nutritionalstatus of the soil in which they are grown,which, in turn, can affect their storage life.Sharples (1980) found that for good storagequality of Cox’s Orange Pippin apples acomposition of 50–70% N, 11% minimum P,130–160% K, 5% Mg and 4.5% Ca (on a drymatter basis ) was required for storage untilMarch at 3.5–4.0 °C in 2% O 2+

44 Chapter 4TemperatureLau (1997) and Watkins et al. (1997) foundthat Canadian Braeburn apples were susceptibleto Braeburn browning disorder andinternal CO 2injury during CA storage aftercool growing seasons. In radishes Schreineret al. (2003) reported that the climate duringgrowth could affect their quality and postharvestbehaviour. Also they showed aneffect of seasonal preharvest conditions onMA packaging.Water RelationsIrrigation and rainfall can affect the storagelife of fruits and vegetables, but no informationcould be found on water relations havinga differential effect on those in CAstorage. Citrus fruit harvested early in themorning, during rainy periods or from treeswith poor canopy ventilation had a higherrisk of postharvest decay (sour rot, brownrot and green mould) than fruit from trees onwell-drained soils with good canopy ventilation.Conversely, fruit grown in climates thatare more arid tend to develop less rot duringpostharvest handling, transportation andmarketing. If fruit must be harvested fromtrees during rainy periods, it may be best toavoid fruit from lower branches, which maybe exposed to more pathogens (i.e. brownrot). Increased irrigation has been reportedto decrease postharvest incidence of stemendrot but increase the incidence of greenmould (Ritenour et al., 2009). In New Yorkstate, McKay and Van Eck (2006) found thatredcurrant plants that lacked water in thefirst growth phase (May–June) and hadexcess water in the last phase before harvestmay burst during storage. They also reportedthat any stress in the first growth phase cancause the strigs to be yellow.Harvest MaturityThere may be interactions between CA storageconditions and the harvest maturity ofthe fruits or vegetables, which may also beconfounded with the storage temperature.Trierweiler et al. (2004) indicated that Braeburnapples harvested at advanced maturity hadincreased Braeburn browning disorder afterstorage in 3.0% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2compared withfruit harvested at a less mature stage. Lau(1997) found that Canadian Braeburn appleswere susceptible to Braeburn browning disorderduring storage of fruit from advancedharvest maturity. Streif et al. (2001) also foundthat late harvesting of pears increased theappearance and intensity of browning disorders.In Gala Must apples stored in air or CAat 0 ° C, flesh browning symptoms increasedwith delayed harvesting date (Ben, 2001).Awad et al. (1993) found that for Jonagoldapples stored at 3% O 2+ 1% CO 2the level ofscald was 39% where the harvest was delayed,compared with apples from a normal harvestdate, where the level was 13%. However, inFuji apples Jobling et al. (1993) found that harvestmaturity was not critical, and all maturitystages tested had a good level of consumeracceptability for up to 9 months in CA storagefollowed by 25 days at 20 °C in air. In tomatoesBatu (1995) showed that MA packagingwas more effective in delaying ripening offruit harvested at the mature green stage thanfor those harvested at a more advanced stageof maturity.Johnson (2001) recommended that, inGala apples, later harvests should be consignedto shorter-term storage and quotesprevious work which suggested that Galastored well when harvested at above 7 kgfirmness and over a broad range of starch levelsof 50–90% black. He also pointed out thedifficulties in being sufficiently precise usingfirmness and starch levels in assessing theoptimum maturity for CA storage of Gala.Increased ethylene production was found tobe the best physiological marker of ripening.Internal ethylene concentration in excess of100 ppb normally indicated that a fruit hascommenced its ripening, and fruits for storageare usually picked just prior to this. Theinternal ethylene concentration data for thesix sites in a study indicated that a high proportionof fruit in five of the six orchards hadalready begun ripening when harvested.

Harvest and Preharvest Factors 45Whilst it is economically important that fruitachieve sufficient size and red coloration andcan be harvested with their stalks intact, thesecriteria should not be used as the primaryindicators of maturity for storage. Johnsonrecommended that picking over to ensurethat fruit maturity matches the storage expectationappears to be the solution in orchardsthat are slow to develop the desired visualcharacteristics.

5Pre-storage TreatmentsThe application of CA technology to thefresh fruit and vegetable industry requiresinputs of other technologies, including specialtreatments of the crop before it is putinto store. In most cases it is advisable toplace fruits and vegetables in store as quicklyas possible after harvest. However, in certaincases it has been shown that some treatmentscan be beneficial prior to CA storage, andthese are discussed below.High TemperatureRoot crops such as potatoes, yams and sweetpotatoes have a cork layer over the surface.This cork layer serves as a protection againstmicroorganism infections and excessive waterloss, but it can be damaged during harvestingand handling operations. Exposing them tohigh temperature and humidity for a fewdays directly after they have been loaded intothe store can facilitate repair of the damagedtissue and reduce postharvest losses in alltypes of storage. This is called curing, and it isalso applied to citrus fruits. The mechanismin citrus fruits is different from root crops, butit effectively heals wounds and reduces diseaselevels. Drying is also carried out to aidpreservation of bulb onions and garlic, butthis simply involves drying their outer layersto reduce microorganism infection and waterloss. For other crops pre-storage exposure tohigh temperature is less well established andoften still in an experimental stage. For example,Granny Smith apples were kept at 46 °Cfor 12 h, 42 °C for 24 h or 38 °C for 72 or 96 hbefore storage at 0 °C for 8 months in 2–3%O 2+ 5% CO 2. These heat-treated fruits werefirmer at the end of storage and had a highersoluble solids:acid ratio and a lower incidenceof superficial scald than fruits not heat treated.Pre-storage regimes with longer exposures tohigh temperatures of 46 °C for 24 h or 42 °Cfor 48 h resulted in fruit damage being evidentafter storage (Klein and Lurie, 1992).Immersing fruit in hot water or brushingwith hot water prior to storage is used to controlmicroorganisms that may have infectedfruits before storage. Also hot water treatmentof jujube at 40 °C increased their storagelife by slowing ripening and reducing the rateof ethylene evolution (Anuradha and Saleem,1998). The optimum recommended conditionsfor disease control vary between cropand disease organism (Thompson, 2003). Forexample, visible appearance of the fungal diseaseanthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)during ripening of mangoes waseffectively inhibited by hot water treatmentsat 46 °C for 75 min combined with storage for2 weeks at 10 °C in either 3% O 2+ 97% N 2or3% O 2+ 10% CO 2(Kim et al., 2007). Hot water© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and46 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

Pre-storage Treatments 47brushing at 56 °C for 20 s reduced decaydevelopment in grapefruit during storage(Porat et al., 2004). Exposure to temperaturesslightly higher than those used in storage hasbeen shown to have beneficial effects. Forexample, exposure of Granny Smith apples to0.5% O 2for 10 days at 1 °C before CA storageat −0.5 °C inhibited the development of superficialscald for fruits picked at pre-optimummaturity (van der Merwe et al., 2003).N-dimethylaminosuccinamic AcidN-dimethylaminosuccinamic acid is marketedas DPA, Daminozide, Alar, B9 or B995and is a plant growth regulator which hasbeen used to retard tissue senescence and cellelongation. However, it has been withdrawnfrom the market in several countries becauseof suggestions that it might be carcinogenic.In a comparison between preharvest andpostharvest application of Daminozide toCox’s Orange Pippin apples, immersion offruits in a solution containing 4.25 g l −1 for5 min delayed the rise in ethylene productionat 15 °C by about 2 days, whereas an orchardapplication of 0.85 g l −1 resulted in delays ofabout 3 days. Both modes of applicationdepressed the maximum rate of ethylene productionby about 30%. Daminozide-treatedapples were shown to be less sensitive to theapplication of ethylene than non-treated fruit,but this response varied between cultivars(Knee and Looney, 1990). Graell and Recasens(1992) sprayed Starking Delicious apple treeswith Daminozide (1000 mg l −1 ) in midsummerin 1987 and 1988. Controls were leftunsprayed. Fruits were harvested on 12 and24 September 1987, and 7 and 17 September1988, and stored in CA storage. Two CAstorage rooms were used: a low-ethylene CAroom, fitted with a continuous ethyleneremoval system, with a store ethylene concentrationranging from 4 to 15 µl l −1 ; and ahigh-ethylene CA room, where ethylene wasnot scrubbed and store ethylene concentrationwas >100 µl l −1 . In both seasons, after 8months’ storage at 0–1 °C in 3% O 2+ 4% CO 2with scrubbed ethylene, Daminozide-sprayedand earlier-harvested fruits were firmer andmore acid after storage than unsprayed orlater-harvested fruits stored in high-ethylene(4–15 µl l −1 ) CA. Generally, after a 7-day poststorageshelf-life period at 20 °C, the differencesbetween treatments were maintained.The soluble solids content of fruit sampleswas similar for all treatments.1-MethylcyclopropeneSince the discovery of the properties of 1-MCPas a postharvest ethylene inhibitor, there hasbeen an explosion of publications in theliterature. Papers dealing with 1-MCP usevarious measurements, and these have beenfollowed in this book, but for direct comparisons1 litre = 1000 ml (millilitres) = 1,000,000 µl(microlitres) = 1,000,000,000 nl (nanolitres) =1,000,000 ppm (parts per million) =1,000,000,000 ppb (parts per billion). 1-MCP isapplied to fruit, vegetables and flowers, butmainly apples, as a fumigant for a shortperiod directly after harvest to preserve theirquality and reduce losses during subsequentstorage. However, Warren et al. (2009) appliedit as an aqueous dip, and Jiang et al. (1999)and De Reuck et al. (2009) sealed it in plasticbags with bananas or litchis. 1-MCP is availableas a commercial preparation, includingSmartFresh and Ethylbloc. It can beapplied to the store on completion of loadingor in containers or gas-tight tents prior toloading into the store, or it can be applied ingas-tight rooms. Gas-tight curtains are available,which can be used temporarily to partitionpart of a store, making it independentlygas-tight with access through a zippered door.This is useful where only a relatively smallamount of fruits or vegetables needs to befumigated. Pallet covers are also availablethat are sufficiently gas-tight for fumigation.De Wild (2001) suggested that short-termCA storage might be replaced by 1-MCP treatment.Watkins and Nock (2004) supported thisview for apples, but they stated ‘. . . we do notadvocate the use of 1-MCP as an alter native toCA storage for medium to long term periods.With increasing storage periods, the two technologiesare always more effective when usedin combination’. Rizzolo et al. (2005) also

48 Chapter 5concluded that 1-MCP cannot substitute forCA storage but can reinforce the CA effects.Johnson (2008) reported that for apples thegreatest benefit from 1-MCP was derived whencombined with CA storage, although worthwhileextensions in storage life were achievedin air storage of 1-MCP-treated fruit. 1-MCP isan ethylene inhibitor, but in certain circumstancestreatment can stimulate ethylene production(Jansasithorn and Kanlavanarat, 2006;McCollum and Maul, 2009). Shiomi et al. (2002)found that treatment of immature, maturegreen or ripe pineapples with 1-MCP severaltimes during storage resulted in temporarystimulation of ethylene production immediatelyafter each treatment. Most of the reportedeffects of 1-MCP treatment have been positive,but Ella et al. (2003) reported that the use of toolow concentrations may lead to some degree ofsenescence acceleration in leafy vegetables,possibly because of relief from ethylene autoinhibition.Also, in certain circumstances1-MCP treatment has been associated withdecreased quality of fruit (Fabi et al., 2007) andincreased rotting (Hofman et al., 2001; Jianget al., 2001; Bellincontro et al., 2006; Baldwinet al., 2007). Jiang et al. (2001) suggested thatcomparatively low levels of phenolics in strawberriestreated with 1-MCP could account forthe decreased disease resistance.Gang et al. (2009) reported that the modeof action of 1-MCP was by inhibiting theactivities of ACC and delaying the peaks inthe ACC synthase activity and ACC concentrationand gene expression of these enzymesand of ethylene receptors at the transcriptlevel. Fu et al. (2007) indicated that the beneficialeffect of 1-MCP might be due to its abilityto increase the antioxidant potential as well asto delay fruit ripening and senescence. Theyfound that it retarded the activities of pectinmethylesteraseand polygalacturonase duringripening of pears, and the activities of theantioxidant enzymes catalase, superoxidedismutase and peroxidase were all significantlyhigher in 1-MCP-treated pears than inthe control fruit. Kesar et al. (2010, in press)reported that ethylene exposure of unripemature bananas induced the expression ofthe gene MaPR1a, which increased with ripening,and 1-MCP treatment prior to ethyleneexposure inhibited expression.LegislationIt may be surprising that permission has beenreceived for the use of 1-MCP as a postharvesttreatment when there is considerablepublic resistance to any chemical treatment offruits and vegetables, especially postharvest.USA (2002) stated:This regulation establishes an exemptionfrom the requirement of a tolerance forresidues of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)in or on fruits and vegetables when usedas a post harvest plant growth regulator,i.e., for the purpose of inhibiting the effectsof ethylene. AgroFresh, Inc. (formerlyBioTechologies for Horticulture) submitteda petition to EPA under the Federal Food,Drug, and Cosmetic Act, as amended bythe Food Quality Protection Act of 1996,requesting an exemption from therequirement of a tolerance. This regulationeliminates the need to establish a maximumpermissible level for residues of 1-MCP.The overall conclusion from the evaluationreported on 23 September 2005 by theEuropean Commission Health & ConsumerProtection Directorate-General was ‘that itmay be expected that plant protection productscontaining 1-methylcyclopropene willfulfil the safety requirements laid down inArticle 5(1) (a) and (b) of Directive 91/414/EEC’ (EC, 2005).The World Trade Organization does notexpect any human health concerns fromexposure to residues of 1-MCP when appliedor used as directed on the label and inaccordance with good agricultural practices.The data submitted by applicant andreviewed by the Agency support the petitionfor an exemption from the requirement of atolerance for 1-MCP on pre-harvested fruitsand vegetable, when the product is appliedor used as directed on the label. Thisregulation is effective 9 April 2008.(WTO, 2008)AppleWatkins and Nock (2004), in discussing thebeneficial effects of 1-MCP on apples, alsopointed out that its response can vary with

Pre-storage Treatments 49the cultivar as well as harvest maturity, handlingpractices, time between harvest andtreatment, and type and duration of storage.On the negative side they found that 1-MCPmay increase susceptibility to chilling injury,CO 2injury and superficial scald. Ethyleneproduction, respiration and colour changes inFuji apples were all inhibited following1-MCP treatment at 0.45 millimole m −3 (Fanet al., 1999). The threshold concentration of1-MCP inhibiting de novo ethylene productionand action was 1 µl l −1 . 1-MCP-treatedMcIntosh and Delicious apples were significantlyfirmer than non-treated apples followingcold storage and post-storage exposure to20 °C for 7–14 days (Rupasinghe et al., 2000).De Wild (2001) made a single application of1-MCP directly after harvesting to Jonagoldand Golden Delicious apples, followed by 6months’ storage at 1 °C in 1.2% O 2+ 4% CO 2,or storage in air at 1 °C followed by shelf-lifeof 7 days at 18 °C. No loss of firmness wasfound after the use of 1-MCP, and yellow discolorationof Jonagold decreased. Cold-storedapples showed greater softening than CAstoredapples, unless treated with 1-MCP.Treated apples did not show firmness lossesduring subsequent shelf-life. Exposure to1-MCP improved flesh firmness retention andreduced ethylene production of ScarletspurDelicious and Gale Gala after storage at 0 °C,both in air and 2% O 2+

50 Chapter 5Rupasinghe et al. (2000) also showed that thecontents of α-farnesene and conjugated trienealcohol in the skin were reduced 60–98% by1-MCP, and the incidence of superficial scaldwas suppressed by 30% in McIntosh and by90% in Delicious apples. Pink Lady exposedto 1 µl l −1 1-MCP for 24 h did not significantlyaffect flesh browning incidence during storageat 0.5 °C, while delaying CA by 2 or 4weeks reduced it (Castro et al., 2007). 1-MCPprevented scald in Cortland in one year andreduced it to 5% or less in another year whenfruits were stored for 120 days, and reduced itto 34% or less after 200 days of storage (Moran,2006). DeEll et al. (2005) reported that 1-MCPresulted in CO 2injury in McIntosh andEmpire apples, and a higher incidence of corebrowning in Empire and internal browning inGala. Gala with no 1-MCP in storage for 240days at 0 °C with zero CO 2resulted in a largereduction in firmness, but Gala in storage in1% O 2+ 0% CO 2had similar respiration rates,ethylene and total volatiles production tothose fruits stored in 2.5% O 2+ 2% CO 2.Empire stored at 0 °C in CA developed largeincidences of core browning, which wasworse in 1-MCP-treated fruits.The protocol recommended by Johnson(2008) for apples grown in the UK was 625 nll −1 of 1-MCP (based on empty store volume)applied for 24 h with minimal delay betweenharvest and application. He reported that differencesin firmness between air- and CAstoredCox’s Orange Pippin increased withtime in store, due to the more rapid softeningof air-stored fruit. Only 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2storagegave complete control of scald in 1-MCPtreatedBramley’s Seedling apples stored forlong periods. Delaying establishment of CAconditions from 10 to 28 days to avoid CO 2injury in Bramley’s Seedling did not affectinternal ethylene concentration, scald incidenceor firmness in 2002, but in 2003 therewas an adverse effect of a 21-day delay on thefirmness of fruit stored in 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2for284 days but no effects on scald development.Fiesta, Jonagold, Idared and Braeburn treatedwith 1-MCP failed to soften during 90 days ofCA storage. Despite a reduced internal ethyleneconcentration, Meridian apples treatedwith 1-MCP were not significantly firmerthan non-treated, and Spartan did notrespond to 1-MCP in terms of either internalethylene concentration or firmness.Asian pearCold storage of the cultivars Gold Nijisseikiand Hosui plus 1-MCP treatment was effectivefor long-term storage (Itai and Tanahashi,2008).AvocadoEttinger, Hass, Reed and Fuerte were treatedwith various concentrations of 1-MCP for 24 hat 22 °C and, after ventilation, were exposed to300 µl l −1 ethylene for 24 h at 22 °C. The fruitwere then stored at 22 °C in ethylene-free airfor ripening assessment. 1-MCP was found toinhibit ripening at very low concentrations.Treatment for 24 h with 30–70 nl l −1 1-MCPdelayed ripening by 10–12 days, after whichthe fruit resumed normal ripening (Feng et al.,2000). Hofman et al. (2001) showed that 1-MCPat 25 µl l −1 for 14 h at 20 °C increased the numberof days to ripening by 4.4 (40% increase)for Hass compared with non-treated fruit.1-MCP treatment was associated with slightlyhigher rot severity compared with fruit nottreated with 1-MCP. Hofman et al. (2001) alsoshowed that 1-MCP treatment could negatethe effects of exogenous ethylene and concludedthat 1-MCP treatment has the potentialto reduce the risk of premature fruit ripeningdue to accidental exposure to ethylene.BananaWilliams et al. (2003) found that, at 15 °C,bananas could be stored for 6 weeks in CA, butthis was doubled by the application of 300 nll −1 1-MCP for 24 h at 22 °C directly after ripeninginitiation with ethylene. However, 3 nl l −1had no effect and 30 µl l −1 slowed ripening‘excessively’. Eating quality was not affectedby 300 nl l −1 1-MCP (Klieber et al., 2003). WithCavendish bananas, treatment with 1-MCPdelayed peel colour change and fruit softening,extended shelf-life and reduced respiration

Pre-storage Treatments 51rate and ethylene production (Jiang et al., 1999).Ripening was delayed when fruits wereexposed to 0.01–1.0 µl l −1 1-MCP for 24 h, andincreasing concentrations of 1-MCP were generallymore effective for longer periods of time.Similar results were obtained with fruits sealedin 0.03 mm-thick PE bags containing 1-MCP ateither 0.5 or 1.0 µl l −1 , but delays in ripeningwere longer at about 58 days. Jiang et al. (2004),working on the cultivar Zhonggang, foundthat treating fruits with 1-MCP for 24 h at 20 °Csignificantly delayed the peaks of respirationrate and ethylene production but did notreduce the peak height of those exposed to50 ml l −1 ethylene. They also found a reductionin all the changes associated with ripening.The 1-MCP effects on all these changes werehigher during low-temperature storage andreduced in high-temperature storage.Treating bananas with 1-MCP was shownto result in uneven degreening of the peel.De Martino et al. (2007) initiated Williams toripen by exposure to 200 µl l −1 of ethylene for24 h at 20 °C. These bananas were then treatedwith 200 nl l −1 1-MCP at 20 °C for 24 h, thenstored in >99.9% N 2+

52 Chapter 5that exogenous ethylene exposure did notaccelerate yellowing in the florets pre-treatedwith 1-MCP.CapsicumSetubal red peppers were treated with 900ppb 1-MCP for 24 h at 20 °C or left non-treatedand packed in perforated PP bags by Fernández-Trujilloet al. (2009). They were stored ateither 20 or 8 °C for 4.5 days, then 3 days at20 °C and finally 4.5 days in a domestic refrigeratorat 5.6 °C to simulate retail distribution.1-MCP prevented the increase in skin colourand ethylene production, but it may haveincreased the fruit susceptibility to shrivellingand weight loss and, to a greater extent,pitting and grey mould.CarambolaGenerally, submerging fruit in an aqueous1-MCP solution at 200 ug l −1 active ingredientsuppressed total volatile production in thecultivar Arkin at both quarter- and halfyellowharvest maturity or when stored at5 °C for 14 days and transferred to 20 °C orstored constantly at 20 °C until reachingquarter-orange stage. 1-MCP suppressed volatileproduction for fruit stored at 20 °C wherethe fruit were harvested at the quarter- andhalf-yellow stages, and total volatiles weresuppressed by 14 and 28%, respectively. Treatmentwith 1-MCP delayed the time to thequarter-orange stage by 2–5 days at 20 °C(Warren et al., 2009).CucumberLima et al. (2005) found that exposure of differentcultivars to 1.0 µl l −1 1-MCP resulted insignificant retention of firmness and surfacecolour in the cultivar Sweet Marketmore, butit had minimal effects on Thunder. Theyfound that those exposed to 10 µl l −1 ethyleneat 15 °C showed rapid and acute cellularbreakdown within 4 days, but this effect wasreduced, but not eliminated, by the 1-MCPtreatment. Nilsson (2005) also found somebenefit in delaying degreening with 1-MCP,especially when they were exposed to ethylene.However, it was concluded that theyprobably showed little benefit from 1-MCPunless exogenous ethylene was present.Custard appleHofman et al. (2001) found that exposure ofthe cultivar Africa Pride to 1-MCP at 25 µl l −1for 14 h at 20 °C increased the number of daysto ripening by 3.4 days (58%) compared withnon-treated fruit. 1-MCP treatment was associatedwith slightly higher severity of externalblemishes and slightly higher rot severitycompared with non-treated fruit. Since the1-MCP treatment countered the effects ofexogenous ethylene, they concluded it has thepotential to reduce the risk of premature ripeningdue to accidental exposure to ethylene.DurianMon Thong durian pulp was exposed to 0, 50,100, 200 and 500 ppb of 1-MCP for 12 h at20 °C then stored in 15 µm PVC film at 4 °C bySudto and Uthairatanakij (2007). After 8 days’storage at 20 °C, treated fruits were firmerthan non-treated. The 50 ppb treatment wasthe most effective in delaying the accumulationof CO 2inside the packages, but none ofthe treatments affected ethylene production,and 1-MCP treatment had no significant effecton firmness. In contrast, they found that after8 days’ storage at 20 °C whole fruits that hadbeen exposed to 1-MCP were firmer thannon-treated ones. Treatment with 1-MCPresulted in a reduction of the starch contentand the increase of soluble solids and theactivity of lipoxygenase.FigFruits of the cultivar Bardakci were harvestedat optimum harvest maturity; half were

Pre-storage Treatments 53treated with 10 ppb 1-MCP at 20 °C for 12 hand the other half left non-treated, and bothwere stored at 0 °C with 90–92% rh for 15 daysby Gözlekçi et al. (2008). They found that the1-MCP treatment slowed fruit softening buthad no effect on titratable acidity and totalsoluble solids.GrapeAleatico grapes (Vitis vinifera) picked at 20.4–20.6 °brix were left non-treated or treated with500 mg l −1 ethylene or 1 mg l −1 1-MCP for 15 hat 20 °C and 95–100% rh, then stored at 20 °Cand 85% rh for 13 days. 1-MCP-treated grapesdid not show ethylene production for 2 daysafter treatment, whereas non-treated grapesproduced constant amounts of 3–4 µl kg −1 h −1 ,but after day 6 no significant differences wereobserved among samples or in their respirationrates. 1-MCP-treated grapes showed asignificant loss of terpenols and esters,although levels of alcohols were maintained,especially hexan-1-ol. Levels of grey mouldwere also higher in 1-MCP-treated fruits(Bellincontro et al., 2006).1-MCP treatment had ethylene productionrates of about 400 nl kg −1 h −1 (McCollum andMaul, 2009).GuavaIn the cultivar Allahabad Safeda, 1-MCPtreatment at 20 ± 1 °C reduced ethylene production,respiration rate, changes in fruitfirmness, total soluble solids and titratableacidity during storage at both 10 °C and25–29 °C, depending upon 1-MCP concentrationand exposure duration. Vitamin C contentin 1-MCP-treated fruit was significantlyhigher and there was a significant reductionin the decay compared with non-treated fruit,and the development of chilling injury symptomswas ameliorated to a greater extent in1-MCP-treated fruit. It was reported that1-MCP at 600 nl l −1 for 12 h and storage at10 °C seemed a promising way to extend thestorage life, while 1-MCP at 300 nl l −1 for 12and 24 h or 600 nl l −1 for 6 h may be used toprovide 4–5 days’ extended marketability offruit under ambient conditions of 25–29 °C(Singh and Pal, 2008a).GrapefruitTreatment with 1-MCP at concentrationsequal to or greater than 75 nl l −1 inhibitedethylene-induced degreening, but the effectwas transient, and increasing 1-MCP concentrationsgreater than 150 nl l −1 did not causeadditional inhibition of degreening. 15 and75 nl l −1 1-MCP resulted in a slight suppressionof respiration rate, while 150 or 300 nl l −11-MCP resulted in higher respiration ratesthan non-treated fruit. 1-MCP treatment alsoresulted in an increase in the rate of ethyleneproduction, which was dose and time dependent.The effects of 1-MCP on respirationrate and ethylene production were significantlyreduced if fruits were subsequentlyexposed to ethylene. Rates of ethylene evolutionwere some 200 nl kg −1 h −1 from controland ethylene-treated fruits compared withabout 10,000 nl kg −1 h −1 from 1-MCP-treatedfruit. Fruits treated with ethylene followingKiwifruitThe application of 1 µl l −1 1-MCP for 20 h atroom temperature immediately after harvestshowed beneficial effects in retaining qualityduring 3 months’ storage at 1 °C. Thosetreated with 1-MCP were firmer and had ahigher level of total soluble solids than nontreatedfruits (Antunes et al., 2008). Ascorbicacid was higher in the non-treated fruit, buttaste panellists did not find significant differencesbetween treatments, except that 1-MCPtreatedfruit had better appearance.LettuceButterhead lettuce treated with 1-MCP hadreduced respiration rate and ethylene production,and russet spotting was retarded and theascorbic acid level was retained compared

54 Chapter 5with non-treated lettuce during 12 days’ storageat either 2 or 6 °C (Tay and Perera, 2004).Lime1-MCP conserved the colour of Tahiti limesduring 30 days’ storage at 10 °C (Jomori et al.,2003). Win et al. (2006) showed that chlorophyllaseand chlorophyll-degrading peroxidaseactivities in flavedo tissue of lime peelwere delayed in 1-MCP-treated fruit at concentrationsof 250 and 500 nl l −1 . 1-MCP at 250or 500 nl l −1 effectively suppressed endogenousethylene production, but a concentrationof 1000 nl l −1 accelerated yellowing within9 days, while 750 nl l −1 -treated fruit turnedcompletely yellow in 15 days. Ethylene productionrate of fruit that had been treatedwith 1000 nl l −1 1-MCP was 1.6 times higherthan that of non-treated fruit. Also, ascorbicacid content was reduced in fruit treated with1000 nl l −1 1-MCP but not in fruit treated with250, 500 or 750 nl l −1 .LitchiSivakumar and Korsten (2007) investigatedthe possibility of replacing SO 2fumigationwith 1-MCP as a postharvest treatment on thecultivar McLean’s Red. They simulated exportmarketing conditions by fumigation with amoderate concentration of 1-MCP for 3 h thenstorage in 17% O 2+ 6% CO 2for 21 days at4 °C, then packaging in MA at 10 °C. Theyfound that fungal decay was controlled andtheir natural pinkish red colour was retainedin fruits with these treatments. Those storedin 3% O 2+ 7% CO 2had a deep red colour butshowed limited yeast decay, and the total solublesolids, acidity and ascorbic acid contentswere slightly affected. De Reuck et al. (2009)packed Mauritius and McLean’s Red fruits inbiorientated PP bags and exposed them to1-MCP at 300, 500 or 1000 nl l −1 within thepackaging, then heat-sealed and stored themat 2 °C for up to 21 days. This combination oftreatments was effective in retention of colourand preventing browning in both cultivars.1-MCP significantly reduced polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase activity, retainedmembrane integrity and anthocyanin contentand prevented the decline of pericarp colourduring storage. At higher concentrations than300 nl l −1 1-MCP showed negative effects onmembrane integrity, pericarp browning andpolyphenol oxidase and peroxidase activityin both cultivars, but at 1000 nl l −1 there was asignificant suppression of respiration rate andbetter retention of their total soluble solids,acidity and firmness.MangoHofman et al. (2001) showed that 1-MCP at25 µl l −1 for 14 h at 20 °C increased the time toripening by 5.1 days (37%) in the cultivarKensington Pride, but treatment at least doubledthe severity of stem rot compared withnon-treated fruit. However, they concludedthat 1-MCP treatment has the potential toreduce the risk of premature fruit ripeningdue to accidental exposure to ethylene. Thecultivar Nam Dok Mai was treated with500 ppb 1-MCP and then stored at 13 °C in 3%O 2+ 5% CO 2by Kramchote et al. (2008). Theyreported that storage in the CA was the mosteffective way to delay fruit yellowing, while1-MCP was more effective in maintainingfirmness and suppressing ethylene production.The production of aroma volatile compoundsemitted after 28 days’ storage showedthe accumulation of high levels of ethanol forfruits in 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2, while 1-MCP treatmentmainly suppressed volatile emission.Wang et al. (2007) harvested the cultivarT ainong at the green-mature stage, treated itwith 1 µl l −1 1-MCP for 24 h and stored it at20 °C for up to 16 days. 1-MCP maintainedfruit firmness and ascorbic acid but inhibitedthe activities of antioxidant enzymes, includingcatalase, superoxide dismutase andascorbate peroxidase.MelonFlesh softening, respiration rate and ethyleneproduction were reduced in the cultivarHy-Mark by 1-MCP treatment, with 300 nl l −1

Pre-storage Treatments 55being the optimum rate. Treated melons wereacceptable for 27 days, whereas the non-treatedfruits could be stored for no longer than7 days. Treated Galia retained their firmnessfor up to 30 days, and the postharvest life oftreated Charantais was 15 days at room temperature(25 ± 3 °C and 65 ± 5% rh). In the cultivarOrange Flesh, treatment delayed ripeningand controlled decay (Fusarium pallidoroseum)incidence (Alves et al., 2005). Sa et al. (2008)stored Cantaloupe in X-tend bags for 14 daysat 3 ± 2 °C, then removed them from their bagsand stored them for a further 8 days at roomtemperature (23 ± 2 °C and 90 ± 2% rh). Thefruits retained their quality in the bags, butpre-treatment with 1-MCP or inclusion ofpotassium permanganate on vermiculitewithin the bags gave no additional effects.OnionGreater concentrations of sucrose, glucose andfructose were found in 1-MCP-treated bulbsof the cultivar SS1 stored at 12 °C, and dryweight was maintained as compared withnon-treated bulbs (Chope et al., 2007). Duringstorage at 18 °C exogenous ethylene suppressedsprout growth in the cultivar Copra ofboth dormant and already-sprouting bulbs byinhibiting leaf blade elongation, but treatmentof dormant bulbs with 1-MCP resulted in prematuresprouting. The dormancy-breakingeffect of 1-MCP indicates a regulatory role ofendogenous ethylene in onion bulb dormancy(Bufler, 2009). In contrast, Chope et al. (2007)reported that sprout growth was reduced inbulbs treated with 1 µl l −1 1-MCP for 24 h at20 °C and stored at 4 or 12 °C, but not whenthey were stored at 20 °C.PapayaHofman et al. (2001) showed that exposure to1-MCP at 25 µl l −1 for 14 h at 20 °C increasedthe number of days to ripening by 15.6 days(325%) in the cultivar Solo compared withnon-treated fruit. They concluded that 1-MCPtreatment has the potential to reduce the riskof premature fruit ripening due to accidentalexposure to ethylene. However, Fabi et al.(2007) compared non-treated, ethylene or ethylene+ 1-MCP-treated Golden papayas andfound that 1-MCP could decrease the qualityof fruit and that even the use of ethylene forinitiating ripening could result in lower qualitywhen compared with that of fruit allowedto ripen ‘naturally’. Hofman et al. (2001) alsofound that 1-MCP could have a negativeeffect, since treatment was associated withslightly higher severity of external blemishesand slightly higher severity of rots comparedwith those not treated.ParsleyElla et al. (2003) reported that a single applicationof 1-MCP at 10 µl l −1 could be used to retardsenescence of parsley leaves early in their storagelife, but they also found that this treatmentcould increase ethylene biosynthesis.PeachTreatment with 1 µl l −1 1-MCPat 20 °C for 14 hreduced the rate of softening, loss of sugarsand organic acids, and inhibited increases inethylene production and respiration rate during16 days’ storage in 90–95% rh at 8 °C forMibaekdo and 5 °C for Hwangdo (Hee et al.,2009). Treating the cultivar Jiubao with 0.2 µll −1 of 1-MCP at 22 °C for 24 h effectivelyslowed the decline in fruit firmness. The minimumconcentration of 1-MCP that inhibitedfruit softening was 0.6 µl l −1 , and repeatedtreatment resulted in more effective inhibitionof ripening. Changes in total soluble solids,total sugars, titratable acidity, solublepectin and ethylene production were alsosignificantly reduced or delayed by 1-MCP.The activities of phenylalanine ammonialyase,polyphenoloxidase and peroxidase inthe inoculated fruit were also enhanced by1-MCP (Hongxia et al., 2005). In the cultivarTardibelle, treatment with 1-MCP was effectivein preserving firmness during subsequentcold storage for 21 days in air, but hadno effect on those in CA (Ortiz and Lara,2008). Postharvest decay of cultivar Jiubao

56 Chapter 5fruits that had been inoculated with P. expansumwas reduced by treatment with 1-MCP,and disease progress was reduced duringcold storage for 21 days (Hongxia et al., 2005).Pear1-MCP prolonged or enhanced the effects ofCA storage of the cultivar Conference (Rizzoloet al., 2005). However, they found that theeffects of 1-MCP treatment at 25 and 50 nl l −1declined with duration of storage for up to 22weeks at −0.5 °C (followed by 7 days in air at20 °C) in both CA and air storage. Evenre-treating the fruit after 7 and 14 weeks’ storagehad little additional effects on subsequentripening. Ethylene production was lower andfirmness was higher in 50 nl l −1 -treated fruits,while 25 nl l −1 -treated fruits were similar tonon-treated. Non-treated and 25 nl l −1 -treatedfruit reached their best sensory quality after14 weeks’ storage, while 50 nl l −1 -treated fruitreached the same sensory quality later, retaininga fresh flavour when the quality of controlfruit declined and became watery or grainy.The cultivars Williams, Bosc and PackhamsTriumph were stored for approximately 300days at −0.5°C in 2.5% O 2+ 2.0% CO 2or in airby Lafer (2005). The fruits that had been pretreatedwith 625 ppb 1-MCP had delayed softeningand no loss of titratable acidity in allthree cultivars, whereas non-treated fruitsshowed excessive softening and reduction intitratable acidity during shelf-life.The cultivar Yali was exposed to 0, 0.01,0.1, 0.2 or 0.5 µl l −1 1-MCP for 24 h or 0.2 µl l −1for 0, 12, 24 or 48 h then stored at 20 °C and85–95% rh by Fu et al. (2007). Those treatedwith 1-MCP retained their firmness and totalsoluble solids content better than those nottreated. After 100 days’ storage the incidenceand index of core browning was reduced by91 and 97% respectively by 1-MCP treatment,and the occurrence of black and witheredstems was also reduced by 59% by1-MCP after 32 days’ storage. 1-MCP alsoreduced ethylene production and respirationrate. Rizzolo et al. (2005) showed that thedevelopment of superficial scald was notprevented by 1-MCP treatment, but theseverity of the symptoms was less in the cultivarConference.Isidoro and Almeida (2006) reported that1-MCP can be used to replace diphenylamineas a postharvest treatment to control scald inthe cultivar Rocha, although ripening after storagewas delayed by relatively high concentrations.Spotts et al. (2007) reported that 1-MCPreduced decay (bull’s-eye rot, Phacidio pycnisrot, stem-end rot and grey mould) in the cultivard’Anjou. They concluded that a combinationof 1-MCP and hexanal at optimal rates mayreduce storage decay caused by fungal infection,control superficial scald and allow normalripening. Lafer (2005) found that rotting causedby Penicillium expansum and Botrytis cinerea wasthe main problem during long-term storage,and neither CA nor 1-MCP were effective inpreventing fruit rotting. The effect of 1-MCP onfungal decay varied considerably among thecultivars tested and the stage of maturity.PersimmonKaynaş et al. (2009) reported that the cultivarFuyu treated with 1-MCP at either 625 or1250 ppb for 24 h at 18–20 °C, then stored insealed LDPE bags at 0–1 °C and 85–90% rhcould be kept for 120 days. Ben Arie et al.(2001) reported that there was very little fruitsoftening in storage at 1 °C in an ethylenefreeatmosphere, and the rates of ethyleneevolution and fruit softening declined withan increase in 1-MCP concentration from 0 to600 ppb. The commercial shelf-life of the fruitwas doubled or trebled following exposureto 1-MCP, the effect becoming stronger as theseason advanced and the rate of softening ofnon-treated fruit accelerated. No adverseeffects of the treatment were observed. Blackspot (Alternaria alternata) was the limitingfactor in storage, but 1-MCP had no observableeffects on infection levels.Fuyu stored by Pinto et al. (2007) at 10 °C,especially in 1% O 2+ 0% CO 2and 2% O 2+ 0%CO 2plus 1-MCP, had a higher percentage offirm fruits and lower decay incidence after 17days. The cultivar Nathanzy was harvestedwhen the orange colour had developed onthe peel (commercial maturity) by Ramm

Pre-storage Treatments 57(2008) and then treated with 1-MCP at 0.5, 1.0or 1.5 ul l −1 for 24 h at 20 °C and stored at20 °C. The non-treated fruits softened within15 days, but those treated with 1-MCP at 1 or1.5 ul l −1 remained firmer for 30 days afterharvest and had lower respiration rates, but0.5 ul l −1 had a limited inhibitory effect onsoftening. Changes in total soluble solids,acidity and peel colour occurred duringstorage, but all were significantly delayed by1-MCP. It was concluded that 1-MCP iseffective for quality maintenance and extensionof shelf-life in persimmon and couldallow harvesting at the orange stage of maturity,at which stage the most desirable organolepticattributes have been developed onthe tree. Zisheng (2007) treated the cultivarQiandaowuhe with 3 µl l −1 1-MCP for 6 h andstored them at 20 °C, which greatly extendedtheir postharvest life compared with those nottreated. 1-MCP treatment delayed the onset ofethylene production and the increase in respirationrate and delayed the depolymerizationof chelator-soluble pectic substances andalkali-soluble pectic substances. These are cellwall hydrolysis enzymes, and the increase inwater-soluble pectic substances was reducedcompared with non-treated fruit.PineappleShiomi et al. (2002) found that the rate ofcolour change of immature, mature green orripe fruits was slower for those that had beentreated with 1-MCP. The delaying effect wasgreater in the immature fruits. They alsoshowed that 1-MCP treatment several timesduring storage actually resulted in temporarystimulation of ethylene production immediatelyafter each treatment, but 1-MCPdecreased their respiration rate.PlumManganaris et al. (2008) reported that both theEuropean (Prunus domestica) and Japanese(Prunus salicina) plum respond to 1-MCP bydelayed ripening. Postharvest applicationof 1-MCP at 0, 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0 µl l −1 for 24 h at20 ± 1 °C to the Japanese plum cultivar TeganBlue was reported, by Khan and Singh (2007),to delay ethylene production significantlyand also suppress its magnitude. Also, therewas a reduction in the activity of ethylenebiosynthesis enzymes and fruit-softeningenzymes in the skin and pulp tissues. However,subsequently Khan et al. (2009) showedsimilar effects but additionally they reportedreduced total soluble solids, ascorbic acid,total carotenoids and total antioxidants in1-MCP-treated cultivar Tegan Blue comparedwith those not treated. They found that1-MCP at 1 µl l −1 was effective in extendingthe storage life up to 6 weeks in cold storagewith minimal loss of quality.PotatoPrange et al. (2005) concluded that 1 µl l −11-MCP for 48 h at 9 °C could be used to controlfry colour darkening induced by ethylene(4 µl l −1 ) without affecting ethylene control oftuber sprouting. However, they found thatthe number of 1-MCP applications requiredvaried between the two cultivars they tested,in that one application was sufficient inRusset Burbank but not in Shepody, whichstarted darkening 4 weeks after exposure inthe single ethylene + 1-MCP treatment.SapodillaIn Brazil fruits treated with 300 nl l −1 1-MCPfor 12 h and then stored in MA packaging at25 ± 2 °C and 70 ± 5% rh had softening delayedfor 11 days longer than those not treated(Morais et al., 2008). In Mexico, treatmentwith 100 or 300 nl l −1 1-MCP resulted in a storagelife of 38 days at 14 °C (Arevalo-Galarza etal., 2007). 1-MCP treatment at 40 or 80 nl l −1for 24 h at 20 °C delayed increases in respirationrate and ethylene production andresulted in increased polygalacturonaseactivity by 6 days during storage at 20 °C.Decreases in ascorbic acid, total soluble solids,titratable acidity and chlorophyll contentwere also delayed (Zhong et al., 2006). 1-MCPtreatedfruit showed an inhibition of cell

58 Chapter 5wall-degrading enzyme activities and lessextensive solubilization of polyuronides,hemicellulose and free neutral sugar whencompared with non-treated fruit. It was suggestthat delayed softening of sapodilla islargely dependent on ethylene synthesis(Morais et al., 2008).SpinachGrozeff et al. (2010) found that treatment with0.1 or 1.0 µl l −1 1-MCP inhibited ethylene sensitivity,which could be successfully used toretain their quality and chlorophyll content at23 °C for 6 days compared with those nottreated.StrawberryThe cultivar Everest was treated with 1-MCPat various concentrations from 0 to 1000 nl l −1for 2 h at 20 °C and then stored for 3 days at20 °C and 95–100% rh. 1-MCP treatment loweredethylene production and tended to maintainfruit firmness and colour, but diseasedevelopment was quicker in fruit treated with500 and 1000 nl l −1 . 1-MCP inhibited phenylalanineammmonia-lyase activity and reducedincreases in anthocyanin and phenolic content(Jiang et al., 2001).SudachiSudachis (Citrus sudachi) were treated with1-MCP at 0, 0.01, 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0.µl l −1 for 6, 12or 24 h at 20 °C and then stored at 20 °C byIsshiki et al. (2005). Treatment with 0.1 µ l l −11-MCP was the most effective in delayingdegreening, and it did not induce peel browningand internal quality degradation. However,at 0.5 and 1.0 µl l −1 1-MCP had littleeffect on delaying degreening or inducingpeel browning.Tomato1-MCP was applied for 12 h at 22 ± 1 °C and80–85% rh. During subsequent storage at20 ± 1 °C and 85–95% rh, 1-MCP delayed ripeningby 8–11 days for 250 ml l −1 , 11–13 daysfor 500 ml l −1 and 15–17 days for 1000 ml l −1compared with non-treated. After 17 daysfruit treated with 1000 ml l −1 were firmer andgreener, but total carotenoids were lower thanin non-treated fruit (Moretti et al., undated).Both CA storage at 2% O 2+ 3% CO 2and1 ppm 1-MCP for 24 h significantly delayedcolour development and softening. The effectat 1 ppm was greater than the effect of CA, but1-MCP at 0.5 ppm had no effect (Amodio et al.,2005). Baldwin et al. (2007) harvested the cultivarFlorida 47 at immature green, green,breaker, turning and pink stages and treatedhalf of them with 1-MCP and stored them allat 18 °C. Fruits treated with 1-MCP had slightlylower levels of most aroma volatiles but ripenedslower by 3–4 days compared with nontreatedfruit, but at 13 °C the delay in ripeningof 1-MCP-treated fruit was only 2–3 days. Theyreported that 1-MCP seemed to ‘synchronize’ripening of pink-stage tomatoes.WatercressAfter 5 days’ storage in air there was 25% yellowingat 5 °C and 100% at 15 °C. 1-MCPapplied at 500 or 1000 nl l −1 for 8 h at 10 °C hadno significant effect on the storage life ofwatercress stored at 5 °C or 15 °C. It was concludedthat it could be stored for a maximumof 4 days at 5 °C (Bron et al., 2005).AminoethoxyvinylglycineEthylene synthesis in plant material can beinhibited by aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG),which is sold commercially as ReTain ® and isused in apple orchard sprays. Its mode ofaction is to inhibit the activity of ACC synthase.AVG treatment delayed the onset of theclimacteric in McIntosh apples during storagebut did not reduce internal ethylene concentration(Robinson et al., 2006). Johnson andColgan (2003) showed that Queen Cox applesthat had been sprayed with 123.5 g AVG ha −1before harvest were firmer than those thathad not been sprayed after 6 months’ storage

Pre-storage Treatments 59at 3.5 °C in ethylene-free 1.2% O 2+ 98.8% N 2.The additive effect on firmness of AVG treatmentand ethylene removal was negated bythe development of core flush, and after a simulatedmarketing period 57% of fruits wereaffected after this combination of treatments.Drake et al. (2006) found that AVG reducedstarch loss and ethylene production, retainedfirmness and reduced cracking in Gale Galaapples, but reduced the sensory acceptance ofapples and apple juice. AVG followed by ethylenetreatment (Ethaphon) reduced starchloss, ethylene production and cracking, andmaintained firmness. This combination alsoimproved the sensory acceptance of applesbut reduced sensory preference of apple juice.Harb et al. (2008a) showed that the biosynthesisof volatiles is highly reduced in applesafter treatments with AVG, especially after anextended storage period in ULO. They foundthat after storage at 3.5 °C in 1.2% O 2+

6Flavour, Quality and PhysiologyIf the fruits stored in air are over-ripe or sufferingwith physiological disorders associatedwith a long period of storage (e.g. senescentbreakdown) then this would affect the flavour.In some circumstances reduced senescentbreakdown is a secondary effect of CA storageslowing metabolism and therefore affectingthe eating quality of the fruit. This effect of CAstorage on fruit and vegetable metabolism canhave another indirect effect on flavour. Somechemicals that are produced during anaerobicrespiration, such as alcohols and aldehydes,would affect their eating quality.Storage of crops per se can affect eatingquality, and there is evidence in the literaturethat fruit ripened after storage does not tasteas good as fruit ripened directly after harvest.This is not always the case and would dependon the length of storage and the type of crop.Generally, flavour volatile compounds occurless after storage than in freshly harvestedfruit, but there is little evidence that CA storageaffects flavour volatiles in any way that isdifferent from air storage.The acidity of fruits and vegetables alsohas an effect on flavour. The data from storagetrials show widely different effects on acidity,including levels of ascorbic acid. Generally theacid levels of fruits and vegetables should begreater after CA storage in increased CO 2atmospherescompared with air storage, because ofthe lower acid metabolism associated withcontrolled atmosphere storage and the factthat CO 2in solution is acidic.FlavourCA storage can affect the flavour of fruits andvegetables, and both positive and negativeeffects have been cited in the literature. CAstoredapples were shown to retain a good flavourlonger than those stored in air (Reichel,1974), and in most fruits and vegetables CAstorage generally maintains better flavourthan storage in air (Zhao and Murata, 1988;Wang, 1990). However, the stage of ripeness offruit when storage begins has the major effecton its flavour, sweetness, acidity and texture.It is therefore often difficult to specify exactlywhat effect CA storage has, since the effect onflavour may well be confounded with theeffect of maturity and ripening. An example ofthis was that the storage of tomatoes in lowconcentrations of O 2had less effect on fruitsthat were subsequently ripened than the stageof maturity at which they were harvested(Kader et al., 1978). Stoll (1976) showed thatLouise Bonne pears were still of good qualityafter 3–4 months in air but were of similargood quality after 5–6 months in CA storage.In contrast, it was reported that the flavour ofsatsumas stored at low O 2with high CO 2was© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and60 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

Flavour, Quality and Physiology 61Table 6.1. Effects of CA storage and time on the fl avour of apricots, which were assessed by a tastepanel 3 months after being canned, where a score of 5 or more was acceptable (Truter et al., 1994).Flavour scoreStorage period (weeks) CO 2concentration (%) O 2concentration (%) Cultivar Bulida Cultivar Peeka0 – – 7.5 4.64 1.5 1.5 6.3 6.35 1.5 1.5 5.0 5.06 1.5 1.5 1.3 1.34 5.0 2.0 6.3 5.05 5.0 2.0 5.5 5.46 5.0 2.0 2.9 5.44 0 21 6.7 5.85 0 21 4.2 5.46 0 21 2.1 4.6inferior to those from air storage (Ito et al.,1974). Truter et al. (1994) showed that after6 weeks at −0.5 °C storage in 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5%O 2or 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2, apricots had an inferiorflavour compared with those stored in air(Table 6.1). Spalding and Reeder (1974)showed that limes (Citrus latifolia) stored for6 weeks at 10 °C in 5% O 2+ 7% CO 2or 21%O 2+ 7% CO 2lost more acid and sugar thanthose stored in air. Limes from all treatmentshad acceptable flavour and juice content.Golden Delicious, Idared and Gloster applewere stored for 100 or 200 days at 2 °C, 95% rhin 15–16% O 2+ 5–6% CO 2, then moved to 5, 10or 15 °C (all at approximately 60% rh) for 16days to determine shelf-life. Flavour improvementoccurred only in fruits that were removedfrom CA storage after 100 days. Applesremoved from CA storage after 200 daysshowed a decline in flavour during subsequentstorage at 5, 10 or 15 °C (Urban, 1995).There is some indication that CA storage canimprove flavour development in grapes.Dourtoglou et al. (1994) found fruit exposed to100% CO 2for 20 h had 114 volatile compoundscompared with only 60 in those stored in air.Blednykh et al. (1989) showed that Russiancultivars of cherry stored in 8–16% CO 2+5–8% O 2still had good flavour after 3.0–3.5months. In a 6-year experiment storing theapple cultivars Golden Delicious, Auralia,Spartan and Starkrimson at 3 °C and 85–90%rh the effects of four harvesting dates andfour storage durations in air, 13% O 2+ 8%CO 2or 3% O 2+ 3% CO 2on flavour were studied.For prolonged storage, early harvestingand CA storage proved best in terms of flavourmaintenance. Type of storage was shownto interact with cultivar in flavour. In a secondexperiment, apples of 11 cultivars (includingGolden Delicious, Jonathan, Gold Spur,Idared and Boskoop) were stored for 180 daysin cold storage, and only Boskoop was consideredto have had a good flavour at thattime. However, after 180 days in CA storageboth Gloster 69 and Jonathan fruit were alsoreported to have a good flavour (Kluge andMeier, 1979). Storage of Abbe Fetel pears at−0.5 °C in 0.5% O 2resulted in losses in aromaand flavour, and it was suggested that thismay be overcome by raising the O 2level to1% (Bertolini et al., 1991). At 2 °C sensoryacceptance of peaches stored in air was lowerthan those stored in 3% O 2+ 10% CO 2for upto 15 days when they were ripened after storage.Higher acceptance scores were associatedmainly with the perception of juicinessand emission of volatiles and total solublesolids (Ortiz et al., 2009).Off-flavoursSome of the effects on flavour of fruits andvegetables during storage are the result of

62 Chapter 6fermentation. Off-flavour development isassociated with increased production of ethanoland acetaldehyde. For example, Mateoset al. (1993) reported that off-flavour developedin intact lettuce heads exposed to 20%CO 2, which was associated with increasedconcentrations of ethanol and acetaldehyde.It was found by Magness and Diehl (1924)that the flavour of apples was impaired whenCO 2exceeded 20%. Karaoulanis (1968)showed that oranges stored in 10–15% CO 2had increased alcohol content, while thosestored in 5% CO 2did not. He also showedthat grapes stored in 12% CO 2+ 21% O 2+67% N 2for 30 days had only 17 mg 100 g −1fresh weight alcohol, while those stored in25% CO 2+ 21% O 2+ 54% N 2had 170 mg100 g −1 at the same time. Corrales-Garcia(1997) found that avocados stored at 2 or 5 °Cfor 30 days in air, 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 15%CO 2+ 2% O 2had a higher ethanol and acetaldehydecontent for fruits stored in air thanthe fruits in CA. The alcohol content of strawberryfruits increased with the length of storageand with higher concentrations of CO 2.Storage in 20% CO 2resulted in high levelsafter 30 days (Woodward and Topping, 1972).Colelli and Martelli (1995) stored Pajaro strawberriesin air, or air with 10, 20 or 30% CO 2for5 days at 5 °C, followed by an additional 4 daysin air at the same temperature. Ethanol andacetaldehyde accumulation was very slight,although sensory evaluation of the fruitsshowed that off-flavours were present at transferfrom CA, but not after the following storagein air. With storage at 5 °C for 28 days, CO 2concentrationsof melons in sealed PE and perforatedPE packs were 1–4% and no off-flavourswere found (Zhao and Murata, 1988). Storageof snow pea pods in either 2.5% O 2+ 5% CO 2or10% CO 2+ 5% O 2resulted in the developmentof slight off-flavours, but this effect was reversiblesince it was partially alleviated after ventilation(Pariasca et al., 2001). Delate and Brecht(1989) showed that exposure of sweet potatoesto 2% O 2+ 60% CO 2resulted in less sweetpotato flavour and more off-flavour.Low O 2levels have also been shown toresult in fermentation and the production ofoff-flavours. Ke et al. (1991a) described experimentswhere Granny Smith and YellowNewtown apples, 20th Century pear andAngeleno plums were kept in 0.25% O 2or0.02% O 2, with the consequent developmentof an alcoholic off-flavour. Ke et al. (1991b)stored peaches of the cultivar Fairtime in airor in 0.25 or 0.02% O 2at 0 or 5 °C for up to40 days. They found that flavour was affectedby ethanol and acetaldehyde accumulated in0.02% O 2at 0 °C or 5 °C or in 0.25% O 2at 5 °C.The fruits kept in air or 0.25% O 2at 0 °C for upto 40 days and those stored in 0.02% O 2at 0 °Cor in air, 0.25 or 0.02% O 2at 5 °C for up to 14days had good to excellent taste, but the flavourof the fruits stored at 5 °C for 29 dayswas unacceptable. Mattheis et al. (1991) storedDelicious apples in 0.05% O 2+ 0.2% CO 2at1 °C for 30 days and found that they developedhigh concentrations of ethanol, acetaldehydeand various esters, including ethylpropanoate, ethyl butyrate, ethyl 2-methylbutyrate,ethyl hexanoate, ethyl heptanoateand ethyl octanoate. The increase in the emissionof these compounds was accompaniedby a decrease in the amounts of other estersrequiring the same carboxylic acid group forsynthesis. In contrast, plums were shown totolerate an almost complete absence of O 2fora considerable period without developing analcoholic or unpleasant flavour (Anon., 1920).Ke et al. (1991a) reported that strawberriescould be stored in 1.0, 0.5 or 0.25% O 2or airplus 20% CO 2at 0 or 5 °C for 10 days withoutdetrimental effects on quality. Fruit could alsobe stored in 0% O 2or 50 or 80% CO 2for up to6 days without visual injury. The taste panelfound slight off-flavour in the cultivar G3kept in 0.25 or 0% O 2, which correlated withethanol, ethyl acetate and acetaldehyde injuice. Transfer of fruit to air at 0 °C for severaldays after treatment reduced ethanol andacetaldehyde levels, leading to an improvementin final sensory quality.Volatile CompoundsCA storage has also been shown to affect volatilecompounds, which are produced byfruits and give them their characteristic flavourand aroma. Willaert et al. (1983) isolated24 aroma compounds from Golden Deliciousapples and showed that the relative amounts

Flavour, Quality and Physiology 63of 18 of these components declined considerablyduring CA storage. CA storage of applesin either 2% O 2+ 98% N 2or 2% O 2+ 5%CO 2+ 93% N 2resulted in few organic volatilecompounds being produced during the storageperiod (Hatfield and Patterson, 1974).Even when the fruits were removed fromstorage, they did not synthesize normalamounts of esters during ripening. Hatfield(1975) showed that Cox’s Orange Pippinapples, after storage in 2% O 2at 3 °C for 3.5months and subsequent ripening at 20 °C,produced smaller amounts of volatile estersthan they did when ripened directly after harvestor after storage in air. This was correlatedwith a marked loss of flavour. They showedthat the inhibition of volatile productioncould be relieved considerably if the appleswere first kept in air at 5–15 °C after storageand before being transferred to 20 °C. Hansenet al. (1992) found that volatile ester productionby Jonagold apples was reduced afterprolonged CA storage in low O 2. Afterremoval from storage, large differences wereseen in the production of esters. A series ofesters with the alcohol 2-methylbut-2-enolwas produced in negative correlation to O 2concentration. Yahia (1989) showed thatMcIntosh and Cortland apples stored in 100%O 2at 3.3 °C for 4 weeks did not have enhancedproduction of aroma volatiles compared withthose stored in air at the same temperature.He showed that most organic volatile compoundswere produced at lower rates duringripening after CA storage than those producedfrom fruits ripened immediately afterharvest. Aroma volatiles in Golden Deliciousapples were suppressed during storage forup to 10 months at 1 °C in CA compared withstorage in air (Brackmann, 1989). Jonagoldapples were stored at 0 °C in air or in 1.5%O 2+ 1.5% CO 2for 6 months by Girard andLau (1995). They found that CA storagedecreased production of esters, alcohols andhydrocarbons by about half. The measurementof the organic volatile production of theapples was over a 10-day period at 20 °C afterremoval from the cold store. In CA storage ofGala Must apples, there was some slightreduction in volatile production comparedwith fruit stored in air. Similar results wereobtained from sensory evaluation of aromaintensity after a further 1 week in air (Miszczakand Szymczak, 2000). Miszczak and Szymczak(2000) found that storage of Jonagold at0 °C in 1.5% O 2+ 1.5% CO 2for 6 months significantlydecreased production of volatilecompounds by half. Girard and Lau (1995)also found that at 1 °C in 1% O 2+ 1.5% CO 2there was some slight reduction in volatileproduction compared with fruit stored in air.Harb et al. (1994) found that storage of GoldenDelicious apples in 3% CO 2+ 21% O 2, 3%CO 2+ 3% O 2, 3% CO 2+ 1% O 2, 1% CO 2+ 1%O 2and 1% CO 2+ 21% O 2suppressed volatileproduction, but fruits stored in 1% CO 2+ 3%O 2had volatile production.Harb et al. (2008a) found that the biosynthesisof volatiles in apples was highlyreduced following ULO storage, especiallyafter an extended storage period. Treatingfruits with volatile precursors (alcohols andaldehydes) stimulated the biosynthesis of thecorresponding volatiles, mainly esters, butthis effect was transitory with ULO-storedfruit. Brackmann et al. (1993) found that thelargest reduction in aroma production was inULO at 1% O 2+ 3% CO 2. However, there wasa partial recovery when they were subsequentlystored for 14 days in air at 1 °C.In contrast, Meheriuk (1989b) found thatstorage of pears in CA did not have a deleteriouseffect on fruit flavour compared withthose stored in air and were generally consideredbetter by a taste panel. Agiorgitiko grapeswere stored at 23–27 °C for 10 days either in100% CO 2or in air. Dourtoglou et al. (1994)identified 114 volatiles, amino acids and pigmentsin fruits stored in 100% CO 2comparedwith only 60 in the fruits stored in air.AcidityThe acid levels in fruits and vegetables canobviously affect their flavour and acceptability.Knee and Sharples (1979) reported thatacidity could fall by as much as 50% duringstorage of apples and that there was a goodcorrelation between fruit acidity and sensoryevaluation. Meheriuk (1989b) found thatstorage of pears in CA generally resulted insignificantly higher acid levels than in those

64 Chapter 6stored in air. Girard and Lau (1995) also foundthat CA storage significantly reduced the lossof acidity in apples. Similarly, Kollas (1964)found that the titratable acid of McIntoshapples was much greater for fruits at 3.3 °C in5% CO 2+ 3% O 2than those stored in air at0 °C, and concluded that it was likely to be dueto lower oxidation but that significant rates of‘CO 2fixation’ may have occurred. Kays (1997)described an experiment where Valenciaoranges lost less acid during storage at 3.5 °Cin 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2than at 0 °C in air.Batu (1995) also confirmed changes inacidity in relation to CA storage and MApackaging in tomatoes. Those stored in sealedplastic film bags generally had a lower rate ofloss in acidity than those stored without filmwraps, and generally the fruit stored in theless permeable films had a lower rate of acidloss. The acidity levels of fruits sealed in PPfilm, where the equilibrium atmosphere was5–8% O 2+ 11–13% CO 2, were similar to fruitstored in air, and both were lower than thefruits sealed in 30 or 50 µ PE film. He alsoshowed that titratable acidity of tomatoes inCA storage generally increased during thefirst 20 days at both 13 and 15 °C (Figs 6.1and 6.2). After 20 days, acidity levels tendedto decrease until 70 days of storage. Althoughthere was no correlation between the O 2orCO 2concentrations and acidity levels of fruitsduring CA storage, the acidity values of tomatoesstored in 6.4% CO 2+ 5.5% O 2were thehighest among the treatments and the lowestwas in 9.1% CO 2+ 5.5% O 2.NutritionCA storage has been shown to have both positiveand negative effects in fruits and vegetableson the synthesis and retention of chemicalsrequired for human nutrition other than proteinsand carbohydrates, sometimes calledphytochemicals. The following are someexamples reported of the different effects.Ascorbic acidCA storage has been shown to hasten the lossof ascorbic acid compared with storage in air.The ascorbic acid content of the tomato cultivarsPunjab Chuhara and Punjab Kesridecreased as the CO 2concentration in thestorage atmosphere increased, and increased0.50Titratable acidity (% fresh weight)0.450.400.350.300.250.200.15ControlPVC20 °CLSD(0.05) = 0.018PPPE20PE30PE500.1001020 30 40 50Storage period (days)60Fig. 6.1. Changes of titratable acidity values of tomatoes harvested at the pink stage of maturity,sealed in various thicknesses of various packaging fi lms and stored at 20 °C (Batu, 1995). Control:unwrapped; PE20: sealed with 20 µ polyethylene; PE30: sealed with 30 µ polyethylene; PE50: sealedwith 50 µ polyethylene; PVC: sealed with 10 µ polyvinyl chloride; PP: sealed with 25 µ polypropylene.

Flavour, Quality and Physiology 65Titratable acidity (%) Titratable acidity (%)0.40LSD(0.05) = 0.0180.3513 °C0.30Control3.2% CO 20.256.4% CO 29.1% CO 20.200 10 20 30 40 50 60 700.40Control15 °C3.2% CO 20.356.4% CO 29.1% CO 20.300.25LSD(0.05) = 0.0150.200 10 20 30 40Storage time (days)50 60 70Fig. 6.2. Changes of titratable acidity values of tomatoes harvested at the mature green stage and keptin controlled atmosphere storage (all with 5.5% O 2) for 60 days’ storage time at 13 and 15 °C plus 10days in air at 20 °C (Batu, 1995).as the storage period was lengthened (Singhet al., 1993). Vidigal et al. (1979), in studies oftomatoes, found that the ascorbic acid levelsincreased during CA storage at 10 °C. Elvirastrawberry and Thornfree blackberry fruitswere stored at 0–1 °C in up to 20% CO 2forstrawberries and 30% CO 2for blackberries,combined with either 1–3% or >14% O 2. Lossof ascorbic acid was highest in the higher CO 2atmosphere and degradation after 20 days’storage was more rapid with the low O 2treatments. This degradation was even morepronounced during simulated shelf-life inambient conditions following storage (Agaret al., 1994a,b). Wang (1983) showed thatascorbic acid levels of Chinese cabbage werenot affected in storage in 10 or 20% CO 2, butin 30 or 40% CO 2the rate of loss of ascorbicacid was much higher than for cabbage storedin air. Ogata et al. (1975) stored okra at 1 °C inair or 3% O 2, combined with 3, 10 or 20% CO 2,or at 12 °C in air or 3% O 2, combined with 3%

66 Chapter 6Table 6.2. Effects of CA storage on ascorbic acidof Smooth Cayenne pineapples stored at 8 °C for3 weeks and then 5 days at 20 °C (Haruenkit andThompson, 1996).Gas composition (%)O 2CO 2N 2Ascorbic acid(mg 100ml −1 )1.3 0 98.7 7.142.2 0 97.8 8.445.4 0 94.6 0.761.4 11.2 87.4 9.162.3 11.2 86.5 7.9420.8 0 79.2 0.63LSD (P = 0.05) 5.28CO 2. At 1 °C there was no effect of any of theCA storage treatments on ascorbic acid, but at12 °C the CA storage treatments resulted inlower ascorbic acid retention. In low O 2–highCO 2atmosphere storage of satsumas at1–4 °C, Ito et al. (1974) found that the ascorbicacid contents of the flesh and peel graduallydeclined, but the dehydroascorbic acid contentincreased. However, they found that suchchanges were smaller at high O 2levels. Fruitheld in CA storage lost more acid and sugarsthan those held in air. Haruenkit and Thompson(1996) showed that storage of pineapplesin O 2levels below 5.4% helped to retain ascorbicacid levels but generally had little effecton total soluble solids (Table 6.2).In contrast, Kurki (1979) showed somegreater loss of ascorbic acid in CA storagecompared with air storage, but CA storagegave much better retention of vitamin A thanstorage in air (Table 6.3). Trierweiler et al.(2004) found that the ascorbic acid content wasreduced during storage for 7 months in air or3% CO 2+ 1% O 2in Bohnapfel apples, but totalantioxidant capacity remained constant.Storage of peas in film bags at 5 °C, givingan equilibrium atmosphere of 5% O 2+ 5%CO 2, resulted in better maintenance of ascorbicacid, compared with those storedunwrapped (Pariasca et al., 2001). Serrano et al.(2006) found that broccoli packed in MA packagingfilm and stored for 21 days had half theloss of ascorbic acid compared with thosestored unwrapped. Bangerth (1974) showedthat hypobaric storage at 2–3 °C improvedretention of ascorbic acid in stored parsley.ChlorophyllKnee and Sharples (1979) found that the chlorophyllcontent of Cox’s Orange Pippinapples stored in CA remained the same oronly reduced slightly over a 6-month storageperiod. Storage of peas in film bags at 5 °C,giving an equilibrium atmosphere of 5% O 2+5% CO 2, resulted in better retention of chlorophyllcompared with those stored unwrapped(Pariasca et al., 2001). Bangerth (1974) showedthat hypobaric storage at 2–3 °C improvedretention of chlorophyll in stored parsley.LycopeneJeffery et al. (1984) showed that lycopene synthesisin tomatoes was suppressed duringstorage in 6% CO 2+ 6% O 2.PhenolicsRogiers and Knowles (2000) stored four cultivarsof Amelanchier alnifolia at 0.5 °C for 56 daysin various CAs and found that 5% CO 2+ 21%Table 6.3. Effects of CA storage and storage in air on the retention of vitamins inleeks at 0 °C and 95% rh (Kurki, 1979).After 4 months’ storageInitial level before storage Air 10% CO 2+ 1% O 2Ascorbic acid (mg 100 g −1 ) 37.2 24.1 20.2Vitamin A (IU 100 g −1 ) 2525 62 1350

Flavour, Quality and Physiology 67Table 6.4. Effects of temperature and reduced O 2level on the respiration rate and storage life ofselected fruit and vegetables (Robinson et al., 1975).CO 2production a (mg kg −1 h −1 ) bIn air In 3% O 2Temperature (°C) 0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 Water loss cAsparagus 28 44 63 105 127 25 45 75 3.6 dBean, broad 35 52 87 120 145 40 55 80 (2.1)Bean, runner 21 28 36 54 90 15 25 46 (1.8)Beetroot, storing 4 7 11 17 19 6 7 10 1.6Beetroot, bunching with 11 14 22 25 40 7 14 32 (1.6)leavesBlackberry, Bedford22 33 62 75 155 15 50 125 0.5GiantBlackcurrant, Baldwin 16 27 39 90 130 12 30 74 –Brussels sprout 17 30 50 75 90 14 35 70 (2.8)Cabbage, Primo 11 26 30 37 40 8 15 30 1.0Cabbage, January King 6 13 26 33 57 6 18 28 –Cabbage, Decema 3 7 8 13 20 2 6 12 0.1Carrot, storing 13 17 19 24 33 7 11 25 1.9Carrot, bunching with 35 51 74 106 121 28 54 85 (2.8)leavesCalabrese 42 58 105 200 240 – 70 120 (2.4)Caulifl ower, April Glory 20 34 45 67 126 14 45 60 (1.9)Celery, white 7 9 12 23 33 5 9 22 (1.8)Cucumber 6 8 13 14 15 5 8 10 (0.4)Gooseberry, Leveller 10 13 23 40 58 7 16 26 –Leek, Musselburgh 20 28 50 75 110 10 30 57 (0.9)Lettuce, Unrivalled 18 22 26 50 85 15 20 55 (7.5)Lettuce, Kordaat 9 11 17 26 37 7 12 25 –Lettuce, Kloek 16 24 31 50 80 15 25 45 –Onion, Bedfordshire3 5 7 7 8 2 4 4 0.02ChampionParsnip, Hollow Crown 7 11 26 33 49 6 12 30 (2.4)Potato, maincrop (King 6 e 3 4 5 6 5 e 3 4 (0.05)Edward)Potato, ‘new’ (immature) f 10 15 20 30 40 10 18 30 (0.5)Pea (in pod), early(Kelvedon Wonder) 40 61 130 180 255 29 84 160(1.3)(cv. Onward)Pea, main crop (Dark Green 47 55 120 170 250 45 60 160Perfection)Pepper, green 8 11 20 22 35 9 14 17 0.6Raspberry, Malling Jewel 24 55 92 135 200 22 56 130 2.5Rhubarb, forced 14 21 35 44 54 11 20 42 2.3Spinach, Prickly True 50 70 80 120 150 51 87 137 (11.0)(glasshousegrown)Sprouting broccoli 77 120 170 275 425 65 115 215 (7.5)Strawberry, CambridgeFavourite15 28 52 83 127 12 45 86 (0.7)(Continued)

68 Chapter 6Table 6.4. Continued.CO 2production a (mg kg −1 h −1 ) bIn air In 3% O 2Temperature (°C) 0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 Water loss cSweetcorn 31 55 90 142 210 27 60 120 (1.4)Tomato, Eurocross BB 6 9 15 23 30 4 6 12 0.1Turnip, bunching with leaves 15 17 30 43 52 10 19 39 1.1 (withoutleaves)Watercress 18 36 80 136 207 19 72 168 (35.0)a These figures, which give the average rates of respiration of the samples, are a guide only. Other samples could differ,but the rates could be expected to be of the same order of magnitude, ± c. 20%.b Heat production in Btu tonne −1 h −1 is given by multiplying CO 2output in mg kg −1 h −1 by 10 (1 Btu approximates to0.25 kcal and to 1.05 kJ).c Values in parentheses were determined at 15 °C and 6–9 mb water vapour pressure deficit (wvpd); remainder at 10 °Cand 3–5 mb wvpd.d Water loss as a percentage of the initial weight per day per mille bar wvpd.e After storage for a few weeks at 0 °C, suffi cient time having elapsed for low-temperature sweetening. The figures forpotato are mid-season (December) values and could be 50% greater in October and March.f Typical rounded-off values for tubers with an average weight of 60 g immediately after harvest. The rates are too labilefor individual values to be meaningful. After a few weeks’ storage, they approximate to the values for maincrop potatoes.O 2or 5% CO 2+ 10% O 2were most effective atminimizing losses in fruit anthocyanins. Inblueberries, CA storage had little or no effecton phenolic content (Schotsmans et al., 2007).However, Zheng at al. (2003) found that totalphenolics increased in blueberries during storageat 5 °C in 60–100% O 2for 35 days to agreater extent than those stored in air or 40%O 2. In grapes, anthocyanin levels were lowerafter storage at 0 °C for those that had beenpre-treated for 3 days in 20% CO 2+ 20% O 2compared with those that had not been pretreated(Romero et al., 2008). Artes-Hernandezet al. (2006) stored Superior Seedless grapes inMA packaging and found no changes in thephenolics during storage at 0 and 8 °C, but aslight decrease during 2 days’ shelf-life at20 °C. However, Sanz et al. (1999) found thatCamarosa strawberries in MA packaging hadlower anthocyanin levels compared with thosestored unwrapped.Respiration RateGenerally, fruit and vegetables have a lowerrespiration rate during CA storage comparedwith storage in air, but there are someexceptions. Robinson et al. (1975) showed thislowering effect for a range of fresh fruits andvegetables during storage at 3% O 2at varioustemperatures (Table 6.4). Knee (1973) showedthat CO 2could inhibit an enzyme (succinatedehydrogenase) in the tricarboxylic acid cycle,which is part of the respiratory pathway.McGlasson and Wills (1972) also suggested thatlow O 2limited the operation of the Krebs cyclebetween pyruvate and citrate and 2-oxoglutarateand succinate, but they apparently foundno similar effect of high CO 2in bananas. Mostwork on respiration rate has been reported onapples, and Kidd and West (1927a,b) showedthat their respiration rate in storage at 8 °C in12% CO 2+ 9% O 2was 54–55% of that of fruitsstored in air at the same temperature.The effect of reduced O 2and increasedCO 2on respiration rate can be influenced bytemperature. Kubo et al. (1989a) showed thatthe effects of high CO 2on respiration rate variedaccording to the crop and its stage of development.The relationship between O 2and CO 2levels and respiration is not a simple one. Italso varies between cultivar (Table 6.5), as inthe comparison between Golden Delicious andCox’s Orange Pippin apples, where the respirationrate was suppressed more in the formerthan the latter in CA storage (Fidler et al., 1973).Olsen (1986) also showed an interaction

Flavour, Quality and Physiology 69Table 6.5. Rates of respiration of some cultivars of apples stored indifferent CA conditions (Fidler et al., 1973).Storage conditionsRespiration ratel tonne −1 day −1Cultivar°C CO 2(%) O 2(%) CO 2O 2Bramley’s Seedling 3.5 8–10 11–13 40–45 40Cox’s Orange Pippin 3.5 5 16 62 57Cox’s Orange Pippin 3.5 5 3 42 40Cox’s Orange Pippin 3.5

70 Chapter 6(Hardenberg et al., 1990). Weichmann (1973)showed that the respiration rate of five cultivarsof carrots at 1.5 °C in atmospheres containing0.03, 2.5, 5.0 or 7.5% CO 2, but with noregulation of the O 2level, increased withincreasing CO 2level. Weichmann (1981) foundthat horseradish stored in 7.5% CO 2had ahigher respiration rate than those stored in air.Izumi et al. (1996b) showed that storage offreshly cut carrots in 10% CO 2+ 0.5% O 2reduced their respiration rate by about 55% at0 °C, about 65% at 5 °C and 75% at 10 °C.

7Pests and DiseasesCA storage has been shown to affect pestinfestation and pathological diseases butparticularly physiological disorders. Changingthe O 2and CO 2can also affect the metabolismof microorganisms and insect pests instorage and can therefore be a factor in controllingthem.Postharvest control of pests and diseasesby CA storage can be used as a method ofreducing the amount of chemicals applied tothe crops and thus chemical residues in thefood we eat. Low O 2, but especially high CO 2,levels in storage have been generally shown tohave a negative effect on the growth anddevelopment of disease-causing microorganisms.There is also some evidence that fruitdevelop less disease on removal from highCO 2storage than after previously being storedin air. However, in certain cases the levels ofCO 2necessary to give effective disease controlhave detrimental effects on the quality of thefruits and vegetables. The mechanism forreduction of diseases appears to be a reactionof the fruit, rather than the low O 2or high CO 2directly affecting the microorganism, althoughthere is some evidence for the latter.The mode of action of changing the O 2andCO 2contents around the fruit or vegetable isrelated to modifying their physiology. Thereforethe levels of the two gases or the balancebetween them can change the metabolism offruits and vegetables in a way that is notbeneficial, resulting in physiological disorders.Physiological disorders of fruit can result fromCA storage. In other cases levels of disorderscan be reduced. The mechanisms for reductionof disorders vary and are not well understood.Exposing fruits and vegetables to eitherhigh levels of CO 2or a combination of highCO 2and low O 2can control insects infectingfruit and vegetables. Extended exposure toinsecticidal levels of CO 2may be phytotoxic.The CA treatment may be applied for just afew days at the beginning of storage, whichmay be sufficient to kill the insects withoutdamaging the crop.Physiological DisordersThere is a whole range of disorders that canoccur in fresh produce during storage that arenot primarily associated with infection bymicroorganisms. These are collectively referredto as physiological disorders, physiologicaldiseases or physiological injury. As would beexpected, CA storage has been shown to havepositive, negative and no effect on physiologicaldisorders of stored fresh fruits and vegetables.The incidence and extent of storagedisorders are influenced not only by the concentrationof CO 2and O 2and duration ofexposure but also by the conditions in which© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits andVegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson) 71

72 Chapter 7they were grown, cultivar, harvest maturity,storage temperature and humidity. Cultivarsand individual fruits vary in their susceptibilityto injury because of biochemical and anatomicaldifferences, including the size ofintercellular spaces and rate of gas diffusionthrough the skin and other cells. External injuriesto the skin or internal disorders and cavitiesin the tissue usually become visible asbrown spots, as a result of oxidation of phenoliccompounds. This is the last step in a reactionchain beginning with the impairment ofthe viability of the cell membrane by fermentationmetabolites, shortage of energy or possiblyexcess of free radicals (Streif et al., 2003). Toindicate the symptoms and some of the causesof disorders mentioned in this book, a few disordersare described. A more comprehensivediscussion of the subject can be found in Fidleret al. (1973) and Snowdon (1990, 1992).Bitter pitThe incidence and severity of bitter pit inapples is influenced by the dynamic balanceof minerals in different parts of the fruit, aswell as the storage temperature and levels ofO 2and CO 2in the store (Sharples and Johnson,1987), and can be controlled by chemicaltreatment, especially calcium. Jankovic andDrobnjak (1994) described experiments whereIdared, Cacanska Pozna, Jonagold and Melrosewere stored at 1 °C and 85–90% rh, eitherin

Pests and Diseases 73without showing the symptoms. Wade (1981)showed that storage of the peach cultivar J.H.Hale at 1 °C resulted in flesh discolorationand the development of a soft texture after 37days, but in atmospheres containing 20% CO 2fruits had only moderate levels of damage,even after 42 days. Conversely, Visai et al.(1994) showed a higher incidence of chillinginjury in the form of internal browning inPasse Crassane pears stored at 2 °C in 5%CO 2+ 2% O 2compared with fruit stored in airat 0 °C. They accounted for this effect as beingdue to the stimulation of the production offree radicals in the fruit stored in CA.Core flush or brown coreThis disorder has been described in several cultivarsof apple, where it develops during storageas a brown or pink discoloration of thecore, while the flesh remains firm. It has beenassociated with CO 2injury but may also berelated to chilling injury and senescent breakdown.Wang (1990) reviewed the effects of CO 2on brown core and concluded that it was due toexposure to high levels of CO 2at low storagetemperatures. Johnson and Ertan (1983) foundthat in storage at 4 °C apples were free of coreflush and other physiological disorders in 1%O 2, which was markedly better than in 2% O 2.Resnizky and Sive (1991) found that keepingJonathan apples in 0% O 2for the first 10 days ofstorage was shown to prevent core flush inearly-picked apples from highly affectedorchards. No damage due to anaerobic respirationwas observed in any of the treatments.DiscolorationSkin browning was reduced in litchis that werestored for 28 days at 1 °C when they werestored in plastic film bags with 10% CO 2orvacuum packed, compared with non-wrappedfruit. However, their taste and flavour wasunacceptable, while fruit stored unwrappedremained acceptable (Ahrens and Milne, 1993).Phaseolus vulgaris beans, broken duringharvesting and handling, developed a browndiscoloration on the exposed surfaces, butexposure to O 2levels of 5% or less controlledthis browning but it resulted in off-flavours inthe canned products (Henderson and Buescher,1977). High CO 2concentrations havealso been reported to inhibit browning of beansat the sites of mechanical injury (Costa et al.,1994) and were not injurious to quality as longas O 2was maintained at 10% or higher.Flesh browningWang Zhen Yong et al. (2000) reported a CO 2-linked disorder whose symptoms resembledsuperficial scald. In cultivars of apple that aresusceptible to superficial scald, the symptomswere effectively controlled by conditioningfruits in 1.5–3.0% O 2+ 0% CO 2at 3 °C, but notat 0 °C, for 3–4 weeks prior to storage in 1.5%O 2+ 3% CO 2. Castro et al. (2007) reportedflesh browning in Pink Lady apples 2 monthsafter harvest for those stored at 1 °C in CA,but the browning did not increase after a longerstorage time and was not observed duringstorage in air. Lipton and Mackey (1987)showed that Brussels sprouts stored in 0.5%O 2occasionally had a reddish-tan discolorationof the heart leaves and frequently anextremely bitter flavour in the non-green portionof the sprouts.Internal breakdownSymptoms of internal breakdown are browningor darkening of the flesh, which eventuallybecomes soft and the fruit breaks down. It isassociated with storage for too long, especiallyfor fruits harvested too mature, and eventuallyall fruits that do not break down due to diseaseinfection will succumb to internal breakdown.After 4 months’ storage of Cox’s Orange Pippinapples at 2.5 °C, those in 2.5% O 2+ 3% CO 2had no internal breakdown but there was alow incidence in air (Schulz, 1974).Tonini et al. (1993) showed that storage ofnectarines and plums for 40 days at 0 °C in 2%O 2with either 5 or 10% CO 2reduced internalbreakdown compared with those stored inair. When the nectarine cultivar Flamekistwas stored by Lurie et al. (1992) in CA for 6 or

74 Chapter 78 weeks, the 10% O 2+ 10% CO 2atmosphereprevented internal breakdown and reddening,which occurred in fruits stored in air. Cooperet al. (1992) showed that CA storage with up to20% CO 2reduced the incidence of internalbrowning in nectarine without any otheradverse effect on fruit quality, and good controlwas shown in storage in 4% O 2. In a subsequentpaper, Streif et al. (1994) found thatexposure of nectarine to 25% CO 2prior to CAstorage had little effect, but storage at highCO 2levels, especially in combination with lowO 2, significantly delayed ripening, retainedfruit firmness and prevented both storage disorders.There was no deleterious effect on flavourwith storage at high CO 2levels.Necrotic spotsBohling and Hansen (1977) described thedevelopment of necrotic spots on the outerleaves of stored cabbage, which was largelyprevented by low O 2atmospheres in the store,but increased CO 2had no effects.Superficial scaldScald is a physiological disorder that candevelop in apples and pears during storage.Kupferman (undated) described the typicalsymptoms of scald as a diffuse, irregularbrowning of the skin with no crisp marginsbetween affected and unaffected tissue, and itis usually only skin deep (Fig. 7.1). It canoccur on any part of the skin and can vary incolour from light to dark brown. In somecases the lenticels are not affected, leavinggreen spots.Scald has been associated with ethylenelevels in the store atmosphere and can be controlledby a pre-storage treatment with asuitable antioxidant. Ethoxyquin (1,2-dihy -dro-2,2,4-trimethylquinoline-6-yl ether), marketedas ‘Stop-Scald’, or DPA (diphenylamine),marketed as ‘No Scald’ or ‘Coraza’, can beeffective when applied directly to the fruitwithin a week of harvesting (Hardenburg andAnderson, 1962; Knee and Bubb, 1975). Postharvesttreatment with Ethoxyquin gave virtuallycomplete control of scald and stem-endbrowning on fruit stored at 3.9 °C or 5.0 °C in8–10% CO 2(Knee and Bubb, 1975). Ethoxyquinwas initially registered as a pesticide in1965, as an antioxidant used to prevent scaldin pears and apples through a preharvestspray and postharvest dip or spray. TheCodex Alimentarius Commission establishedmaximum residue limits for Ethoxyquin residuesin or on pears at 3.0 ppm under the USEnvironment Protection Agency 738-R-04-011Fig. 7.1. Superfi cial scald symptoms on pears in Turkey.

Pests and Diseases 75November 2004. DPA was first registered as apesticide in the USA in 1947. However, theCodex Alimentarius maximum residue limitsfor DPA on apples was set at 5 mg kg −1 comparedwith the 10 ppm US tolerance for apples(Guide to Codex Maximum Limits For PesticidesResidues under EPA-738-F-97-010 April1998). Residue levels of DPA in apples werefound to vary depending on the applicationmethod and the position of the fruit in thepallet box. Villatoro et al. (2009) reported thatthere was an interaction between DPA andCA storage, in that Pink Lady apples stored at1 °C in 2.5% O 2+ 3.0% CO 2retained higherconcentrations of DPA residues comparedwith those stored in 1% O 2+ 2% CO 2or in air.Very low levels of O 2in CA storage havebeen used commercially to control scald inapples, with 0.7% O 2in British Columbia and1.0% O 2in Washington state and 1% for pearsin Oregon (Lau and Yastremski, 1993). Coquinotand Richard (1991) stored apples in 1.2%O 2+ 1.0% CO 2, with or without removal ofethylene, and found that in this atmospherescald was controlled and ethylene removalwas not necessary. Johnson et al. (1993) foundthat fruits respired normally for 150 days instorage in 0.4% O 2+ nominally 0% CO 2or0.6% O 2+ nominally 0% CO 2, but ethanolaccumulated thereafter. Retardation of scalddevelopment by 0.4 and 0.6% O 2was as effectiveas 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2, and ethylene removalfrom 9% CO 2+ 12% O 2storage providedscald-free fruits for 216 days. However, rapidloss of firmness occurred in fruits stored in alllow O 2+ nominally 0% CO 2after 100 days’storage and was the major limitation to storagelife. It was recommended that scrubbedlow-O 2storage, e.g. 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2, and ethyleneremoval from scrubbed or non-scrubbedCA stores should be considered as alternativesto chemical antioxidants for the controlof scald. In Jonagold apples, Awad et al. (1993)found that both O 2and CO 2affected theoccurrence of scald. At 3% O 2+ 1% CO 2, thelevel of scald (39%) was significantly higherin early- harvested apples compared withapples from a normal harvest date (13%).Scald in Granny Smith apples was reportedby Gallerani et al. (1994) to be successfullycontrolled by storing fruits in targeted low O 2concentrations of 1% O 2+ 2% CO 2, and theirfindings enable low O 2application to be moreprecisely directed towards superficial scaldcontrol. Van der Merwe et al. (1997) showedthat, in the cultivars Granny Smith andTopred, exposure of fruits to initial low O 2stress of 0.5% O 2for 10 days at either −0.5 or3.0 °C (after 7 days in air at the same temperatures)could be used as an alternative to DPAfor superficial scald control during storage at1 °C and 3% CO 2+ 1% O 2, since DPA has beenbanned in some countries. Kupferman(undated) reported that scald was reduced inapples that are well ventilated using a hollow-fibremembrane air separator in a purgemode to supply air at 1.5% O 2+

76 Chapter 7Table 7.1. Effects of CA storage conditions during storage at 3.5 °Cfor 5–7 months on the development of superfi cial scald in three applecultivars (Fidler et al., 1973).StorageconditionCultivarCO 2(%) O 2(%) Wagener Bramley’s Seedling Edward VII0 21 100 – –0 6 – 89 750 5 100 – –0 4 – 85 620 3 9 30 430 2.5 – 17 430 2 0 – –8 13 24 3and the disorder has been associated with theO 2level in the atmosphere and other possiblecauses (Thompson and Arango, 1977). Aracenaet al. (1993) found that waxed Valenciacassava roots stored at 25 °C and 54–56% rhfor 3 days had 46% vascular streaking in airand 15% in 1% O 2. However, at 25 °C and95–98% rh there was only 1.4% vascularstreaking in air or 1% O 2.White coreArpaia et al. (1985) stored the kiwifruit cultivarHayward for up to 24 weeks in 2% O 2+ 0,3, 5 or 7% CO 2at 0 °C. The occurrence andseverity of white core in CA plus ethylenewas highest in 5% CO 2. Two other physiologicaldisorders were observed (translucencyand graininess), and their severity wasincreased by the combination of high CO 2and ethylene.DiseasesFungiReports on the effects of CA storage on thedevelopment of diseases of fruits and vegetableshave shown mixed results. Disease incidenceon cabbage stored in 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2or2.5% O 2+ 3.0% CO 2was lower than thosestored in air (Prange and Lidster, 1991). Invitro studies of Chinese cabbage inoculatedwith Phytophthora brassicae and stored at 1.5 °Cin 0.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2or 3.0% CO 2+ 3.0% O 2showed low levels of disease developmentcompared with those stored in air. In contrast,in vivo studies showed that the infection levelcaused by P. brassicae was significantly higherin the CA treatments than in air after 94–97days’ storage (Hermansen and Hoftun, 2005).In celery stored at 8 °C, disease suppressionwas greatest in atmospheres with 7.5–30.0%CO 2+ 1.5% O 2, but there was only a slightreduction in 4–16% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2or in 1.5–6.0% O 2+ 0% CO 2(Reyes, 1988). A combinationof 1 or 2% O 2+ 2 or 4% CO 2preventedblack stem disease development in celery duringstorage (Smith and Reyes, 1988). GoldenDelicious apple losses from rotting were lowerin CA storage than at the same temperature inair (Reichel, 1974). Cox’s Orange Pippinapples were stored at 2.5 °C in air or in 2.5% O 2+ 3.0% CO 2at 3.5 °C by Schulz (1974). Therewas natural contamination of the fruits on thetree by Pezicula spp., and the disease wasshown to be slightly retarded in the CA storage.There were no differences in the occurrenceof Botrytis and Penicillium rots betweenCA and air storage. When undamaged andinjured fruits were artificially inoculated atharvest, Penicillium malicorticis was shown tobe more active on injured fruits in CA storagethan in air. Hayward kiwifruit were exposedto 60% CO 2+ 20% O 2at 30 or 40 °C for 1, 3 or

Pests and Diseases 775 days by Cheah et al. (1994) for the control ofB. cinerea rot. Spore germination and growthof Botrytis cinerea were completely inhibited invitro by 60% CO 2at 40 °C and partially suppressedat 30 °C. Kiwifruits were inoculatedwith B. cinerea spores, exposed to 60% CO 2at30 or 40 °C and stored in air at 0 °C for up to 12weeks after treatment. The 60% CO 2at 40 °Ctreatment reduced disease incidence from85% in air at 20 °C to about 50%, but exposureto CO 2at 40 °C for longer than 1 day adverselyaffected fruit ripening.It was reported that growth of the fungiRhizopus spp., Penicillium spp., Phomopsisspp. and Sclerotinia spp. was inhibited byatmospheres of total N 2but not in atmospherescontaining 99% N 2+ 1% O 2(Ryall,1963). Kader (1997) indicated that levelsof 15–20% CO 2can retard decay incidenceon cherry, blackberry, blueberry, raspberry,strawberry, fig and grape. Storage of strawberriesin 10–30% CO 2or 0.5–2.0% O 2is usedto reduce disease levels, but 30% CO 2or lessthan 2% O 2was also reported to cause offflavourto develop in some circumstances(Hardenberg et al., 1990). Harris and Harvey(1973) stored strawberries in atmosphereswith 0, 10, 20 or 30% CO 2+ 21% O 2at 5 °C for3–5 days to simulate shipping conditions.The fruit were then held at 15.6 °C for 1–2days to simulate distribution. They foundthat fruit held in CO 2-enriched atmosphereshad less softening and decay (mostly B. cinerea)than those held in air, and 20 or 30% CO 2were the most effective. However, fruit heldin 30% CO 2developed off-flavours. Differencesin decay in fruit held in air and at highCO 2were greater after subsequent holding inair at 15.6 °C than on removal from storage.They also showed that CA storage of strawberriesnot only reduced disease levels whilethe crop was being stored but can have anadditional beneficial effect in disease reductionwhen it was removed for marketing (Table7.2). Parsons et al. (1974) showed considerablereduction in disease levels on tomatoesin CA storage compared with air storage.Most of the effect came from the low O 2levels,with little additional effect from increasedCO 2levels (Table 7.3).There is evidence of interactions betweenCA storage and temperature on disease development.After 24 weeks’ storage of currants(Ribes spp.) at −0.5 °C and 20 or 25% CO 2, theaverage incidence of fungal rots was lowest,at about 5%. Rotting increased to about 35% at1 °C in 25% CO 2and to about 50% at 1 °C and20% CO 2. With 0% CO 2at either temperature,Table 7.2. The effects of CO 2concentration during storage for 3 days at 5 °C on thepercentage levels of decay in strawberries and the development of decay when removedto ambient conditions of approximately 15 °C (Harris and Harvey, 1973).Storage 0% CO 210% CO 220% CO 230% CO 23 days’ storage at 5 °C 11 5 2 1+ 1 day at 15 °C in air 35 9 5 4+ 2 days at 15 °C in air 64 26 11 8Table 7.3. Effects of CA storage conditions on the decay levels of tomatoes harvestedat the green mature stage (Parsons et al., 1974).Storage atmosphereAfter removal from6 weeks at 13 °C (%)Plus 1 week at15–21 °C (%)Plus 2 weeks at15–21 °C (%)Air (control) 65.6 93.3 98.60% CO 2+ 3% O 22.2 4.4 16.73% CO 2+ 3% O 23.3 5.6 12.25% CO 2+ 3% O 25.0 9.4 13.9

78 Chapter 7the incidence of rots was about 95% (Roelofs,1994).There remains the question of how CAstorage actually reduces or controls diseaseson fruits and vegetables. Parsons et al. (1970)showed that atmospheres containing 3% O 2reduced decay on stored tomatoes caused byRhizopus or Alternaria. However, both generaof fungi grew well in vitro in 3% O 2or less.This led them to hypothesize that the reductionin decay was due to the CA storage conditionsacting on the tomato fruit itself, sothat it developed resistance to the fungi,rather acting only on the fungi.BacteriaSome in vitro and in vivo studies have indicatedthat CA may have a negative effect onbacteria. Brooks and McColloch (1938)reported that storage of Lima beans in CO 2concentrations of 25–35% inhibited bacterialgrowth without adversely affecting the beans.Parsons and Spalding (1972) inoculatedtomato fruit with soft rot bacteria and heldthem for 6 days at 12.8 °C in 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2or in air. Lesions were smaller on fruits storedin 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2than on those stored in air,but CA storage did not control decay. Amodioet al. (2003) stored slices of mushrooms at 0 °Ceither in air or in 3% O 2+ 20% CO 2for 24 daysand found that there was a slight increase formesophilic and psychrophilic bacteria in airbut no increase or a slight decrease for thosein 3% O 2+ 20% CO 2.Potatoes are cured before long-term storageby exposing them to a higher temperatureat the beginning of storage to heal any wounds(Thompson, 1996). Weber (1988) showed thatthe defence reaction of potatoes to infectionby Erwinia carotovora subspecies atrosepticaduring the curing period was inhibited bytemperatures of less than 10 °C, reduced O 2levels of less than 5% and CO 2levels of over20%. CO 2can retard bacterial growth byincreasing their lag phase before they begin todevelop. The degree of retardation was shownto increase with increasing concentrations ofCO 2, but Daniels et al. (1985) reported thatClostridium botulinum may survive even athigh CO 2levels. Sobiczewski et al. (1999), in astudy of the efficacy of antagonistic bacteriain protection of apples against fungal diseases,found that there was a tendency for thehighest reduction in bacterial population inthe atmosphere containing 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5%O 2compared with storage in air at 2–3 °C.InsectsCA storage has been used to control insects. Itwas suggested by Ke and Kader (1989) thatthe most promising application for O 2levelsat less than 1% is to expose fresh fruits, suchas pears, stone fruits, blueberries and strawberries,to low O 2atmospheres for short periodsto replace chemical treatments forpostharvest insect control to meet quarantinerequirements. Ke and Kader (1992a) showedthat the times required for complete mortalityof insect species by exposing infested fruit toO 2levels at or below 1% had potential as apostharvest quarantine treatment for fruitssuch as Bing cherry, Red Jim nectarine, Angelenoplum, Yellow Newton and Granny Smithapples and 20th Century pear. However, thelevels which are necessary may be phytotoxicto the fruit. They reviewed the insecticidaleffects of very low O 2and/or very high CO 2atmospheres at various temperatures andcompared these levels with the responses andtolerance of fresh fruits and vegetables tosimilar CA conditions. They concluded thatthe time required for 100% mortality wasshown to vary with insect species and itsdevelopmental stage, temperature, O 2andCO 2levels and humidity. Yahia and Kushwaha(1995) reported that Hass avocados,Sunrise papayas and Keitt mangoes toleratedlow O 2(± 0.5%) and/or very high CO 2(± 50%)for 1, 2 and 5 days, respectively, at 20 °C. Theypurported that these treatments could havesome potential use as insecticidal atmospheresfor quarantine insect control, on thebasis of fruit tolerance, insect mortality andcosts. In stored vegetables, Cantwell et al.(1995) also showed that various combinationsof O 2, CO 2and temperature were effective inachieving complete insect kill before thedevelopment of phytotoxic symptoms. They

Pests and Diseases 79found that storage in 10–20% CO 2could controlthrips (Thysanoptera spp.) in 7 days andthe peach potato aphid (Myzus persicae) in10–14 days. In 80–100% CO 2at 0 °C, completemortality was consistently achieved for bothinsects within 12 h.Ke et al. (1994a) showed that tolerancesof peach and nectarine fruits to controlledatmospheres that were insecticidal weredetermined by the time before occurrence ofvisual injury and/or off-flavour. The tolerancesof John Henry peaches, Fantasia nectarines,Fire Red peaches, O’Henry peaches,Royal Giant nectarine and Flamekist nectarineto 0.25% O 2+ 99.75% N 2at 20 °C were 2.8,4.0, 4.0, 4.4, 5.1 and 5.2 days, respectively.Fairtime peaches tolerated 0.21% O 2+ 99%CO 2at 20 °C for 3.8 days, 0.21% O 2+ 99% CO 2at 0 °C for 5 days, 0.21% O °C at 20 °C for6 days and 0.21% O 2at 0 °C for 19 days. Comparisonof fruit tolerance on the time to reach100% mortality of some insect species suggestedthat 0.25% O 2at 20 °C is probably notsuitable for postharvest insect disinfestation,while 0.21% O 2, with or without 99% CO 2, at0 °C merited further investigation. Kerbelet al. (1989) showed that Fantasia nectarineswere quite tolerant to exposures to low O 2and/or high CO 2for short periods, whichmay be long enough for insect control. Yahiaet al. (1992) showed that insecticidal O 2concentrationsof less than 0.4% O 2, with the balancebeing N 2, can be used as a quarantineinsect control treatment in papaya for periodsless than 3 days at 20 °C without the risk ofsignificant fruit injury. Scale insects (Quadraspidiotiusperniciosus) on stored apples werecompletely eliminated by storing infestedfruit in 2.6–3.0% O 2+ 2.4–2.5% CO 2or1.5–1.7% O 2+ 1.0–1.1% CO 2at 1 or 3 °C for31–34 weeks, plus an additional week at 20 °Cand 50–60% rh (Chu, 1992).Sweet potatoes were exposed to low O 2and high CO 2for 1 week during curing orsubsequent storage to evaluate its effect onthe weevil Cylas formicarius elegantulus. Theytolerated 8% O 2during curing, but whenexposed to 2 or 4% O 2or to 60% CO 2+ 21 or8% O 2they were unusable within 1 week aftercuring, mainly due to decay. Exposure ofcured sweet potatoes to 2 or 4% O 2+ 40%CO 2, or 4% O 2+ 60% CO 2for 1 week at 25 °Chad little effect on postharvest quality, butexposure to 2% O 2+ 60% CO 2resulted inincreased decay, and a reduction in flavourand more off-flavour. Exposure of sweet potatoesto levels required for insect control wasfound not to be feasible during curing, butcured sweet potatoes could tolerate CA thathas a potential as a quarantine procedure(Delate and Brecht, 1989). Adults of C. formicariuselegantulus on sweet potato rootsinfested with immature stages of the pestwere exposed to atmospheres containing lowO 2and increased concentrations of CO 2witha balance of N 2for up to 10 days at 25 and30 °C. Adults were killed within 4–8 dayswhen exposed to 8% O 2+ 40–60% CO 2at30 °C. At 25 °C, exposure to 2 or 4% + 40 or60% CO 2killed all the adult insects within 2–8days. Exposure of sweet potatoes infestedwith weevils to 8% O 2+ 30–60% CO 2for1 week at 30 °C failed to kill all the weevils.However, no adult weevils emerged frominfested roots treated with either 4% O 2+ 60%CO 2or 2% O 2+ 40 or 60% CO 2for 1 week at25 °C (Delate et al., 1990).Fumigation of Bing cherries with methylbromide to control codling moth (Cydiapomonella) on fruit exported to Japan negativelyaffected fruit and stem appearance(Retamales et al., 2003). However, theyreported that fruit could be heated to 45 °C for41 min or 47 °C for 27 min in an atmosphere of1% O 2+ 15% CO 2+ 84% N 2, which could providequarantine security against codling mothand western cherry fruit fly (Rhagoletis cingulata).Treated cherries had similar incidence ofpitting and decay, and similar preference ratingsafter 14 days of storage at 1 °C, as nontreatedor methyl bromide-fumigated fruit(Shellie et al., 2001). They also showed thatstorage in CO 2levels up to 30% did not markedlyinfluence the quality aspects comparedwith storage in air, with the exception of decaybeing significantly reduced. Chervin et al.(1999) suggested that exposure to 2% O 2for3 days at 28 °C approximately halved the timerequired in cold storage for effective control oflate-instar light brown apple moth (Epiphyaspostvittana) in apples. Preliminary observationssuggested that there may be no substantialdifference between the resistance ofnon-diapausing and pre-diapausing codling

80 Chapter 7moth larvae to this treatment followed by coldstorage, and consumer panels found thatfruits were as acceptable as control fruits.In storage at 0 °C, the mortality responsesof armoured scales, Hemiberlasia spp., onNew Zealand Hayward kiwifruit exposed tostorage in air or 2% O 2+ 5% CO 2were equallyeffective (Whiting, 2003). Mature scales weremore tolerant of both storage treatments thanimmature scales.

8Modified Atmosphere PackagingBradshaw (2007) stated that food packagingadds more than 20% to the cost of buying fruitat a leading UK supermarket. A customer whobuys fresh fruit worth £12.41 can expect tospend an additional £4.67 if they choose producethat is pre-packaged rather than loose.The same supermarket stated that they hadreduced packaging of fresh fruit and vegetablesby 33% since 2000. However, packagingcan reduce losses and preserve quality in fruitand vegetables, especially MA packaging.MA packaging can be defined as an alterationin the composition of gases in andaround fresh produce by respiration and transpirationwhen such commodities are sealedin plastic films (G.E. Hobson, personal communication).MA packaging, using variousplastic films, has been known for severaldecades to have great potential in extendingthe postharvest life of fruits and vegetables,but it has never reached its full potential. Itcan be clearly demonstrated experimentallythat it can have similar effects to controlledatmosphere storage on the postharvest life ofcrops, and the mechanism of the effects isdoubtless the same. Its limited uptake by theindustry probably reflects the limited controlof the gases around and within the fruits andvegetables achieved by this technology. Thiscan result in unpredictable effects on postharvestlife and quality of the commodity packagedin this way. Some recent concerns aboutthe safety of products in modified atmospherepackaging also militate against its use.Plastic films used in MA packaging forfruits and vegetables are permeable to gases.The degree of permeability depends on thechemical composition and thickness of thefilm, as well as temperature. Other films,called barrier films, are designed to preventthe exchange of gases and are mainly usedwith non-respiring products. Developmentsin MA packaging were reviewed by Church(1994) and by Rai and Shashi (2007). Theseincluded low-permeability films, highpermeabilityfilms, O 2-scavenging technology,CO 2scavengers and emitters, ethyleneabsorbers, ethanol vapour generators, trayreadyand bulk MA packaging systems, easyopeningand resealing systems, leak detection,time–temperature indicators, gas indicators,combination treatments and predictive/mathematical modelling. The concentrationof the gases inside the film bag will also varydepending on mass, type, temperature andmaturity of fruit or vegetable in the bag andthe activity of microorganisms, as well as onthe characteristics and thickness of the filmused. Johnson (1994b) reported that MApackaging during distribution/marketingmay be at the expense of aroma and flavour.Given an appropriate gaseous atmosphere,MA packaging can be used to extendthe postharvest life of fruits and vegetables in© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits andVegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson) 81

82 Chapter 8the same way as CA storage, but maintaininghigh humidity also seems to be involved.Plantains were shown to have a considerableextension in their storage life when packed inPE film, but keeping the fruit in a flowthroughsystem at high humidity had exactlythe same effect. This effect of moisture contentis more likely a reduction in stress withinthe fruit, which may be caused by a rapid rateof water loss in non-wrapped fruit. This, inturn, may result in increased ethylene productionto internal threshold levels, whichcan initiate ripening (Thompson et al., 1974a).Porat et al. (2004) suggested that MA packagingreduces the development of rind disordersin citrus fruits in two ways. The first isby maintaining the fruit in high humidity; thesecond is by maintaining elevated CO 2andlowered O 2levels. They found that storage ofnon-wrapped Shamouti oranges in 95% rhreduced rind disorders to a similar level asthose stored in macroperforated plastic films.Film TypesIn the 1970s MA packages were used for someretail packs of meat and fish. Since then theyhave become increasingly used for fruit andvegetables, and new techniques have beendeveloped, including microperforation, antifogginglayers to improve product visibilityand reduce rotting, and equilibrium modifiedatmosphere packaging. Companies havemarketed films that they claim could greatlyincrease the storage life of packed fruits andvegetables. These are marketed with namessuch as Maxifresh ® , Gelpack ® and Xtend ® .Different films have differences in relationto O 2and CO 2permeability, which is afunction of thickness, density, presence ofadditives, and gradient concentration modification(Steffens et al., 2007a). The manufacturingprocess for films has improved over theyears, and although the actual thickness ofthe film quoted may vary slightly, they arecurrently much more even and reliable. Biodegradeable,transparent films have beendeveloped, including zein films. These aremade from a hydrophobic protein producedfrom maize (Tomoyuki et al., 2002), but zeinfilms may swell and deform in prolongedcontact with water, which seems to restricttheir use in MA packaging of fruits and vegetables.However, Rakotonirainy et al. (2008)reported that broccoli florets packaged in zeinfilms (laminated or coated with tung oil)maintained their original firmness and colourduring 6 days’ storage. Films have been preparedby extrusion using acetylated and oxidizedbanana starches with LDPE. Thesemight be feasible for making films with a highrate of degradation (Torres et al., 2008)Film PermeabilityRespiring fresh fruits and vegetables sealedin plastic films will cause the atmosphere tochange, in particular O 2levels to be depletedand CO 2levels to be increased. The transmissionof gases and water vapour though plasticfilms can vary with the type of materialfrom which they are made, the use of additivesin the plastic, temperature, humidity,the accumulation, concentration and gradientof the gas, and the thickness of the material.Generally films are four to six times more permeableto CO 2than to O 2. However, Barmore(1987) indicated that the relationship betweenCO 2and O 2permeability and that of watervapour is not so simple. Variation in transmissionof water vapour can therefore beachieved, to some extent, independently oftransmission of CO 2and O 2, using such techniquesas producing multi-layer films byco-extrusion or applying adhesives betweenthe layers. Achieving the exact O 2and CO 2levels in MA packaging can be difficult. Filmpermeability to gases is by active diffusion,where the gas molecules dissolve in the filmmatrix and diffuse through in response to theconcentration gradient (Kester and Fennema,1986). Schlimme and Rooney (1994) showedthat there was a range of permeabilities thatcould be obtained from films with basicallythe same specifications. A formula to describefilm permeability was given by Crank (1975)as follows:JxP =Ap( 1− p2)

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 83where:J = volumetric rate of gas flow throughthe film at steady state;x = thickness of film;A = area of permeable surface;p 1= gas partial pressure on side 1 of thefilm; andp 2= gas partial pressure on side 2 of thefilm (p 1>p 2).Permselectivity is a medical term usedto define the preferential permeation of certainionic species through ion-exchangemembranes. Al-Ati and Hotchkiss (2003)applied the term to MA packaging andinvestigated altering film permselectivityby using PE ionomer films with permselectivitesof 4–5 CO 2and 0.8–1.3 O 2. The resultson fresh-cut apples suggest that packagingfilms with CO 2:O 2permselectivities lowerthan those commercially available (

84 Chapter 8obtained when the lettuce was pre-packed inclosed PE bags not flushed with N 2, or whenopen bags were placed in PE-lined cartons.Andre et al. (1980a) showed that fungal developmentduring storage could be prevented inasparagus spears by packing them in PE bagswith silicon elastomer windows and flushingwith 30% CO 2for 24 h or by maintaining aCO 2concentration of 5–10%.Quantity of ProductThe quantity of produce inside the sealedplastic film bag in relation to the size of thebag has been shown to affect the equilibriumgas content (Table 8.1), but the levels of CO 2and O 2do not always follow what would bepredicted from permeability data and respirationload of the crop. Zagory (1990) alsodemonstrated that the relationship betweenthe weight of produce sealed in 20 × 30 cmCryovac SSD-310 film bags and its O 2andCO 2content was linear (Fig. 8.2). However,this varied considerably with a fourfold variationin produce weight, which illustrates theimportance of varying just one factor. Thompsonet al. (1972) also showed that the numberof fruit packed in each plastic bag can alterthe effect of MA packaging, where plantainspacked with six fruits per bag ripened in 14.6days compared with 18.5 days when fruitswere packed individually during storage in aJamaican ambient temperature of 26–34 °C.Table 8.1. Effects of the amount of asparagusspears sealed inside plastic bags on the equilibriumCO 2and O 2content at 20 °C (Lill and Corrigan,1996). Film used was W R Grace RD 106 polyolefinshrinkable multi-layer film with anti-fog propertieswith 23,200 CO 2, 10,200 O 2permeability at 20 °Cin ml m −3 atmosphere −1 day −1 .Weight ofasparagusspears insidethe bag (g)EquilibriumCO 2(%)EquilibriumO 2(%)100 2.5 9.7150 3.2 6.2200 3.5 4.1PerforationThe appropriate CO 2and O 2levels can beachieved for fruits or vegetables with low ormedium respiration rates where they aresealed in films such as LDPE, PP, OPP andPVC. However, Rai and Shashi (2007) pointedout that for highly respiring produce, such asmushrooms, broccoli, asparagus and Brusselssprouts, packaging in these films can result infermentation. Punching holes in the plasticcan maintain a high humidity around the produce,but it may be less effective in delayingfruit ripening because it does not have thesame effect on the CO 2and O 2content of theatmosphere inside the bag. The holes may bevery small, and in these cases they are commonlyreferred to as microperforations.Larger holes are sometimes referred to asmacroperforations, but there is no definitionas to where one ends and the other begins.Various studies have been conducted onthe effects of perforations in the packaging offruits and vegetables on the internal gas contentat different temperatures. Perforatingbags used for low-respiring fruits and vegetablescan have both positive and negativeeffects. For example, Hardenburg (1955)found that onions in non-perforated bagstended to produce roots, but when the bagswere perforated to address this problem theweight loss for the onions increased (Table8.2). Pears of the cultivars Okusankichi andImamuraaki had the highest levels of decay ifplaced in unsealed, 0.05-mm plastic bags andleast in sealed bags with five pinholes, butbags with ten holes had more decay. Weightloss of fruit after 7 months’ storage was 8–9%in unsealed bags and

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 8552.4 kg41.6 kgCarbon dioxide (%)321.2 kg0.6 kg100 5 10Oxygen (%)15 20Fig. 8.2. Equilibrium gas concentration in a modifi ed atmosphere package as a function of weight forAnaheim chilli pepper fruit packed in Cryovac SSD-310 fi lm (Zagory, 1990).Table 8.2. Effects of number and size of perforations in 1.36 kg 150-gauge PE fi lm bags of Yellow Globeonions on the relative humidity in the bags, rooting of the bulbs and weight loss after 14 days at 24 °C(Hardenburg, 1955).Number of perforations Perforation size (mm) Rh in bag (%) Bulbs rooted (%) Weight loss (%)0 – 98 71 0.536 1.6 88 59 0.740 3.2 84 40 1.48 6.4 – 24 1.816 6.4 54 17 2.532 6.4 51 4 2.5Kraft paper with fi lm window – 54 0 3.4Marcellin (1973) described the use of PE bagswith silicone rubber panels that allowed a certainamount of gas exchange, which have beenused for storing vegetables. Good atmospherecontrol within the bags was obtained for globeartichokes and asparagus at 0 °C and greenpeppers at 12–13 °C, when the optimum sizeof the bag and of the silicon gas-exchangepanel was determined. Rukavishnikov et al.(1984) described CA storage in 150–300 µm PEfilm with windows of membranes selectivefor O 2and CO 2permeability made of polyvinyltrimethyl silane or silicon organic polymers.Apples and pears stored at 1–4 °C underthe covers had 93 and 94% sound fruit, respectively,after 6–7 months, whereas those storednon-wrapped at similar temperatures resultedin over 50% losses after 5 months.Hong et al. (1983) described the storagebehaviour of Citrus unshiu fruits at 3–8 °C inplastic films with or without a silicone window.The size of the silicone window was

86 Chapter 820–25 cm 2 kg −1 fruit, giving 10%O 2. After 110–115 days, 80.8–81.9% of fruitsstored with the silicone window were healthy,with good coloration of the peel and excellentflavour, while those without a silicone windowhad 59.4–76.8%, with poor peel coloration andpoor flavour. Those stored without wrappingsfor 90 days had 67% healthy fruit with poorquality and shrivelling of the peel, calyxbrowning and a high rate of moisture loss. Thesuitability of the silicone membrane system forCA storage of Winter Green cabbage was studiedby Gariepy et al. (1984) using small experimentalchambers. Three different CA startingtechniques were then evaluated, and therewas a control with cabbages stored in air at thesame temperature. The silicone membranesystem maintained CA storage conditions of3.5–5.0% CO 2+ 1.5–3.0% O 2, where 5% and3%, respectively, were estimated theoretically.After 198 days of storage, total mass loss was14% in CA storage, compared with 40% in air.The three methods used to achieve the CAstorage conditions did not have any significanteffect on the storability of cabbage. Cabbagestored in CA showed better retention of colour,a fresher appearance and a firmer texture comparedwith those stored in air. Raghavan et al.(1982) used a silicone membrane system andfound that carrots could be stored for up to 52weeks and celery, swedes and cabbage for 16weeks. Design calculations for selection of themembrane area are presented in the paper.Chinquapin fruit (Castanea henryi) packed inPE film bags each with a silicone rubber windowand stored at 1 °C had a longer storagelife, a slower decline in vitamin C, sugars andstarch, reduced desiccation and a lower occurrenceof ‘bad’ fruits compared with thosestored in gunny bags (Pan et al., 2006).AbsorbentsChemicals can be used with MA packaging toremove or absorb ethylene, O 2, CO 2and water.Such systems are sometimes referred to as‘active packaging’ and have been used formany years and involve chemicals beingplaced within the package, or they may beincorporated into the packaging material. Onesuch product was marketed as ‘Ageless’ andused iron reactions to absorb O 2from theatmosphere (Abe, 1990). Ascorbic acid-basedsachets (which also generate CO 2) andcathecol-based sachets are also used as O 2absorbers. The former are marketed as AgelessG ® or Toppan C ® , or Vitalon GMA ® whencombined with iron, and the latter asTamotsu ® . Mineral powders are incorporatedinto some films for fresh produce, particularlyin Japan (Table 8.3). Proprietary products suchas Ethysorb ® and Purafil ® are available, whichare made by impregnating an active aluminacarrier (Al 2O 3) with a saturated solution ofpotassium permanganate and then drying it.The carrier is usually formed into small granules;the smaller the granules the larger thesurface area and therefore the quicker theirabsorbing characteristics. Any molecule ofethylene in the package atmosphere thatcomes into contact with the granule will beoxidized, so the larger surface area is anadvantage. The oxidizing reaction is notreversible and the granules change colourfrom purple to brown, which indicates thatthey need replacing. Strop (1992) studied theeffects of storing broccoli in PE film bags withand without Ethysorb. She found that the ethylenecontent in the bags after 10 days at 0 °Cwas 0.423 µl l -1 for those without Ethysorb and0.198 µl l -1 for those with Ethysorb. However,Scott et al. (1971) showed that the inclusion ofpotassium permanganate in sealed packagesreduced the mean level of ethylene from 395to 1.5 µl l −1 and reduced brown heart from 68to 36% in stored pears. Packing limes in sealedPE film bags inside cartons resulted in aweight loss of only 1.3% in 5 days, but all thefruits degreened more rapidly than thosewhich were packed without PE film, wherethe weight loss was 13.8% (Thompson et al.,1974b). However, this degreening effect couldbe countered by including an ethylene absorbentin the bags (Fig. 8.3). Where potassiumpermanganate was included in bags containingbananas, the increase in storage life wasthree to four times compared with nonwrappedfruit, and the fruits could be storedfor 6 weeks at 20 °C or 28 °C and 16 weeks at13 °C (Satyan et al., 1992). The rate of ethyleneremoval from packages using potassiumpermanganate on an alumina carrier is

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 87Table 8.3. Commercially available fi lms in Japan (Abe, 1990).Trade name Manufacturer Compound ApplicationFH fi lm Thermo Ohya stone/PE BroccoliBF fi lm BF Distribution Research Coral sand/PE HomeShupack V Asahi-Kasei Synthetic-zealite –Uniace Idemitsu Pet. Chem. Silicagel mineral SweetcornNack fresh Nippon Unicar Cristobalite Broccoli and sweetcornZeomic Shinanen Ag-zeolite/PE –4YellowPolyethylene film bagsColour score3Not wrappedPolyethylene + Purafil®Polyethylene + KMnO 4Green2LSD (P = 0.05)ns0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45Days in storageFig. 8 3. Effects of modifi ed atmosphere packaging in polyethylene fi lm and an ethylene absorbentincluded within the pack on the rate of degreening of limes stored in tropical ambient conditions of31–34 °C and 29–57% rh (Thompson et al., 1974b).affected by humidity (Lidster et al., 1985). Atthe high humidity found in MA packages, therate of ethylene removal by potassium permanganatewas shown to be reduced. Kiwifruitof the cultivar Bruno were stored at −1 °Cin sealed PE bags of varying thickness, withand without Ethysorb. There was a slowerrate of fruit softening and improved keepingquality during 6 months’ storage of kiwifruitat −1 °C in sealed 0.04–0.05 mm-thick PE bagscontaining an ethylene absorbent. The averagecomposition of the atmosphere in thesebags was 3–4% CO 2+ 15–16% O 2and

88 Chapter 8fl uctuations in temperatures, because thehumidity is high within the pack and easilyreaches dew point where the film surface iscooler than the pack air. Anti-fogging chemicalscan be added during the manufacture ofplastic films. These do not affect the quantityof moisture inside the packs, but they causethe moisture that has condensed on the insideof the pack to form sheets rather than discretedrops. They can eventually form puddles atthe bottom of the pack.TemperatureTemperature affects the respiration rate of theproduce and the permeability of the film. Tanoet al. (2007) studied temperature fluctuationbetween 3 and 10 °C over a 30-day period onpackaged broccoli and found that it resultedin extensive browning, softening, weight lossincrease, ethanol increase and infection due tophysiological damage and excessive condensation,compared with broccoli stored at constanttemperature. At 3 °C the atmosphere inthe packages started at 3% O 2+ 8% CO 2, butwhen the temperature was raised to 10 °C theCO 2increased rapidly to a maximum of 15.5%and O 2decreased to

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 89Fig. 8.4. A. In Europe, cucumbers are commonly marketed in a shrink-wrapped plastic sleeve, whichprovides a MA to help retain their texture and colour. B. A shrink-wrapping line in the Netherlands.showed little advantage over conventionalcontainers.Modified Interactive PackagingModified interactive packaging (MIP) useslow-density polyethylene (LDPE) filmimpregnated with a concentration of minerals.The permeability of the substrate, createdby porous activated clay particles, createsmicro-cracks in the film substrate when a containeris formed. These micro-cracks allow foran interaction to take place between the produce,O 2, CO 2, water, other gases and the substrate.This allows for better control of thepermeability of the film, but the exchange ratedid not exceed three parts O 2to one part CO 2.

90 Chapter 8Also high humidity is maintained inside thepackage with minimal condensation, which isclaimed to reduce the risk of spoilage throughfungal or bacterial infection. It was claimedthat as excess condensation inside the punnet/liner/bagbuilt up it was removed viaosmotic diffusion through the film membraneand ‘vaporized’. The major advantage is thatproduce moisture is not affected or removed,which would normally cause rapid dehydrationand early deterioration (Richard King,FreshTech, personal communication). Onesuch film is marketed as ‘FRESH ‘n’ SMART’.The film itself has a honeycomb structure witha number of tiny crevices, so the PE molecularstructure is broken down and yet retains itsstrength, toughness and elasticity. For optimumresults, products should be packed inthe bags dry and pre-cooled. Once sealed, thebags should be kept in well-ventilated cartonsor crates to allow air circulation. FRESH ‘n’SMART uses resins in the manufacture of thefilm, which improves both the strength andelasticity. This means that the bags will be lessprone to tearing and puncturing, resulting ina very durable and effective film. The resinsare of approved food grade.Adamicki (2001) cooled various vegetablesto their optimum storage temperatureand placed them either in MIP packages orinto boxes lined with 35 µm-thick PE filmwithout minerals. In the MIP packages a gascomposition was maintained which resultedin maintenance of the quality and marketablevalue of the vegetable. The storage periodswere 6–9 weeks for broccoli, 4–6 weeks fortomatoes, 4 weeks for sweet peppers and 4–5weeks for Crisphead lettuce in MIP packages.At 0 °C the concentration of CO 2inside theMIP increased up to 5.6–5.9% in 2 days, thenslowly decreased, reaching 3.5–3.7% after 16days, and stayed around this level to the endof the storage period. The concentration of O 2inside the packages decreased from 21 to 3.5%after 11 days and then remained on this level,with a small fluctuation, throughout theperiod of storage. Subsequently Adamickiand Badełek (2006} reported that broccolistored in MIP had better retention of greencolour, firmness, quality and weight loss. Iceberglettuces stored in MIP packages had lessbutt discoloration, rotting of leaves andimproved marketable quality than those inboxes lined with PE film without minerals.Minimal ProcessingDamage inflicted in minimal processing offruits and vegetables can reduce the postharvestlife compared with those that remainintact, but MA packaging can be used toextend their storage life. Bastrash et al. (1993)found that broccoli heads that had been cutinto florets had an increased respiration ratein response to wounding stress throughoutstorage at 4 °C in air, and ethylene productionwas also stimulated after 10 days. They alsofound that the atmosphere for optimal preservationof broccoli florets was 6% CO 2+ 2% O 2at 4 °C, which delayed yellowing, reduceddevelopment of mould and offensive odoursand resulted in better water retention during7 weeks’ storage. This compared with only5 weeks in air. These effects were especiallynoticeable when the florets were returnedfrom CA at 4 °C to air at 20 °C.Budu et al. (2001) found that the respirationrate of peeled pineapples was very closeto that of intact fruits, but their respiration ratedecreased in response to slight changes in O 2and CO 2concentrations. They concluded thatMA packaging should have important commercialapplications in reducing the respirationrate and increasing the shelf-life ofminimally processed pineapple. For minimallyprocessed pineapple slices, Budu et al.(2007) found that an MA packaging giving 5%O 2+ 15% CO 2appeared to be the mostappropriate. Tancharoensukjit and Chantanawarangoon(2008) found that for fresh-cutpineapples storage in 5 or 10% O 2+ 10% CO 2helped maintain their lightness and visualquality and prolonged their storage life to 9days. Antoniolli et al. (2007) sliced pineapplesand dipped them in 20 mg sodium hypochloritel −1 for 30 s then stored them at5 ± 1 °C in a flow-through system with differentO 2and CO 2concentrations. None of theCA treatments seemed to give an advantage,since the slices stored in air had little browningand were free of contamination that wouldaffect the food safety at the end of the storage

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 91period. Antoniolli et al. (2006) did not detectethylene production during the initial periodof 12 h after minimal processing and storage at5 °C. They also found that the initial respirationrate of pineapple slices and chunks wasdouble that observed in the peeled fruits. Therespiration rate of slices and chunks was verysimilar during 14 days’ storage.Day (1996) also showed that the atmosphereinside the MA packaging can influencethe rate of deterioration. In minimally processedfruits and vegetables, 70 and 80% O 2inMA packaging inhibited undesirable fermentationreactions, delayed browning caused bydamage during processing and inhibited bothaerobic and anaerobic microbial growth. Cutsurfacebrowning and flesh softening wereinhibited for fruits that had been stored in 100or 1% O 2compared with those that had beenstored in air. However, the slices from 100%O 2and air contained a much lower content offermentation products associated with offflavourscompared with the slices from applesfrom 1% O 2. Lu and Toivonen (2000) sealedSpartan apple slices in 40 µm LDPE film bagshaving a moderate O 2transmission rate ofabout ‘2.28 fmol s −1 m m −2 Pa −1 at 23 °C’, andthey remained in good condition for up to 2weeks at 1 °C. Slices from apples that hadbeen previously stored at 1 °C in 1% O 2for upto 19 days developed more cut-surfacebrowning, greater tissue solute leakage andenhanced accumulations of acetaldehyde,ethanol and ethyl acetate compared withslices cut from fruits that had been stored in100% O 2for up to 19 days.Escalona et al. (2006) concluded that 80%O 2must be used in MA packaging of freshcutButter lettuce, in combination with 10–20%CO 2, to reduce their respiration rate and avoidfermentation. Day (2003), working on high O 2storage with Iceberg lettuce packed in either30 µ PVDC or 30 µ OPP and stored at 6–8 °Cfor 7–10 days, found that the CO 2contentinside the PVDC film reached 30–40%, whichdamaged the lettuce. Inside the OPP film theCO 2level did not exceed 25%, while the O 2level was maintained at >40% and the lettuceretained their good condition. In a study ofminimally processed cabbages, Rinaldi et al.(2009) found that CA for 10 days did notextend the storage life at 5 or 10 °C longerthan those stored in air. The CA they used ina flow-through system were combinations of2–10% O 2and 3–10% CO 2.Equilibrium Modified AtmospherePackagingEquillibrium modified atmosphere packaging(EMAP) is term that is commonly appliedto the packaging technology used for minimallyprocessed fruits and vegetables. Theinternal O 2concentration of the packagescould be predicted for the different steps ofthe simulated distribution chain by applyingan integrated mathematical model and usinghighly permeable packaging films. For example,Del-Valle et al. (2009) developed a modelto determine the EMAP for mandarin segmentsbecause of their high respiration rate.The model showed the need for using microperforatedplastic films for the MA package.The number of micropores was optimized bymonitoring the accumulation of fermentationvolatile compounds for 3 weeks at 3 °C.ModellingDay (1994) and Ben-Yehoshua et al. (1995)reviewed the concept of mathematical modellingof MA packaging for both whole and minimallyprocessed fruits and vegetables. Evelo(1995) showed that the package volume didnot affect the equilibrium gas concentrationsinside an MA package but did affect the nonsteady-stateconditions. An MA packagingmodel was developed using a systems- orientedapproach, which allowed the selection of a respirationrate model according to the availabledata, with temperature dependence explicitlyincorporated into the model. The model wassuitable for assessing optimal MA packagingin realistic distribution chains. O 2and CO 2concentrations inside plastic film packagescontaining the mango cultivar Nam Dok Maifruits were modelled by Boon-Long et al.(1994). Parameters for PVC, PE and PP filmswere included. A method of determiningrespiration rate from the time history of thegas concentrations inside the film packageinstead of from direct measurements was

92 Chapter 8devised. It was claimed that satisfactory resultswere obtained in practical experiments carriedout to verify the model.Many other mathematical models havebeen published (e.g. Cameron et al., 1989; Leeet al., 1991; Lopez-Briones et al., 1993) thatcould help to predict the atmosphere aroundfresh produce sealed in plastic film bags.Lopez-Briones et al. (1993) suggested the followingmodel:1 Âm 1 1= . +x x S K xoowhere:x = O 2concentration in the pouches (%);Â = proportionality between respirationrate and O 2concentration, including theeffect of temperature (ml g −1 day −1 atmosphere−1 );m = weight of plant tissue (g);x o = initial O 2concentration within thepouches (%);S = surface area for gas exchange (m 2 );andK = O 2diffusion coefficient of the film(includes effects of temperature) (ml m −2day −1 atmosphere −1 ).Lee et al. (1991) obtained a set of differentialequations representing the mathematicalmodel for an MA system. In this case, the rateof reaction (r) is equal to:( )r = VC/K ⎡⎣+ + ⎤m 1 MC1 1 C/K2 1 ⎦where:C 1is the substrate concentration (whichis O 2concentration in the case of respirationrate); V mand K Mare parameters ofthe classical Michaelis–Menten kinetics,V mbeing the maximal rate of enzymaticreaction and K Mthe Michaelis constant;C 2is the inhibitor concentration (CO 2concentration in the case of respiration)and K 1is the constant of equilibriumbetween the enzyme–substrate–inhibitorcomplex and free inhibitor.Combining this equation with Fick’s Lawfor O 2and CO 2permeation, Lee et al. (1991)estimated parameters of this model (V m, K M,and K 1) from experimental data and thenperformed a numerical calculation with theequations. CO 2absorbents or a permeable windowcan be used to prevent atmospheres thatcould damage the crop developing. The concentrationof the various respiratory gases, O 2,CO 2and ethylene, within the crop is governedby various factors, including the gas exchangeequation, which is a modification of Fick’s law:−ds/dt = (C in− C out) DRwhere:−ds/dt = rate gas transport out of thecrop;C in= the concentration of gas within thecrop;C out= the concentration of gas outsidethe crop;D = gaseous diffusion coefficient in air;andR = a constant specific to that particularcrop.The strawberry cultivars Pajaro and Selvawere used by Renault et al. (1994) to test amodel describing gas transport throughmicroperforated PP films and fruit respirationinvolved in MA packaging. They conductedsome experiments with empty packs initiallyfilled with either 100% N 2or 100% O 2. Simulationsagreed very well with experiments onlyif the cross-sectional area of the microperforationswas replaced by areas of approximatelyhalf the actual areas, in order to account forthe resistance of air around the perforations. Itwas also possible to fit the model to gas concentrationchanges in packs filled with strawberries,although deviations were encountereddue to contamination of strawberries by fungi.The model was used to quantify the consequencesof the variability of pack properties(the number of microperforations per packand cross-sectional area of these perforations)on equilibrium gas concentrations and todefine minimum homogeneity requirementsfor MA packaging. Del Nobile et al. (2007)used a simple mathematical model for designingplastic films for minimally processedprickly pear, banana and kiwifruit with alaminated PE/aluminum/PET film or aco-extruded polyolefinic film. Despite the simplicityof the model, they reported that itsatisfactorily described and predicted the respirationrate of the fruit during storage at 5 °C.

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 93Some MA PackagingRecommendationsAppleIn refrigerated conditions MA packaging wasshown to extend the storage life of apples longerthan those stored in air but shorter thanthose stored in CA. For example, in GermanyHansen (1975) showed that the cultivar Jonagoldkept in cold stores at 0.5, 2.5 or 3.5 °Cretained satisfactory organoleptic propertiesonly until the end of January. However, whenthey were stored at 3.5 °C in PE bags (with anequilibrium CO 2content of 7%) they retainedtheir quality until April, but in CA storage (6%CO 2+ 3% O 2) at 2.5 °C fruit quality remainedsatisfactory to the end of May. Under all conditionsapples showed no rotting, CO 2damageor physiological disorders. Hewett andThompson (1988) also found that storage ofthe cultivar Golden Delicious at 1 °C for 49days, then 7 days at ambient, in PE bags 25 µmthick with 50–70 microperforations, madewith a 1 mm-diameter cold needle, lost lessweight, were firmer and had better eatingquality than fruits not stored in bags.Generally, the acceptable time whichapples can remain in MA packages in ambientconditions varies with cultivar, but it isusually 2–4 weeks. An example of this wasgiven by Geeson and Smith (1989), whoshowed that different apple cultivars requireddifferent film types and thicknesses for optimumeffect. For Bramley’s Seedling, EgremontRusset and Spartan, they found that,after CA storage, apples in 1 kg 30 µm LDPEpillow packs in ambient conditions showedslower flesh softening and skin yellowingand a longer shelf-life than those with nopackaging. For Cox’s Orange Pippin, 20 µmethylvinyl acetate film was effective in retardingripening without adversely affecting eatingquality. Park et al. (2007) found thatpackaging of the cultivar Fuji in 25 µm MAfilm (film not specified) for 24 weeks at 0 °Cwas more effective than other film packagingtreatments. Titratable acidity and total solublesolids were higher in MA packaging thanin controls, and decay was reduced from6.8% in controls to 2.4% in MA packaging.ApricotAyhan et al. (2009) found that the cultivarKabaasi stored at 4 °C in air could be kept for7 days without loss of physical and sensoryproperties, but when they were packed ineither BOPP or CPP films they could be successfullystored for 28 days. Ali Koyuncu et al.(2009) stored the cultivar Aprikoz at 0 °C and90 ± 5% rh in 12, 16 or 20 µm stretch film or CAand found that those stored in CA retainedtheir quality better than those in stretch film.Arracacha, Peruvian carrotScalon et al. (2002) found that arracacha( Arracacia xanthorrhiza) roots stored withoutpackaging were unfit for marketing after 21days. However, in ambient conditions inBogotá (17–20 °C and 68–70% rh), Thompson(1981) found that roots deteriorated muchmore quickly but could be stored for 7 days ifwrapped in plastic cling film or plastic shrinkfilm. Scalon et al. (2002) also found that rootspackaged in PVC film had lower weightlosses than those in cellophane film, but thosein cellophane film had a better marketingappearance.ArtichokeMencarelli (1987a) sealed globe artichokes(immature flower heads) in films of differingpermeability or perforated films for 35 days.Perforated, heat-sealed films gave poorresults, as did low-permeability films, butfilms sufficiently permeable to allow goodgas exchange while maintaining high humiditygave good results, with high turgidity andgood flavour and appearance. Storage incrates lined with perforated PE film was recommendedby Lutz and Hardenburg (1968).Five storage trials carried out by Andre et al.(1980b) on the cultivar Violet de Provenceshowed that their storage life in air was1 week at room temperature and 3–4 weeks at1 °C. This was extended to 2 months by acombination of vacuum cooling, packing inPE bags and storage at 1 °C. Gil-Izquierdo

94 Chapter 8et al. (2004) found that the cultivar Blanca deTudela stored at 5 °C had an equilibriumatmosphere of 14.4% O 2+ 5.2% CO 2for thosesealed in PVC bags and 7.7% O 2+ 9.8% CO 2for those in LDPE bags. They showed thatloss of water was the major cause of deteriorationafter 8 days’ storage. The vitamin Ccontent of the internal bracts (the edible part)decreased in MA storage, while for thosestored without packaging it remained at levelssimilar to those at harvest. There also wasa high phenolic content (896 mg 100 g −1 freshweight) in the internal bracts, and thisincreased in those in LDPE and PVC but notin those stored without packaging.AsparagusStorage at 2 °C in MA packaging retained theirsensory quality and ascorbic acid levels(Villanueva et al., 2005). In several trials, coolingto 1 °C within 6–8 h of harvest, followed bystorage at 1 °C in PE bags with silicon elastomerwindows, kept them in good condition for20–35 days (Andre et al., 1980a). Lill andCorrigan (1996) experimented with differentMA packs and found that they all significantlyextended the shelf-life of the spears by between83 and 178%, depending on film type, comparedwith those not wrapped. The least permeablefilms (W.R. Grace RD 106 and Van LeerPackaging Ltd) gave the longer shelf-life extension;the former film had 2.5–3.5% CO 2+ 4.1–9.7% O 2and the latter 3.6–4.6% CO 2+ 2.0–4.5%O 2equilibrium gas content at 20 °C.AubergineMA packaging prolonged the shelf-life andflesh firmness compared with those storednon-wrapped (Arvanitoyannis et al., 2005).AvocadoStorage life was extended by 3–8 days at varioustemperatures by sealing individual fruitsin PE film bags (Haard and Salunkhe, 1975).In earlier work it had been shown that FuerteTable 8.4. Effects of storage temperature andpacking in 125-gauge PE fi lm bags compared withnon-wrapped on the number of days to softeningof avocados (Thompson et al., 1971).7 °C 13 °C 27 °CNot wrapped 32 19 8Sealed fi lm bags 38 27 11fruit sealed individually in 0.025 mm-thick PEfilm bags for 23 days at 14–17 °C ripened normallyon subsequent removal from the bags.The atmosphere inside the bags after 23 dayswas 8% CO 2+ 5% O 2(Aharoni et al., 1968).Thompson et al. (1971) showed that sealingvarious seedling varieties of West Indian avocadosin PE film bags greatly reduced fruitsoftening during storage at various temperatures(Table 8.4).BananaThere is strong evidence that MA packagingcan extend their pre-climacteric life, whichhas been shown in several varieties and atdifferent temperatures. Packaging bananas inPE bags alone, gas-flushed with 3% O 2and5% CO 2or with a partial vacuum (400 mmHg) resulted in shelf-life extension to 15, 24and 32 days, respectively, compared with 12days for those stored non-wrapped at 13 ± 1 °C(Chauhan et al., 2006). According to Shorter etal. (1987), the storage life was increased fivefoldwhen bananas were stored in plastic film(where the equilibrium gas content was about2% O 2+ 5% CO 2) with an ethylene scrubbercompared with fruit stored without wraps.Satyan et al. (1992) stored Williams in 0.1 mmthickPE tubes at 13, 20 and 28 °C and foundthat their storage life was increased two- tothreefold compared with fruit stored withoutwraps. Tiangco et al. (1987) also observed thatthe green life of the variety Saba (Musa BBB)held in MA at ambient temperature had aconsiderable extension of storage life comparedwith fruit stored without wraps, especiallyif combined with refrigeration. InThailand, Tongdee (1988) found that thegreen life of Kluai Khai (Musa AA) could be

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 95maintained for more than 45 days in PE bagsat 13 °C. This was longer by more than 20days than fruits stored at 25 °C in PE bags. Inthe Philippines, Latundan (Musa AAB) couldbe stored in 0.08 mm-thick PE bags at ambienttemperature 26–30 °C for up to 13 days. It wasalso reported that Lakatan (Musa AA) had alag of 3 days before the beginning of colourchange upon removal from the bags (Abdullahand Tirtosoekotjo, 1989; Abdullah andPantastico, 1990). Marchal and Nolin (1990)found that storage in PE film reduced weightloss and respiration rate, which allowed themto be stored for several weeks. Chamara et al.(2000) showed that packaging in 75 µm-thickLDPE bags extended the green life of bananasup to 20 days at room temperature of about25 °C and 85% rh. Fruits ripened naturallywithin 4 days when removed from the packaging.Ali Azizan (1988, quoted by Abdullahand Pantastico, 1990) observed that the totalsoluble solids and titratable acidity in PisangMas changed more slowly during storage inMA at ambient temperature than those storednon-wrapped.Bowden (1993) showed that the effect onyellowing of bananas that had been initiatedto ripen was related to the thickness of plasticand therefore the gas composition within thefilm. Film thickness also affected weight loss.For example, at 13 °C Wei and Thompson(1993) showed that weight loss of Applebananas after 4 weeks’ storage in PE film was1.5% in 200 gauge, 1.8% in 150 gauge and2.1% in 100 gauge, while fruit stored withoutpackaging was 12.2%.Clay bricks impregnated with potassiumpermanganate significantly lowered in-packageethylene and CO 2, retained higher O 2contentand resulted in minimum changes in firmnessand total soluble solids content (Chamaraet al., 2000). It was reported that potassiumpermanganate-soaked paper in sealed PE bagswas the best packaging treatment forHarichhaal (Musa AAA), while the fungicideBavistin + ventilated (2%) PE bags was themost effective treatment in minimizing themicrobial spoilage of fruits during storage(Kumar and Brahmachari, 2005). Potassiumpermanganate in combination with silica gelas a desiccant and soda lime as a CO 2scrubberfurther increased the storage life (Ranasingheet al., 2005). They also found that treatmentwith emulsions of cinnamon oils combinedwith MA packaging in 75 µm LDPE was recommendedas a safe, cost-effective method forextending the storage life of Embul (MusaAAB) up to 21 days at 14 ± 1 °C + 90% rh and 14days at 28 ± 2 °C without affecting the organolepticand physico-chemical properties.MA can also have negative effects. Wills(1990) mentioned that an unsuitable selectionin packaging materials can still accelerate theripening of fruits or enhance CO 2injury whenethylene accumulates over a certain period.Wei and Thompson (1993) found that whenthe cultivar Apple was packaged in PE filmand stored at 13–14 °C, symptoms of CO 2injury were observed when the CO 2levelswere between about 5 and 14%. These levelsoccurred with some fruit in 150-gauge PEbags, and all the fruit in 200-gauge PE bags,but only after 3 weeks, and not at all in 100-gauge bags. Injury was characterized bydarkening of the skin and softening of theouter pulp, while the inner pulp (core)remained hard and astringent. Often therewould be a distinct, irregular ring of darkbrown tissue in the outer cross-section of thepulp. In some of the fingers the pulp developeda tough texture.MA packaging of fruits in PE film bags iscommonly used in international transport. Asystem patented by the United Fruit Company,called ‘Banavac’, uses 0.04 mm-thick PEfilm bags, in which the fruit are packed (typically18.14 kg) and a vacuum is applied andthe bags are sealed. Typical gas contents thatdeveloped during transport at 13–14 °C in thebags through fruit respiration were about 5%CO 2+ 2% O 2(De Ruiter, 1991). Besides retaininga desirable high humidity around thefruits, it has been shown that packing in nonperforatedbags prolonged the pre-climactericlife of Mas (Musa AA) (Tan and Mohamed,1990). Plastic bags are used commercially asliners for whole boxes and are mainly intact,but some have macroperforations. Those thatwere intact were often torn before beingloaded into the ripening rooms, in order toensure that ethylene penetrated to initiateripening. With the use of forced-air ventilationin modern ‘pressure’-ripening rooms,this practice was found not to be necessary.

96 Chapter 8Clusters of fruit are also packed individuallyin small PE bags at source, transported, ripenedand sold in the same bags.In Australia, bananas were transportedinternally packed in 13.6 kg commercial packsinside PE film bags. Scott et al. (1971) reportedthat in simulated transport experiments thefruits were kept in good condition at ambienttemperatures during the 48 h required for thejourney.BeanThe quality of 15 cultivars of French beansstored in LDPE at 8–10 °C was acceptable forup to 30 days, after which the colour changedto light brown in some of the cultivars. At thattime, the cultivar CH-913 had the highest percentageof beans that were still consideredmarketable, which was 92.55% (Attri andSwaroop, 2005).BeetSugar beet packed in PVC film maintainedgood appearance during 22 days’ storage atan ambient temperature of 15–26 °C with aweight loss of 15.8%, compared with 55% inthe non-wrapped beets (Scalon et al., 2000).inhibited enzyme activity compared withthose stored non-wrapped. Tectrol MA palletbags are used in reefer containers and werereported to have proved successful in thestorage of fresh blueberries for up to 65 days(DeEll, 2002).BreadfruitStorage of breadfruit at 12.5 °C sealed in 150-gauge PE bags kept them in good conditionfor up to 13 days, compared with 80% of thenon-wrapped fruit being unmarketable afteronly 2 days (Thompson et al., 1974c). At 28 °C,Maharaj and Sankat (1990) found that fruitscould be stored for 5 days in sealed 100-gaugePE film bags, while at 12 or 16 °C in sealed100-gauge PE film bags they could be storedfor 14 days. Worrel and Carrington (1994) alsoshowed that storing breadfruit sealed in plasticfilm maintained their green colour andfruit quality. They used 40 µm HDPE film orLDPE film and showed that fruit qualitycould be maintained for 2 weeks at 13 °C.Breadfruits shrink-wrapped in 60-gauge PEfilm and stored at 16 °C had reduced externalskin browning and higher chlorophyll levelsafter 10 days’ storage. This treatment alsodelayed fruit ripening, as evidenced bychanges in texture, total soluble solids andstarch content (Samsoondar et al., 2000).Black sapoteBlack sapote (Diospyros ebenaster, Diospyrosdigyna) is a climacteric fruit and the main factorlimiting storage was reported to be softening.Fruits wrapped in plastic film had 40–50%longer storage life at 20 °C than fruits notwrapped (Nerd and Mizrahi, 1993).BlueberryYu et al. (2006) reported that packaging blueberriesin 0.88 mm (sic) PE film significantlyreduced the rates of weight loss, rotting andrespiration rate during storage at 2 °C. It alsoslowed the reduction in anthocyanin andBroccoliSerrano et al. (2006) reported that nonwrappedbroccoli lost weight, turned yellowand their stems hardened; also there was arapid decrease in total antioxidant activity,ascorbic acid and total phenolics, giving amaximum storage period of only 5 days.These changes were delayed in MA packaging,especially in microperforated PP film andnon-perforated PP film, with total antioxidantactivity, ascorbic acid and total phenoliccompounds remaining almost unchangedduring the whole storage period of 28 days.Broccoli stored at 5 °C in 14% O 2+ 10% CO 2orwrapped in PVC film for 3 weeks retainedtheir market quality significantly better than

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 97those left non-wrapped. Respiration rate ofthose in CA or in PVC film was reduced by30–40% compared with the controls (Forneyet al., 1989). Cameron (2003) reported that lowO 2can retard yellowing at 5 °C but can alsoproduce highly undesirable flavours andodours when O 2falls below 0.25%. Rai et al.(2008) studied various MA packages in storageat 5 °C and 75% rh and found that perforatedPP film (two holes, each of 0.3 mmdiameter, with a film area of 0.1 m 2 ) could beused to retain chlorophyll and ascorbic acidlevels for 4 days. DeEll et al. (2006) reportedthat, overall, the use of sorbitol, a water absorbentapplied at ≥2.5 g with potassium permanganatein PD-961EZ bags at 0–1 °C for 29days, reduced the amount of volatiles that areresponsible for off-odours and off-flavours.This was reported to maintain their qualityand marketability longer. Acetaldehyde concentrationswere higher in the bags with nosorbitol or potassium permanganate after 29days, while ethanol was greater in both controlbags and those with only potassium permanganate.After storage at 4 or 10 °C inLDPE film packages containing potassiumpermanganate with an equilibrium gas contentof 5% O 2+ 7% CO 2, Jacobsson et al.(2004a) found that their sensory propertieswere better than those in other films and similarto freshly harvested broccoli. The optimumequilibrium atmosphere was found tobe 1–2% O 2and 5–10% CO 2. Jacobsson et al.(2004b) measured the gas inside various packagesand found that storage in OPP resultedin the highest CO 2concentration of 6%, whilethe lowest O 2concentration of 9% was foundin the LDPE package. They also found thatbroccoli stored in PVC film deteriorated fasterthan those packaged in the other films, andthe influence of all the plastic packagingtested was greater at 10 °C than at 4 °C.Brussels sproutStorage in PVC film at 0 °C for 42 days resultedin reduced browning of cut areas and reducedlosses in weight and firmness compared withthose that were not wrapped. Ascorbic acidand total flavonoid contents remained almostconstant in the PVC-wrapped sprouts, whileradical scavenging activity increased (Vinaet al., 2007).CabbagePeters et al. (1986) found that the best plasticcovering for the cultivar Nagaoka King storedin wooden boxes was PE sheets (160 cm ×60 cm × 0.02 mm) with 0.4% perforations,wrapped around the top and long sides of theboxes, with the slatted ends of the boxes leftopen. Omary et al. (1993) treated shreddedwhite cabbage with citric acid and sodium erythorbatethen inoculated it with Listeria innocuaand packaged it in 230 g lots. Four types ofplastic film bags were used for packaging,with O 2transmission rates of 5.6, 1500, 4000and 6000 ml m −2 day −1 , and they were stored at11 °C. After 21 days, the L. innocua populationhad increased in all packages, but the increasewas significantly less for cabbage packaged infilm with the highest permeability.CapsicumPala et al. (1994) studied storage in sealedLDPE film of various thicknesses at 8 °C and88–92% rh and found that non-wrapped peppershad a shelf-life of 10 days compared with29 days for those sealed in 70 µm LDPE film(Table 8.5). Also, this method of packaginggave good retention of sensory characteristics.Nyanjage et al. (2005) showed that temperaturewas the major factor in determining thepostharvest performance of the cultivarCalifornia Wonder. For packaging in opentrays, non-perforated or perforated PE bagsdid not significantly affect colour retentionduring storage at 4.0, 6.5 or 17 °C, but fruitshad a significantly higher incidence of disease.Perforated PE packaging produced the bestoverall results. In other work, the marketablevalue of peppers stored for 4 weeks at 8 °C washighest for those in PE bags with 0.1% perforationsand in non-perforated PE bags, comparedwith non-packaged fruit (Kosson andStepowska, 2005). After 2 weeks’ storage innon-perforated PE bags, the atmosphere was

98 Chapter 8Table 8.5. Number of days during which green pepper fruits retained either good or acceptable qualityduring storage at 8 °C and 88–92% rh (Pala et al., 1994).Sensory score aStorage time (days)Days A b C c T d F e Good quality Acceptable qualityBefore storage 0 9 9 9 9Non-wrapped control 15 4.3 4.6 2.7 4.2 7 1020µm LDPE 22 5.7 5.5 5.7 5.3 10 2230µm LDPE 20 5.8 6.0 6.0 4.5 10 2050µm LDPE 20 6.0 5.0 6.0 5.0 15 2070µm LDPE 29 7.8 7.8 7.6 7.8 27 29100µm LDPE 27 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.5 10 27a 1–9 where: 1–3.9 = non acceptable, 4–6.9 = acceptable, 7–9 = good.b Appearance.c Colour.d Texture.e Taste and fl avour.about 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2, and with 0.0001%perforation about 18% O 2+ 5% CO 2. Watercondensation on the inner surface of PE bagsand on the stored peppers occurred in bagswith 0.0001, 0.001, 0.01 and 0% perforationsbut not in those with 0.1% perforations.Banaras et al. (2005) found that there were nosignificant differences in ascorbic acid andfruit firmness between different perforatedMA packagings for the cultivars Keystone,NuMex R Naky and Santa Fe Grande. However,perforated MA packaging was shown toreduce water loss, maintain turgidity of fruitsand delay red colour and disease developmentat both 8 and 20 °C. MA packaging extendedpostharvest life for another 7 days at 8 °C andfor 10 days at 20 °C compared with non-packagedfruits held at these temperatures. Postharvestwater loss and turgidity were similarfor fruits stored in packages with and without26 holes at 8 and 20 °C. Amjad et al. (2009)stored the cultivars Wonder King and P-6 invarious thicknesses of PE bags at 7, 14 and21 °C. They found that the optimum thicknessfor Wonder King was 21 µm at 7 °C for minimizingweight loss, while P-6 fruits stored in15 µm had the lowest weigh loss and theirmaximum storage life was 20 days. Ascorbicacid levels and total phenolics and carotenoidsalso varied between cultivars, temperatureand thickness of PE. Hughes et al. (1981)showed that capsicums sealed in various plasticfilms had a higher percentage of marketablefruit than those stored in air (see Table 3.1).CarambolaZainon et al. (2004) harvested the cultivar B10at the mature green stage. They reported thatMA packaging in LDPE film suppressed theincidence of chilling injury in storage at 10 °Cand also retarded softening and the developmentof fruit colour. Neves et al. (2004) storedthe cultivar Golden Star in various thicknessesof LDPE bags at 12 ± 0.5 °C and 95 ± 3%rh for 45 days, then in ambient conditions of22 ± 3 °C and 72 ± 5% rh for a further 5 days.They found that fruit in 10 µm-thick LDPEbags retained their firmness and titratableacidity best, had the ‘best colour standard’,the lowest decay incidence and the highestacceptance scores by the taste panellists butthe lowest total soluble solids.CarrotMA packaging is used commercially to extendthe marketable life of immature carrots.Seljasen et al. (2003) found that carrots beinggently handled and stored in perforatedplastic bags at low temperature retained the

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 99most favourable taste in the Norwegian distributionchain. MA packaging did not resultin an increase in off-flavours nor an increasein 6-methoxymellein, which has been associatedwith off-flavours, nor in a reduction insugars. Storage in PE bags at 0 °C was reportedby Kumar et al. (1999) to slow the decrease inascorbic acid and reduce the levels of totalsoluble solids and reduce the weight loss to1% over an 8-day period compared withcarrots stored in gunny bags in ambient conditions,which lost 16%.CassavaThompson and Arango (1977) found that dippingthe roots in a fungicide and packingthem in PE film bags directly after harvestreduced the physiological disorder vascularstreaking during storage for 8 days at22–24 °C compared with roots stored nonwrapped.Oudit (1976) showed that freshlyharvested roots could be kept in good conditionfor up to 4 weeks when stored in PE bags.Coating roots with paraffin wax is commonlyapplied to roots exported from Costa Rica.Young et al. (1971) and Thompson and Arango(1977) found that this treatment kept them ingood condition for 1–2 months at room temperaturein Bogotá in Colombia.CauliflowerMenjura Camacho and Villamizar (2004)studied ways of reducing wastage of cauliflowersin the central markets of Bogotá andfound the best treatment was packing themin LDPE with 0.17% perforations. Mennitiand Casalini (2000) found that PVC filmwrapped around each cauliflower reducedweight loss and retarded yellowing duringstorage for 5 days at 20 °C. Curd colour,odour and compactness of the curd remainedacceptable for up to 14 days at 6 °C in nonperforatedPE bags (Rahman et al., 2008). Thehighest ascorbic acid content (41 mg 100 g −1and 23 mg 100 g −1 ) and β-carotene content(26 IU 100 g −1 and 14 IU 100 g −1 ) were in nonperforatedPE bags after 7 days and 14 days’storage, respectively, at 6 °C. Kaynaş et al.(1994) stored the cultivar Iglo in 30 µm-thickPE film bags, PE film bags with one 5 mmdiameterhole per kg head, 15 µm PVC filmbags or not wrapped for various times at1 °C and 90–95% rh. They found that theycould be stored for a maximum of 6 weeks inPVC film bags with a shelf-life of 3 days at20 °C, which was double the storage life ofthose stored non-wrapped. The permeabilityof the PVC film used in the studies was givenas 200 g of water vapour m −2 day −1 and12,000 ml O 2m −2 day −1 atmosphere −1 .CeleryThe equilibrium atmospheres within OPP andLDPE bags containing celery were reachedafter 10 days and were 8–9% O 2+ 7% CO 2and8% O 2+ 5% CO 2, respectively (Gomez andArtes, 2004). The celery stored in OPP wasrated to have an appearance most similar tothat at harvest. Escalona et al. (2005) describedan MA packaging for pallet loads by using asilicone membrane system for shipping celeryto distant markets. The design of a system for450 kg of celery per pallet was studied usingan impermeable film with 0.2 and 0.3 dm 2 kg −1silicone membrane windows, to reach anatmosphere of approximately 3–4% O 2+ 7–8%CO 2. Two kinds of silicone membrane windowswere chosen, with permeability rangesof 4500–5250 ml O 2dm −2 day −1 and 10, 125–14,000 ml CO 2dm −2 day −1 . The storage conditionsfor a trial were 21 days at 5 °C and95% rh, followed by a shelf-life in air of 2 daysat 15 °C and 70% rh. As a control, partiallyunsealed packages were used. MA packagingresulted in slightly better quality and lowerdecay than those in the control. Rizzo andMuratore (2009) found the most suitable MApackaging was polyolefin film (co-extrudedPE and PP) with an anti-fogging additive andstorage at 4 ± 1 °C and 90% rh for 35 days. Theyfound tiny accumulations of condensate but itdid not reduce shelf-life. Gomez and Artes(2004) reported that decay developed innon-wrapped celery, but wrapping in eitherOPP or LDPE inhibited decay, decreased thedevelopment of pithiness and retained the

100 Chapter 8sensory quality, reducing both the developmentof butt-end-cut browning and chlorophylldegradation.CherimoyaMelo et al. (2002) found that the cultivar Finoof Jete stored at 12 ± 1 °C and 90–95% rh had amarketable life in air of 2 weeks, while thefruits packed with zeolite film could be storedfor 4 weeks.CherryBertolini (1972) stored the cultivar DuroneNeo I at 0 °C for up to 20 days in air, 20%CO 2+ 17% O 2or in 0.05 mm PE film bags.Fruits stored in the PE bags retained theirfreshness best, as well as the colour of boththe fruits and the stalks. The cultivarsV-690618, V-690616 and Hedelfingen werestored in polyolefin film bags for 6 weeks at2 ± 1 °C. Three thicknesses of bag were used,which had O 2permeabilities of 3000, 7000and 16,500 ml m −2 in 24 h at 23 °C. The bagswith the lowest O 2permeabilities producedthe best results, and the cherries had reducedlevels of decay. For the cultivar Hedelfingen,MA packaging reduced decay by 50% andsignificantly increased firmness (Skog et al.,2003). Massignan et al. (2006) sealed the cultivarFerrovia in plastic bags and stored themat 0.5 °C in air for 30 days, with 2 days ofshelf-life at 15 °C, and found that the fruitsretained their quality throughout the storageand shelf-life period. The equilibrium atmosphereinside the bags was 10% CO 2+ 10% O 2.Kucukbasmac et al. (2008) packed the cultivar0900 Ziraat in either Xtend CH-49 bags or PEbags in three sizes, 500, 700 and 1000 g, andstored them at 0 °C for up to 21 days, plus 3days at 20 °C to simulate shelf-life. The qualityand firmness of the cherries from all threeXtend CH-49 bags was maintained, even afterthe additional 3 days’ shelf-life, and were betterthan those stored PE bags. Celikel et al.(2003) stored the cultivar Merton Bigarreau at0 °C in polystyrene trays (350 g/tray) overwrappedwith PVC stretch film or P-Plus PPfilm at different permeability and left somenot wrapped as a control. MA packagingdoubled their storage life, compared with thecontrol, to 8 weeks. The weight loss reached22.5% for the control fruits, 4.5% with PVCand 0.3–0.5% with PP after 8 weeks. Lesspermeablefilms, PP-90 and PE-120, alsomaintained the fruit quality and flavour betterthan high-permeable film. Alique et al. (2003)found that storage of the cultivar Navalindaat 20 °C in 15% microperforated films preservedfruit acidity and firmness while slowingthe darkening of colour, loss of qualityand decay, and thus prolonging their shelflife.However, they recommended that thelevels of hypoxia reached at 20 °C in microperforatedfilms should restrict its use only tothe distribution and marketing processes.Padilla-Zakour et al. (2004) stored the cultivarsHedelfingen and Lapins in the microperforatedLDPE bags called LifeSpan L204,which equilibrated at 4–5% O 2+ 7–8% CO 2,and LifeSpan 208, which equilibrated at9–10% O 2+ 8–9% CO 2. After 4 weeks at 3 °Cwith 90% rh the fruits in the LDPE bags hadgreen and healthy stems, and better colour,appearance and eating quality when comparedwith non-wrapped fruit. There wasslightly better quality for LifeSpan 204, whichhad a lower O 2permeability. Horvitz et al.(2004) stored the cultivar Sweetheart at 0 °C inLDPE bags for up to 42 days and found nosignificant changes in colour, firmness, totalsoluble solids, pedicel dehydration and rotting.In PVC bags there was rapid pediceldeterioration, which affected approximately50% of the fruits after 7 days of storage.Sweet cherries were stored with the essentialoils thymol, eugenol or menthol separatelyin trays sealed within PE bags. It was foundduring 16 days’ storage at 1 °C and 90% rh thatthese treatments reduced weight loss, delayedcolour changes and maintained fruit firmnesscompared with cherries packed without essentialoils. Pedicels remained green in treatedcherries while they became brown in thosewithout essential oils. The equilibrium atmosphereinside the bags was 2–3% CO 2+ 11–12%O 2, which was reached after 9 days with orwithout the essential oils. The essential oilsreduced moulds and yeasts and total aerobicmesophilic colonies (Serrano et al., 2006).

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 101Cherry, Suriname cherryDos Santos et al. (2006a) harvested Surinamecherry (Eugenia uniflora) at three differentmaturities based on skin colour – pigment initiation,reddish-orange and predominantlyred – and stored them in different temperatureseither not packaged or in PVC bags. Storage at10 or 14 °C in PVC bags maintained total solublesolids, titratable acidity, sugars and ascorbicacid, and also resulted in a lower rate ofincrease in total carotenoids in fruits in the reddish-orangematurity stage for 8 days. Dos Santoset al. (2006b) showed that fruit in PVC bagsat 10 or 14 °C had a lower disease incidence andfruit shrinkage, giving a 4-day increase in postharvestlife compared with those stored nonwrapped.Red-orange was the most suitableharvest maturity stage and 10 °C the best temperaturefor those that were tested.Chestnut, Japanese chestnutIt was reported by Lee et al. (1983) that the beststorage results for the cultivar Okkwang ofJapanese chestnut (Castanea crenata) wereobtained when they were sealed in 0.1 mm PEbags (30 × 40 cm) with 9–11 pin holes. The totalweight loss was

102 Chapter 8loss of the fruits during storage but the sugarcontent did not change in any of the treatments.Storage of C. unshiu in China in containers witha D45 M2 1 silicone window of 20–25 cm 2 kg −1of fruit gave the optimum concentration of

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 103best results, and for the cultivar AutumnSeedless 35 µm-thick microperforated PP filmprovided this atmosphere.Several workers have studied MA packagingin combination with other treatmentsas an alternative to SO 2treatment to control B.cinerea in grapes. Artes-Hernandez et al. (2007)used ozone (O 3) at 0.1 µl l −1 and found that thesensory quality of the fruit was preservedwith MA packaging giving an atmosphere of13–16% O 2+ 8–11% CO 2, and in CA storage of5% O 2+ 15% CO 2. Although O 3did not completelyinhibit fungal development, its applicationincreased antioxidant compounds. Apre-storage dip of the cultivar Superior ineither 33 or 50% ethanol then storage in sealedXtend or PE film bags maintained grape qualityfor up to 7 weeks with 3 days’ shelf-life at20 °C. The treatment was similar to or betterthan storage with SO 2- releasing pads (Lichteret al., 2005). Artes- Hernandez et al. (2003)stored the cultivar Napoleon for 41 days inMA packaging or air, followed by 4 days inair, all at 0 °C, then 3 days at 15 °C. The bestresults were achieved by placing a soaked filterpaper with 15 or 10 µl hexenal combinedwith sealing in microperforated PP of 35 µmthickness. MA packaging improved the visualappearance and reduced weight loss to 0.6%compared with no packaging, which had3.7% weight loss. Hexenal-treated fruits hadthe highest score for flavour and the lowestlevel of fungal disease (6%). Valverde et al.(2005) showed that the addition of 0.5 µl ofeugenol, thymol or menthol inside MA packagescontaining the cultivar Crimson Seedlessreduced weight loss and colour change,delayed rates of pedicel deterioration,retarded °brix:acid ratio development, maintainedfirmness and reduced decay. Also thetotal viable counts for mesophilic aerobics,yeasts and moulds were significantly reducedin the grapes packaged with eugenol, thymolor menthol. The authors concluded that theinclusion of one of these essential oils resultedin three additional weeks’ storage comparedwith MA packaging only. The equilibriumatmosphere in PP bags in storage at 1 °C wasreached in 21 days, with 1.2–1.3% CO 2and13–14% O 2. The inclusion of a sachet impregnatedwith either 0.5 ml thymol or 0.5 ml mentholinside the bag reduced yeasts, mouldsand total aerobic mesophylic colonies andalso improved the visual aspect of the rachis.The authors postulated that these essentialoils could be an alternative to the use ofSO 2in controlling disease in table grapes(Martinez-Romero et al., 2005).Ben Arie (1996) described a method ofMA packaging for sea-freight transport. Thisinvolved whole pallet loads of half a tonne offruit in cartons being wrapped in PE film. Theadvantage of this compared with individualcartons being lined with PE film was that anycondensation remained on the outside of thebox and pre-cooling was more rapid, sincethe boxes were pre-cooled before the plasticwas applied.KiwifruitHayward stored in plastic trays and overwrappedwith 16 µm stretch film at both 10and 20 °C ripened more slowly than nonwrappedfruit but to a similar flavour (Kitsiouand Sfakiotakis, 2003). Hayward stored for 6months at 0 °C and 95% rh in sealed 50 × 70 cmPE bags with an ethylene absorbent resulted infirmer fruit, higher titratable and ascorbicacids and lower weight loss than the fruitsstored non-wrapped. The equilibrium atmospherein the bags was 6–8% O 2+ 7–9% CO 2after 6 months’ storage (Pekmezci et al., 2004).KohlrabiStorage in 20 µm-thick anti-mist OPP bagsreduced weight loss and development of bacterialsoft and black rots and extended thestorage life to 60 days at 0 °C plus 3 days at12 °C (Escalona et al., 2007). The equilibriumatmosphere inside the bags was 4.5–5.5%O 2+ 11–12% CO 2.LanzonesPantastico (1975) indicated that the skinof the fruit turns brown during retailing andif they are sealed in PE film bags the browningwas aggravated, probably due to CO 2accumulation.

104 Chapter 8LemonLemons stored at 25 °C and 50–60% rh for upto 21 days in 100-gauge PVC 20% shrinkwrapretained their firmness and °brix, withreduced loss of weight and rotting comparedwith those stored non-wrapped or waxed(Neri et al., 2004).LemongrassLemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) leaveswere hot water treated at 55 °C for 5 min, thenhydro-cooled at 3 °C for 5 min and placed inPE bags, which were then flushed with variouslevels of O 2+ CO 2. They were then sealedand stored at 5 °C and 90 ± 5% rh for 3 weeks.It was found that Escherichia coli was inhibitedin 1% O 2+ 10% CO 2; coliforms and faecal coliformswere inhibited in 5% O 2and Salmonellaat all gas mixtures for up to 14 days. Fungiwere not controlled in any of the atmospherestested (Samosornsuk et al., 2009).was 13.8% (Thompson et al., 1974d). Thisdegreening effect could be countered byincluding potassium permanganate on vermiculitein the bags. The potential of 30 µmHDPE bags with 1 × 40, 2 × 40 or 3 × 40 microperforationswas studied by Ramin andKhoshbakhat (2008). The greenest and mostfirm fruits were found in microperforated PEbags at a storage temperature of 10 °C. At20 °C, fruits kept in microperforated bagswere consistently greener than fruits thatwere stored non-packaged, but decay washigh. Decay was highest in fruits with nopackaging and lowest in PE with microperforations.Jadhao et al. (2007) found that freshnesswas retained and flavour andacceptability scores were the highest for thecultivar Kagzi stored at 8 ± 1 °C for up to 90days in 25 µm PE bags with 0.5% area aspunched holes, with minimum ageing and nochilling injury. Those stored without packingwere spoiled completely within 20 days. Thefruits stored in 100-gauge, ventilated PE bagsmaintained maximum juice content, acidityand ascorbic acid, and minimum total solublesolids and spoilage for 30 days.LettuceCameron (2003) found that at 5 °C browningwas retarded when O 2was below 1%, whilefermentation occurred below 0.3–0.5% O 2;therefore, MA packaging that gave an atmospherebetween 0.5 and 1.0% O 2was recommended.Escalona et al. (2006) concluded that80% O 2should be used in MA packaging offresh-cut Butter lettuce in combination with10–20% CO 2to reduce their respiration rateand avoid fermentation.LimeStorage at 6 °C led to chilling injury and at10 °C to ‘ageing’ (Ladaniya, 2004). Packinglimes in sealed PE film bags inside cartons inambient conditions in Khartoum in the Sudanresulted in a weight loss of only 1.3% in5 days, but all the fruits degreened more rapidlythan those which were packed in cartonswithout the PE liner, where the weight lossLitchiRagnoi (1989), working with the cultivarHong Huai from Thailand, showed that fruitspacked in sealed 150-gauge PE film bags containing2 kg of fruit and SO 2pads could bekept in good condition at 2 °C for up to 2weeks, while fruits that were stored withoutpackaging rapidly became discoloured andunmarketable. Anthocyanin levels in the pericarpare important since they give the fruit anattractive appearance. Somboonkaew andTerry (2009) studied storage in a selection offilms and found that anthocyanin concentrationsin the cultivar Mauritius wrapped inPropaFresh film (Table 8.6) were significantlyhigher than for other plastic films after9 days’ storage (Fig. 8.5).In storage at 14 °C the cultivar McLean’sRed in PP film had 11.3% decay, due mainlyto A. alternata and Cladosporium spp. However,fruits that had been dipped in Bacillussubtilis for 2 min at 15 °C and stored at 14 °C in

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 105Table 8.6. Water and gas permeability of the fi lms used bySomboonkaew and Terry (2009). More information on the fi lms is availableon www.innoviafi lms.com.Packaging fi lm Water (g m 2 24 h −1 ) O 2(ml m 2 24 h −1 bar −1 )PropaFresh 5 1600NatureFlex 360 3Cellophane 370 33530CO 2 concentration (%)25201510500 2 4 6 8 10Storage time (days)Fig. 8.5. CO 2concentrations in unwrapped (l), perforated polypropylene (g), PropaFresh (n),NatureFlex NVS (|) and Cellophane WS (s) fi lms at 13 °C during 9 days’ storage of litchi ‘Mauritius’fruits. Each value is the mean of three packs (Somboonkaew and Terry, 2009).PP film had no decay or pericarp browningand retained their colour and quality. Theequilibrium atmosphere inside the PE bagswas about 14% O 2+ 5% CO 2. Fruits stored inLDPE bags with B. subtilis had higher levelsof decay and pericarp browning than those inPP bags. Higher yeast populations wereobserved in LDPE or LDPE with B. subtilisduring storage at 2 °C or 14 °C, and Candida,Cryptococcus and Zygosaccharomyces spp. werethe predominant yeasts. The equilibriumatmosphere inside the LDPE bags was about3% O 2+ 10% CO 2(Sivakumar et al., 2007).LonganZhang and Quantick (1997) stored the cultivarShixia in 0.03 mm-thick PE film for 7 days atroom temperature, followed by 35 days at 4 °C.Atmospheres of 1, 3, 10 or 21% O 2were establishedin the bags, and the former two weresaid to be effective in delaying peel browning,and retaining total soluble solids and ascorbicacid content of the fruit, although taste panelsdetected a slight off-flavour in fruit stored in1% O 2. Seubrach et al. (2002) stored fruits of thecultivar Daw in polystyrene boxes coveredwith 15 µm PVC film or LLDPE film of 10, 15and 20 µm thickness, all at 4 °C and 90–95% rh.All the MA conditions extended the shelf-lifeto 20 days, compared with 16 days for nonwrapped.Fruits had slightly lower weight lossin the LLDPE films compared with those in thePVC film, but peel colour gradually deterioratedin all packages, but less so for those in thePVC film, which also had the best appearanceand better overall customer acceptance.

106 Chapter 8LoquatThe loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) cultivarAlgerie was stored in five types of microperforatedPP films for up to 6 weeks at 2 °C, then4 days non-wrapped at 20 °C. The equilibriumatmosphere changed from 1.2 to 8.5% CO 2and 19.5 to 13% O 2as film permeabilitydecreased. Scores for visual quality of thepeel, softening and colour development werelower and decreases in sugars and organicacids were delayed, especially after the shelflifeperiod, compared with the controls. Itwas concluded that the most suitable atmospherewas about 2–4% CO 2+ 16–18% O 2,achieved in PA-80 and PA-60 films (Zhanshenget al., 2006). Similar results were reportedby Amorós et al. (2008). They reported thatpostharvest life at 2 °C without wrappingswas 2 weeks, with a 4-day shelf-life at 20 °C,but in the same environment the postharvestlife of those in PA-80 or PA-60 films was6 weeks plus 4 days’ shelf-life.MangoFruits stored in PE film bags at 21 °C hadalmost twice the storage life of fruits storedwithout wraps (Thompson, 1971). Maturefruits of the cultivar Keitt were stored at 20 °Cin air or in MA jars supplied with humidifiedCO 2at 210 ml min −1 for 2 h before being sealed,resulting in 0.03–0.26% O 2+ 72–82% CO 2forup to 4 days, or in jars ventilated with 2% O 2+50% CO 2+ 48% N 2at a continuous rate of210 ml min −1 for up to 5 days. Both treatmentsdelayed fruit ripening. Fruits showed no signsof internal or external injuries or off-flavour,either immediately after removal from storageor after transfer to air. There were no significantdifferences between air-stored and CAstoredfruits in all sensory attributes evaluated,but the overall acceptability of fruits stored inMA for over 72 h was lower than that of fruitsstored in air (Yahia and Vazquez Moreno,1993). The cultivar Keitt stored in CA in 0.3%O 2or MA packaging in three types of LDPEfilms at 20 °C had slower weight losses andremained firmer and with good appearance,with a significant delay in ripening comparedwith controls. However, a few fruits packed intwo of the three films developed a fermentedflavour after 10 days’ storage (GonzalezAguilar et al., 1994).MelonMartinez-Javega et al. (1983) reported that sealingfruits individually in 0.017 mm-thick PEfilm bags reduced chilling injury during storageat 7–8 °C. Flores et al. (2004) also found thatMA packaging reduced chilling injury in thecultivar Charentais, which is subject to chillinginjury when stored at temperatures around2 °C. They also found that MA packagingextended the postharvest life of wild-type melonsand conferred additional chilling resistanceon ethylene-suppressed melons during storageat 2 °C and shelf-life at 22 °C. Asghari (2009)reported that immersing the cultivar Semsoryin hot water at 55 °C for 3 min or 59 °C for2 min then sealing them in 30 µm PE bags keptthem in good condition at 2.5 °C for 33 days.This was longer than either treatment alone.The effects of packing in ceramic filmswith thicknesses of 20, 40 or 80 µm and storageat either 3 or 10 °C showed that loss infresh weight was greatly reduced, to below0.3% after 36 days at 3 °C for fruits in ceramicfilms. CO 2accumulated up to 15 and 30% at3 and 10 °C, respectively, in 80 µm-thick films.The concentration of acetaldehyde was overfour times higher in 80 µm-thick film comparedwith the others, at both 3 and 10 °C.Fruits in 40 µm-thick film retained their firmness,total soluble solids, titratable acidity andthe visual quality better than any other treatment,and their storage life at 3 °C was 36days, which was twice as long as in the othertreatments. Chilling injury symptoms occurredat 3 °C, but fruit packed in 40 µm-thick filmshad lower levels (Kang and Park, 2000). Saet al. (2008) stored Cantaloupe in X-tend bagsfor 14 days at 3 ± 2 °C, then removed them fromthe bags and stored them for a further 8 daysat 23 ± 2 °C and 90 ± 2% rh. The fruits retainedtheir quality in the bags. Pre-treatment with1-MCP or inclusion of potassium permanganateon vermiculite within the bags gave noadditional effects. MA packaging extended

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 107the postharvest life of Charentais-type melonsby delaying ripening, in spite of the high inpackageethylene concentration of 120 µl l −1(Rodov et al., 2003).MushroomBecause of the high respiration rates and thevery limited positive effects on the quality,Anon. (2003) suggested that it does not seembeneficial to pack mushrooms in MA packages.However, storage in MA packaging at 10 °C and85% rh for 8 days’ delayed maturation andreduced weight loss compared with thosestored without packaging (Lopez-Briones et al.,1993). PVC over-wraps on consumer-sized punnets(about 400 g) greatly reduced weight loss,cap and stalk development and discoloration,especially when combined with refrigeration(Nichols, 1971). MA packaging in microporousfilm delayed mushroom development, especiallywhen combined with storage at 2 °C (Burtonand Twyning, 1989). Mushrooms werestored at 4 °C in containers where 5% O 2+ 10%CO 2was maintained and subjected to asequence of temperature fluctuations of 10 °Cfor 12 days. Temperature fluctuations had amajor impact on the composition of the atmosphereand on product quality. CO 2concentrationsincreased rapidly, reaching a maximum of16%; O 2concentrations decreased to less than1.5%. The temperature-fluctuating regimeresulted in extensive browning, softening,weight loss increase, ethanol increase and infectiondue to physiological damage and excessivecondensation, compared with those stored at aconstant temperature (Tano et al., 2007).Hu et al. (2003) found that there was apositive effect on postharvest life when shiitakewere stored in LDPE or PVC film bags.Their respiration rates were suppressed bydecreasing O 2and increasing CO 2concentrationsat 5, 15, 20 and 30 °C, but there was littledifference at 0 °C.OkraHardenberg et al. (1990) reported that storagein 5–10% CO 2lengthened their shelf-life byabout a week. Finger et al. (2008) stored theBrazilian cultivar Amarelinho at 25, 10 or 5 °Cwrapped in PVC over a polystyrene tray orleft unwrapped. The development of chillingsymptoms (surface pitting) occurred at 5 °Cbut was delayed in those covered with PVCfilm. Those stored at 25 °C lost weight rapidlyand became wilted, especially those notwrapped; therefore 10 °C covered in PVC wasthe best treatment. Mota et al. (2006) alsofound that PVC over-wraps were efficient inreducing weight loss, in retaining the vitaminC content and in reducing browning duringstorage.OnionPacking bulbs in plastic film is uncommonbecause the high humidity inside the bagscan cause rotting and root growth (seeTable 8.2).PapayaWills (1990) reported that MA packaging inplastic film extended their storage life. Singhand Rao (2005) found that packaging the cultivarSolo in LDPE or Pebax-C bags at 7 or13 °C and 85–90% rh prevented the developmentof chilling injury symptoms during 30days’ storage, but fruits stored at 7 °C failed toripen normally and showed blotchy appearancedue to skin scald and also had internaldamage. LDPE- and Pebax-C-packed fruitsshowed higher retention of ascorbic acid,total carotenoids and lycopene after 30 days’storage at 13 °C and 7 days non-wrapped at20 °C, compared with storage non-wrappedthroughout. Rohani and Zaipun (2007)reported that the storage life of the cultivarEksotika could be extended to 4 weeks at10–12 °C when nine to ten fruits were storedin 0.04 mm LDPE bags measuring 72 × 66 cm.After 24 h the CO 2level inside the bags wasabout 4–5% and O 2about 2–3%. After 4 weeks’storage the fruits ripened normally within3–4 days in ambient temperature whenremoved from the bags.

108 Chapter 8ParsleyDesiccation was the most important causeof postharvest loss, and storage in folded,unsealed PE bags at 1 °C combined with precoolinggave a maximum storage life of about6 weeks. If desiccation occurred, placing thepetioles in water enabled them to recoverfrom a maximum of 10% loss (Almeida andValente, 2005).PassionfruitMohammed (1993) found that both the yellowand purple passionfruit stored best at10 °C in perforated 0.025 mm-thick LDPE filmbags.PeaPariasca et al. (2001) stored snow pea pods inpolymethyl pentene polymeric films of 25and 35 µm thickness at 5 °C. They found thatinternal quality was maintained and thatappearance, colour, chlorophyll, ascorbicacid, sugar content and sensory scores wereretained better than those stored withoutpackaging. The equilibrium atmosphere inboth thicknesses of bags was around 5% O 2+5% CO 2.PeachMalakou and Nanos (2005) treated the cultivarRoyal Glory in hot water containing200 mM sodium chloride at 46 °C for 25 min,then sealed them in PE bags and stored themat 0 °C for up to 2 weeks. This combinationresulted in good-quality fruits after 1 weekand gave an equilibrium atmosphere of >15%O 2+

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 109even better (A.K. Thompson, unpublishedresults). Astringency of persimmons wasremoved by storing fruits in PE bags that hadbeen evacuated or with total N 2or CO 2atmospheres,but the fruits stored in the CO 2atmospherewere susceptible to flesh browning.Fruits stored under vacuum or an N 2atmospheremaintained high quality and firmnessfor 2 weeks at 20 °C and 3 months at 1 °C.Flesh appearance and taste after 14 weeks’storage at 1 °C was best in the N 2atmosphere(Pesis et al., 1986).PineappleStorage in PE bags led to condensation andmould growth, but no condensation wasobserved in cellophane bags, as they allowmoisture to pass through them, but there wassome drying out of the crowns. However, inboth types of bag off-flavours were detecteddue to CO 2accumulation and, because oftheir spiny nature, bags were consideredimpractical (Paull and Chen, 2003). Blackheart development was less than 10% in storageof the cultivar Mauritius in PE film bagsfor 2 weeks at 10 °C, with an equilibriumatmosphere inside the bags of about 10% O 2+7% CO 2(Hassan et al., 1985). They also suggestedthat pineapple should be kept in PEfilm bags until consumption, in order to avoidthe developing of black heart.Minimally processed pineapples arecommonly packed in MA, and 5% O 2+ 15%CO 2appeared to be the most appropriateatmosphere for storage (Budu et al., 2007).Minimally processed pineapple stored at 5 or10% O 2+ 10% CO 2helped maintain theirlightness and visual quality and prolongedthe storage life up to 9 days (Tancharoensukjitand Chantanawarangoon, 2008). Pineappleswere sliced and dipped in 20 mg sodiumhypochlorite l −1 solution for 30 s then storedat 5 ± 1 °C in a flow-through system with differentO 2and CO 2concentrations. None ofthe CA treatments appeared to be advantageous,since the slices had little browning andwere free of any contamination that wouldaffect the food safety at the end of the storageperiod (Antoniolli et al., 2007).PlantainThe effects of PE film wraps on the postharvestlife of plantains may be related to moistureconservation around the fruits as wellas the change in the CO 2and O 2content.This was shown by Thompson et al. (1972),where fruits stored in moist coir or perforated100-gauge PE film bags had a longerstorage life than fruits that had been storednon-wrapped (Fig. 8.6). But there was anadded effect when fruits were stored in nonperforatedPE bags, which was presumablydue to the effects of the changes in the CO 2and O 2levels (Table 8.7). So the positiveeffects of storage of pre-climacteric fruits insealed plastic films may be, in certain cases,a combination of its effects on the CO 2andO 2content within the fruit and the maintenanceof high moisture content.PomegranateThe cultivar Hicaznar could be kept in coldstorage for 2–3 months in 8 µm film, but whenpacked in 12 µm stretch film they maintainedtheir quality and had no fungal disorders for3–4 months (Bayram et al., 2009). Porat et al.(2009) reported that packaging 4–5 kg in cartonslined with Xtend ® film bags could maintainfruit quality for 3–4 months. They foundthat MA packaging reduced water loss,shrinkage, scald and decay.Radish, DaikonWith Japanese radish (Raphanus sativus var.longipinnatus), O 2and CO 2concentrationsinside different microperforated film bagsvaried between 0.2 and 15% O 2and 5 and16% CO 2at 15 °C after 6 days’ storage,depending on the degree of microperforation.Films that gave an equilibrium concentrationof 9–13% O 2+ 8–11% CO 2were suitable tomaintain most of the qualitative parametersand avoid the development of off-flavoursduring 6 days of storage (Saito and Rai,2005).

110 Chapter 8876Colour score543210 10 20 30 40Days after harvestFig. 8.6. Effects of storage in polyethylene film bags on the skin colour change of plantain fruits atabout 20 o C (Thompson et al., 1972). = not wrapped; = sealed in polyethylene film bags; = sealedin evacuated polyethylene film bags; = individual fruits sealed in perforated polyethylene film bags;n = six fruits sealed in polyethylene film bags.Table 8.7. Effects of wrapping and packing material on ripening and weightloss of plantains stored at tropical ambient conditions of 26–34 °C and 52–87%rh (Thompson et al., 1972).Packing material Days to ripeness Weight loss at ripeness (%)Not wrapped 15.8 17.0Paper 18.9 17.9Moist coir fi bre 27.2 (3.5) aPerforated PE 26.5 7.2PE 36.1 2.6LSD (P = 0.05) 7.28 2.81aThe fruit actually gained in weight.RambutanIn air the maximum shelf-life for the cultivarsR162, Jit Lee and R156 was given as 15 days at7.5 °C and 11–13 days at 10.0 °C (O’Hare et al.,1994). They also reported that storage in 5 µll −1 ethylene at 7.5 or 10 °C did not significantlyaffect the rate of colour loss. Fruits have beenstored successfully at 10 °C in PE film bags byMendoza et al. (1972), but the storage life wasgiven as about 10 days in perforated bags and12 days in non-perforated bags. The cultivarRong-Rein was stored in 40 µm-thick PE bagsat 13 °C and 90–95% rh, giving an equilibriumatmosphere of 5–8% O 2and 7–10% CO 2(Boonyaritthongchai and Kanlayanarat,2003a). They found that those in MA packaginghad reduced pericarp browning, weightloss, respiration rate and ethylene production,giving a storage life of 16 days, comparedwith fruit stored non-wrapped, whichwas about 12 days. Somboonkaew (2001)stored Rong-Rien at 10 °C for 22 days sealedin 0.036 mm LDPE bags where the air hadbeen evacuated then flushed with air, 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2, 10% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 15% CO 2+ 5%

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 111O 2. She found that, irrespective of the initiallevel, the CO 2stabilized at about 1% after 3days then rose to a peak of about 4% after 2–3weeks. O 2levels stabilized at around 3% afterabout 1 week. Little difference was detectedin softening except for those in 15% CO 2+ 5%O 2, which were generally softer and less‘bright’ after storage. On balance the fruitflushed with 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2appeared best.RaspberrySiro et al. (2006) reported that raspberries hada shelf-life of 7 days in MA and 5 days in highO 2atmospheres at 7 °C. E. coli, Salmonella spp.and Listeria monocytogenes were artificiallyinoculated on to packaged fruits and wereable to survive at 7 °C. Raspberries showed anenhanced inactivation of Salmonella spp. duringstorage. Generally, MA or high O 2atmospheresdid not give an increased microbialrisk. Jacxsens et al. (2003) found that storage offruit in sealed film packages resulted in a prolongedshelf-life compared with macroperforatedpackaging films. They used selectivepermeable films in order to obtain 3–5% O 2+5–10% CO 2and limited ethylene accumulation.Storage in 95% O 2+ 5% N 2in a semibarrierfilm resulted in the accumulation oftoo high CO 2levels, resulting in fermentationand softening but an inhibition of moulddevelopment. Moor et al. (2009) stored the cultivarPolka in Xtend, LDPE or LDPE flushedwith 10% O 2+ 15% CO 2. Rotting was notsuppressed in any of the bags, but after 4 daysat 1.6 °C those in LDPE bags that had notbeen flushed were of the best quality. However,after one more day at 6 °C, to simulateshelf-life, the fruit in Xtend bags were best.RedcurrantMcKay and Van Eck (2006) described a successfulpacking system where fruits wereplaced in fibreboard boxes which were thenstacked on pallets and covered with a largeplastic bag that fitted over the pallet. The bagswere sealed at the bottom. In storage at −0.9 to0.5 °C and 93% rh, the O 2concentration waslowered to 2.5–3.0% by N 2injection, and CO 2increased to 20–25% during storage. Theyfound that 93% rh was optimum and recommendedpre-cooling to 0 °C to reduce thechances of condensation, and also observedthat the boxes can absorb some of the moisture,which also helps to prevent condensation.They also reported that if the O 2levelwas too low then berries could lose theirbright red colour and appear water-soaked.RhubarbUnsealed PE film liners in crates reduced theirweight loss (Lutz and Hardenburg, 1968), butthere was no mention of other MA effects.RoseappleWorakeeratikul et al. (2007) reported storagewhere they dipped the fruits in whey proteinconcentrate and then successfully stored themin PVC film at 5 °C for 72 h.SapodillaAt ambient temperatures in Brazil, fruitsstored in PVC film packaging had less weightloss and softened more slowly than those notwrapped. Decreases in acidity, soluble solidsand total sugar contents were similar inwrapped and non-wrapped fruit (Mirandaet al., 2002). In India, Waskar et al. (1999) foundthat Kalipatti could be stored for up to 9 dayswhen packed in 100-gauge PE bags with 1.2%ventilation holes at room temperature of31.7–36.9 °C. They also found that in simplecool stores fruits in PE bags could be storedfor 15 days at 20.2–25.6 °C and 91–95% rh.SoursopIn a comparison between 16, 22 and 28 °C thelongest storage period, 15 days, was at 16 °Cwith fruits packed in HDPE bags withoutan ethylene absorbent. This packaging also

112 Chapter 8resulted in the longest storage duration at 22and 28 °C, but the differences between treatmentsat those temperatures were much lessmarked (Guerra et al., 1995).SpinachFresh-cut Hybrid 424 was packed in monoorientedPP or LDPE bags. The type andpermeability of film affected off-odourdevelopment but did not influence visualsensory attributes or chlorophyll retention(Piagentini et al., 2002).StrawberryA comparison of fruits in sealed plastic containersusing impermeable PP film was madeby Stewart (2003). Three internal atmosphereswere injected as follows: air, 5% O 2+ 5%CO 2+ 90% N 2or 80% O 2+ 20% N 2. Overall,the fruits stored in 80% O 2+ 20% N 2provedmost successful in terms of maintaining firmness,reduction in cell wall breakdown andimprovement in appearance and taste.SweetcornOthieno et al. (1993) showed that the bestMA packaging was non-perforated film orfilm with the minimum perforation of one0.4 mm hole per 6.5 cm 2 . They found thatcobs packed in PP film with no perforationsshowed a reduced rate in toughening,reduced weight loss and reduced loss ofsweetness, but they tended to develop offodours.Manleitner et al. (2003) found thatchanges in carbohydrate composition of thecultivar Tasty Gold were influenced by thepermeability of the films during 20 days’storage at 5 °C. Sweetcorn in films with lowpermeability maintained their carbohydratecontent during storage, but had low sucroseafter subsequent shelf-life of 2 days at 20 °C.Losses of sucrose during the shelf-life phasewere lowest in 20 µm LDPE film.TaroMA packaging in PE film bags has beenshown to reduce postharvest losses. BothXanthosoma and Colocasia stored in Trinidadambient conditions of 27–32 °C showedreduced weight losses (Table 8.8), althoughthe recommended optimum temperature forstorage in non-CA or non-MA conditions variedfrom 7 to 13 °C.TomatoAt UK ambient temperature with about 90%rh, partially ripe tomatoes, packed in suitablypermeable plastic film, giving 4–6% CO 2+4–6% O 2, can be expected to have 7 days longershelf-life than those stored without wrapping(Geeson, 1989). Under these conditionsthe eating quality was reduced, but film packagingthat results in higher CO 2and lower O 2levels may not only prevent ripening but alsoresult in tainted fruit when they are ripenedTable 8.8. Effects of packaging on percentage weight loss of stored taro (Passam, 1982).SpeciesColocasiaXanthosomaWeeks instorage Control Dry coir Moist coir PE fi lm Control Dry coir Moist coir PE fi lm2 11 7 0 1 8 7 0 14 27 21 3 5 15 19 4 36 35 30 7 9 28 28 21 6

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 113after removal from the packs. He also showedthat film packages with lower water vapourtransmission properties can encourage rotting.Batu (1995) showed that there wereinteractions between MA packaging and temperature,in that MA packaging was moreeffective in delaying ripening at 13 °C than at20 °C. MA packaging also interacted with harvestmaturity, where it was more effective indelaying ripening of fruits harvested at themature green stage than for those harvestedat a more advanced stage of maturity. Batuand Thompson (1994) stored tomatoes at boththe mature green and pink stage of maturity,either non-wrapped or sealed in PE films of20, 30 or 50 µm thickness, at either 13 or20 °C for 60 days. All non-wrapped pinktomatoes were over-ripe and soft after 30days at 13 °C and after 10–13 days at 20 °C.Green tomatoes sealed in 20 and 30 µm filmreached their reddest colour after 40 days at20 °C and 30 days at 13 °C. Fruit in 50 µm filmstill had not reached their maximum redcolour even after 60 days at both 13 and 20 °C.All green tomatoes sealed in PE film werevery firm even after 60 days’ storage at 13and 20 °C. Non-wrapped tomatoes remainedacceptably firm for about 50 days at 13 °C and20 days at 20 °C. Tano et al. (2007) storedmature green tomatoes at 13 °C in containerswhere 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2was maintained andsubjected them to a sequence of temperaturefluctuations of 10 °C for 35 days. Temperaturefluctuations had a major impact on the compositionof the package atmosphere and onproduct quality. CO 2concentrations increasedrapidly, reaching a maximum of 11%, whileO 2concentrations decreased to less than 1.5%.The temperature-fluctuating regime resultedin extensive browning, softening, weight lossincrease, ethanol increase and infection dueto physiological damage and excessive condensation,compared with those stored atconstant temperature.WampeeZhang et al. (2006) found that Wampee(Clausena lansium) fruits deteriorated quicklyafter harvest and that 2–4 °C was optimum,which delayed the total sugar, acidity andascorbic acid losses. MA packaging in0.025 mm PE film with a packing capacity of5.4 kg m −2 had a positive additional extensionin storage life at 2–4 °C.YamStoring yams in PE bags was shown to reduceweight loss, but had little effect on surfacefungal infections and internal browning oftissue (Table 8.9).SafetyThis subject has been dealt with in detail in areview by Church and Parsons (1995). Thereis considerable legislation related to food soldfor human consumption. In the UK for example,the Food Safety Act 1990 states that ‘it isan offence to sell or supply food for humanconsumption if it does not meet food safetyrequirements’. The use of MA packaging hasTable 8.9. Effects of packaging material on the quality of yam (Dioscorea trifi da) after 64 days at20–29 °C and 46–62% rh. Fungal scores ranged from 0 = no surface fungal growth to 5 = tuber surfaceentirely covered with fungi. Necrotic tissue was estimated by cutting the tuber in two lengthways,measuring the area of necrosis and expressing it as a percentage of the total cut surface.Package type Weight loss (%) Fungal score Necrotic tissue (%)Paper bags 26.3 0.2 5Sealed 0.03-mm-thick PE bags with15.7 0.2 70.15% of the area as holesSealed 0.03-mm-thick PE bags 5.4 0.4 4

114 Chapter 8health and safety implications. One factorthat should be taken into account is that thegases in the atmosphere could possibly havea stimulating effect on microoganisms. Farber(1991) stated that ‘while MA packaged foodshave become increasingly more common inNorth America, research on the microbiologicalsafety of these foods was still lacking’. Thegrowth of aerobic microorganisms is generallyoptimum at about 21% O 2and falls offsharply with reduced O 2levels, while withanaerobic microorganisms their optimumgrowth is generally at 0% O 2and falls as theO 2level increases (Day, 1996). With manymodified atmospheres containing increasedlevels of CO 2, the aerobic spoilage organisms,which usually warn consumers of spoilage,are inhibited, while the growth of pathogensmay be allowed or even stimulated, whichraises safety issues (Farber, 1991). Hotchkissand Banco (1992) stated that extending theshelf-life of refrigerated foods might increasemicrobial risks in at least three ways in MApackagedproduce:● increasing the time in which food remainsedible increases the time in which evenslow-growing pathogens can develop orproduce toxin● retarding the development of competingspoilage organisms● packaging of respiring produce couldalter the atmosphere so that pathogengrowth is stimulated.The ability of E. coli O157:H7 to grow on rawsalad vegetables that have been subjected toprocessing and storage conditions simulatingthose routinely used in commercial practicehas been demonstrated by Abdul Raoufet al. (1993). The influence of MA packaging,storage temperature and time on the survivaland growth of E. coli O157:H7 inoculated onto shredded lettuce, sliced cucumber andshredded carrot was determined. Packagingin an atmosphere containing 3% O 2+ 97% N 2had no apparent effect on populations ofE. coli O157:H7, psychrotrophs or mesophiles.Populations of viable E. coli O157:H7 declinedon vegetables stored for up to 14 days at 5 °Cand increased on vegetables stored at 12 and21 °C. The most rapid increases in populationsof E. coli O157:H7 occurred on lettuceand cucumbers stored at 21 °C. These resultssuggest that an unknown factor or factorsassociated with carrots may inhibit thegrowth of E. coli O157:H7. The reduction inacidity of vegetables was correlated with initialincreases in populations of E. coli O157:H7and naturally occurring microflora. Eventualdecreases in E. coli O157:H7 in samples storedat 21 °C were attributed to the toxic effect ofaccumulated acids. Changes in visual appearanceof vegetables were not influenced substantiallyby growth of E. coli O157:H7.Golden Delicious, Red Delicious, McIntosh,Macoun and Melrose apples inoculated withE. coli O157:H7 promoted growth of the bacteriumin bruised tissue, independent oftheir stage of ripeness. Freshly picked (

Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging 115bell peppers due to the combination of acidityand refrigeration. Aeromonas caviae multipliedon both cucumber slices and mixed lettucebut was also inhibited by the acidity of bellpeppers. Storage temperature control wasfound to be of paramount importance in controllingmicrobial spoilage and safety of equilibriumMA-packaged, minimally processedvegetables.Sziro et al. (2006) studied microbial safetyof strawberry and raspberry fruits after storagein two permeable packaging systems, incombination with an ethylene-absorbingfilm, calculated to reach 3% O 2at equilibrium.The first was called high-oxygen atmosphere(HOA), where the atmosphere startedat 95% O 2in 5% N 2, and the second was equilibriummodified atmosphere (EMA), startingfrom 3% O 2in 95% N 2. E. coli, Salmonellaspp. and L. monocytogenes were artificiallyinoculated on to packaged fruits, and allthree were able to survive in storage at 7 °C.Raspberries showed an enhanced inactivationof Salmonella during storage in both typesof packaging. Growth of L. monocytogenes wasobserved on the calyx of strawberries after3 days. Generally, increasing the shelf-life ofthe fruits with EMA and HOA did not givean increased microbial risk.Another safety issue is the possibility ofthe films used in MA packaging being toxic.Schlimme and Rooney (1994) reviewed thepossibility of constituents of the polymericfilm used in MA packaging migrating to thefood that they contain. They showed thatit is unlikely to happen because of theirhigh molecular weight and insolubility inwater. All films used can contain some nonpolymerizedconstituents, which could betransferred to the food, and in the USA theFood and Drugs Administration and alsothe European Community have regulationsrelated to these ‘indirect additives’. The filmmanufacturer must therefore establish thetoxicity and extraction behaviour of the constituentswith specified food simulants.There are other possible dangers in usinghigh concentrations of CO 2and O 2in storage.Low O 2and high CO 2can have a direct lethaleffect on human beings working in thoseatmospheres. Great care needs to be takenwhen using MA packaging containing 70 or80% O 2, or even higher levels, because ofpotential explosions.

9Recommended CA Storage Conditionsfor Selected CropsRecommended storage conditions vary somuch, even for the same species. The factorsthat can affect storage conditions are dealt within earlier chapters; however, the definition ofexactly what is meant by maximum or optimumstorage period will vary. So recommendationsmay be dependent on the subjectivejudgment by the experimenter or store operator.They usually include the assumption thatthe crop is in excellent condition before beingplaced in storage and may also assume thatpre-storage treatments such as fungicides andpre-cooling have been applied and that there isno delay between harvesting the crop and placingit in storage. It may also be an assumptionthat the fruit or vegetable had been harvestedat an appropriate stage of maturity.In this chapter recommended conditionsare given by species and sometimes by cultivarwithin a species. It was considered that it couldbe confusing if the author gave his subjectivejudgement, so it is for the reader to make theirown judgement on the basis of sometimes conflictingrecommendations, depending on theirown experience and objectives.Apple (Malus domestica,Malus pumila)Various techniques are used in commercialstorage of apples, one of which can be describedin the following example. In a commercialstore in the UK which has now gone out ofbusiness (East Kent Packers 1994, personalcommunication), ULO storage was used. CAwas achieved by sealing the store directly afterloading and reducing the temperature to below10 °C. Bags of hydrated lime were placed intothe store prior to sealing as a method of removingrespiratory CO 2. The temperature was thenreduced further, and when it was below 5 °C,N 2was injected to reduce the O 2level to about3% for Cox’s Orange Pippin. The O 2level wasallowed to decline to about 2% for 7 daysthrough fruit respiration and then progressivelyto 1.2% over the next 7 days. Headspacemonitoring was used, which set off an alarm ifalcohol fumes were detected.The recommended storage conditions forapples vary between cultivars, country ofproduction and the year in which the researchwas carried out. This latter factor may reflectthe available technology for controlling thegas concentrations in the store, since recommendationshave changed with time. It iscurrently possible to have precise control ofgas concentrations within the store owing toaccurate gas analysis and the use of computersto control store conditions. These were notavailable when earlier research into CAstorage conditions was carried out. Burton(1974a) pointed out that the differences in theO 2concentrations recommended for different© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and116 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 117cultivars of apple are not readily explicable.He suggested that cultivar differences in susceptibilityto CO 2injury could possibly resultfrom anatomical, rather than biochemical, differences.Variability of plant material preventsprecise control of intercellular atmosphere;recommended atmospheres can be designedonly to avoid completely anaerobic conditionsand a harmful level of CO 2in the centre of theleast-permeable individual fruit.General storage recommendations forapples include 1–2% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2for nonchilling-sensitivecultivars and 2–3% CO 2+2–3% O 2for chilling-sensitive cultivars (Sea-Land, 1991). Lawton (1996) gave a general recommendationof 0–2 °C and 95% rh in 1–5%CO 2+ 2–3% O 2. Blythman (1996) mentionedthat CA storage of apples was carried out in 2%CO 2+ 3% O 2and 95% N 2. Another general recommendationwas storage at 0–2 °C in 1–2%CO 2+ 2–3% O 2(Kader, 1985). However, Kader(1992) revised these recommendations to 1–5%CO 2+ 1–3% O 2. In northern Italy there was ageneral recommendation of 1–2% O 2(Chaponand Trillot, 1992). Dilley et al. (1989) reportedthat CA of 1.5% O 2+ up to 3% CO 2had beenfound to be the best generally applicableatmosphere to delay ripening and minimizephysiological disorders of all the apple cultivarsthat they had tested, which had been grownunder Michigan conditions. Gudkovskii (1975)measured CO 2tolerance of several cultivarsand divided them into four groups as follows:CO 2toleranceMost tolerantup to 10%Relativelytolerant 5–6%Susceptible

118 Chapter 9Cultivar Regime O 2(%) CO 2(%) Temperature (°C)Storage life(months)2.5 2.5 3 5–7McIntosh Standard CA +SmartFresh bMcIntosh Low Oc21.0 1.0 3 6–8McIntosh Low Oc2+1.0

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 119separator or with a traditional lime scrubberfollowed storage at 15 °C for 1 week or at20 °C for 2 weeks in air. Ethylene concentrationduring storage with a scrubber/separatorrose to only 20 ppm, compared with up to1000 ppm without a scrubber. The averageweight loss, rots (mostly Gloeosporium spp.),flesh browning and core flush were alsoslightly lower in those from the scrubber/separator, but the incidence of bitter pit wasslightly greater. Using a scrubber/separatordid not affect fruit firmness and colour.Bisbee DeliciousDrake and Eisele (1994) found that the fruitsretained their quality in storage for 9 monthsat 1 °C in 1% O 2+ 1% CO 2, but a delay of5 days in establishing the CA conditionsresulted in reduced quality. Longer delaysdid not result in greater quality loss. Theinterim storage period was in air at 1 °C.BitterfelderValues for the antioxidant capacity stayed constanteven after 7 months’ storage in air or 3%CO 2+ 1% O 2, but vitamin C was lost in bothstorage atmospheres (Trierweiler et al., 2004).BohnapfelValues for the antioxidant capacity stayed constanteven after 7 months’ storage in air or 3%CO 2+ 1% O 2, but vitamin C was lost duringboth storage methods (Trierweiler et al., 2004).BoskoopMeheriuk (1993) recommended 3–5 °C in 0.5–2.0% CO 2+ 1.2–2.3% O 2for 5–7 months. Koelet(1992) recommended 3.0–3.5 °C in 0.5–1.5%CO 2+ 2–2.2% O 2. Hansen (1977) suggested atemperature of not lower than 4 °C in 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2. Herregods (personal communication)and Meheriuk (1993) summarized generalrecommendations from a variety ofcountries as follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Belgium 3.0–3.5

120 Chapter 9months, and at −0.5 °C in 1% O 2+ 2% CO 2or 1%O 2+ 3% CO 2rotting, cracking and internalbreakdown incidence were the lowest. No significantdifferences in flesh firmness, titratableacidity and total soluble solids were observedamong CA conditions after they had beenremoved to room temperature for 7 days.Braeburn can develop an internal disorderduring storage called Braeburn browningdisorder (BBD). Elgar et al. (1998) found thatsusceptibility to BBD was greater in fruitsexposed to 2 or 5% CO 2than to 0% CO 2.Susceptibility also increased with decreasingO 2% in the range of 5–1% CO 2in the storageatmosphere. BBD appeared to develop duringthe first 2 weeks of storage, and delays in air at0 °C prior to CA storage decreased incidenceand severity of the disorder. They thereforerecommended ≤1% CO 2+ 3% O 2established2 weeks after loading the store. Watkins et al.(1997) also concluded that the extent of BBDdevelopment increased as CO 2concentrationin the storage atmosphere increased. The sensitivityof fruits to CO 2-induced injury wasgreatest soon after harvest, but declined duringCA storage or if fruits were held in airstorage before CO 2application. CanadianBraeburn stored for 6 months at 0 °C in 1.2–1.5% O 2+ 1.0–1.2% CO 2were firmer, had 20%higher titratable acidity and had markedly lessbrown core than fruits stored in air, but weresusceptible to BBD and internal CO 2injuryafter cool growing seasons. Advanced harvestmaturity and storage in 3.0% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2increased BBD. A comparison of storage at 3.0,1.7 or 0 °C showed no consistent effect on BBDin CA-stored fruits (Lau, 1997). Storage ofBraeburn at 1 °C in DCA, which was set at 0.3–0.4% O 2+ 0.7–0.8% CO 2, maintained firmnessduring some 7 months’ storage followed by a7-day shelf-life period at 20 °C. DCA storagereduced BBD compared with fruit stored in1.5% O 2+ 1.0% CO 2. The susceptibility to lowtemperaturebreakdown and external CO 2injury was significantly higher in DCA than in1.5% O 2+ 1.0% CO 2(Lafer, 2008).Bramley’s SeedlingFidler and Mann (1972) recommended 3–4 °Cin 8–10% CO 2+ about 11–13% O 2. Wilkinsonand Sharples (1973) recommended 3.3–4.4 °Cwith 8–10% CO 2and no scrubber for 8 months.Sharples and Stow (1986) recommended 4.0–4.5 °C in 8–10% CO 2where no scrubber isused and 4.0–4.5 °C in 6% CO 2+ 2% O 2wherea scrubber is used. The following conditionswere said to be used in their commercial CAstores by East Kent Packers Limited in themid-1990s: 3.5–4.0 °C in 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2.Johnson et al. (1993) found that storing in 0.2%O 2+ nominally 0% CO 2was too low to supportaerobic respiration, as was evidenced byan immediate build-up of ethanol in the fruits.In 0.4 and 0.6% O 2, fruits respired normallyfor 150 days, but ethanol accumulated thereafter.Johnson (1994b) recommended thefollowing at 4.0–4.5 °C:% CO 2% O 2Storage time (weeks)8–10 11–13 396 2 395 1 44At 4 °C some brown heart occurred afterestablishment of 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2by flushing,despite a 15-day delay. Scald was controlledless effectively when establishment of 5% CO 2+1% O 2conditions was delayed, particularly ifthese were achieved by fruit respiration ratherthan by flushing. A progressive reduction inscald was achieved by maintaining O 2concentrationsat 0.8, 0.6 or 0.4%, in the presence of5% CO 2. Although products of fermentationincreased progressi vely at lower O 2concentrations,these remained below suggestedolfactory thresholds (Colgan et al., 1999).Cacanska PoznaFruits stored at 1 °C and 85–90% rh in 7%CO 2+ 7% for 168 days showed no physiologicaldisorders and negligible decay and weightloss (Jankovic and Drobnjak, 1992, 1994).They also had reduced respiration rate,reduced loss of total sugars, total acids, ascorbicacid and starch, and delayed ripening,and had firmer, juicier fruits judged to havebetter taste at the end of storage comparedwith fruits stored in air at 1 °C and 85–90% rh.

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 121Charles RossFidler (1970) recommended 3.5 °C with 5%CO 2+ 3% O 2. Sharples and Stow (1986) recommended3.5–4.0 °C and 5% CO 2for fruitstored without a scrubber and 5% CO 2+ 3%O 2for those stored with a scrubber.CliviaReichel et al. (1976) recommended 1–3 °C in5–7% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for up to 240 days.CortlandAnon. (1968) recommended 3.3 °C in 5% CO 2+3% O 2for 5–6 months. Meheriuk (1993) recommended0–3 °C in 5% CO 2+ 2.0–3.5% O 2for 4–6months. Storage for 9 months at 0 °C in 3% O 2+3% CO 2helped to maintain fruit quality comparedwith storage in air (El-Shiekh et al., 2002).Herregods (personal communication) andMeheriuk (1993) summarized general recommendationsfrom North America as follows:Canada(Nova Scotia)Canada(Nova Scotia)Canada(Quebec)USA(Massachusetts)Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 23 4.5 2.53 1.5 1.53 5 2.5–3.00 5 3Cortland was found to be sensitive tochilling injury at 0 °C, and DeEll and Prange(1998) found that there was an increase inlow-temperature breakdown, core browningand vascular breakdown at 0 °C comparedwith 3 °C. However, there was no significanteffect on fruit firmness, total soluble solids,titratable acidity and loss of mass or superficialscald development. They also found thatstorage in 1.5% O 2or 4.5% CO 2eliminatedchilling injury symptoms but had no significanteffect on firmness, total soluble solids,titratable acidity and loss of mass, or the incidenceof storage disorders compared with 2.5%O 2or 1.5% CO 2. In storage at 3 °C for up to 8months, the HarvestWatch chlorophyll fluorescencesystem sustained fruit quality to agreater extent than 2% O 2+3% CO 2(DeLong etal., 2007). Generally this system consistentlymaintained higher fruit firmness, higher levelsof total soluble solids and titratable acidity andhad reduced superficial scald, particularlyafter 7 days' subsequent shelf-life at 20 °C,compared with storage in 2% O 2+ 3% CO 2. Incomparison of storage in

122 Chapter 9Herregods (personal communication)and Meheriuk (1993) summarized generalrecommendations from a variety of countriesas follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Belgium 3.0–3.5

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 123and rising to 6.3 µl l −1 in 1.5% O 2+ 1.5% CO 2)did not improve the retention of flesh firmness.A higher level of ethylene (0 µl l −1 initially andgradually increasing to 1173 µl l −1 ) retained asatisfactory level of flesh firmness for 9–10months in 1.5% O 2+ 1.5% CO 2(Lau, 1989a).DiscoveryDiscovery has been reported to have poorstorage qualities, and Sharples and Stow(1986) recommended 3.0–3.5 °C with

124 Chapter 9be stored. They found that fruits were firmer,tended to develop fewer skin spots and had abetter colour retention after DCA storage, especiallyafter shelf-life, compared with traditionalCA storage. Schouten (1997) compared storageat 1–2 °C in either 2.5% CO 2+ 1.2% O 2or

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 125that storage in 1.5% O 2+ 3% CO 2retained firmnessand reduced titratable acidity loss duringlong-term storage, but increased brown heartand watercore development. Brackmann et al.(2002b) found that 0 °C in 1% O 2+ 2% CO 2for7 months maintained higher flesh firmness andtitratable acidity, a greener peel colour andlower ethylene production and respiration rate,but the incidence of watercore was higher after7 days' shelf-life at 20 °C. At 0 °C fruit firmnessretention was better in 1% O 2+ 3% CO 2storagethan in air. Also, CA storage reduced internalbrowning and cork spot, and decay, mainlycaused by B. cinerea and P. expansum, was effectivelycontrolled (Hong et al., 1997). Values forthe antioxidant capacity stayed constant evenafter 7 months’ storage in air or 3% CO 2+ 1%O 2, but vitamin C was lost during both storagemethods ( Trierweiler et al., 2004). Herregods(personal communication) and Meheriuk(1993) summarized general recommendationsfrom a variety of countries as follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Australia0 1 2(South)Australia0 2 2.0–2.5(Victoria)Brazil 1.5–2.0 0.7–1.2 1.5–2.0France 0–1 1–2 2.0–2.5Japan 0 1 2USA(Washington)0 1–2 1–2GalaThere are several Gala clones that have arisenby bud mutation, including Gala Mondial,Gala Must, Royal Gala and Ruby Gala, someof which have been patented. Gala was successfullystored at 0 °C in 1.5% O 2+

126 Chapter 9Table 9.1. Recommendations for storage of Gala apples at 1.5–2.0 °C (Johnson, 2001).% CO 2% O 2Terminate Operating criteria8 13 Early November

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 127+ 1.5% O 2for 9 months (Van der Merwe, 1996),1.5–3.5 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2(Sharples andStow, 1986), 0 °C in 1.5% O 2+ up to 3% CO 2(Dilley et al., 1989) and 1% CO 2+ 3% O 2(Harbet al., 1994). Athanasopoulos et al. (1999) recommended0 °C in 3% O 2+ 2.5% CO 2, but 1.7–2.5% CO 2combined with low O 2resulted inbetter texture retention. Truter et al. (1982) recommended0 °C in 3% CO 2and 3% O 2for up to8.5 months and found that removal of ethyleneusing potassium permanganate did notenhance fruit quality. In storage at 1.5% CO 2+2.5% O 2for 90 days, Singh et al. (1972) foundthat the amino and organic acid contents wereconsiderably increased and the respiration ratewas reduced both during and after storagecompared with air, but sugars were notaffected. Strempfl et al. (1991) recommended1% O 2+ 1% CO 2or 1% O 2+ 6% CO 2and foundthat fruit rot, scald and flesh browning wereprevented to a large extent. Herregods (personalcommunication) and Meheriuk (1993)summarized general recommendations from avariety of countries as follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Australia (South) 0 2 2Australia (Victoria) 0 1 1.5Australia (Victoria) 0 5 2Belgium 0.5 2 2Brazil 1.0–1.5 3.0–4.5 1.5–2.5Canada0 1.5 1.0–1.2(British Columbia)Canada (Ontario) 0 2.5 2.5China 5 4–8 2–4France 0–2 2–3 1.0–1.5Germany (Saxony) 2 1.7–1.9 1.3–1.5Germany1–2 3–5 1–2(Westphalia)Israel −0.5 2 1.0–1.5Italy 0.5 2 1.5Netherlands 1 4 1.2Slovenia 1 3 1Slovenia 0 3 1South Africa −0.5 1.5 1.5Spain 0.5 2–4 3Switzerland 2 5 2–3Switzerland 2 4 2–3USA (New York) 0 2–3 1.8–2.0USA (New York) 0 2–3 1.5USA−0.5 to +0.5 0–0.3 1.3–2.3(Pennsylvania)USA (Washington) 1

128 Chapter 9Granny SmithMeheriuk (1993) recommended −0.5 to 2.0 °Cwith 0.8–5.0% CO 2+ 0.8–2.5% O 2for 8–10months, and van der Merwe (1996) −0.5 °C in0–1% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2for 7 months. Fruits weresuccessfully stored at −0.5° for 6 months in airand for 9 months in 1.5% O 2+ 0% CO 2. In airall fruits developed scald, but in CA storageonly a few apples developed scald (Van Eedenet al., 1992). Among the CA combinationstested by Akbudak et al. (2004) at 0 ± 0.5 °Cand 90 + 5% rh, 3% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2was thebest after 210 days plus 5 days' shelf-life at20 ± 2 °C and 60 ± 5% rh. Truter et al. (1982) recommended0 °C in 0% CO 2+ 3% O 2for up to8.5 months and that removal of ethyleneusing potassium permanganate did notenhance fruit quality. Herregods (personalcommunication) and Meheriuk (1993) summarizedgeneral recommendations from avariety of countries as follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Australia (South) 0 1 2France 0–2 0.8–1.0 0.8–1.2Germany1–2 3 1–2(Westphalia)Israel −0.5 5 1.0–1.5Italy 0–2 1–3 2–3New Zealand 0.5 2 2Slovenia 1 3 1South Africa 0–0.5 0–1 1.5Spain 1 4–5 2.5USA−0.5 to +0.5 0–4 1.3–2.0(Pennsylvania)USA(Washington)1

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 129internal browning, cork spot and decay, mainlycaused by B. cinerea and P. expansum werelower in 1% O 2+ 3% CO 2(Hong et al., 1997).IdaredStorage recommendations include: 0 or 3 °Cin 1.5% O 2+ up to 3% CO 2(Dilley et al., 1989),1–3 °C in 5–7% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for up to183 days (Reichel et al., 1976), 0–1 °C with3% CO 2+ 3% O 2(Hansen, 1977) and 0–4 °C in

130 Chapter 9Jonagold(personalKoelet (1992) recommended, for what herefers to as ‘Jonah Gold’, 0.5–1.0 °C in 1–3%CO 2+ 2.0–2.2% O 2. Other recommendationsinclude: 1.5–2.0 °C in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 1311.5% O 2+ up to 3% CO 2(Dilley et al., 1989)and 1–3 °C in 5–7% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for up to240 days (Reichel et al., 1976). Tsiprush et al.(1974) recommended 4 °C and 83–86% rh ineither 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 7% O 2,depending on the region where they weregrown. When harvested at the optimum time,the softening after storage until March or Junewas less in 0.9% O 2+ 4.5% CO 2than in 1.2%O 2+ 4.5% CO 2directly after storage or afterholding for 1 week at 20 °C, but the effect disappearedafter 2 weeks. With later-harvestedfruits, O 2concentration did not affect fruitfirmness. However, flesh browning wasgreater in fruits stored in 0.9% O 2than in 1.2%O 2(Schaik and van Schaik, 1994). Herregods(personal communication) and Meheriuk(1993) summarized general recommendationsfrom a variety of countries as follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Australia (South) 0 3 3Australia (South) 0 1 3Australia (Victoria) 2 1 1.5China 2 2–3 7–10Germany3–4 3 1–2(Westphalia)Israel −0.5 5 1.0–1.5Slovenia 3 3 3Slovenia 3 3 1.5Switzerland 3 3–4 2–3USA (Michigan) 0 3 1.5Ben Arie et al. (1993) reported that thethreshold for peel injury was 10% CO 2and itoccurred more severely and earlier at 15% O 2than at 3% O 2, with little difference betweenthe two O 2levels at 20% CO 2. Superficial scalddid not occur at 3% O 2and diminished at 15%O 2with increasing CO 2and was completelyinhibited by 20% CO 2. Fruit softening wasinhibited with increasing CO 2levels in a similarmanner at both O 2levels, even though thehigher O 2level enhanced softening. No softeningoccurred at 20% CO 2regardless of O 2level,during both storage and subsequent ripening.This could be related to the total inhibition ofethylene evolution that occurred at 20% CO 2.Chlorophyll degradation was predominantlyinhibited by increasing the level of CO 2.JupiterSharples and Stow (1986) recommended 3.0–3.5 °C in

132 Chapter 9Laxton’s FortuneSharples and Stow (1986) recommended 3.0–3.5 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 133were no physiological disorders in storage in7% CO 2+ 7% O 2, while bitter pit was observedin fruit stored in air (Jankovic and Drobnjak1994). Jankovic and Drobnjak (1992) showedthat storage at 1 °C and 85–90% rh in 7% O 2+

134 Chapter 91.5% O 2+ up to 3% CO 2, but later Burmeisterand Dilley (1994) also recommended 3 °C in3.0% O 2+ 3.0% CO 2.Oregon Spur DeliciousAt 1 °C immediate establishment of 1% O 2+ 1%CO 2after harvest resulted in good-qualityfruits after 9 months’ storage, but reduced qualitywas evident when CA establishment wasdelayed by 5 days. Longer delays did not resultin greater quality loss (Drake and Eisele, 1994).Pacific RoseMaguire and MacKay (2003) reported that 2%O 2+ 1–2% CO 2was used commercially inNew Zealand.Pink Lady (Cripps Pink)Tugwell and Chvyl (1995) recommended 0 °Cin 2% O 2and 1% CO 2for up to 9 months andfound that there was no development ofscald. Brackmann et al. (2005b) found that, instorage at 0.5 °C for 9 months followed by20 °C for 7 days, the best CA was 1% O 2+

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 135In a comparison of ULO (0.9–1.1% O 2)with 2.5–3.0% O 2for about 150 days, it wasfound that ULO controlled scald without thedevelopment of alcoholic flavour or any externalor internal visual symptoms of low O 2injury, either during or after storage (Nardinand Sass, 1994). During storage in 1–5% O 2+2–6% CO 2for up to 7 months superficial scaldlevels were

136 Chapter 91.5 °C. Plich (1987) found that the lowestethylene production was in fruits stored in1% O 2+ 2% CO 2or 1% O 2+ 0% CO 2, but in3% O 2+ 0% CO 2there was considerably moreethylene production. Lau (1989b) reportedthat fruit kept well at 0.5 °C in a rapidlyestablished 1% O 2+ 1.0–1.5% CO 2. Herregods( personal communication) and Meheriuk(1993) summarized general recommendationsfrom a variety of countries as follows:Temperature(°C) % CO 2% O 2Canada0 1.5 1.2–1.5(British Columbia)Canada (Ontario) 0 2.5 2.5Canada (Quebec) 0 5 2.5–3.0Denmark 0–2 2–3 2–3UK 1.5–2.0

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 137SunsetSharples and Stow (1986) recommended 3.0–3.5 °C with 8% CO 2, with data only presentedfor stores without a scrubber.SuntanSharples and Stow (1986) recommended 3.0–3.5 °C with either 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or

138 Chapter 9Fruits of two cultivars (ICAPI 17 COL andICAPI 30 COL) were stored at 0–0.5 °C in fourdifferent CA with 0, 2.5, 5.0 or 7.5% CO 2+5.0% O 2. Both cultivars, but particularlyICAPI 30 COL, proved suitable for CA storagefor up to 3 weeks. Only in the cultivarICAPI 30 COL did development of some ripeningparameters seem to be related to CO 2concentration (Andrich and Fiorentini, 1986).Folchi et al. (1995) stored fruits of the cultivarReale d’Imola at 0 or 6 °C, either in air or 0.3%O 2, for up to 37 days. Fruits stored in 0.3% O 2had significantly increased ethanol and acetaldehydecontent at 6 °C, whereas the methanolcontent was not significantly affected bylow O 2. Low O 2reduced total soluble solidswhen fruits were stored at 6 °C and increasedfruit firmness at both storage temperatures.Physiological disorders, such as flesh discolorationand browning, appeared after 5 daysof CA storage at 6 °C and after 12 days at 0 °C.Folchi et al. (1994) stored the cultivar Realed’Imola in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 139decreased even more in 5 or 2% O 2. However,at 2% O 2and zero CO 2, the percentage ofphysiologically injured fruits increased considerablyin or after storage. They suggestedthat removing ethylene and maintaining about8% CO 2+ at least 2% O 2are important to retainfruit quality (Koyakumaru et al., 1994).Artichoke, Globe (Cynara scolymus)Typical storage conditions were given as0–5 °C in 2–3% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2(Bishop, 1996),0.5–1.5 °C in 0–2.5% CO 2+ 5% O 2for 20–30days (Monzini and Gorini, 1974), 3–5% CO 2+2–3% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2incold storage (unspecified) for 1 month, whichreduced browning (Pantasitico, 1975), and0–5 °C in 2–3% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2, but CA storageonly had a slight effect on storage life(Saltveit, 1989; Kader, 1992). Kader (1985) hadpreviously recommended 0–5 °C in 3–5%CO 2+ 2–3% O 2but indicated that it was notused commercially. Poma Treccani and Anoni(1969) recommended 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2for upto 1 month. They showed that it reducedbrowning discoloration of the bracts. Miccolisand Saltveit (1988) described storage of large,mature artichokes in humidified air at 7 °C for1 week, 2.5 °C for 2 weeks, or 0 °C for3 weeks. All storage conditions resulted insignificant quality loss, and there was little orno beneficial effect of 1, 2.5 or 5.0% O 2or 2.5or 5% CO 2in storage at 0 °C. Blackened bractsand receptacles occurred in all atmospheresafter 4 weeks’ storage. The degree of blackeningwas insignificant in air, but became severeas the O 2level decreased over the range from5 to 1% and CO 2increased over the rangefrom 2.5 to 5.0%. CA storage of large artichokeswas therefore not recommended. Thecultivar Violeta was stored for 15–28 days at1 °C and 90–95% rh in 1–6% O 2+ 2–8% CO 2.The best results, for physical, chemical andorganoleptic properties, and a post-storageshelf-life of 3–4 days, were obtained withstorage for 28 days in 2% O 2+ 6% CO 2(ArtesCalero et al., 1981). Gil et al. (2003) showedthat storage in 5% O 2+ 10% CO 2prolongedstorage life of Blanca de Tudela for long periods,but storage in 5% O 2+ 15% CO 2causedoff-odours and CO 2injuries in the innerbracts and receptacles. They found that therespiration rate decreased down to 15–25 mlCO 2kg −1 h −1 in 5% O 2+ 10% CO 2and 10–20 mlCO 2kg −1 h −1 in 5% O 2+ 15% CO 2storage,while it was 30–40 ml CO 2kg −1 h −1 in air. Storagetrials were carried out by Mencarelli(1987a) at 1.0 ± 0.5 °C and 90–95% rh in arange of 5 and 10% O 2+ 2–6% CO 2for up to45 days. Those stored in 5 and 10% O 2+ 0%CO 2remained turgid, with good organolepticquality. The addition of 2% CO 2, however,controlled the development of superficialmould, but 4% CO 2had adverse effects.Artichoke, Jerusalem(Helianthus tuberosus)Depending on cultivar, tubers can be storedfor up to 12 months at 0–2 °C and 90–95% rh;therefore there is little justification for usingCA storage (Steinbauer, 1932). Tubers freezeat −2.2 °C but exposure to −5 °C caused littledamage. Tubers are not sensitive to ethylene(Kays, 1997). They are a major source of inulin,and storage of tubers in 22.5% CO 2 +20.0% O 2significantly retarded the rate ofinulin degradation, apparently through aneffect on enzyme activity (Denny et al., 1944).Asian Pear, Nashi (Pyrus pyrifolia,Pyrus ussuriensis var. sinensis)Zagory et al. (1989) reviewed work on severalcultivars and found that storage experimentsat 2 °C in 1, 2 or 3% O 2of the cultivars EarlyGold and Shinko showed no clear benefitcompared with storage in air. Early Goldfruits appeared to be of reasonably goodquality after up to 6 months’ storage at 2 °C.Shinko became prone to internal browningafter the third month, perhaps due to CO 2injury. Low O 2atmospheres reduced yellowcolour development, compared with air. Theyalso reported that the cultivar 20th Centurywas shown to be sensitive to CO 2concentrationsabove 1% when exposed for longer than4 months or to 5% CO 2for more than 1 month.Kader (1989) recommended 0–5 °C in 0–1%

140 Chapter 9CO 2+ 2–4% O 2but claimed that it had limitedcommercial use. In other work, Meheriuk(1993) gave provisional recommendations of2 °C with 1–5% CO 2+ 3% O 2for about3–5 months and stated that a longer storageperiod may result in internal browning.Meheriuk also stated that some cultivars aresubject to CO 2injury but indicated that this iswhen they are stored in concentrations ofover 4%.Asparagus (Asparagus officinalis)Storage at 0 °C in 12% CO 2or at 5 °C or justabove in 7% CO 2retarded decay and toughening(Hardenberg et al., 1990). Lill andCorrigan (1996) showed that during storageat 20 °C, spears stored in 5–10% O 2+ 5–15%CO 2had an increased postharvest life, from2.6 days in air to about 4.5 days. Other recommendationsinclude: 0 °C and 95% rh in 9%CO 2+ 5% O 2(Lawton, 1996), 5–10% CO 2+20% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 5 °C with a maximumof 10% CO 2and a minimum of 10% O 2(Fellows, 1988), 1 °C in 10% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2(Monzini and Gorini, 1974), 0–5 °C in 5–10%CO 2+ 21% O 2, which had a good effect butwas of limited commercial use (Kader, 1985,1992), 1–5 °C with 10–14% CO 2+ 21% O 2,which had only a slight effect (Saltveit, 1989),and 0–3 °C in 10–14% CO 2(Bishop, 1996). Lipton(1968) showed that levels of 10% CO 2could be injurious, causing pitting, at storagetemperatures of 6.1 °C (43 °F), but at 1.7 °C(35 °F) no CO 2injury was detected. However,in atmospheres containing 15% CO 2spearswere injured at both temperatures. Liptonalso showed that storage in 10% CO 2reducedrots due to Phytopthora, but in atmospherescontaining 5% CO 2there were no effects.Other work has also shown that fungal developmentduring storage could be preventedby flushing with 30% CO 2for 24 h or by maintaininga CO 2concentration of 5–10% (Andreet al., 1980b). Hardenberg et al. (1990) indicatedthat brief (unspecified) exposure to 20%CO 2can reduce soft rot at the butt end ofspears. McKenzie et al. (2004) found that storagein 5% O 2+ 10% CO 2maintained the activityof several sugar-metabolizing enzymes ator above harvest levels compared with storagein air, where activities fell. CA storagealso eliminated the increase in acid invertaseactivity found during storage in air. Therewere significant differences in the pool sizesof sugars in the different compartments (vacuole,cytoplasm, free space). CA storage alsoresulted in a lower concentration of glucosein the free space, but it appeared to engagethe ethanolic fermentation pathway, albeitonly transiently. CA storage may have permittedmore controlled use of whichever vacuolesugar the tissue normally drew upon(fructose) and delayed an increase in plasmamembrane permeability.Aubergine, Eggplant(Solanum melongena)Storage in 0% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2was recommendedby SeaLand (1991). High CO 2in thestorage atmosphere can cause surface scaldbrowning, pitting and excessive decay, andthese symptoms are similar to those causedby chilling injury (Wardlaw, 1938). CO 2concentrationsof 5, 8 or 12% during storage allresulted in CO 2injury, characterized by externalbrowning without tissue softening(Mencarelli et al., 1989). Viraktamath et al.(1963, quoted by Pantastico, 1975) claimedthat atmospheres containing CO 2levels of 7%or higher were injurious.Avocado (Persea americana)Fellows (1988) gave a general recommendationof a maximum of 5% CO 2and a minimumof 3% O 2. In South Africa, van derMerwe (1996) recommended 5.5 °C with 10%CO 2+ 2% O 2for up to 4 weeks. In Australia,Anon. (1998) recommended 2–5% O 2+ 3–10%CO 2at 12 °C. In other work 3–10% CO 2+ 2–5%O 2was recommended for both Californian(sic) and tropical avocados (SeaLand, 1991).5 °C and 85% rh in 9% CO 2+ 2% O 2was ageneral recommendation by Lawton (1996).Typical storage conditions were given as10–13 °C in 3–10% CO 2+ 2–5% O 2by Bishop(1996). A general comment was that storage at5–13 °C in 3–10% CO 2+ 2–5% O 2had a good

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 141effect and was of some commercial use(Kader, 1985, 1992, 1993) and that the benefitsof reduced O 2and increased CO 2were good.He reported that if the CO 2level is too highskin browning can occur and off-flavour candevelop, and if O 2levels are too low internalflesh browning and off-flavour can occur. Inexperiments described by Meir et al. (1993) at5 °C, increasing CO 2levels over the range of0.5, 1, 3 or 8% and O 2levels of 3 or 21% slowedfruit softening, inhibited peel colour changeand reduced the incidence of chilling injury.The most effective CO 2concentration was 8%,with either 3 or 21% O 2. They found that in3% O 2+ 8% CO 2fruits could be stored for 9weeks, and after CA storage the fruits ripenednormally and underwent typical peel colourchanges. Some injury to the fruit peel wasobserved, probably attributable to low O 2concentrations, with peel damage seen in 10%of fruits held in 3% O 2with either 3 or 8%CO 2, but it was reported to be too slight toaffect their marketability.High CO 2treatment (20%) applied for7 days continuously at the beginning ofstorage or for 1 day a week throughout thestorage period at either 2 or 5 °C maintainedfruit texture and delayed ripening comparedwith fruit stored throughout in air (SaucedoVeloz et al., 1991). Storage in total N 2or totalCO 2, however, caused irreversible injury tothe fruit (Stahl and Cain, 1940). CA storagewas reported to reduce chilling injury symptoms.There were less chilling injury symptomsin the cultivars Booth 8, Lula and Taylorin CA storage than in air (Haard andSalunkhe, 1975; Pantastico, 1975). Spaldingand Reeder (1975) also showed that in storageat 0% CO 2+ 2% O 2or 10% CO 2+ 21% O 2fruits had less chilling injury and less anthracnose(C. gloeosporioides) during storage at 7 °Cthan fruits stored in air. Specific recommendationshave been made on some cultivars asfollows:AnaheimBleinroth et al. (1977) recommended 10%CO 2+ 6% O 2at 7 °C, which gave a storage lifeof 38 days, compared with only 12 days in airat the same temperature.FuerteBoth Overholser (1928) and Wardlaw (1938)showed that Fuerte stored at 7.2 °C (45 °F) hada 2-month storage life in 3 or 4–5% CO 2+ 3 or4–5% O 2. This was more than a month longerthan they could be stored at the same temperaturein air. Biale (1950) also reported similarresults. Pantastico (1975) showed thatstorage at 5.0–6.7 °C had double or triple thestorage life in 3–5% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2than in air.Bleinroth et al. (1977) recommended 10%CO 2+ 6% O 2at 7 °C, which gave a storage lifeof 38 days, compared with only 12 days in airat the same temperature. Pre-storage treatmentwith 3% O 2+ 97% N 2for 24 h at 17 °Csignificantly reduced chilling injury symptomsduring subsequent storage at 2 °C for 3weeks. Fruit softening was also delayed bythis treatment. The treated fruit had a lowerrespiration rate and ethylene production, notonly during storage at 2 °C but also whenremoved to 17 °C (Pesis et al., 1994).GwenLizana et al. (1993) described storage at 6 °Cand 90% rh in 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 5%O 2, 10% CO 2+ 2% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2, 10%CO 2+ 5% O 2or 0.03% CO 2+ 21% O 2(control)for 35 days, followed by 5 days at 6 °C in airand 5 days at 18 °C to simulate shelf-life. After35 days all the fruit in CA storage retainedtheir firmness and were of excellent qualityregardless of treatment, while the control fruitwere very soft.HassYearsley et al. (2003) showed that storage at5 °C in 1% O 2resulted in stress, which showeditself in the biosynthesis of ethylene, but levelsrapidly returned to trace levels when fruitswere returned to non-stressed atmospheres.No ethanol was detected in fruit after storagefor up to 96 h in CO 2levels of up to 20%.Lizana and Figuero (1997) compared severalCA storage conditions and found that 6 °Cwith 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2was optimum. Under

142 Chapter 9these conditions they could be stored for atleast 35 days and then kept at the same temperaturein air for a further 15 days and werestill in good condition. Corrales-Garcia (1997)found that fruit stored at 2 or 5 °C for 30 daysin air, 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 15% CO 2+ 2% O 2had higher chilling injury for fruits stored inair than the fruits in CA storage. Storagein 15% CO 2+ 2% O 2was especially effective inreducing chilling injury. Intermittent exposureto 20% CO 2increased their storage life at 12 °Cand reduced chilling injury during storage at4 °C compared with those stored in air at thesame temperatures (Marcellin and Chaves,1983). Burdon et al. (2008) concluded that fruitquality was better after CA storage than afterstorage in air, and that DCA storage was betterthan ‘standard’ CA storage. The effect ofDCA was to reduce the incidence of rots whenripe. Inclusion of CO 2at 5% in CA retardedfruit ripening but stimulated rot expression,and they concluded that it should not be usedfor CA storage of New Zealand-grown Hass.DCA prolonged fruit storage life, but whenremoved from storage they ripened more rapidlyand more uniformly, with fewer rots thanthose from ‘conventional’ CA storage (Burdonet al., 2009). They recommended setting theDCA O 2level as soon as possible after harvest.Fruits were stored for 6 weeks at 5 °C in differentCA conditions then ripened in air at 20 °Cby Burdon et al. (2008). Those that had beenstored in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 143Ana (Musa AAB) (dos Santos et al., 2006).They also showed that Prata Ana at colourstage 2 (mature green) stored in 2% O 2+ 4%CO 2and 3% O 2+ 7% CO 2did not develop tocolour stage 7, even after 40 days, whereasthose in air reached colour stage 7 in 24 daysand those in 4% O 2+ 10% CO 2in 32 days.CO 2above certain concentrations can betoxic to bananas. Symptoms of CO 2toxicityare softening of green fruit and an undesirabletexture and flavour. Parsons et al. (1964)observed that Cavendish (Musa AAA) fruitstored in

144 Chapter 9their storage life. CO 2, in the range tested(4–8%), appeared to have no positive or negativeeffects on marketable shelf-life or fruitquality. Klieber et al. (2003) also found thatexposure of Williams to O 2below 1% at 22 °Cafter ripening initiation induced serious skininjury, which increased in severity with prolongedexposure from 6 to 24 h and also didnot extend shelf-life. The cultivar Sucrier,which had been initiated to ripen with ethyleneand then placed in PE bags (0.03 mm) at20 °C, showed inhibited ripening and a fermentationflavour (Romphophak et al., 2004).Storage of Williams, which had been initiatedto ripen in total N 2at 22 °C, had a similarshelf-life to those stored in air. However, areasof brown discolouration appeared on bananasplaced in N 2storage (Klieber et al., 2002).Bayberry, Chinese Bayberry(Myrica rubra)Qi et al. (2003) found that the optimum conditionsfor keeping the freshness of the fruitswas 2 ± 1 °C and ‘the lower the oxygen concentration,the better the inhibition effectsagainst microorganisms’. CA storage reducedthe development of soft and musty fruits by67% after 22 days' storage at 5 °C comparedwith those stored in air. This effect was attributedto a reduction in ethylene production.Bean, Runner Bean, Green Bean,French Bean, Kidney Bean,Snap Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)Guo et al. (2008) showed that the rate of respiration(peak rate of 109.2 CO 2mg kg −1 h −1 ),weight loss, soluble solids and surface colourchanges were lower during 12 days' storageat 0 °C compared with 8 or 25 °C. Kader (1985)reported that storage at 0–5 °C in 5–10% CO 2+2–3% O 2had a fair effect on storage but wasof limited commercial use. Saltveit (1989) recommended5–10 °C in 4–7% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2,which was said to have only a slight effect,but for those destined for processing 5–10 °Cin 20–30% CO 2+ 8–10% O 2was recommended.Storage in 5–10% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2retarded yellowing; also, discoloration of thecut end of the beans could be prevented byexposure to 20–30% CO 2for 24 h (Hardenberget al., 1990). The same conditions were recommendedby SeaLand (1991). High CO 2levelscould result in development of off-flavour,but storage at 7.2 °C (45 °F) in 5–10% CO 2+2–3% O 2retarded yellowing (Anandaswamyand Iyengar, 1961). Snap beans may be heldfor up to 3 weeks in 8–18% CO 2, dependingon the temperature. CO 2concentrations of20% or greater always resulted in severeinjury, as loss of tissue integrity followed bydecay. At 1 °C, 8% CO 2was the maximumlevel tolerated, while 18% CO 2caused injuryat 4 °C but not at 8 °C. The cultivars Strike andOpus snap beans were stored for up to21 days at 1, 4 or 8 °C in 2% O 2+ up to 40%CO 2, then transferred to air at 20 °C for up to4 days (Costa et al., 1994). Sanchez-Mata et al.(2003) found that at 8 °C, 3% O 2+ 3% CO 2wasbest in extending shelf-life and preserved thenutritive value compared with storage in air,5% O 2+ 3% CO 2, or 1% O 2+ 3% CO 2.Beet (Beta vulgaris)Beets can be stored for many months usingrefrigerated storage at 2 °C, but some varietieshave a very short marketable life. Forexample, in Savoy beet there was a decreasein the β-carotene, ascorbic acid and chlorophyllcontents, which was faster in summer,when the shelf-life was 4 days, than in winter,when it was 6 days (Negi and Roy, 2000).SeaLand (1991) reported that unspecified CAstorage conditions had only a slight to noeffect on beet storage. Shipway (1968) showedthat atmospheres containing over 5% CO 2candamage red beet. Monzini and Gorini (1974)recommended 0 °C with 3% CO 2+ 10% O 2for1 month.Blackberry (Rubus spp.)Berries retained their flavour well for 2 dayswhen they were cooled rapidly and stored inan atmosphere containing up to 40% CO 2(Hulme, 1971). Kader (1989) recommended0–5 °C in 10–15% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2for optimum

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 145storage. Agar et al. (1994a) showed that thecultivar Thornfree can be stored at 0–2 °C in20–30% CO 2+ 2% O 2for 6 days and had up to3 days' subsequent shelf-life in air at 20 °C.Perkins-Veazie and Collins (2002) found thatstorage of the cultivars Navaho and Arapahoat 2 °C and 95% rh resulted in reduced decayat 15% CO 2+ 10% O 2compared with thosestored in air. However, there was somedecrease in anthocyanins and some off-flavourswere detected after 14 days for the CAstoredfruit. Storage in 20–40% CO 2can beused to maintain the quality of machineharvestedblackberries for processing duringshort-term storage at 20 °C (Hardenberget al., 1990).Blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum)Stoll (1972) recommended 2–4 °C in 40–50%CO 2+ 5–6% O 2. After storage at 18.3 °C with40% CO 2for 5 days, the fruits had a subsequentshelf-life of 2 days, with 2–3% of thefruit being unmarketable due to rotting(Wilkinson, 1972). Skrzynski (1990) describedexperiments where fruits of the cultivarRoodknop were held at 6–8 °C for 24 h andthen transferred to 2 °C for storage for 4 weeksin one of the following: 20% CO 2+ 3% O 2,20% CO 2+ 3% O 2for 14 days then 5% CO 2+3% O 2, 10% CO 2+ 3% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2orin air. The best retention of ascorbic acid wasin both the treatments with 20% CO 2. In yearswith favourable weather preceding the harvest,storage in 20% CO 2completely controlledthe occurrence of moulds causedmainly by Botrytis, Mucor and Rhizopus species.Agar et al. (1991) stored the cultivarRosenthal at 1 °C in 10, 20 or 30% CO 2, allwith 2% O 2, or a high CO 2environment of 10,20 or 30% CO 2, all with >15% O 2. The optimumCO 2concentration was found to be 20%.Ethanol accumulation was higher in CA storagethan a high CO 2environment. Fruitscould be stored for 3–4 weeks under CA storageor high CO 2, compared with 1 week forfruits stored at 1 °C in air. Smith (1957) recommendedstorage at 2 °C in 50% CO 2for 7 daysfollowed by a further 3 weeks at 2 °C in 25%CO 2for juice manufacture. With longer storageperiods there was an accumulation ofalcohol and acetaldehyde but the juice qualitywas not affected.CA storage can affect the nutrient contentof blackcurrants. Harb et al. (2008b) foundthat storage of Titania in air for up to 6 weeksdid not significantly affect total terpene volatiles,which were similar to those in freshlyharvested berries. They found that decreasingO 2and increasing CO 2levels retarded theircapacity to synthesize terpenes for 3 weeks,but storage for an additional 3 weeks led to apartial recovery. However, storage in 18%CO 2+ 2% O 2resulted, in most cases, in alower biosynthesis of volatile constituentscompared with storage in air for 6 weeks.Non-terpene compounds, mainly esters andalcohols, were also increased in fruits duringstorage in air compared with those in CAstorage, where there was an initial reductionbut subsequent recovery.Blueberry, Bilberry, Whortleberry(Vaccinium corymbosum,Vaccinium myrtillus)Kader (1989) recommended 0–5 °C in 15–20%CO 2+ 5–10% O 2, and Ellis (1995) recommended0.5 °C and 90–95% rh in 10% O 2+10% CO 2for ‘medium term’ storage. Storagefor 7–14 days at 2 °C in 15% CO 2delayed theirdecay by 3 days after they had been returnedto ambient temperatures, compared withstorage in air at the same temperature(Ceponis and Cappellini, 1983). They alsoshowed that storage in 2% O 2had no addedeffect over the CO 2treatment. The optimumatmosphere for the storage of the cultivarBurlington was 0 °C with 15% O 2+ 10% CO 2,in which fruit maintained good quality forover 6 weeks (Forney et al., 2003). After 6weeks’ storage at 0 °C in 15% O 2+ 25% CO 2the concentration of ethanol was about 18times higher and ethyl acetate was about 25time higher than in those stored in 15% O 2+ 0or 15% CO 2(Forney et al., 2003). Harb andStreif (2006) successfully stored the cultivarBluecrop for up to 6 weeks in 12% CO 2+ 21%O 2, which retained fruit firmness, had lowdecay and the absence of off-flavour. Dukefruits could be kept in air at 0–1 °C in accept-

146 Chapter 9able condition for up to 3 weeks. However,for storage for up to 6 weeks, up to 12% CO 2+ 18–21% O 2was found to give the bestresults. Storage in 6–12% CO 2maintainedtheir firmness while those stored in >12%CO 2rapidly softened at both 2 and 18% O 2and had poorer flavour, firmness and acidity.Chiabrando and Peano (2006) found thatstorage at 1 °C in 3% O 2+ 11% CO 2for 60 daysmaintained fruit firmness, total soluble solidsand titratable acidity better than storage in airat 3 °C and 90–95% rh. DeEll (2002) reportedthat storage in 15–20% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2reduced the respiration rate and softening,but exposure to 25% CO 2could cause off-flavours and brown discoloration,depending on the cultivar, duration ofexposure and temperature. Zheng et al. (2003)showed that the antioxidant levels in Dukeincreased in 60–100% O 2, as compared with40% O 2or air, during 35 days' storage. O 2levels of between 60 and 100% also resultedin an increase in total phenolics and totalanthocyanins.Schotsmans et al. (2007) found that fungaldevelopment was reduced by CA storage.After 28 days at 1.5 °C in 2.5% O 2+ 15% CO 2the cultivars Centurion and Maru had onlyhalf as much blemished fruit compared withthose stored in air. Incidence of fungal diseases,mainly caused by B. cinerea, could beefficiently controlled by CO 2levels over 6%(Harb and Streif, 2004a). DeEll (2002) reportedthat 15–20% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2reduced thegrowth of B. cinerea and other decay-causingorganisms during transport and storage.Zheng et al. (2003) showed that fruit stored in≥60% O 2had significantly less decay. Song etal. (2003) showed that the percentage marketabilityof the cultivar Highbush was 4–7%greater than in the controls after treatmentwith 200 ppb O 3for 2 or 4 days in combinationwith 10% CO 2+ 15% O 2.Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis,Artocarpus communis)The optimum conditions for CA storage aregiven by Sankat and Maharaj (2007) as 5%O 2+ 5% CO 2at 16 °C.Broccoli, Sprouting Broccoli(Brassica oleracea var. italica)A considerable amount of research has beenpublished on CA and MA storage. Klieberand Wills (1991) reported that in 0 °C and100% rh broccoli could be stored for about8 weeks and their storage life could be furtherextended in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 147during 8 weeks’ storage in air or 0 5% CO 2+0.8–3.0% O 2, but increased in storage in 10%CO 2+ 3% O 2(Yang and Henze, 1988). Storagein 5 and 10% CO 2+ 3% O 2was, by visualassessment, the most effective in reducingchlorophyll loss. Most CA combinations hadno effect on flavour, but the samples stored at10% CO 2+ 3% O 2had an undesirable flavourafter 8 weeks. CO 2and O 2levels had littleeffect on broccoli firmness (Yang and Henze,1987). However, colour and texture were notsignificantly influenced by CA comparedwith those stored at the same temperature inair (Berrang et al., 1990). Storage for 13 weeksin 15% O 2+ 6% CO 2resulted in a modestretention of chlorophyll and a 30% reductionof trim loss as compared with air. Storage ofthe cultivar Green Valient in 8% CO 2+ 10%O 2, 6% CO 2+ 2% O 2or 8% CO 2+ 1% O 2reduced chlorophyll loss by 13, 9 and 32%,respectively, reduced trim loss by 40, 45 and41%, respectively and reduced their respirationrate as compared with air (McDonald,1985). When freshly cut heads of the cultivarsCommander and Green Duke were stored inair at 23 or 10 °C, the florets rapidly senesced.Chlorophyll levels declined by 80–90% within4 days at 23 °C and within 10 days at 10 °C.Storage at 5 °C or 10 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2atapproximately 80% rh strongly inhibited lossof chlorophyll (Deschene et al., 1991). Theeffect of storage of the cultivars Marathon,Montop and Lord in either 2% O 2+ 6% CO 2or 0.5–1.0% O 2+ 10% CO 2on antioxidantactivity was similar to those stored in air, butantioxidant activity and the vitamin C contentincreased in stored broccoli comparedwith fresh broccoli florets (Wold et al., 2006).CA storage generally reduced postharvestlosses due to disease, but results havebeen mixed. Among the atmospheres testedby Makhlouf et al. (1989b), 6% CO 2+ 2.5% O 2was the best for storage for 3 weeks since itdelayed the development of soft rot andmould and there was no physiological injury.Compared with storage in air those in atmospherescontaining 5–10% CO 2+ 3% O 2had asmall reduction in decay, while storage in 0.8and 1.5% O 2resulted in more rapid decay(Yang and Henze, 1987). Storage in 11% O 2+10% CO 2at 4 °C significantly reducedthe growth of microorganisms and extendedthe length of time they were subjectivelyconsidered acceptable for consumption( Berrang et al., 1990). The effects of CA storageon the survival and growth of Aeromonashydrophila was examined. Two lots of eachwere inoculated with A. hydrophila 1653 orK144. A third lot served as an uninoculatedcontrol. Following inoculation they werestored at 4 or 15 °C in a CA storage systempreviously shown to extend their storage lifeor in ambient air. Without exception, CAstorage lengthened the time they wereconsidered acceptable for consumption.However, CA storage did not significantlyaffect populations of A. hydrophila (Berranget al., 1989).CA has been evaluated on minimallyprocessed broccoli florets. Marathon floretswere held for 4 days at 10 °C in containerswith an air flow (20.5% O 2and

148 Chapter 9intact produce are useful guidelines for MApackaging of minimally processed vegetables(Bastrash et al., 1993).Brussels Sprout (Brassicaoleracea var. gemmifera)High-quality sprouts could be maintained for10 weeks in storage at 1.5–2.0 °C in air, whichcould be extended to 12 weeks in 5% CO 2(Peters and Seidel, 1987). Beneficial effects havebeen reported with storage in atmospherescontaining 2.5, 5.0, and 7% CO 2(Pantastico,1975). SeaLand (1991) recommended 5–7%CO 2+ 1–2% O 2. Typical storage conditionswere given as 0–5 °C in 5–7% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2by Bishop (1996). Storage in 5.0–7.5% CO 2+2.5–5.0% O 2helped to maintain quality at 5 or10 °C, but at 0 °C with O 2levels below 1%internal discoloration could occur (Hardenberget al., 1990). Kader (1985) and Saltveit (1989)recommended 0–5 °C in 5–7% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2,which had a good effect on storage but wasof no commercial use. Kader (1989) subsequentlyrecommended 0–5 °C in 5–10% CO 2+1–2% O 2, which he reported to have excellentpotential benefit but limited commercial use.Other recommendations include 0–1 °C in 6%CO 2+ 15% O 2or 6% CO 2+ 3% O 2for up to 4months (Damen, 1985) and 7% O 2+ 8% CO 2for 80 days (Niedzielski, 1984). Lunette,Rampart and Valiant in storage in 0.5, 1, 2 or4% O 2had lower respiration rates relative tothose in air, but rates were similar among thefour low O 2levels. Ethylene production waslow at 2.5 and 5.0 °C in all atmospheres, but at7.5 °C it was 20–170% higher in air than in lowO 2. Ethylene production virtually stoppedduring exposure to 1% O 2+ 10% CO 2, 2%O 2+ 10% CO 2or 20% O 2+ 10% CO 2, butincreased markedly when removed to airstorage. Since low O 2levels retarded yellowingand 10% CO 2retarded decay development,the combination of low O 2with highCO 2effectively extended the storage life ofsprouts at 5.0 and 7.5 °C. The beneficial effectof CA storage was still evident after return ofthe samples to air. The sprouts retained goodappearance for 4 weeks at 2.5 °C, whetherstored in CA or in air. Storage in 0.5% O 2occasionallyinduced a reddish-tan discolorationof the heart leaves and frequently an extremelybitter flavour in the non-green portion of thesprouts (Lipton and Mackey, 1987).Rampart were stored either still on thestems or loose at 2–3 °C and

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 149in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2and only 70% for thosewhich had been stored in air (Geeson, 1984).Cabbage stored for 159 days in air had a 39%total mass loss, and in 3–4% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2for 265 days the total mass loss was only 17%.The cabbage in CA storage showed betterretention of green colour, and fresher appearanceand texture than those in air (Gariepyet al., 1985). The cultivars Lennox and Bartolowere stored in air, 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2or 2.5%O 2+ 3% CO 2. Disease incidence was lower inboth the CA storage conditions and therewere no trimming losses. CA also helped toretain green colour in Lennox (Prange andLidster, 1991). Storage at 0.5–1.5 °C and60–75% rh in 3% O 2+ 4.5–5.0% CO 2lengthenedthe period for which cabbage can bestored by at least 2 months and improvedquality compared with storage at 2–7 °C in60–75% rh in air (Zanon and Schragl, 1988).Storage of the cultivar Tip Top at 5 °C in5% CO 2+ 5% O 2gave the slowest rate ofdeterioration, and at 2.5 °C a CO 2concentration>2.5% was detrimental. The cultivarTreasure Island had a longer storage life thanTip Top in all CO 2/O 2combinations. At 2.5 °Cin 5% CO 2+ 20.5% O 2, 97% of Treasure Islandwas saleable after 120 days (Schouten, 1985).Gariepy et al. (1984) showed that after storageat 3.5–5.0% CO 2+ 1.5–3.0% O 2for 198 daysthey had a total mass loss of 14%, comparedwith 40% for those stored in air, and betterretention of colour, fresher appearance andfirmer texture. The cultivar Winter Green wasstored at 1.3 °C in 5–6% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2+ 92%N 2and traces of other gases for 32 weekscompared with storage in air at 0.3 °C. Theaverage trimming losses were

150 Chapter 9Cactus Pear, Prickly Pear, Tuna(Opuntia ficus indica,Opuntia robusta)Testoni and Eccher Zerbini (1993) recommended5 °C in 2 or 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2, whichreduced the incidence of chilling injury androt development. Cantwell (1995) cites thebeneficial effects of lining boxes of fruit withPE film, especially with paper or other absorbentmaterial, to absorb condensation.Capsicum, Sweet Pepper, Bell Pepper(Capsicum annum var. grossum)Recommendations include: 8–12 °C in 0%CO 2+ 2 or 3–5% O 2, which had a slight to fairaffect but was of limited commercial use(Kader, 1985, 1992; Saltveit, 1989), 0–3% CO 2+3–5% O 2(SeaLand, 1991) and 8 °C and >97%rh in 2% CO 2+ 4% O 2(Otma, 1989). Storagewith O 2levels of 3–5% was shown to retardrespiration, but high CO 2could reduce loss ofgreen colour and also result in calyx discoloration(Hardenberg et al., 1990). Storage life ofCalifornia Wonder at 8.9 °C could be extendedfrom 22 days in air to 38 days in 2–8% CO 2+4–8% O 2(Pantastico, 1975). Storage of the cultivarJupiter for 5 days at 20 °C in 1.5% O 2+98.5% N 2resulted in post-storage respiratoryrate suppression for about 55 h after transferto air (Rahman et al., 1995). California Wonderstored in low O 2had lower internal ethylenecontents than those in air, and storage in 1%O 2resulted in significantly lower internalCO 2than fruits stored in 3, 5, 7 or 21% O 2.Colour retention was greater in fruits storedin low O 2atmospheres than those in air (Luoand Mikitzel, 1996). Rahman et al. (1993b)found that there was a residual effect on respirationrate of storage for 24 h at 20 °C in 1.5,5 or 10% O 2. The residual effect lasted for 24 hwhen they were transferred to air, with 1.5%O 2having the most effect. Extending the storageperiod in 1.5% O 2to 72 h extended theresidual effect from 24 to 48 hPolderdijk et al. (1993) studied the interactionof CA and humidity. Mazurka fruitswere stored for 15 days at 8 °C in atmospherescontaining 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2or air at 85, 90, 95or 100%. Fruits were then stored for 7 days inair at 20 °C and 70% rh, and the incidence ofan unspecified decay during this periodincreased relative to the humidity increaseduring storage. Storage in 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2reduced the incidence of post-storage decaycompared with storage in air. Luo andMikitzel (1996) also reported that CA couldreduce decay. After 2 weeks’ storage at 10 °CCalifornia Wonder had 33% decay in thosestored in air but only 9% of those stored in 1%O 2, and this reduction in decay continuedthroughout the 4 weeks of storage. Storage in3 and 5% O 2atmospheres slightly reduceddecay for a short time, while the incidence ofdecay in fruits stored in 7% O 2was not significantlydifferent from those stored in air.Carambola, Star Fruit(Averrhoa carambola)Storage at 7 °C and 85–95% rh with either2.2% O 2+ 8.2% CO 2or 4.2% O 2+ 8% CO 2resulted in low losses of about 1.2% during1 month, and fruit retained a bright yellowcolour with good retention of firmness, o brixand acidity compared with fruits stored in air(Renel and Thompson, 1994).Carrot (Daucus carotasubsp. sativus)CA storage was not recommended byHardenberg et al. (1990), since those stored in5–10% CO 2+ 2.5–6.0% O 2had more mouldgrowth and rotting than those stored in air.Increased decay was also reported in atmospheresof 6% CO 2+ 3% O 2compared withstorage in air by Pantastico (1975). Ethyleneor high levels of CO 2in the storage atmospherecan give the roots a bitter flavour(Fidler, 1963). However, storage in 1–2% O 2at2 °C for 6 months was previously reported tohave been successful (Platenius et al., 1934)and Fellows (1988) recommended CA storagein a maximum of 4% CO 2and a minimum of3% O 2. Storage atmospheres containing 1, 2.5,5 or 10% O 2inhibited both sprouting androoting during storage at 0 °C, but again was

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 151reported to result in increased mould infection.Atmospheres containing 21 or 40% O 2reducedmould infection but increased sprouting androoting (Abdel-Rahman and Isenberg, 1974).Cassava, Tapioca, Manioc, Yuca(Manihot esculenta)These can deteriorate within a day or so ofharvesting due to a physiological disordercalled ‘vascular streaking’ (Thompson andArango, 1977). The cultivar Valencia was harvestedfrom 12-month-old plants, coated withparaffin wax and stored at 25 °C for 3 days ineither 54–56% rh or 95–98% rh and O 2levelsof either 21% (air) or 1% by Aracena et al.(1993). Storage at 54–56% rh in air enhancedvascular streaking development, with an incidenceof 46%, but storage in 1% O 2in 54–56%rh reduced vascular streaking to an incidenceof 15%. However, at high humidity, irrespectiveof the O 2level, vascular streaking incidencewas reduced to only 1.4%. Theyconcluded that the occurrence of vascularstreaking was primarily related to waterstress in the tissue, while O 2was secondarilyinvolved.Cauliflower (Brassicaoleracea var. botrytis)Respiration rate was decreased in 3% O 2comparedwith those in air (Romo Parada et al.,1989). Recommended storage conditionsinclude: 0 °C with 10% CO 2+ 10% O 2for 5weeks (Wardlaw, 1938), 0 °C in 10% CO 2+11% O 2(Smith, 1952) also for 5 weeks, 0 °C in0–3% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2(Stoll, 1972), 5–6%CO 2+ 3% O 2(Tataru and Dobreanu, 1978),0 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 5% O 2for 50–70 days(Monzini and Gorini, 1974), 2–5% CO 2+ 2–5%O 2(SeaLand, 1991), a maximum of 5% CO 2and a minimum of 2% O 2(Fellows, 1988),0–5 °C in 2–5% CO 2+ 2–5% O 2, which had afair affect but was of no commercial use(Kader, 1985, 1992) storage at 0 °C in 3% O 2+5% CO 2reduced weight loss and discolourationbut did not affect free sugar or glucosinolateprofiles compared with those stored in airat the same temperature for up to 56 days(Hodges et al., 2006).Adamicki (1989) described successfulstorage of autumn cauliflowers at 1 °C in 2.5%CO 2+ 1% O 2for 71–75 days or in the sameatmospheres but at 5 °C for 45 days. RomoParada et al. (1989) showed that curds storedat 1 °C and 100% rh in 3% O 2+ either 2.5 or5.0% CO 2were still acceptable after 7 weeks ofstorage, while 3% O 2+ 10% CO 2caused softening,yellowing and increased leakage.Curds of cultivar Primura were stored successfullyfor 6–7 days at 0–1 °C and 90–95% rhin circulating air and for 20–25 days in 4–5%CO 2+ 16–27% O 2(Saray, 1988). Considerablework has been done in the Netherlands (originallyin the Sprenger Institute) since the 1950s.This work has shown very little benefit of CAstorage, but storage at 0–1 °C and >95% rhwith 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2gave a better externalappearance with no effect on curd quality(Mertens and Tranggono, 1989). Both summerand autumn crops at 1 or 5 °C in 2.5% CO 2+3% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2had better leafcolour, curd colour, firmness and marketvalue than in air. Curds of the autumn cropstored in 2% CO 2+ 3% O 2had a superior compositionto those stored in other CAs at bothstorage temperatures (Adamicki and Elkner,1985). Kaynaş et al. (1994) stored the cultivarIglo in 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2for a maximum of 6weeks with a shelf-life of 3 days at 20 °C,which was double the storage life in air.In other work, CA did not extend theirstorage life, and CO 2levels of 5% or more or2% O 2or less injured the curds (Hardenberg etal., 1990). After storage at either 4.4 or 10 °Cwith levels of 5% CO 2in the storage atmosphere,some injury was evident after thecurds were cooked (Ryall and Lipton, 1972).Mertens and Tranggono (1989) concluded thatin storage at 0–1 °C and

152 Chapter 947 days' storage in 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2plus the4-day marketing period, curd quality wasacceptable owing to the reduction in incidenceof soft rot and black spotting noted in airstoredcurds. In air, curds were unsaleable afteronly 27 days' storage plus the 4-day marketingperiod. Storage at 4 °C in 18% O 2+ 3% CO 2for21 days had no significant effect on the growthof microorganisms compared with thosestored in air at the same temperature (Berranget al., 1990). Storage for 8 days at 13 °C in air or15% CO 2+ 21% O 2+ 64% N 2accelerated thedeterioration of microsomal membranes duringstorage and caused an early loss in lipidphosphate (Voisine et al., 1993). Menniti andCasalini (2000) stored cauliflowers at 0 °C andfound that concentrations of 10, 15 or 20% CO 2in the atmosphere delayed leaf yellowing androt caused by Alternaria brassicicola, but causedinjury inside the stem and vegetables developedoff- flavours and odours after cooking.Celeriac, Turnip-rooted Celery(Apium graveolens var. rapaceum)CA storage was not recommended because5–7% CO 2+ low O 2increased decay during5 months’ storage (Hardenberg et al., 1990).Pelleboer (1984) also reported that storage inair at 0–1 °C gave better results than CA storage.SeaLand (1991) reported that CA storagehad a slight to no effect, and Saltveit (1989)recommended 0–5 °C in 2–3% CO 2+ 2–4% O 2,which had only a slight effect.Celery (Apium graveolensvar. dulce)Recommended storage conditions include:2–5% CO 2+ 2–4% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 0 °C in5% CO 2+ 3% O 2, which reduced decay andloss of green colour (Hardenberg et al., 1990),0–5 °C in 0% CO 2+ 2–4% O 2or 0–5 °C in 0–5%CO 2+ 1–4% O 2, which had a fair effect (Kader,1985, 1992), 0–5 °C in 3–5% CO 2+ 1–4% O 2,which had only had a slight effect (Saltveit,1989), and 3–4% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2, whichretained better texture and crispness thanthose stored in air (Gariepy et al., 1985).Storage at 0, 4 or 10 °C for 7 days in 25% CO 2resulted in browning at the base of the petioles,reduced flavour and a tendency for petiolesto break away more easily (Wardlaw,1938). Storage in 1–4% O 2was shown to preservethe green colour only slightly, andalthough 2.5% CO 2may be injurious, levelsof 9% during 1 month’s storage caused nodamage (Pantastico, 1975). Reyes (1989)reviewed work on CA storage and concludedthat at 0–3 °C in 1–4% CO 2+ 1.0–17.7% O 2,storage could be prolonged for 7 weeks, andhe specifically referred to his recent work,which showed that at 0–1 °C in 2.5–7.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2market quality could be maintainedfor 11 weeks. Total weight loss of

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 153in Canada developed a black discoloration ofthe stalks, which appeared outwardly in astriped pattern along the vascular strands.In cross-section the vascular strands werediscoloured and appeared blackened. A CAstorage atmosphere of 3% O 2+ 2% CO 2almost completely eliminated the disorder.Ethylene and pre-storage treatment withsodium hypochlorite had little or no influenceon the occurrence of the disorder, butthere was some indication of difference incultivar susceptibility (Walsh et al., 1985).Cherimoya (Annona cherimola)Ludders (2002) observed that the main obstaclesto successful marketing were its perishabilityand susceptibility to chilling injury. Itwas suggested that this could be overcomeusing CA storage containers for sea-freighttransport. Storage recommendations include:8 °C in 10% CO 2+ 2% O 2(Hatton and Spalding,1990), 10 °C, with a range of 8–15 °C, in 5%CO 2+ 2–5% O 2(Kader, 1993) and 8.5 °C and90% rh in 10% CO 2+ 2% O 2for 22 days (de laPlaza et al., 1979). Fruits of the cultivar Finode Jete were stored at 9 °C in air, 3% O 2+ 0%CO 2, 3% O 2+ 3% CO 2or 3% O 2+ 6% CO 2.Low O 2resulted in the greatest reductions inrespiration rate, sugars content and acidity,whereas high CO 2resulted in the greatestreductions in ethylene production and softeningrate. CO 2at 3 and 6% delayed the softeningby 5 and 14 days beyond 3% O 2with 0%CO 2and air storage, respectively. This allowedsufficient accumulation of sugars and acids toreach an acceptable quality. The results suggestthat 3% O 2+ 3% CO 2and 3% O 2+ 6%CO 2atmospheres can extend their storage lifeby 2 weeks longer compared with thosestored in air (Alique and Oliveira, 1994). Thecultivar Concha Lisa was harvested in Chile240 days after pollination. Respiration ratesduring storage at 10 °C in air showed a typicalclimacteric pattern, with a peak after some 15days. The climacteric was delayed by storagein 15 or 10% O 2, and fruits kept in 5% O 2didnot show a detectable climacteric rise and didnot produce ethylene. All fruits ripened normallyafter being transferred to air storage at20 °C. However, the time needed to reach anedible condition was affected by O 2level,with 11 days in 5% O 2, 6 days in 10% O 2and3 days in 20% O 2(Palma et al., 1993). Bergeret al. (1993) showed that waxed (unspecified)fruits of the cultivar Bronceada could bestored at 10 °C, 90% rh in 0% CO 2+ 5% O 2for3 weeks without visible change. Fruits of Finode Jete were stored for 4 weeks at 10–12 °C inchambers supplied with a continuous flow ofCO 2. The CO 2treatment prolonged the storagelife of cherimoyas by at least 3 weekscompared with those stored in air (Martinez-Cayuela et al., 1986). Escribano et al. (1997)found that pre-treatment of the cultivar Finode Jete for 3 days at 6 °C in 20% CO 2+ 20% O 2maintained fruit firmness and colour comparedwith those not treated. They alsoreported that there were some interactionsbetween cultivar and CA storage treatment.Not all reports on CA storage have beenpositive. de la Plaza (1980) and Moreno and dela Plaza (1983) showed that fruits of the cultivarsFino de Jete and Campa stored in 10%CO 2+ 2% O 2had a higher respiration rate thanfruits stored at the same temperature in air.Cherry, Sour Cherry (Prunus cerasus)SeaLand (1991) recommended 10–12% CO 2+3–10% O 2. English Morello was stored at 2 °Cin 25% CO 2+ 10% O 2, 15% CO 2+ 10% O 2,5%CO 2+ 10% O 2or air for 20 days by Wang andVestrheim (2002). They found that decay wasgreatly reduced in 25% CO 2+ 10% O 2, whichalso gave the best colour and titratable acidityretention and the highest total soluble solidscontent. For the cultivars, Crisana (Paddy)and Mocanesti, Ionescu et al. (1978) recommended0 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2but for only20 days, which resulted in abut 7% loss.Cherry, Sweet Cherry (Prunus avium)Stow et al. (2004) found that there were no consistenteffects of the 16 combinations of 0, 5, 10and 20% CO 2with 1, 2, 4 and 21% O 2and,overall, CA storage was not superior to airstorage for the cultivars Stella, German Late,

154 Chapter 9Colney, Pointed Black and Lapins. It was concludedthat the maximum storage life could beobtained if the fruits had been cooled to 1 °Cwithin 36 h of harvest and thereafter maintainedat 0 °C in air. Rotting was the majorcause of loss during storage at 0 °C and especiallyduring subsequent shelf-life at 10 or20 °C. Shellie et al. (2001) had previously shownsimilar results in experiments with the cultivarBing stored for 14 days at 1 °C in 6% O 2+ 17%CO 2+ 82% N 2. They had similar market qualityto cherries stored in air. In spite of thesefindings, there is considerable evidence thatboth CA and MA storage can be beneficial.Storage recommendations include:20–25% CO 2or 0.5–2.0% O 2, which helped toretain firmness, green stems and bright fruitcolour (Hardenberg et al., 1990), 0–5 °C and95% rh in 10–15% CO 2+ 3–10% O 2(Lawton,1996), 20–25% CO 2+ 10–20% O 2(SeaLand,1991), 0–5 °C in 10–15% CO 2+ 3–10% O 2(Bishop, 1996), 0–5 °C in 10–12% CO 2+ 3–10%O 2(Kader, 1985), 0–5 °C in 10–15% CO 2+3–10% O 2(Kader, 1989), 0 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3%O 2for 30 days with 9% losses for cultivarsHedelfingen and Germersdorf (Ionescu et al.,1978), 1 °C + 95% rh in 10% CO 2+ 2% O 2for21 days plus 2 days at 20 °C to simulate shelflife(Luchsinger et al., 2005), 0 ± 0.5 °C in 20 or25% CO 2+ 5% O 2for the cultivar 0900 Ziraatfor up to 60 days (Akbudak et al., 2008); 1 °Cand 95% rh in 2% CO 2+ 5% O 2was recommendedfor Sweetheart for up to 6 weeks,which retained the anthocyanin content, andthe polyphenol oxidase activity was at itslowest (Remón et al., 2003).For the cultivars Napoleon, Stella andKarabodur, Eris et al. (1994) found that the optimumconditions were at 0 °C and 90–95% rhin 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2. The conditions they testedwere 0% CO 2+ 21% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2, 10%CO 2+ 3% O 2, 20% CO 2+ 2% O 2, 0% CO 2+ 2%O 2. Chen et al. (1981) compared a range of CAstorage treatments on the cultivar Bing at−1.1 °C for 35 days and found that 0.03%CO 2+ 0.5–2.0% O 2maintained the greennessof the stems, brighter fruit colour and higheracidity than other treatments. Storage in 10%CO 2had similar effects, with the exception ofmaintaining the stem greenness. Folchi et al.(1994) stored the cultivar Nero 1 in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 155Storage in 2% O 2+ 5% CO 2, 5% O 2+ 10% CO 2and 5% O 2+ 15% CO 2, with N 2the balance,inhibited grey mould (B. cinerea) developmentafter 18 days at 1 °C plus 6 days at ambient(Wermund and Lazar, 2003).CA has been used for controlling insectsfor phytosanitary purposes. The treatmenttimes required to completely kill specificinsects by O 2levels at or below 1% suggeststhat low O 2atmospheres are potentially usefulas postharvest quarantine treatments forsome fruits. Fruits of the cultivar Bing weretreated with 0.25% or 0.02% O 2(balance N 2)at 0, 5 or 10 °C to study the effects of theseinsecticidal low O 2atmospheres on fruitpostharvest physiology and quality attributes.Development of alcoholic off-flavour, associatedwith ethanol accumulation, was the mostcommon and important detrimental effectthat limited fruit tolerance to low O 2(Ke andKader, 1992b).Chestnut, Chinese Chestnut(Castanea mollissima)Respiration rate was reduced to a steady lowlevel at 0–5 °C but was not further reduced bydecreasing O 2or increasing CO 2in the atmosphere(Wang Yan Ping et al., 2000). The decayrate when exposed to 40% CO 2for 20 dayswas only 1% after subsequent cold storage for120 days, but an off-flavour was detectedwhen treated for more than 20 days. Alsothere were no adverse effects of any CO 2concentrationstested if the treatment durationwas not more than 10 days. The presence ofan off-flavour was irreversible when the CO 2concentration was >50% and treatment durationwas longer than 20 days (Liang et al.,2004). Storage of the cultivar Dahongpao at0 °C in 0–5% O 2for up to 120 days showedthat off-flavours were produced by exposureto concentrations below 2% O 2for 20 days ormore. Storage in 0–2% O 2could stimulate thedecomposition of starch, while in 3–5% O 2thedecomposition rate could be slowed. Thoseexposed to 1–3% O 2had higher total sugarscompared with other treatments, but themean decay rate in 0–2% O 2was 10% andwith those stored in air it was 7%. The decaylevel in 3–4% O 2atmosphere for 20 days or5% O 2for 25 days was only 1% at the end of120 days’ cold storage. In general, the 3% O 2for 20 days was the best (Wang et al., 2004).Chestnut, Sweet Chestnut, SpanishChestnut, Portuguese Chestnut,European Chestnut (Castanea sativa)The cultivars Catot and Platella were storedat 1 °C in 20% CO 2+ 2% O 2, and their freshness,taste and flavour were maintained, andafter 105 days they looked as fresh and brightas those freshly harvested (Mignani andVercesi, 2003). This treatment controlled fungalinfection, except for those caused byAspergillus niger, but storage in 2.5% CO 2+1.5% O 2was less effective. Rouves and Prunet(2002) found that the best storage conditionsof those that they tested for the cultivarsMarigoule and Bouche de Betizac were −1 °Cin 2% O 2+ 5% CO 2. There was ‘no water loss’,mould development was much slower andtaste remained unaltered, but some germinationoccurred in Marigoule. Comballe andMarron de Goujonac did not store well in anyof the conditions tested.Chicory, Endive, BelgianEndive, Escarole, Witloof Chicory(Cichorium spp.)The cultivated forms are grown for theirleaves – Cichorium intybus var. foliosum areused in salads – or for their roots (Cichoriumintybus var. sativum). The latter is used mainlyas a coffee substitute and only C. intybus var.foliosum and Cichorium endivia are dealt withhere. Storage of Witloof at 0 °C in 4–5% CO 2+3–4% O 2delayed greening of the tips in lightand delayed opening of the heads (Hardenberget al., 1990). Saltveit (1989) also recommended4–5% CO 2+ 3–4% O 2for Witloof, but at 0–5 °Cand it was reported to have had only a slighteffect. Storage at 5 °C in 10% O 2+ 10% CO 2prevented red discoloration, leaf edge discolorationand other negative quality aspects,but in storage at 1 °C there was increased reddiscoloration (Vanstreels et al., 2002). In a

156 Chapter 9comparison of 5, 10, 15 and 20% CO 2in storageat 0 °C, Bertolini et al. (2003) found that10% CO 2was the most effective in suppressingB. cinerea in red chicory. Later, Bertoliniet al. (2005) stored Radicchio Rosso di Chioggiaat 0 °C for up to 150 days. They artificiallyinoculated some heads with B. cinereaand found that lesions caused by B. cinereadecreased with increasing concentrations ofCO 2over the range of 5 to 20% for up to 60days. Subsequently only 10 and 15% CO 2were effective, while after 120 days all theconcentrations had low efficacy. In naturallyinfected heads, 5 and 10% CO 2were effectivein preventing B. cinerea, even after 150 days’storage, but it also reduced the fungus spreadingto adjacent heads. Heads stored in 15%CO 2for 150 days showed phytotoxic effectsand increased vulnerability to rots.Monzini and Gorini (1974) recommended0 °C in 1–5% CO 2+ 1–5% O 2for 45–50 days.Velde and Hendrickx (2001) investigated storageof cut Belgian endive in atmospheresranging from 2 to 18% CO 2+ 2 to 18% O 2andfound that the optimum concentration was10% CO 2+ 10% O 2+ 80% N 2. Wardlaw (1938)had reported that storage in 25% CO 2couldcause the central leaves to turn brown.Chilli, Chilli Pepper, Hot Pepper,Cherry Pepper (Capsicum annum,Capsicum frutescens)Storage at 0% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2was recommendedby SeaLand (1991). Kader (1985,1992) recommended 8–12 °C in 0% CO 2+3–5% O 2, which he observed had a fair effectbut was of no commercial use, but 10–15%CO 2was beneficial at 5–8 °C. Saltveit (1989)recommended 12 °C in 0–5% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for the fresh market, which had only a slighteffect, and 5–10 °C in 10–20% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2was recommended for processing. Storage ofgreen chillies for 6 weeks at 10 °C and 80–90%rh in 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2resulted in less decayand wrinkling and they were firmer, withhigher total soluble solids and vitamin C thanthose stored in air or other CAs tested (UllahMalik et al., 2009).Chinese Cabbage(Brassica pekinensis)The recommended storage condition in airwas 0–1 °C, with a maximum storage periodof 6 weeks (Mertens, 1985), and Hardenberget al. (1990) recommended 0 °C in 1% O 2.Wang and Kramer (1989) also showed thatstorage in 1% O 2extended their storage lifeand reduced the decline in ascorbic acid,chlorophyll and sugars in the outer leaf laminae.Saltveit (1989) recommended 0–5 °C in0–5% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2, which had only a slighteffect. Apeland (1985) stored the cultivars TipTop and Treasure Island at 2.5 or 5.0 °C in 0.5,2.5 or 5.0% CO 2+ 1.0–20.5% O 2. With Tip Topthe storage was best at 5 °C in 5% CO 2+ 5%O 2. The results with Treasure Island wereinconclusive because the control heads keptvery well but with an average of only 68%saleable after 120 days. Pelleboer andSchouten (1984) reported that after 4 months’storage of the cultivars Chiko and WR 60 at2–3 °C in 0.5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or less, the averagepercentage of healthy heads was 72%,and after 5 months 60% or more was healthy.After subsequent storage at 15 °C and 85% rhto simulate shelf-life, the corresponding percentageswere 58 and 43. Following storage in6% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 6% CO 2+ 15% O 2, therewas a rapid fall in quality, confirming that 6%CO 2could be harmful.Hermansen and Hoftun (2005) stored thecultivar Nerva inoculated with P. brassicae at1.5 °C in air, 0.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2or 3.0%CO 2+ 3.0% O 2for 94–97 days. The infectioncaused by P. brassicae was significantly higherin both the CA treatments than in air, but invitro studies gave the opposite results. Brownmidribs, spots or streaks of brown tissue onthe leaves and midribs, and pepper spots arecommon physiological disorders. Chillinginjury (brown midribs) found in Parkin washighest in heads stored in air. CA storagereduced this disorder, and the lowest percentageof brown midribs was found in 3% CO 2+3% O 2. No chilling injury was found. Adamicki(2003), working with the F 1hybrid cultivarsAsten, Bilko, Gold Rush, Maxim, Morillo,Parkin and RS 6064, also reported that lowconcentrations of O 2and CO 2greatly reduced

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 157the incidence of physiological disorders,including brown ribs. However, storage at 5%CO 2+ 3% O 2resulted in a lower percentage ofmarketable heads and higher percentage ofdamaged leaves and heads compared withstorage in air for 100–130 days at 0, 2 or 5 °Cand 95–98% rh. CO 2concentrations >5%resulted in greater losses of weight and trim,caused mainly by leaf rotting (Adamicki andGajewski, 1999). They also found that 1.5–3.0% O 2+ 2.5% CO 2was the best atmospherefor long-term storage. For most of the F 1cultivarstested a storage temperature 2 °C wasbetter than 0 °C.Citrus Hybrid (Citrus spp.)Chase (1969) stored Temple oranges (C.sinensis × C. reticulata) and Orlando tangelos(C. sinensis × C. paradisi) at 1 °C in atmospherescontaining 5% CO 2+ 10% O 2. They found littlebenefit from CA storage compared withstorage in air for Orlando, but when Templewere stored for 5 weeks in CA followed by 1week at 21 °C in air their flavour was superiorto those stored in air throughout.Cranberry (Vaccinium spp.)There are two species: the American cranberry(Vaccinium macrocarpon) and the Europeancranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccus). Kader(1989) recommended 2–5 °C in 0–5% CO 2+1–2% O 2, but Hardenberg et al. (1990) reportedthat CA storage was not successful in increasingtheir storage life. In contrast, Gunes et al.(2002) found that in storage of the cultivarsPilgrim and Stevens at 3 °C in atmospheres of21% O 2+ 15 or 30% CO 2there was decreasedbruising, physiological breakdown and decayof berries compared with those stored in air.Respiration rate and weight loss were alsodecreased, but fruit softening increased comparedwith storage in air. There was also anincrease in acetaldehyde, ethanol and ethylacetate during storage in 21% O 2+ 15 or 30%CO 2, but the levels varied with cultivar andstorage atmosphere, with the highest in the 2and 70% O 2and in 100% N 2. Overall, the 30%CO 2+ 21% O 2appeared to be optimum. Nosensory analysis was included to confirmwhether accumulations of fermentation productsin this atmosphere were acceptable forconsumers. However, they also found thatthe storage atmosphere did not affect the contentof total phenolics or flavonoids, but thetotal antioxidant activity of the fruitsincreased overall by about 45% in fruitsstored in air. This increase did not occur duringstorage in 30% CO 2+ 21% O 2.Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)Over a 24-h period at 10 or 20 °C the respirationrate of the cultivar Tyria decreased as theO 2concentration decreased down to 0.5%, butat 0% O 2, the respiration rate increased becauseof fermentation (Praeger and Weichmann,2001). CA recommendations include: 14 °Cwith 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2(Stoll, 1972), 5–7% CO 2+3–5% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), a maximum of 10%CO 2and a minimum of 3% O 2(Fellows, 1988);8.3 °C in 3–5% O 2gave a slight extension instorage life (Pantastico, 1975), 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2(Ryall and Lipton, 1972), 8–12 °C in 0% CO 2+3–5% O 2, which had a fair effect but was of nocommercial use (Kader, 1985, 1992), 12 °C in0% CO 2+ 1–4% O 2for the fresh market, and4 °C in 3–5% CO 2+ 3–5% for pickling (Saltveit,1989), and 12.5 °C in 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2(Schales,1985). Mercer and Smittle (1992) stored cucumbersof the cultivar Gemini II in 0, 5 or 10%CO 2+ 5 or 20% O 2at 5 or 6 °C for 2, 4 or 6 days,or at 5 °C for 5 days, or at 3 °C for 10 days then2–4 days at 25 °C. High CO 2and low O 2delayedthe onset of chilling injury symptoms but didnot prevent their development. Chilling injurysymptoms increased with longer exposure tochilling temperatures and were associated withsolubilization of cell wall poly saccharides. Storagein 5% O 2was shown to retard yellowing(Lutz and Hardenburg, 1968).Pre-treatment with O 2has been shown tobe beneficial. In storage at 5 °C pre-treatmentwith 100% O 2for 48 h lowered the respirationrate compared with storage in either 5% O 2orair. It also delayed the appearance of fungaldecay by 2 days, delayed the onset andreduced severity of chilling injury, halved

158 Chapter 9weight loss and delayed the appearance ofshrivelling by 4 days compared with control(Srilaong et al., 2005). Reyes (1989) showedthat the virulence of mucor rot (Mucor mucedo)and grey mould (B. cinerea) were suppressedin 7.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2.Durian (Durio zibethinus)Durian is a climacteric fruit. It was reportedby Pan (2008) that in South China it could bestored in air at ambient temperatures for3 weeks. However, Tongdee et al. (1990)showed that storage of 85% mature MonTong at 22 °C in atmospheres with 5.0 or7.5% O 2inhibited ripening, but fruit ripenednormally when returned to air. They alsofound that in 2% O 2ripening was inhibitedand the fruit failed to ripen when removedand stored in air. CO 2levels of up to 20% inair did not affect the speed of ripening orthe quality of the ripe fruit. Fruits of the cultivarsChanee, Kan Yao and Mon Tong wereharvested at three maturity stages andstored at 22 °C. The respiration rate and ethyleneproduction at harvest and the peakclimacteric respiratory value were higher infruits harvested at a more advanced stage.Storage in 10% O 2resulted in a significantreduction in respiration rate and ethyleneproduction, but the onset of ripening andripe fruit quality were not affected. Ripeningwas inhibited in fruits stored in 5.0–7.5%O 2but recovered when fresh air was subsequentlyintroduced. O 2at this level did notaffect ripening in fruits harvested at anadvanced stage of maturity. Fruits stored in2% O 2failed to resume ripening whenremoved to air. Fruits stored in 10 or 20%CO 2were either not affected or showed aslight reduction in ethylene production.Thus high levels of CO 2alone did not influencethe onset of ripening or other qualityattributes of ripe fruits. 5, 10, 15 or 20%CO 2+ 10% O 2had a greater effect on thecondition of the aril than either high CO 2orlow O 2alone. The aril remained hard in theless-mature fruits stored in 10% O 2+ 15 or20% CO 2. Kader (1993) recommended 10.5 °Cin 5–20% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2.Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana)Aziz Al-Harthy et al. (2009) reported thatstorage of Opal Star at 4 °C in 2% O 2+ 0%CO 2, 2% O 2+ 3% CO 2, 5% O 2+ 0% CO 2or 0%O 2+ 3% CO 2for up to 10 weeks retained theirgreen colour, while those stored in air wentyellow. CA also had some effects on reducingthe rate of softening compared with thosestored in air, with 2% O 2+ 0% CO 2and 5%O 2+ 0% CO 2giving the best results.Fig (Ficus carica)Storage in high CO 2atmospheres reducedmould growth without affecting the flavourof the fruit (Wardlaw, 1938). Hardenberget al. (1990) also showed that storage withenriched CO 2was a useful supplement torefrigeration. Storage at 0–5 °C in 15% CO 2+5% O 2was recommended by Kader (1985),as was 0–5 °C + 15–20% CO 2and 5–10% O 2(Kader, 1989, 1992). SeaLand (1991) also recommended15% CO 2+ 5% O 2. Tsantili et al.(2003) stored the cultivar Mavra Markopoulouat −1 °C in either air or 2% O 2+ 98% N 2for 29 days. Those stored in air became softduring storage for longer than 8 days, butthose in CA remained in much better condition.Colelli et al. (1991) showed that goodquality of Mission figs was maintained forup to 28 days when kept at 0, 2.2 or 5.0 °C inatmospheres enriched with 15 or 20% CO 2.The benefits of exposure to high CO 2levelswere a reduction of the incidence of decayand the maintenance of a bright externalappearance. Ethylene production was lowerand softening was slower in figs stored athigh CO 2concentrations compared withthose kept in air. Ethanol content of the fruitsstored in 15 or 20% CO 2increased slightlyduring the first 3 weeks and moderately duringthe fourth week, while acetaldehydeconcentration increased during the firstweek then decreased. It was concluded thattheir postharvest life can be extended by 2–3weeks at 0–5 °C in atmospheres enrichedwith 15–20% CO 2, but off-flavours could be aproblem by the fourth week of storage.

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 159Garlic (Allium sativum)(2004b) stored the cultivar Achilles at 1 °C inair, 6% CO 2+ 18% O 2, 12% CO 2+18% O 2,18%Storage in 0% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2was recommended(SeaLand, 1991), and Monzini and O 2CO 2+18% O 2,12% CO 2+2% O 2,18% CO 2+2%or 24% CO 2+2% O 2. Storage in air led to aGorini (1974) recommended 3 °C in 5% CO 2+ reduction in firmness, darkening of fruit3% O 2for 6 months. Cantwell et al. (2003) colour, mealy texture and lower acidity levelshowed that storage of the cultivars California compared with CA storage. Storage in 2% O 2Late and California Early at 0–1 °C in CO + 18% CO22resulted in off-flavours, but in 12%atmospheres of 5, 10, 15 and 20% reduced CO 2+ 2% O 2no off-flavour was detected.sprout growth, decay and discoloration, but They recommended 12–15% CO 2+ 18% O 2CO 2concentrations over 15% could lead to for up to 7 weeks. Certain cultivars of gooseberrieshave been held for as long as 3 monthsinjury after 4–6 months.For fresh-peeled garlic stored at 5 and at 0 °C in air (McKay and Van Eck, 2006), but10 °C, 5–15% CO 2or 1–3% O 2were effective in for longer storage they suggested harvestingretarding discoloration and decay for 3 weeks at the green mature stage and placing them at(Cantwell et al., 2003). Garlic shoots were −0.5 to −0.9 °C with 93% rh in 2.5–3.0% O 2+stored at 0 °C in ten combinations of 3.0–6.5% 20–25% CO 2. They also found that they wereO 2+ 0–12% CO 2. It was found that the optimumwas 3% O 2sensitive to ethylene.+ 8% CO 2, which maintainedlevels of chlorophyll, reducing and total sugars,and freshness of the flower buds after 235Grain Storagedays. However, there was some spoilage androtting, but rotting decreased with decreasing CA has been used in storage of dried cerealO 2concentration, while high CO 2reduced and grain legumes, mainly to control insectmould growth (Zhou et al., 1992b). Zhou et al. infestation. Tome et al. (2000) found that 0, 30,(1992a) and Zhang and Zhang (2005) used CA 40, 50 and 60% CO 2, with the balance N 2, didstorage of sprouted garlic in chambers flushed not affect the moisture content, water absorption,cooking time or colour index of driedwith N 2from a carbon molecular sieve toreduce the O 2content to 1–5%. CO 2was P. vulgaris beans during 20 days’ storage.allowed to increase to 2–7% by product respiration.After 240–270 days the quality of pinto beans (P. vulgaris) in 100% N 2Brackmann et al. (2002c) found that storage offorsprouted garlic remained high. After fumigating,the shoots were treated with a fungi-compared with significant losses for those19 months had zero losses due to insectscide and packed in plastic bags with a silicon stored in air. Those stored in total N 2had awindow and stored at 0–1 °C with 95% rh. lighter tegument colour and a shorter cookingtime than those stored in air. DarkeningThese treatments reduced the respiration rateand the loss of chlorophyll and inhibited celluloseproduction. After 280 days 96% had lic compounds. Pereira et al. (2007) usedwas a consequence of the oxidation of pheno-good freshness, greenness and crispness. 50 ppm ozone to fumigate maize grain for 7days against insect infestation and found noGooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa, Table 9.2. Effects of temperature and reduced O 2Ribes grossularia)level on the respiration rate (CO 2production in mgkg −1 h −1 ) of Leveller gooseberries (Robinson et al.,1975).Robinson et al. (1975) showed that storage inlow O 2reduced the respiration rate at all temperaturestested (Table 9.2). Prange (not StorageTemperature (°C)Method 0 5 10 15 20dated) stated that they could be stored at0–1 °C for 3 weeks, but storage duration couldIn air 10 13 23 40 58be extended to 6–8 weeks using 1 °C in10–15% CO + 1.5% O 2 2 . Harb and Streif In 3% O 7 – 16 – 262

160 Chapter 9detrimental effects on the grain during180 days’ subsequent storage.Grape (Vitus vinifera)Storage recommendations were 1–3% CO 2+3–5% O 2(SeaLand, 1991). Magomedov (1987)showed that different cultivars required differentCA storage conditions. The cultivarsAgadai and Dol’chatyi stored best in 3%CO 2+ 5% O 2, whereas for Muskat Derbentskii5% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 3% CO 2+ 2% O 2weremore suitable. Muskat Derbentskii, Dol’chatyiand Agadai had a storage life of up to 7, 6 and5 months, respectively, in CA storage. Thebest results for storage of the cultivar Moldovawere in either 8% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2or 10%CO 2+ 2–3% O 2. In these conditions, 89, 80and 75% of first-grade grapes were obtainedafter 5.0, 6.5 and 7.5 months of storage,respectively. In another trial, Muscat of Hamburgand Italia grapes stored in air or in CAfor 3–7 months were assessed in relation toprofitability. The best results were againobtained in storage in 8% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2forMuscat of Hamburg and in 5% CO 2+ 2–3%O 2for Italia (Khitron Ya and Lyublinskaya,1991). Turbin and Voloshin (1984) showedthat for storage for less than 5 months, 8%CO 2+ 3–5% O 2was most suitable for MuskatGamburgskii ( Hamburg Muscat), 5–8% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for Italia and 8% CO 2+ 5–8% O 2for Galan. Waltham Cross and Barlinka werestored in CA at −0.5 °C for 4 weeks. The percentageof loose berries in Waltham Crosswas higher (>5%) in 21% O 2+ 5% CO 2than atlower O 2levels (Laszlo, 1985). The cultivarAgiorgitiko was stored at 23–27 °C for 10 dayseither in 100% CO 2or in air. Fruits from bothtreatments were held at 0 °C for 20 h beforeanalysis (Dourtoglou et al., 1994). Kyohostored well in 4% O 2+ 30% CO 2, but an alcoholicflavour and browning occurred after 45days. Storage in 4% O 2+ 9% CO 2or 80% O 2+20% N 2retained good quality during 60 daysof storage without off-flavours (Deng et al.,2006). Crisosto et al. (2003a) studied 5, 10, 15,20 and 25% CO 2factorially combined with3, 6 and 12% O 2on Redglobe. Optimumconditions for late-harvested fruit (19% totalsoluble solids) were 10% CO 2+ 3, 6 or 12% O 2for up to 12 weeks’ storage, and for earlyharvestedfruit (16.5% total soluble solids) itwas 10% CO 2+ 6% O 2for up to 4 weeks. Pedicelbrowning was accelerated in grapesexposed to 10% CO 2for early-harvested andabove 15% for late-harvested fruit. However,the same authors (Crisosto et al., 2003b) foundthat the combination of 15% CO 2with 3, 6 or12% O 2was optimum for late-harvestedThompson Seedless for up to 12 weeks, andCA should not be used for early commerciallyharvested grapes.CA has been shown to reduce diseasedevelopment and may be able to be developedas an alternative to SO 2fumigation.Kader (1989, 1992) recommended 0–5 °C in1–3% CO 2+ 2–5% O 2but reported that CAstorage was incompatible with SO 2fumigation.However, Berry and Aked (1997), workingon Thompson Seedless stored at 0–1 °Cfor up to 12 weeks, showed that atmospherescontaining 15–25% CO 2inhibited infectionwith B. cinerea by between 95 and 100% withoutdetrimentally affecting their flavour.Mitcham et al. (1997) showed that high CO 2levels in the storage atmosphere could beused for controlling insect pests of grapes. Intrials where four cultivars were exposed to0 °C in 45% CO 2+ 11.5% O 2, complete controlof Platynota stultana, Tetranychus pacificus andFrankliniella occidentalis was achieved withoutinjury to the grapes.Grapefruit, Pummelo (Citrus pardisi)Typical storage conditions were given as10–15 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 3–10% O 2by Bishop(1996), although CA storage was not consideredbeneficial. Erkan and Pekmezci (2000)found 1% CO 2+ 3% O 2at 10 °C to be optimumfor Star Ruby grown in Turkey. Theywere stored in these conditions for 125 dayswithout losing much quality. SeaLand (1991)recommended 5–10% CO 2+ 3–10% O 2forgrapefruit from California, Arizona, Florida,Texas and Mexico. Storage at 10–15 °C in5–10% CO 2+ 3–10% O 2had a fair effect onstorage, but Kader (1985, 1992) reported thatCA storage was not used commercially. Storageexperiments have shown that there was

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 161some indication that fruits stored at 4.5 °C in10% CO 2for 3 weeks had less pitting (a symptomof chilling injury) than those stored in air.Also pre-treatment with 20–40% CO 2for 3 or7 days at 21 °C reduced physiological disorderson fruits stored at 4.5 °C for up to 12weeks (Hardenberg et al., 1990). Hatton et al.(1975) and Hatton and Cubbedge (1982) alsoshowed that exposing grapefruit before storageto 40% CO 2at 21 °C reduced chillinginjury symptoms during subsequent storage.Guava (Psidium guajava)Short-term exposure to 10, 20 or 30% CO 2hadno effect on respiration rate, but ethylene biosynthesiswas reduced by all three levels ofCO 2(Pal and Buescher, 1993). Teixeira et al.(2009) recommended storage of the cultivarPedro Sato at 12.2 °C in 5% O 2+ 1% CO 2forup to 28 days, but they found that storage in15 or 20% CO 2resulted in CO 2injury. Maturegreenfruit were exposed to air or 5% CO 2+10% O 2for 24 h before storage in air at either4 or 10 °C for 2 weeks. They were then transferredto 20–23 °C for 3 days to simulate shelflife.The colour of the CA-treated fruitsdeveloped more slowly than those kept in airthroughout, and they were considered to beof better quality after storage and shelf-lifeand showed no chilling injury symptomseven after storage at 4 °C for 3 weeks, whilechilling injury occurred on those stored in airthroughout (Bautista and Silva, 1997). Freshlyharvested mature green Lucknow-49 fruitswere stored at 8 °C with 85–90% rh in 5% O 2+2.5% CO 2or 10% O 2+ 5% CO 2. CA-storedfruit could be kept in an unripe condition for1 month, while those stored in air showedsevere chilling injury symptoms, high weightloss and spoilage softening and colour change(Pal et al., 2007). Subsequently Singh and Pal(2008b) investigated 2.5, 5, 8, and 10% O 2factoriallycombined with 2.5, 5 and 10% CO 2(balance N 2) at 8 °C and 85–90% rh. They successfullystored the cultivars Lucknow-49,Allahabad Safeda and Apple Colour for 30days in 5% O 2+ 2.5% CO 2, 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2or8% O 2+5% CO 2. The fruits were then transferredto ambient conditions of 25–28 °C and60–70% rh, and they all ripened successfully.Chilling injury and decay incidence werereduced during ripening of fruits that had beenstored in CA compared with those that hadbeen stored in air. However, larger amounts ofethanol and acetaldehyde accumulated infruits held in atmospheres containing 2.5% O 2.Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana)CA storage was reported to have had only aslight to no effect (SeaLand, 1991) and wasnot recommended by Saltveit (1989).Weichmann (1981) studied different levels ofCO 2of up to 7.5% during 6 months’ storage at0–1 °C and found no detrimental effects of CO 2but no advantages over storage in air. He did,however, find that those stored in 7.5% CO 2had a higher respiration rate and higher totalsugar content than those stored in air. Gui et al.(2006) reported that exposure to high levels ofCO 2could result in some reduction in enzymeactivity, but activity returned to what it waswhen they were removed and stored in air.Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)Han et al. (2006) found that the best CA storagecondition for the cultivar Dong was1.5±0.5 °C and 95% rh in 5–6% O 2+ 0–0.5%CO 2for 90 days.Kiwifruit, Chinese Gooseberry, YangTao (Actinidia chinensis)Storage recommendations include: 5% CO 2+2% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 0 °C and 90% rh in 5%CO 2+ 2% O 2(Lawton, 1996), 0–5 °C in5% CO 2+ 2% O 2(Kader, 1985), 0 °C in 3–5%CO 2+ 1–2% O 2(Kader, 1989, 1992), 0.5–0.8 °Cand 95% rh with either 1% O 2+ 0.8% CO 2or2% O 2+ 4–5% CO 2for 6 months (Brigati andCaccioni, 1995), and 0–5 °C in 5–10% CO 2and1–2% O 2(Bishop, 1996). Intermittent storageat 0 °C of 1 week in air and 1 week in air with10 or 30% CO 2was shown to reduce fruit softening(Nicolas et al., 1989). Storage in CA wasshown to increase storage life by 30–40%,with optimum conditions of 3–5% CO 2 + 2%

162 Chapter 9O 2, but levels of CO 2above 10% were foundto be toxic to the fruit (Brigati and Caccioni,1985). Tulin Oz and Eris (2009) found thatstorage of Hayward at 0 °C and 85–90% rh in2% O 2+ 5% CO 2retained their quality for5 months. They recommended harvestingwhen the total soluble solids content was5.5–6.5%. Yildirim and Pekmezci (2009) recommended0 °C and 90–95% rh in 2% O 2+ 5%CO 2for 4 months, which suppressed ethyleneproduction and delayed softening. However,they found that there was a slight decrease invitamin C content in both CA storage and airstorage. Storage at 0 °C and 90–95% rh in 3%CO 2+ 1.0–1.5% O 2maintained fruit firmnessduring long-term storage, but 1% CO 2+ 0.5%O 2gave the best storage conditions whilemaintaining an acceptably low level of theincidence of rotting (Brigati et al., 1989). Özeret al. (1999) found that Hayward could bestored for 6 months at 0 ± 0.5 °C and 90–95%rh, especially in 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 5% CO 2+2% O 2. However, subsequent shelf-life at20 ± 3 °C and 60 ± 5% rh should be limited to15 days. Steffens et al. (2007b) investigatedfactorial combinations of 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5% O 2combined with 8, 12 and 16% CO 2on Bruno.Sensory analysis showed that in 1.0% O 2+ 8%CO 2and 1.5% O 2+ 8% CO 2fruits stored wellwithout developing off-flavours (Steffenset al., 2007b). Hayward was stored over twoseasons in 0–21% O 2+ 0–5% CO 2at 0–10 °C.CO 2which delayed softening, but loweringO 2to near 0% did not inhibit softening completelyat 0 °C. At temperatures higher than3 °C the additional effect of CA storage waslimited (Hertog et al., 2004). Testoni andEccher Zerbini (1993) showed that storage inCO 2concentrations higher than 5% resultedin irregular softening in the core.Tonini and Tura (1997) showed thatstorage at −0.5 °C in combination with 4.8%CO 2+ 1.8% O 2reduced rots (B. cinerea andPhialophora spp.) and softening comparedwith storage in air. The combination of either1% CO 2+ 1% O 2or 1.5 CO 2+ 1.5% O 2waseven more effective in controlling rots causedby Phialophora spp. In contrast, in central andnorthern Italy, Tonini et al. (1999) found thatCA storage at −0.8 °C for 120–140 daysfavoured the spread of B. cinerea. They foundthat postponing the reduction of O 2and theincrease in CO 2for 30–50 days avoidedincreasing Botrytis rots without any adverseeffects on fruit firmness. Storage at 0.5–1.0 °Cwith 92–95% rh in 4.5–5.0% CO 2+ 2.0–2.5%O 2and ethylene at 0.03 ppm or less delayedflesh softening but strongly increased theincidence of Botrytis stem-end rot (Tonini etal., 1989). Brigati and Caccioni (1995) alsoshowed that the high level of CO 2could leadto an increase in the incidence of B. cinerea.Kiwifruit are very susceptible to ethylene,even at very low concentrations, andBrigati and Caccioni (1995) recommendedthat ethylene should be maintained at92%, and theretention of ascorbic acid was >80% comparedwith levels at the beginning of storage.Kohlrabi (Brassica oleraceavar. gongylodes)Escalona et al. (2007) found that in storage inair at 0 °C at high humidity there was a yellowingof the stalks, which later fell off. Thisaffected their appearance and marketability.Whole or fresh-cut kohlrabi could be storedfor 28 days at 5 °C and 95% rh in 5% O 2+ 15%CO 2, followed by 3 days at 15 °C and 60–70%rh in air, and still retain good commercial

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 163quality without detrimentally affecting thestalks. However, SeaLand (1991) had previouslyreported that CA storage had only aslight to no effect.Lanzones, Langsat(Lansium domesticum)Pantastico (1975) recommended 14.4 °C in 0%CO 2+ 3% O 2, which gave a 16-day postharvestlife, compared with only 9 days at thesame temperature in air. He also indicatedthat the skin of the fruit turned brown duringretailing, and if they were sealed in PE filmbags the browning was aggravated, probablydue to CO 2accumulation.Leek (Allium ampeloprasumvar. porrum)Optimum storage conditions were reported tobe: 0 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 1–3% O 2for up to 4–5months (Kurki, 1979), 0 °C in 15–25% CO 2for4.5 months (Monzini and Gorini, 1974), 3–5%CO 2+ 1–2% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 0–5 °C in 3–5%CO 2+ 1–2% O 2, which had a good effect butwas claimed to be of no commercial use (Kader,1985, 1992), and 0–5 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 1–6%O 2, which had only a slight effect (Saltveit,1989). Goffings and Herregods (1989) showedthat in storage at 0 °C and 94–96% rh at 2% CO 2+ 2% O 2+ 5% CO 2, leeks could be stored for upto 8 weeks compared with 4 weeks at the sametemperature in air. Under those conditions thetotal losses were 19%, while those stored in thesame conditions but without CO 2had 28%losses and those in air had 37% losses. Lutzand Hardenburg (1968) reported that CO 2levels of 15–20% caused injury.Lemon (Citrus limon)Storage recommendations include: 5–10%CO 2+ 5% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 10–15 °C in0–5% CO 2+ 5% O 2(Kader, 1985), 10–15 °C in0–10% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2(Kader, 1989), and10–15 °C with 0–10% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2(Bishop,1996). The rate of colour change could bedelayed with high CO 2and low O 2in thestorage atmosphere, but 10% CO 2couldimpair their flavour (Pantastico, 1975). Wildet al. (1977) reported that they may be storedin good condition for 6 months in 10% O 2+0% CO 2combined with the continuousremoval of ethylene.Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)Storage recommendations include: 2% CO 2+3% O 2for up to 1 month (Hardenberg et al.,1990), 0% CO 2+ 2–5% O 2(SeaLand, 1991),0 °C with 98% rh in a maximum of 1% CO 2and a minimum of 2% O 2(Fellows, 1988),1.5% CO 2+ 3% O 2(Lawton, 1996), 0–5 °C in0% CO 2+ 1–3% O 2(Bishop, 1996), and 3–5%CO 2+ 15% O 2for 3 weeks (Tataru andDobreanu, 1978). Storage in 1.5% CO 2+ 3%O 2inhibited butt discoloration and pink rib at0 °C, although the effect did not persist during5 days’ subsequent storage at 10 °C(Hardenberg et al., 1990), but CO 2above 2.5%or O 2levels below 1% could injure lettuce.Brown stain on the midribs of leaves can becaused by levels of CO 2of 2% or higher, especiallyif combined with low O 2(Haard andSalunkhe, 1975). Adamicki (1989) describedsuccessful storage of lettuce at 1 °C in 3% CO 2+ 1% O 2for 21 days with less loss of ascorbicacid than those stored in air. Kader (1985) recommended0–5 °C in 0% CO 2+ 2–5% O 2or0–5 °C in 0% CO 2+ 1–3% O 2(Kader, 1992),which had a good effect and was of somecommercial use when CO 2was added at the2–3% level. Saltveit (1989) recommended0–5 °C in 0% CO 2+ 1–3% O 2for leaf, head,and cut and shredded lettuce; the effect onthe former was moderate and on the latter ithad a high level of effect. Storage in 0% CO 2+1–8% O 2gave an extension in storage life, andhypobaric storage increased their storage lifefrom 14 days in conventional cold stores to40–50 days (Haard and Salunkhe, 1975).Lime (Citrus aurantiifolia)CA storage recommendations were 0–10%CO 2+ 5% O 2by SeaLand (1991). Pantastico

164 Chapter 9(1975) recommended storage in 7% O 2, whichreduced the symptoms of chilling injury;however, he showed that CA storage of Tahitilimes increased decay rind scald and reducedjuice content. Storage at 10–15 °C in 0–10%CO 2+ 5% O 2was recommended by Kader(1986), or 10–15 °C in 0–10% CO 2+ 5% O 2(Kader, 1989, 1992). These storage conditionswere shown to increase the postharvest life oflimes but were said not to be used commercially(Kader, 1985). CA storage was not consideredbeneficial, but typical storageconditions were given as 10–15 °C in 0–10%CO 2+ 5–10% O 2by Bishop (1996). Fruits werestored in air or in CA containing 3% O 2+ 3%CO 2, 5% O 2. + 3% CO 2, 3% O 2+5% CO 2and5% O 2+ 5% CO 2by Sritananan et al. (2006).Those stored in air had a higher ethylene productionand respiration rate than those in CA.All the CA storage conditions reduced theloss of chlorophyll and change in peel colourcompared with fruits stored in air.Litchi, Lychee (Litchi chinensis)Kader (1993) recommended 3–5% CO 2+ 5%O 2at 7 °C, with a range of 5–12 °C, andreported that the benefits of reduced O 2weregood and those of increased CO 2were moderate.Vilasachandran et al. (1997) stored thecultivar Mauritius at 5 °C in air or 5, 10 or 15%CO 2+ 3 or 4% O 2. After 22 days all fruitswere removed to air at 20 °C for 1 day. Fruitsstored in 15% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 10% CO 2+ 3%O 2were lighter in colour and retained totalsoluble solids better than the other treatments,but had the highest levels of off-flavours.Fruits in all the CA storage treatmentshad negligible levels of black spot and stemendrot compared with the controls. On thebasis of the above, they recommended 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 4% O 2. Mahajan and Goswami(2004) stored the cultivar Bombay at 2 °Cand 92–95% rh for 56 days in 3.5% O 2+ 3.5%CO 2. Fruits retained their red colour, whilethose stored in air had begun to turn brown.Loss of acidity and ascorbic acid content andthe smallest increase in firmness and pericarppuncture strength of fruits were for fruits storedin CA compared with those stored in air. Thesensory evaluation of aril colour and tasteshowed that the fruits held in CA were rated‘good’ throughout the 56 days of storage.Mamey (Mammea americana)Manzano-Mendez and Dris (2001) showedthat storage of Mamey Amarillo fruits at15 ± 2 °C in 1% CO 2+ 5.6% O 2+ 89.3% N 2for2 weeks retarded their maturation.Mandarin, Satsuma (Citrus spp.)These include the Satsuma mandarin, C.unshiu, and common mandarin, C. reticulata.CA had only a slight or no affect on storage(SeaLand, 1991). At 25 °C in 60% CO 2+ 20%O 2+ 20% N 2their respiration rate was notaffected, but in 80% CO 2+ 20% air and 90%CO 2+ 10% air, respiration rates were significantlyreduced (Kubo et al., 1989a). Ogakiet al. (1973) carried out experiments over anumber of years and showed that the mostsuitable atmosphere for storing satsumas was1% CO 2+ 6–9% O 2. A humidity of 85–90% rhproduced the best-quality fruits and resultedin only 3% weight loss. Pre-storage treatmentat 7–8 °C and 80–85% rh was also recommended.In a two-season trial, satsumas werestored for 3 months at 3 °C and 92% rh in 2.8–6.5% O 2+ 1% CO 2+ 93.5–97.2% N 2or in air.Weight losses were 1.2–1.5% in CA and 6.5–6.7% in air, and fruit colour, flavour, aromaand consistency were also better in CA. Ascorbicacid content was 5.9% higher in the fleshand 10.3% in the peel of CA-stored fruitscompared with the controls (Dubodel andTikhomirova, 1985). Satsumas were stored at2–3 °C and 90% rh in 3–6% O 2+ 1% CO 2or inair. The total sugar content of fruit fleshdecreased in both CA- and air-stored fruits,by 10.7 and 13.0%, respectively, and losses inthe peel were even greater. Reducing sugarsdecreased during storage, especially in theflesh of CA-stored fruits and in the peel ofcontrol fruits (Dubodel et al., 1984). Yang andLee (2003) compared storage in air with 5%CO 2+ 3% O 2, 3% CO 2+ 1% O 2and 10.5%CO 2+ 3.9% O 2and found that organic acids

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 165in fruits in all three CA were higher than thosein air until 60 days, but there were no differencesbetween treatments after 120 days ofstorage. They found that 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2maintained the best quality among the CAconditions after 120 days and gave the bestretention of firmness. Yang (2001), using thesame CA conditions, reported that the totalsoluble solids of fruits in cold storageincreased until 2 months and thereaftersharply decreased, whereas total solublesolids of CA-stored fruits increased slowlythroughout the storage period of 120 days. Itwas concluded that sensory evaluation clearlyshowed that CA could extend the marketingperiod of satsumas and retain good flavour.Storage of C. unshiu in China in containerswith a D45 M2 1 silicone window of 20–25 cm 2kg −1 of fruit gave what they described as theoptimum CO 2concentration of

166 Chapter 9of 24–29 °C with 60–70% rh. Sudhakar Raoand Gopalakrishna Rao (2009) stored maturegreen fruit at 13 °C in 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2, 3% O 2+5% CO 2, 5% O 2+ 3% CO 2or 3% O 2+ 3% CO 2.CA that contained 5% O 2significantly reducedthe respiration and ethylene peaks, but 3%O 2+ 5% CO 2resulted in abnormal respirationand ethylene production. Storage in 5% O 2+5% CO 2extended their storage life by 4 or 5weeks. The fruit then ripened to good qualityin ambient conditions of 25–32 °C. These fruitshad a bright-yellow skin colour, high totalsoluble solids, total carotenoid and sugarcontent and were firm and acceptableorganoleptically.AmelieStorage at 11–12 °C in 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2for 4weeks was reported to reduce storage rotsand give the best eating quality comparedwith those stored in air (Medlicott and Jeger,1987).BanganapalliSudhakar Rao and Gopalakrishna Rao (2009)stored mature green fruit at 13 °C in 5% O 2+5% CO 2, 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2, 5% O 2+ 3% CO 2or3% O 2+ 3% CO 2. CA storage in 5% O 2significantlyreduced the respiration and ethylenepeaks during ripening, but CA containing 3%O 2+ 3% CO 2resulted in abnormal respirationand ethylene production. In 5% O 2+ 3% CO 2their storage life was extended by 5 weeks,followed by an additional week to becomefully ripe in ambient conditions of 25–32 °C.Fruit stored in optimum 5% O 2+ 3% CO 2ripenednormally to a bright-yellow skin colour,with high total soluble solids, total carotenoidand sugar contents, and were firm with anacceptable organoleptic quality.CarlottaStorage recommendations include 10–11 °C in2% O 2+ 1 or 5% CO 2for 6 weeks (Medlicottand Jeger, 1987) and 8 °C in 10% CO 2+ 6% O 2for 35 days (Bleinroth et al., 1977).HadenStorage at 10–11 °C in 2% O 2+ 1 or 5% CO 2for6 weeks (Medlicott and Jeger, 1987) and at8 °C in 10% CO 2+ 6% O 2for 30 days (Bleinrothet al., 1977) were recommended. Sive andResnizky (1985) found that at 13–14 °C ripeningwas delayed, but lower temperaturesresulted in chilling injury. They reported thatin CA they could be kept in good conditionfor 6–8 weeks at 13–14 °C.JasminStorage in 10–11 °C in 2% O 2+ 1 or 5% CO 2for6 weeks (Medlicott and Jeger, 1987) and 8 °Cin 10% CO 2+ 6% O 2for 35 days were recommended(Bleinroth et al., 1977).JulieStorage at 11–12 °C in 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2for 4weeks was said to reduce storage rots andgive the best eating quality compared withthose stored in air (Medlicott and Jeger, 1987).KeittStorage at 13 °C in 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2was recommended,after which fruit ripened normallyin air (Hatton and Reeder, 1966). Siveand Resnizky (1985) found that at 13–14 °Cripening was delayed, but lower temperaturesresulted in chilling injury. They reportedthat in CA they could be kept in good conditionsfor 8–10 weeks at 13–14 °C.CarabaoStorage in 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2for 35–40 dayswas recommended by Mendoza (1978).KensingtonWithin the concentrations studied byMcLauchlan et al. (1994), the optimum

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 167atmosphere appeared to be around 4% CO 2+2–4% O 2, but they suggested that furtherresearch was required below 2% O 2and above10% CO 2, as well as at lower storage temperatures,to control softening. They also reportedthat colour development was linearly retardedby decreasing O 2from 10 to 2% and increasingCO 2from 0 to 4%; there was no furthereffect from 4 to 10% CO 2. Fruits from low O 2atmospheres also had high titratable acidityafter storage, but after 5 days in ambient conditionsacid levels fell and they continued todevelop typical external colour. In trials byO’Hare and Prasad (1993) over two seasons,over-ripeness was more common in fruits after5 weeks at 13 °C (and 10 °C in the first season)and was associated with a decline in titratableacidity. They found that chilling injury occurredafter 1 week at 5 °C, but storage in 5 or 10% CO 2alleviated chilling injury symptoms. Storage in5% O 2had no significant effect on chillinginjury. Increased pulp ethanol concentrationwas associated with CO 2injury in 10% CO 2.KentAntonio Lizana and Ochagavia (1997) reportedthat storage at 12 °C in 10% CO 2+ 5% O 2increased their postharvest life to 29 days,which was 8 days longer than those stored inair. Storage of mature unripe fruit for 21 daysat 12 °C showed that CO 2levels of 50 and 70%resulted in high levels of ethanol productionrates and symptoms of CO 2injury, while storagein 3% O 2appeared to have little effect onethanol production (Bender et al., 1994).MayaSive and Resnizky (1985) found that at13–14 °C ripening was delayed and lowertemperatures caused chilling injury, but inCA at 13–14 °C they could be kept in goodcondition for 6–8 weeks.RadStorage at 13 °C in combinations of 4, 6 and 8%CO 2+ 4, 6 and 8% O 2was studied. Ripeningwas delayed by CA storage for 2 weekscompared with those stored in air, with 4% CO 2+ 6% O 2giving the highest acceptability by tastepanellists (Noomhorm and Tiasuwan, 1988).San QuirinoStorage at 10–11 °C in 2% O 2+ 1 or 5% CO 2for6 weeks (Medlicott and Jeger, 1987) or 8 °C in10% CO 2+ 6% O 2for 35 days was recommended(Bleinroth et al., 1977).Tommy AtkinsAntonio Lizana and Ochagavia (1997) reportedthat in storage at 12 °C in 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2theyhad a postharvest life of 31 days. Sive andResnizky (1985) found that at 13–14 °C ripeningwas delayed and lower temperaturescaused chilling injury, but in CA they could bekept in good condition for 6–8 weeks. Storageof mature unripe fruit for 21 days at 12 °Cshowed that CO 2levels of 50 and 70% resultedin high levels of ethanol production rates andsymptoms of CO 2injury, while the 3% O 2concentration seemed to have little effect onethanol production (Bender et al., 1994).Pest and disease controlCA storage can be used to control pest infestation.In storage trials to control fruit fly inmango fruits, it was found that fruits exposedto 50% CO 2+ 2% O 2for 5 days or 70–80%CO 2+

168 Chapter 9benomyl (Benlate 50 WP 1g l −1 ) providedgood control of stem-end rot on mangoes followinginoculation with either Dothiorelladominicana or Lasiodiplodia [Botryodiplodia] theobromaeduring storage for 14 days at 25–30 °C.In the same storage conditions, prochloraz (asSportak 45EC), DPXH6573 (40EC), RH3866,(25EC) and CaCl 2did not control stem-end rot(D. dominicana). During long-term storage at13 °C in 5% O 2+ 2% CO 2for 26 days followedby air for 11 days at 20 °C, benomyl at 52 °C for5 min followed by prochloraz at 25 °C for 30 sprovided effective control of stem-end rot andanthracnose. The addition of guar gum to hotbenomyl improved control of stem-end rot inthe combination treatment. Benomyl at 52 °Cfor 5 min alone was ineffective. Other diseases,notably Alternaria rot (A. alternata) and dendriticspot (D. dominicana) emerged as problemsduring CA storage. A. alternata anddendritic spot were also controlled by benomylat 52 °C for 5 min followed by prochloraz. P.expansum, B. cinerea, Stemphylium vesicariumand Mucor circinelloides were reported as postharvestpathogens of Kensington Pride mango(Johnson et al., 1990a,b).Mangosteen (Garcinia mangosteen)Pakkasarn et al. (2003a) found that storage for28 days at 13 °C in 10% CO 2+ 21% O 2was effectivein reducing ethylene production and calyxchlorophyll loss, delaying peel colour and firmnesschanges, and decreasing weight loss andrespiration rate. Fruits in air could be stored foronly 16 days. Pakkasarn et al. (2003b) also foundthat fruits in 2% O 2+ 15% CO 2for 24 daysdeveloped a fermented flavour. Storage at 13 °Cin 2–6% O 2+ 10–15% CO 2reduced weightloss and retarded peel colour development,softening and subsequent hardening, calyxchlorophyll loss, respiration rate and ethyleneproduction compared with those stored in air.Melon (Cucumis melo)Few positive effects of CA storage have beenshown. Kader (1985, 1992) recommended3–7 °C in 10–15% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2forCantaloupes, which had a good effect onstorage but was said to have limitedcommercial use. For Honeydew, Kader (1985,1992) recommended 10–12 °C in 0% CO 2+3–5% O 2, which had a fair effect but was of nocommercial use. Saltveit (1989) recommended5–10 °C in 10–20% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2, which hadonly a slight effect. Storage in 10–15% CO 2+3–5% O 2was recommended for Cantaloupeand 5–10% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for Honeydew andCasaba (SeaLand, 1991). Typical storage conditionswere given as 2–7 °C in 10–20% CO 2+3–5% O 2by Bishop (1996) for Cantaloupes.Christakou et al. (2005) stored Galia in 30%CO 2+ 70% N 2at 10 °C, which helped to reducethe loss in quality. However, vitamin Cdecreased during storage for those stored inboth CA and air. Perez Zungia et al. (1983) comparedstorage of the cultivar Tendral in 0% CO 2+ 10% O 2with storage in air and found that theCA-stored fruit had a better overall quality.Durango hybrid fruit were stored for 20 days at10 or 15 °C and supplied daily with a 5-minflow of air containing 5.1% CO 2. CO 2treatmentreduced total soluble solids, firmness and acidityand increased the rate of colour change(Rodriguez and Manzano, 2000).CA has limited effects on disease.Mencarelli et al. (2003) carried out storageexperiments on organically grown wintermelons at 10 °C and 95% rh for 63 days plus 5days in air at 20 °C. They concluded that CAstorage in 2% O 2+ 0% CO 2, 2% O 2+ 5% CO 2or2% O 2+ 10% CO 2had few beneficial effectscompared with storage in air. Storage in 2% O 2+ 10% CO 2resulted in some control of decay,the 2% O 2resulted in the fruit tasting betterafter storage and they were sweeter and firmerthan those stored in air. Martinez-Javega et al.(1983) stored the cultivar Tendral in 12% CO 2+ 10% O 2at temperatures within the range of2 to 17 °C and found no effects on levels ofdecay or chilling injury compared with fruitsstored at the same temperatures in air.Melon, Bitter (Momordica charantia)Fruits of bitter melon were harvested at ‘horticulturalmaturity’ and stored for 2 weeks invarious conditions. Fruit quality was similarafter storage at 15 °C in 21, 5.0 or 2.5% O 2+ 0,2.5, 5.0 or 10% CO 2or in air. Fruits stored for

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 1693 weeks in 2.5% O 2+ 2.5 or 5.0% CO 2showedgreater retention of green colour and had lessdecay (unspecified) and splitting than fruitsstored in air (Zong et al., 1995). Bitter melonsare reported to be subject to chilling injury, butDong et al. (2005) immersed fruits in hot waterat 42 °C for 5 min then packed them in commercialPE film bags and stored them at 4 °C for16 days with no indication of chilling injury.Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)Recommended optimum storage conditionsinclude: 5–10% CO 2(Lutz and Hardenburg,1968; Ryall and Lipton, 1972), 10–15% CO 2+ 21%O 2(SeaLand, 1991) and 0 °C in 8% O 2+ 10% CO 2(Zheng and Xi, 1994). Kader (1985, 1992) andSaltveit (1989) recommended 0–5 °C in 10–15%CO 2+ 21% O 2, which had a fair or moderateeffect but was of limited commercial use.Marecek and Machackova (2003) foundthat storage in 1 or 2% O 2+ 0 or 4% CO 2wasbest in keeping their quality and firmness.Storage with CO 2levels of 10–20% inhibitedmould growth and retarded cap and stalkdevelopment; O 2levels of

170 Chapter 91989b), but Kajiura and Iwata (1972) recommendedstorage at 4 °C in 7% O 2+ 93% N 2.They showed that fruits could be stored for 2months at 3 or 4 °C or for 1 month at 20 °C. At3 and 4 °C total soluble solids and titratableacidity were little affected by the O 2concentration,but the fall in ascorbic acid was lessmarked at low O 2. However, O 2levels below3% resulted in a fermented flavour, but theeating quality was similar in fruits stored atall O 2concentrations above 5%. At 20 °Cthere was more stem-end rot, but Penicilliumsp. development was reduced by low O 2.Storage at 3 and 4 °C and below 1.5% O 2resulted in the albedo becoming watery andyellow and the juice sacs turning fromorange to yellow while respiration rate fell.Kajiura (1972) showed that fruits in 4 °Chad less button browning in 5% CO 2andabove. Total soluble solids were not affectedby CO 2concentration, but titratable aciditywas reduced in 25% CO 2. At 20 °C buttonbrowning was retarded above 3.5–5.0%CO 2, but there were no differences in totalsoluble solids content and titratable aciditybetween different CO 2levels. An abnormalflavour and a sweet taste developed in storageabove 13 and 5% CO 2, respectively.Above 13% CO 2the peel turned red. In subsequentwork, Kajiura (1973) stored fruits at4 °C and either 98–100% rh or 85–95% rh in airmixed with 0, 5, 10 or 20% CO 2for 50 daysand found that high CO 2retarded buttonbrowning at both humidities and the fruitsdeveloped granulation and loss of acidity at85–95% rh. In 98–100% rh combined withhigh CO 2there was increased water contentof the peel and the ethanol content of thejuice, but there was abnormal flavour. At85–95% rh no injury occurred and CO 2wasbeneficial, its optimum level being muchhigher. In another trial, fruits were stored in0% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 7% O 2. In 0%CO 2+ 5% O 2there was little effect on buttonbrowning or acidity, but granulation wasretarded and an abnormal flavour and ethanolaccumulation occurred. In 5% CO 2+ 7%O 2the decrease in acidity was retarded andthere was abnormal flavour development athigh humidity, but at low humidity it providedthe best-quality stored fruit.Nectarine (Prunuspersica var. nectarine)Storage recommendations are similar topeach, including 5% CO 2+ 2.5% O 2for 6weeks (Hardenberg et al., 1990). Storage at0.5 °C and 90–95% rh in 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2wasrecommended for 14–28 days (SeaLand,1991). Other storage recommendations werealso given as 0–5 °C in 5% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2(Kader, 1985) or 0–5 °C in 3–5% CO 2+ 1–2%O 2, which had a good effect, but CA storagehad limited commercial use. The storage lifeat −0.5 °C in air was about 7 days, but fruitstored at the same temperature in atmospherescontaining 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2couldbe stored for 5–7 weeks (Van der merwe,1996). Folchi et al. (1994) stored the cultivarIndependent in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 171Okra, Lady’s Fingers(Hibiscus esculentus,Albelmoschus esculentus)Storage at 7.2 °C in 5–10% CO 2kept them ingood condition (Pantastico, 1975), but 0%CO 2+ 3–5% O 2was recommended by Sea-Land (1991). Kader (1985) also recommended8–10 °C in 0% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2, which had afair effect but was of no commercial use, butCO 2at 5–10% was beneficial at 5–8 °C. Saltveit(1989) recommended 7–12 °C in 4–10%CO 2+ 21% O 2, but it had only a slight effect.Ogata et al. (1975) stored okra at 1 °C in air or3% O 2+ 3, 10 or 20% CO 2or at 12 °C in air or3% O 2+ 3% CO 2. At 1 °C there were no effectsof any of the CA treatments, but at 12 °C theCA storage resulted in lower ascorbic acidretention although it improved the keepingquality. At levels of 10–12% CO 2off-flavourmay be produced (Anandaswamy, 1963).Olive (Olea europaea)Storage of fresh olives at 8–10 °C in 5–10%CO 2+ 2–5% O 2had a fair effect, but was notbeing used commercially (Kader, 1985). Kader(1989, 1992) recommended 5–10 °C in 0–1%CO 2+ 2–3% O 2. In other work, Kader (1989)found that green olives of the cultivar Manzanillowere damaged when exposed to CO 2levels of 5% and above, but storage wasextended in 2% O 2. They found that in airtheir storage life was 8 weeks at 5.0 °C, 6weeks at 7.5 °C and 4 weeks at 10 °C, but in2% O 2the storage life was extended to 12weeks at 5.0 °C and 9 weeks at 7.5 °C. Garciaet al. (1993) stored the cultivar Picual at 5 °C inair, 3% CO 2+ 20% O 2, 3% CO 2+ 5% O 2or 1%CO 2+ 5% O 2. They found that 5% O 2gave thebest results in terms of retention of skincolour, firmness and acidity but had higherincidence of postharvest losses comparedwith those stored in air. They found no addedadvantage of increased CO 2levels. Agar et al.(1997) compared storage of the cultivar Manzanilloin air or 2% O 2+ 98% N 2at 0, 2.2 and5.0 °C. They found that fruit firmness was notaffected by the CA storage compared with airstorage, but decay was reduced in the low O 2compared with air at all three temperatures.They concluded that they could be stored fora maximum of 4 weeks at 2.2–5.0 °C in 2% O 2.Ramin and Modares (2009) found that at 7 °Cincreasing the level of CO 2in storage over therange of 1.6 to 6.4% resulted in improvedretention of firmness and colour and lowestrespiration rate, with 2.0% O 2+ 6.4% CO 2giving the best results.Onion (Allium cepa var. cepa)CA stores with a total capacity of 9300 t haverecently been constructed in Japan for onions(Koichiro Yamashita et al., 2009). Robinsonet al. (1975) reported that low O 2levels in storagereduced the respiration rate of bulbs at alltemperatures studied (Table 9.3). However,CA storage conditions gave variable successand were not generally recommended; however,5% CO 2+ 3% O 2was shown to reducesprouting and root growth (Hardenberg et al.,1990). SeaLand (1991) recommended 0% CO 2with 1–2% O 2. Typical storage conditionswere given as 0 °C and 65–75% rh with 5%CO 2and 3% O 2by Bishop (1996). Monziniand Gorini (1974) recommended 4 °C in5–10% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2for 6 months. Fellows(1988) recommended a maximum of 10% CO 2and a minimum of 1% O 2. Kader (1985) recommendeda temperature range of 0–5 °Cand 75% rh in 1–2% O 2+ 0% CO 2.In laterwork Kader (1989) recommended 0–5 °C in0–5% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2. Saltveit (1989) recommended0–5 °C in 0–5% CO 2and 0–1% O 2,which was claimed to have had only a slighteffect. He also found that CA storage gavebetter results when they were stored early inthe season just after curing.Table 9.3. Effects of temperature and reducedO 2level on the respiration rate (CO 2productionin mg kg −1 h −1 ) of Bedfordshire Champion onions(Robinson et al., 1975).StorageMethodTemperature (°C)0 5 10 15 20In air 3 5 7 7 8In 3% O 22 – 4 – 4

172 Chapter 9Smittle (1988) found that more than 99%of the bulbs of the cultivar Granex were marketableafter 7 months of storage at 1 °C in 5%CO 2+ 3% O 2, although the weight loss was9%. Bulbs stored at 1 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2kept well when removed from storage, whilebulbs from 10% CO 2+ 3 and 5% O 2becameunmarketable at a rate of about 15% per week,due to internal breakdown during the firstmonth out of store. Bulb quality, as measuredby low pungency and high sugar, decreasedslowly when onions were stored at 27 °C or at1 or 5 °C at 70–85% rh in CA. Qualitydecreased rapidly when the cultivar Granexwere stored in air at 1 or 5 °C. Adamicki (1989)also described successful storage of onions at1 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2. Adamicki and Kepka(1974) found that there were no changes in thecolour, flavour or chemical composition ofonions after 2 months’ storage, even in 15%CO 2. Chawan and Pflug (1968) examinedstorage of the cultivars Dowing Yellow Globeand Abundance in several combinations of 5and 10% CO 2+ 1, 3 and 5% O 2at 1.1, 4.4 and10 °C. The best combination was 10% CO 2+3% O 2at 4.4 °C, and the next best was 5%CO 2+ 5% O 2at 4.4 °C. Internal spoilage ofbulbs was observed in 10% CO 2+ 3% O 2at1.1 °C but none at 4.4 °C. Adamcki and Kepka(1974) also observed a high level of internaldecay in bulbs stored in 10% CO 2+ 5% O 2at1° C, but none at 5 °C in the same atmosphericcomposition. The number of internallydecayed bulbs increased with length of storage.Their optimum results for long-termstorage were in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2at either 1 °Cor 5 °C. Stoll (1974) stated that there wereindications that the early-trimmed lots didnot store as well in CA conditions as in conventionallyrefrigerated rooms, and hereported better storage life at 0 °C rather thanat 2 or 4 °C when the same 8% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2atmosphere was used. Sitton et al. (1997) alsofound that storage in high CO 2caused injury,but neck rot (Botrytis sp.) was reduced in CO 2levels of greater than 8.9%. They found thatbulbs in storage in 0.5–0.7% O 2were firmer, ofbetter quality and had less neck rot than thosestored in O 2levels of

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 173which is used for sprout suppression.Previously, Isenberg (1979) concluded thatCA storage is an alternative to the use ofsprout suppression in onions, but stressed theneed for further testing of the optimum conditionof O 2and CO 2required for individualvarieties. Adamicki and Kepka (1974) alsoquoted work where onions stored in an atmospherewith 5–15% CO 2at room temperatureshowed a decrease in the percentage of bulbsthat sprouted. They also reported that bulbsof cultivar Wolska stored for 163 or 226 daysin 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2and then transferred to20 °C sprouted about 10 days later than thosetransferred from air storage There is evidencethat CA storage can have residual effects afterthey have been removed from store. Bulbs ofcultivar Wolska stored for 163 or 226 days in5% CO 2+ 3% O 2and then transferred to20 °C sprouted about 10 days later than thosetransferred from air storage (Adamcki andKepka, 1974). Koichiro Yamashita et al. (2009)reported that storage at 1 °C and 80% rh in 1%O 2+ 1% CO 2for up to 196 days inhibitedsprouting and root growth. In 10% CO 2+ 3%O 2at 4.4 °C, Chawan and Pflug (1968) foundthat bulbs showed no sprouting after34 weeks, while bulbs stored in air had 10%sprouting for Dowing Yellow Globe and 15%for Abundance. In a detailed study of 15 differentcultivars and various CA combinations,Gadalla (1997) found that all the cultivarsstored in 10% CO 2for 6 months or more hadinternal spoilage (but after 3 months), withmore spoilage when 10% CO 2was combinedwith 3 or 5% O 2. All CA combinations, 1, 3 or5% O 2+ 0 or 5% CO 2, reduced sprouting, butthose combinations that included 5% CO 2were the most effective. Also, the residualeffects of CA storage were still effective after2 weeks at 20 °C. No external root growth wasdetected when bulbs were stored in 1% O 2compared with 100% for the bulbs in air.There was also a general trend to increasedrooting with increased O 2over the range of 1to 5%. Bulbs stored in 5% CO 2had less rootingthan those stored in 0% CO 2. Both theselatter effects varied between cultivars. Mostof the cultivars stored in 1% O 2+ 5% CO 2andsome cultivars stored in 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2were considered marketable after 9 months’storage. He also found that CA storage wasmost effective when applied directly aftercuring, but a delay of 1 month was almost asgood. It was therefore concluded that, with asuitable cultivar and early application of CA,it is technically possible to store onions at 0 °Cfor 9 months without chemical sprout suppressants.Sitton et al. (1997) found that bulbsstored in 0.5–0.7% O 2in cold storage sproutedmore quickly when removed to 20 °C comparedwith those stored in O 2levels of >0.7%.Orange (Citrus sinensis)CA storage was not considered beneficial, buttypical storage conditions were given as5–10 °C in 0–5% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2by Bishop(1996). Storage at 5–10 °C in 5% CO 2+ 10% O 2had a fair effect on storage but was not beingused commercially (Kader, 1985). Kader (1989,1992) recommended 5–10 °C in 0–5% CO 2+5–10% O 2. Recommended storage of the cultivarValencia grown in Florida was 1 °C in 0 or5% CO 2+ 15% O 2for 12 weeks, followed by 1week in air at 21 °C. In these conditions theyretained better flavour and had less skin pittingthan those stored in air, but CO 2levels of2.5–5%, especially when combined with 5 or10% O 2, adversely affected flavour retention(Hardenberg et al., 1990). SeaLand (1991) recommended5% CO 2+ 10% O 2. Smoot (1969)showed that for Valencia the combinations of0% CO 2+ 15% O 2and 0% CO 2+ 10% O 2hadless decay than those stored in air. However,Anon. (1968) showed that CA storage couldhave deleterious effects on fruit quality, particularlythrough increased rind injury anddecay, or on fruit flavour. Chase (1969) alsoshowed that CA storage could affect fruit flavour,rind breakdown and rotting (Table 9.4).Papaya, Pawpaw (Carica papaya)At 18 °C, storage in 10% CO 2reduced decay(Hardenberg et al., 1990). Storage recommendationsinclude: 10–15 °C in 5–8% CO 2+ 2–5%O 2(Bishop, 1996), 10% CO 2+ 5% O 2for surfacetransport (SeaLand, 1991); 10–15 °C in10% CO 2+ 5% O 2had a fair effect but wassaid to be ‘not being used commercially’

174 Chapter 9Table 9.4. The effects of CA storage on thequality of oranges (Chase, 1969).% O 2% CO 2% rotting a score bFlavour% rindbreakdown c21 (air) 0 97 66 015 0 58 97 3215 2.5 28 95 1315 5 62 93 010 0 67 74 4910 2.5 60 69 310 5 81 52 35 0 47 38 95 2.5 36 20 25 5 79 5 0a After 20 weeks’ storage at 1 °C plus 1 week at 21 °C.b After 12 weeks’ storage at 1 °C plus 1 week at 21 °C.c After 20 weeks’ storage at 1 °C plus 1 week at 21 °C.(Kader, 1985), 10–15 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 3–5%O 2(Kader, 1989, 1992) and 12 °C in 5–8%CO 2+ 2–5% O 2(Kader, 1993). Sankat andMaharaj (1989) found that fruits of the cultivarKnown You Number 1 stored at 16 °Cwere still in an acceptable condition after 17days’ storage in 5% CO 2+ 1.5–2.0% O 2comparedwith only 13 days in air. The cultivarTainung Number 1 stored in the same conditionsas Known You Number 1 had a maximumlife of 29 days in CA storage and wasconsidered unacceptable after 17 days storedin air. In Hawaii, storage in 2% O 2+ 98% N 2was shown to extend the storage life of fruitsat 10 °C compared with storage in air at thesame temperature (Akamine and Goo, 1969).Akamine (1969) showed that storage of Soloin 10% CO 2for 6 days at 18 °C reduced decaycompared with fruits stored in air, but fruitsstored in air after storage in 10% CO 2decayedrapidly. Akamine and Goo (1969) showed thatstorage at 13 °C in 1% O 2for 6 days or 1.5% O 2for 12 days ripened about 1 day later thanthose stored in air. Chen and Paull (1986) alsoshowed that 1.5–5.0% O 2delayed ripening ofKapaho Solo compared with those stored inair and that there were no further benefits ofstorage by increasing the CO 2level to either 2or 10%. Hatton and Reeder (1968) showedthat after storage at 13 °C for 3 weeks in 5%CO 2+ 1% O 2, followed by ripening at 21 °C,fruits were in a fair condition with little or nodecay and were of good flavour. Cenci et al.(1997) showed that the cultivar Solo stored at10 °C in 8% CO 2+ 3% O 2could be kept for 36days and still have an adequate shelf-life of 5days at 25 °C. Fonseca et al. (2006) comparedstorage in 3% O 2+ 3 or 6% CO 2with storagein air and found that the postharvest diseasesof anthracnose, chocolate spot, stem-end rotand black spot caused more losses on bothSunrise Solo and Golden stored in air than ina CA with 6% CO 2. However, they also foundthat the advantages of the CA were not effectivein the fruits harvested in the Braziliansummer. A new cultivar called Paiola wasdeveloped at the Malaysian AgricultureResearch and Development Institute. It wasshown to have a shelf-life of an extra 2 weekscompared with Eksotika. After 30 days in CAthe fruits were shown to retain their qualityand could be transported by sea-freight overlong distances (Kwok, 2010). Also in Malaysia,Broughton et al. (1977) showed that scrubbingethylene from the store containing thecultivar Solo Sunrise had no effects on theirstorage life, but they recommended that foroptimum storage 20 °C with 5% CO 2with ethyleneremoval was the optimum condition for7 to 14 days. They also found that chillinginjury could occur at 15 °C. In later work itwas shown that ethylene application canaccelerate ripening by 25–50% (Wills, 1990).Techavuthiporn et al. (2009) found thatstorage of shredded unripe papaya at 4 °C in 5%O 2+ 10% CO 2retained their quality for 5 days.Shredded unripe papaya is the major ingredientof ‘Som-Tam’ in Thailand, which is complicatedto prepare and deteriorates quickly.Storage at 20 °C in 0% CO 2+

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 175O 2, respectively. There were no differences inacidity of fruits kept at 15 °C after 5 days’storage, but acidity was significantly lower infruits in 23.0 or 29.0% O 2after 10 days comparedwith 20.9%.Pea, Garden Pea, Mange Tout, SnowPea, Sugar Pea (Pisum sativum)Pantastico (1975) reported that in storage at0 °C peas in their pods could be kept in goodcondition for 7–10 days, while in 5–7% CO 2+5–10% O 2they could be kept for 20 days. At0 °C their quality was better after 20 days in5–7% CO 2than in air (Tomkins, 1957). Storagein 5–7% CO 2at 0 °C maintained their eatingquality for 20 days (Hardenberg et al., 1990).Fellows (1988) recommended a maximum of7% CO 2and a minimum of 5% O 2. However,Suslow and Cantwell (1998) reported that therewas no benefit in CA storage compared withstorage in air at the same temperature. Monziniand Gorini (1974) recommended 0 °C in 5%CO 2+ 21% O 2for 20 days. Saltveit (1989) recommended0–10 °C in 2–3% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2forsugar peas, which had only a slight effect.Pariasca et al. (2001) showed that storage at 5 °Cin 5–10% O 2+ 5% CO 2were the best conditionsamong those that they tested, since changes inorganic acid, free amino acid and sugar contents,and pod sensory attributes were slight.The appearance of pods stored in CA was muchbetter than those stored in air. They also foundthat 2.5% O 2+ 5% CO 2and 5% O 2+ 10% CO 2had a detrimental effect on quality since theydeveloped slight off-flavours, but this effectwas partially alleviated after ventilation.Peach (Prunus persica)CA storage recommendations include: 5%CO 2+ 2% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 0–5 °C in 3–5%CO 2+ 1–2% O 2(Bishop, 1996), 0–5 °C in5% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2, which had a good effectbut was claimed to be of limited commercialuse (Kader, 1985), 0–5 °C and 3–5% CO 2+ 1–2%O 2for both freestone and clingstone peaches(Kader, 1989, 1992), 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2, whichmaintained quality and retarded internalbreakdown for about twice as long as thosestored in air (Hardenberg et al., 1990), and−0.5 °C in 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2for up to 4 weeksfor canning (van der Merwe, 1996). The storagelife at −0.5 °C in air was about 7 days, butfruit stored at the same temperature in atmospherescontaining 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2couldbe stored for 4 weeks (van der Merwe, 1996). Itwas found that conditioning the fruits at 20 °Cin 5% CO 2with 21% O 2for 2 days prior to storageuntil they reached a firmness of 5.5 kg wasnecessary. Wade (1981) showed that storage ofthe cultivar J.H. Hale at 1 °C resulted in chillinginjury symptoms (flesh discoloration and softtexture), but fruits stored at the same temperaturein atmospheres containing 20% CO 2resulted in only moderate levels, even after 42days. Bogdan et al. (1978) showed that the cultivarsElbarta and Flacara could be stored at0 °C for 3–4 weeks in air or about 6 weeks in 5%CO 2+ 3% O 2. Truter et al. (1994) showed thatthe cultivars Oom Sarel, Prof. Neethling andKakamas could be successfully stored at−0.5 °C in either 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 2% O 2for 6 weeks, with a mass loss of only1%. This compared with mass losses of 20.7and 12.6% for Oom Sarel or Prof. Neethling,respectively, stored in air at the same temperature.CA storage, however, did not affect decayincidence, but fruits were of an acceptablequality even after 6 weeks’ storage and werealso considered to be still highly suitable forcanning. Brecht et al. (1982) showed that therewas a varietal CA storage interaction. Theystored five cultivars at −1.1 °C in 5% CO 2+ 2%O 2and found that Loadel and Carolyn couldbe successfully stored for up to 4 weeks whileAndross, Halford and Klamt could be storedfor only comparatively short periods.Lurie et al. (2002) suggested that a certainlevel of ethylene production is essential for normalripening after cold storage and linked thiswith prolonged storage, where they did notripen and developed a dry, woolly texture.CA storage plus intermittent warming to18 °C in air for 2 days every 3–4 weeks hasshown promising results (Hardenberg et al.,1990). Anderson (1982) stored the cultivar RioOso Gem at 0 °C in 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2for up to20 weeks with intermittent warming to18–20 °C every 2 days, which almost entirelyeliminated the internal browning associatedwith storage in air at 0 °C.

176 Chapter 9Pear (Pyrus communis)CA storage recommendations include: a maximumof 5% CO 2and a minimum of 2% O 2forthe cultivar Bartlett (Fellows, 1988), 0.5 °C in0.5–1.0% CO 2+ 2.0–2.2% O 2(Koelet, 1992),0–1% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 0 °Cand 93% rh in 0.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2. (Lawton,1996), 0–5 °C in 0–1% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2(Kader,1985), 0–5 °C in 0–3% CO 2+ 1–3% O 2(Kader,1992), −1 to −0.5 °C in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 177Table 9.6. Recommended CA storage conditions for pears at −0.5 °C (van der Merwe, 1996).Cultivar % O 2% CO 2Duration (months)Bon Chretien 1.0 0 4Buerré Bosc 1.5 1.5 4Forelle 1.5 0–1.5 7Packham’s Triumph 1.5 1.5 9Table 9.7. Recommended CA storage conditions for selected pear cultivars (Richardson and Meheriuk,1989).Cultivar Temperature (°C) % O 2% CO 2RemarksAbate Fetel −1 to 0 3–4 4–5Alexander Lucas −1 to 0 3 1 Very sensitive to CO 2, store for6 months maximumAnjou −1 to 0 1.0–2.5 0.03–2.0Bartlett −1 to 0 1–3 0–3Buerré Bosc −1 to 0 1–3 0.03–4.0Buerré Hardy −1 to 0 2–3 0–5Clapps Favorite 0 2 0–1Conference −1.0 to 0.5 1.5–3.0 0–3Decana Comizio 0 3 4–5Decana Inverno 0 3 5Diels Butterbirne −1 to 0 2 2 Store 4–6 monthsDoyenne du Comice −1 to 1 2–3 0.8–5.0Gellerts Butterbirne −1 to 0 2 1 Sensitive to CO 2, store 4–5 monthsKaiser Alexander 0 to 1 3 3–4Kosui −0.5 to 5.0 1–2 –Nijiseiki −1 to 1 3 ≤1Packham’s Triumph −1 to 1 1–3 0–5Passe Crassane −1 to 1 1.5–3.0 2–5Tsu Li −0.5 to 1.0 1–2 –20th Century −1 to 1 3 ≤1Williams Bon Cheretien −1 to 0 1–3 0–3Ya Li −0.5 to 0.5 4–5 Up to 5Table 9.8. Optimum CA conditions for selected pear cultivars (Kupferman, 2001).Cultivar Country o C % O 2% CO 2Storage life (months)Anjou Washington state, USA −0.5 to 0 1.5 0.3 9Beurré Bosc South Africa −0.5 1.5 1.5 4Conference Netherlands −1 2.5 0.7 7.5Doyenne du Comice Netherlands −0.5 2.5 0.7 5Doyenne du Comice South Africa −0.5 1.5 1.5 6Doyenne du Comice New Zealand −0.5 2

178 Chapter 9Chen and Varga (1997) showed thatstorage in 0.5% O 2+ 10% O 2+ 15% CO 2or in air.Also, skin browning was reduced when0.5–1.0% O 2was combined with CO 2up to10%, but 0.5% O 2+ 15% CO 2increased skinbrowning. Martins et al. (2004) studied theeffect of delaying implementing CA for up to3 days on their subsequent storage of Fuyu.Storage conditions were 0 ± 0.5 °C and 95 ± 3%rh throughout, and CA was 8% CO 2+ 2% O 2.They concluded that conservation and qualityof the fruits were not significantly affected bythe different periods of refrigerated storage inair prior to storage in CA. Lee et al. (2003)identified four different types of postharvestbrowning disorders, which they classified bysymptoms and the surface zone affected.These were top flesh browning, called chocolatesymptom, on the top; pitted specks scatteredon the surface; flesh blotch browning,usually on the equatorial to bottom portion;and pitted blotch browning on the equatorialzone. During experiments on CA storage ofFuyu they speculated that the primary inducingfactors were low O 2(

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 179beneficial. Dull et al. (1967) also consideredCA storage had no obvious effect on fruitquality or the maintenance of fruit appearance.However, Akamine and Goo (1971)found that the storage life of the cultivarSmooth Cayenne was significantly extendedin 2% O 2at 7.2 °C, and Yahia (1998) tentativelyrecommended 2–5% O 2+ 5–10% CO 2. Kader(1989) recommended 5% O 2+ 10% CO 2at10–15 °C. Storage at 10–15 °C in 10% CO 2+ 5%O 2had a fair effect but was not being usedcommercially (Kader, 1985). Kader (1989,1992) recommended 8–13 °C in 5–10% CO 2+2–5% O 2. Kader (1993) also recommended10 °C, with a range of 8–13 °C in 5–10% CO 2+2–5% O 2. SeaLand (1991) recommended 10%CO 2+ 5% O 2. Paull and Rohrbach (1985)found that storage at 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2or 3%O 2+ 0% CO 2did not suppress internal browning(sometime referred to as black heart) inthe cultivar Smooth Cayenne stored at 8 °C. Iffruits were exposed to 3% O 2in the first weekof storage at 22 °C followed by 8 °C, it wasshown that the symptom could be effectivelyreduced. Dull et al. (1967) described an experimentwhere fruits were harvested at stage 4maturity (

180 Chapter 9Plum (Prunus domestica)CA recommendations include: 0–5% CO 2+ 2%O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 0–5 °C in 0–5% CO 2+1–2% O 2(Bishop, 1996); 0–5 °C in 0–5% CO 2+1–2% O 2was reported to have a good effectbut was not being used commercially (Kader,1985), 0% CO 2+ 1% O 2for 12 weeks for thecultivar Soldam without any quality changes(Chung and Son, 1994), and 1 °C in 2% O 2+5% CO 2for up to 3 weeks for Opal and Victoria,picked when not fully ripe (Roelofs andBreugem, 1994). Van der Merwe (1996) recommended−0.5 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2forfruit ripened to a firmness of 5.5 kg beforestorage for up to 7–8 weeks, depending oncultivar. Santa Rosa and Songold, partiallyripened to a firmness of approximately 4.5 kgprior to storage then stored at 0.5 °C in 4%O 2+ 5% CO 2for 7 or 14 days, was sufficient tokeep fruits in an excellent condition for anadditional 4 weeks in air at 7.5 °C. Internalbreakdown was almost eliminated by thistreatment, and the fruits were of excellenteating quality after ripening (Truter andCombrink, 1992). Fruits of the cultivarAngeleno were kept in air, 0.25 or 0.02% O 2at0, 5 or 10 °C. Exposures to the low O 2atmospheresinhibited ripening, including reductionin ethylene production rate, retardationof skin colour changes and flesh softening,but maintained titratable acidity and increasedresistance to CO 2diffusion. The most importantdetrimental effect of the low O 2treatmentswas the development of an alcoholicoff-flavour (Ke et al., 1991a). Naichenkoand Romanshchak (1984) recommendedstorage at −2 °C for the cultivar VengerkaObyknovennaya. At that temperature fruitswere kept in good condition for only 19 daysin air, but they could be stored for up to 125days in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2+ 92% N 2. Victoriaplums at different stages of ripeness werestored in 3 or 21% O 2and 0, 4 or 7% CO 2at 0.3or 0.5 °C for up to 4 weeks. Some fruits wereharvested unripe, others when not yet fullyripe but of good colour. In 3% O 2fruit colourdevelopment was delayed and fruits remainedfirm, and after 4 weeks they tasted better thanthose stored in 21% O 2. In high CO 2fruitcolour development was also delayed, andfruit flavour was not affected. Average wastageafter 2, 3 and 4 weeks of storage was 9, 20and 32%, respectively (Roelofs, 1993a). Withthe cultivar Opal, the best storage conditionswere 0 °C in 1 or 2% O 2+ 5% CO 2, and withthe cultivar Monsieur Hatif they were 0 °Cand 1 or 2% O 2+ 0% CO 2. Both cultivars couldbe stored for up to 3 weeks without excessivespoilage due to rots and fruit cracking (DeWild and Roelofs, 1992). Folchi et al. (1994)stored the cultivar President in

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 181by storage for 1 month in air at 0 °C and for6 weeks in 2.0% O 2+ 2.5% CO 2. Atmosphereswith 1.0–1.5% O 2could limitbrowning of the flesh, maintain a crisp andjuicy texture and slow down rot development(Westercamp, 1995).Pomegranate (Punica granatum)Fruits of the cultivar Hicaz were stored at 6,8 or 10 °C and 85–90% rh in 1% CO 2+ 3% O 2,3% CO 2+ 3% O 2, 6% CO 2+ 3% O 2or in air.Those stored in air at 6 °C were acceptableafter 5 months’ storage, but those stored in6% CO 2+ 3% O 2retained good quality for 6months. Fruits stored in air at 8 or 10 °C hada storage life of 50 days, whereas fruitsstored at these temperatures in CA had astorage life of 130 days (Kupper et al., 1994).CA storage has been shown to affect thedevelopment of a postharvest superficialbrowning disorder called ‘husk scald’. Themost effective control in the cultivar Wonderfulwas by storing late-harvested fruitsin 2% O 2at 2 °C. However, this treatmentresulted in accumulation of ethanol, whichresulted in off-flavours, but when the fruitswere transferred to air at 20 °C, ethanol andoff-flavour dissipated (Ben Arie and Or,1986). Kader et al. (1984) reported thatpomegranate fruits did not respond topre-storage ethylene treatment.Potato (Solanum tuberosum)The amount of O and CO 2 2in the atmosphereof a potato store can affect the sprouting, rotting,physiological disorders, respirationrate, sugar content and processing quality oftubers (Table 9.10). Fellows (1988) recommendeda maximum of 10% CO 2and a minimumof 10% O 2. Black heart developed intubers held in 1.0 and 0.5% O 2at 15 or 20 °C(Lipton, 1967).Table 9.10. Sugars (g 100 g −1 dry weight) in tubers of three potato cultivars stored for 25 weeks underdifferent CA at 5 and 10 °C and reconditioned for 2 weeks at 20 °C (Khanbari and Thompson, 1996).Cultivar Gas combination 5 °C 10 °C% CO 2% O 2Sucrose RS a TS b Sucrose RS TSRecord 9.4 3.6 0.757 0.216 0.973 0.910 0.490 1.4006.4 3.6 0.761 0.348 1.109 1.385 1.138 2.5233.6 3.6 0.622 0.534 1.156 1.600 0.749 2.3490.4 3.6 0.789 0.510 1.299 0.652 0.523 1.1750.5 21.0 0.323 0.730 1.053 0.998 0.634 1.632Mean 0.650 0.488 1.138 1.109 0.707 1.816Saturna 9.4 3.6 0.897 0.324 1.221 0.685 0.233 0.9186.4 3.6 0.327 0.612 0.993 0.643 0.240 0.8833.6 3.6 0.440 0.382 0.822 0.725 0.358 1.0830.4 3.6 0.291 0.220 0.511 0.803 0.117 0.9200.5 21.0 0.216 0.615 0.831 0.789 0.405 1.194Mean 0.434 0.473 0.907 0.729 0.271 1.000Hermes 9.4 3.7 0.371 0.480 0.851 0.256 0.219 0.4756.4 3.7 0.215 0.332 0.547 1.364 0.472 1.8363.6 3.5 0.494 0.735 1.229 0.882 0.267 1.1490.4 3.6 0.287 0.428 0.715 0.585 0.303 0.8880.5 21.0 0.695 0.932 1.627 0.617 0.510 1.127Mean 0.412 0.682 1.094 0.741 0.354 1.095a Reducing sugars.b Total sugars.

182 Chapter 9Mechanical propertiesOlsen et al. (2003) reported that it appearedthat tubers prior to storage had quantitativelystronger tissue compared with tubers afterstorage, and storage at 7 °C in 2% O 2+10%CO 2altered tissue mechanical properties aswell as carbohydrate content and tubers hadthe physiochemical characteristics of thosestored at 3 °C in air.FlavourLipton (1967) found that White Rose tubersstored at 0.5% O 2had a sour off-odour whenraw, and this off-odour persisted whencooked. Aeration for 8 days following 0.5%O 2storage diminished this off-odour and offflavour.The taste was influenced only slightlyat 1% O 2, and no off-odour or off-flavour wasfound in tubers stored in 5% O 2.Sugars and processingIf potatoes are to be processed into crisps orchips, it is important that the reducing sugarsand amino acids are at a level to permit theMaillard reaction during frying. This givesthem an attractive golden colour and theircharacteristic flavour. If levels of reducingsugars are too high, they are too dark afterfrying and unacceptable to the processingindustry (Schallenberger et al., 1959; Roe et al.,1990). Potatoes stored at low temperatures(around 4 °C) have higher levels of sugarsthan those stored at higher temperatures of7–10 °C (Khanbari and Thompson, 1994),which can result in the production of darkcolouredcrisps. At low storage temperatures,potato tubers accumulate reducing sugars,but the effects of CO 2can influence their sugarlevels (Table 9.11). With levels of 6% CO 2+2–15% O 2in storage for 178 days at 8 and10 °C fry colour was very dark (Reust et al.,1984). Mazza and Siemans (1990), studying1.0–3.2% CO 2, found that darkening of crispsoccurred after there was a rise in CO 2levels instores. At levels of CO 2of 8–12% the fry colourwas darker than for tubers stored in air(Schmitz, 1991). At O 2levels of 2%, reducingsugar levels were reduced or there was noaccumulation at low temperature, but 5% O 2was much less effective (Workman andTwomey, 1969). The cultivar Bintje was storedat 6 °C in atmospheres containing 0, 3, 6 or 9%CO 2and 21, 18, 15 or 12% O 2. During the earlyphase the unfavourable effect of high CO 2onfry colour increased to a maximum at 3months. In the later phase fry colour deterioratedin tubers stored in zero CO 2, and CO 2enrichment had less effect (Schouten, 1994).Khanbari and Thompson (1994) stored Recordtubers at 4 °C in 0.7–1.8% CO 2+ 2.1–3.9% O 2and found that it resulted in a significantlylighter crisp colour, low sprout growth andfewer rotted tubers compared with storage inair. Storing tubers in anaerobic conditions oftotal N 2prevented accumulation of sugars atlow temperature, but it had undesirable sideeffects on the tubers (Harkett, 1971). Gökmenet al. (2007) stored tubers of Agria and RussetBurbank at 9±1 °C and found that there wasonly a limited increase in the concentrationsof sugars during 6 months’ storage in air, butin CA where the O 2level was sufficiently lowto increase the respiration rate the concentrationsof sugars increased.Table 9.11. Effects of CO 2levels in storage on reducing sugar content in potatoes.CO 2(%) EffectReference4 Higher reducing sugars than in air Workman and Twomey, 19695 Prevents accumulation of reducing sugars but increases Denny and Thornton, 1941accumulation of sucrose6 Accumulation of sugars, especially sucrose Reust et al., 19845–20 Initial reduction in reducing sugars but later increase to ahigher level than in airBurton, 1989

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 183Sprouting and diseaseSchouten (1992) discussed the effects of CAstorage on sprouting of stored potatoes. Hefound that sprout growth was stimulated in3% CO 2at 6 °C, whereas some inhibition ofgrowth occurred in 6% CO 2. Sprout growthwas strongly inhibited in 1% O 2at 6 °C, butpathological breakdown may develop at thisO 2level. Internal disorders were found at O 2levels of

184 Chapter 9topped radishes but indicated that CAstorage had only a slight effect.Rambutan (Nephellium lappaceum)Kader (1993) recommended 10 °C, with arange of 8–15 °C, in 7–12% CO 2+ 3–5% O 2.Storage decay could be controlled by dippingthe fruit in 100 ppm benomyl fungicide.Boonyaritthongchai and Kanlayanarat (2003b)reported that spintern and peel browningwere the main causes of loss in quality, andthey tested atmospheres containing 1, 5, 10and 20% CO 2on storage of the cultivar Rong-Rein at 13 or 20 °C and 90–95% rh. In air thefruits could be stored for only 6 days at 20 °Cand 10 days at 13 °C. At 20 °C CO 2toxicitywas observed, but at 13 °C all the CO 2concentrationsused prolonged storage life by at least2–8 days, with 10% CO 2being optimum, prolongingstorage life to 18 days. This was dueto reduced rates of browning, weight loss,respiration rate and ethylene production.Benjamas (2001) found that the storage life at13 °C was 15 days in 2 or 4% O 2, 10 days in6 or 21% O 2, 5 days in 1% O 2and 10 days in 5or 10% CO 2. In 20 and 40% CO 2fruits wereinjured. During storage there was no changein total soluble solids, acidity or vitamin C. At13 °C in 2% O 2+ 10% CO 2fruits could bestored for 16 days with spoilage of

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 185+ 2% O 2for more than 20 weeks (Roelofs,1993b). The cultivars Rotet, Rondom, Rovada,Roodneus and Augustus were stored for8–25 weeks at 1 °C in 0, 10, 20 or 30% CO 2+2% O 2or high (not controlled, 15–21%) O 2.The earliest-harvested berries were more susceptibleto rots, but increased CO 2concentrationreduced rotting, and lower O 2levelsonly reduced fruit rotting at low CO 2concentrations.Levels above 20% CO 2resulted infruit discolouring in some cultivars after13 weeks’ storage, and low O 2concentrationsfurther increased internal breakdown(Roelofs, 1993b). In storage of the cultivarsRovada (late ripening) and Stanza (midseasonripening) at 0–1 °C in air, it was shownthat they could be kept for 2–3 weeks, whilein atmospheres containing 20% CO 2or morethey could be kept for 8–10 weeks (VanLeeuwen and Van de Waart, 1991). The cultivarRotet was stored at 1 °C in 10, 20 or 30%CO 2+ 2% O 2or 10, 20 or 30% CO 2+ >15% O 2.The optimum CO 2concentration was foundto be 20%. At 1 °C fruits could be stored for8–10 weeks in high CO 2atmospheres, comparedwith 1 month for those stored in air(Agar et al., 1991). Six cultivars were stored at1 °C in 1, 2 or 21% O 2+ 0 or 10% CO 2, in allcombinations, for 4.5 months. Spoilage wasleast in 1% O 2+ 10% CO 2(Roelofs, 1992). Thecultivars Rotet, Rondom, Rovada, Augustus,Roodneus, Cassa and Blanka were stored incombinations of 0, 20 or 25% CO 2+ 2 or18–21% O 2for up to 24 weeks. After 24weeks fruits stored in 0% CO 2at 1.0 or−0.5 °C had about 95% rotting. The averageincidence of fungal rots was lowest (about5%) at −0.5 °C in 20 or 25% CO 2and increasedto about 35% at 1 °C in 25% CO 2and to about50% at 1 °C in 20% CO 2. Fruit quality, however,was adversely affected in 20% CO 2andhigh O 2, which was in contrast to the findingspublished by the author in the previous year(Roelofs, 1994). The cultivar Rotet was storedat 1 °C for 10 weeks in air, 10% CO 2+ 19% O 2,20% CO 2+ 17% O 2, 30% CO 2+ 15% O 2, 10%CO 2+ 2% O 2, 20% CO 2+ 2% O 2or 30% CO 2+2% O 2by Agar et al. (1994c). They found thatthe chlorophyll content was most stable inhigh CO 2and low O 2, and for fruits stored inair the decrease in chlorophyll content coincidedwith a decrease in fruit quality.Roseapple, Pomerac, OtaheiteApple (Syzygium malaccese)Basanta and Sankat (1995) stored pomeracfruits at 5 °C for up to 30 days in 5% CO 2+ 2%O 2, 5% CO 2+ 4% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 6% O 2,5% CO 2+ 8% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 1% O 2, 8% CO 2+1% O 2, 11% CO 2+ 1% O 2or 14% CO 2+ 1% O 2.The optimum storage conditions were foundto be 11% CO 2+ 1% O 2or 14% CO 2+ 1% O 2,where flavour and appearance were maintainedfor 25 days. Previous work is quotedwhere storage at 5 °C in air resulted in apostharvest life of 20 days.Salsify (Tragopogen porrifolius)Storage in 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2at 0 °C was recommendedby Hardenberg et al. (1990).Sapodilla (Manilkara zapota)CA storage recommendations were 20 °C in5–10% CO 2combined with scrubbing of ethylene(Broughton and Wong, 1979), although theoptimum temperature for storage in air conditionsvaried from as low as 0 °C (Thompson,1996). In other work, fruits stored for 28 daysat 10 °C failed to ripen properly, indicatingchilling injury (Abdul-Karim et al., 1993).Soursop (Annona muricata)It was shown that fruits in storage aredamaged by exposure to low temperatures(Wardlaw, 1938), and Snowdon (1990) recommended10–15 °C. No specific data on CAstorage could be found, but in a comparisonbetween 16, 22 and 28 °C the longest storageperiod (15 days) occurred at 16 °C, with fruitspacked in high-density PE film bags withoutan ethylene absorbent. This packaging treatmentalso resulted in the longest storageduration at the two higher temperatures, butthe differences between treatments at thosetemperatures were much less marked (Guerraet al., 1995).

186 Chapter 9Spinach (Spinaca oleraceace)Storage recommendations include: 0–5 °C in10–20% CO 2+ 21% O 2, which had a fair effectbut was of no commercial use (Kader, 1985),0–5 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 7–10% O 2, which hadonly a slight effect (Saltveit, 1989), 10–20%CO 2+ 21% O 2(SeaLand, 1991) and a maximumof 20% CO 2(Fellows, 1988). Wardlaw(1938) found that storage in high concentrationsof CO 2could damage the tips of leaves,but Hardenberg et al. (1990) reported thatstorage in 10–40% CO 2+ 10% O 2retardedyellowing.Young, tender spinach leaves 8–10 cmlong and leaves harvested at the traditionallength of more than 15 cm were stored in CA.5% O 2+ 10% CO 2maintained initial appearancefor up to 12 days at 7.5 °C, but carotenoidswere present at a lower concentrationthan in those that had been stored in air. Chlorophylllevels in both maturities of leaveswere highest after storage in 5% O 2+ 20%CO 2, but leaves showed rapid deteriorationin visual quality, even more than those storedin air (Martinez-Damian and Trejo, 2002).Storage in air at 2 °C prevented a reduction inascorbic acid content and l-ascorbate peroxidaseactivity. Ascorbic acid content,l-ascorbate peroxidase activity and yellowingdecreased rapidly in air at 25 °C. CA storageat 10 °C in 2% O 2+ 3 or 10% CO 2controlledenzyme activity and contributed to the preservationof ascorbic acid and l-ascorbateperoxidase activity (Mizukami et al., 2003).Spring Onion, Escallion, GreenOnion (Allium cepa)Optimum recommended storage conditionsby Hardenberg et al. (1990) were 5% CO 2+ 1%O 2at 0 °C for 6–8 weeks, and 10–20% CO 2+2–4% O 2was recommended by SeaLand(1991). Kader (1985) recommended 0–5 °C in10–20% CO 2+ 1–2% O 2for green onions, butit had only a fair effect and was of limitedcommercial use, and Saltveit (1989) recommended0–5 °C in 0–5% CO 2+ 2–3% O 2, whichalso had only a slight effect.Squash (Cucurbita spp.)Courgette, summer squash, zucchini,Cucurbita pepo variety melopepo; marrow,vegetable marrow, winter squash, Cucurbitamaxima, Cucurbita mixta, Cucurbita moschata,C. pepo; pumpkin, C. maxima, C. mixta, C.moschata, C. pepo.SeaLand (1991) recommended 5–10%CO 2+ 3–5% O 2, which had a slight to noeffect, and Hardenberg et al. (1990) reportedthat storage at 5 °C in low O 2was of little orno value. However, Wang and Kramer (1989)found that storage in 1% O 2reduced chillinginjury symptoms at 2.5 °C compared withstorage in air. Symptoms occurred after 9days’ storage compared with 3 days’ storagein air. The C. pepo cultivar Romanesco wasstored for 19 days at 5 °C in 21±1% O 2+ 0, 2.5,5.0 or 10% CO 2and then held for 4 more daysat 13 °C in air. High CO 2levels reduced therespiration rate and the development of chillinginjury symptoms at all three harvestmaturities (16, 20 and 22 cm-long fruits). Atthe end of the 23-day storage period, 82% ofthe 22-cm fruits held in 10% CO 2appearedsaleable, but they had a slight off-flavour andwere soft; 79% of the fruits held in 5% CO 2were saleable, firm and free from off-flavour;samples from 2.5% CO 2and air were unacceptablebecause of decay and pitting. It issuggested that CO 2concentrations around 5%may be useful for storing zucchini at about5 °C, a temperature that normally causes chillinginjury in zucchini (Mencarelli, 1987b).The extent of surface pitting of the C.pepo cultivar Ambassador stored at 2.5 °C wasless in 1% O 2than when stored in air (Wangand Ji, 1989). At 0 °C those stored in 1% O 2had reduced chilling injury compared withthose stored in air (Wang and Kramer, 1989).Mencarelli et al. (1983) also showed that storageof zucchini at 2.5 °C resulted in chillinginjury, but the effect could be delayed byreducing the O 2to 1–4%. In later work C. pepofruits stored for 2 weeks in 1, 2 or 4% O 2hadreduced respiration rates and ethylene production,particularly at 5 and 10 °C. Both ratesincreased during subsequent storage in airfor 2 days at 10 °C, but much more in thosethat had been held previously at 2.5 or 5.0 °C

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 187than in those from 10 °C. About 75 and 55%,respectively, of the burst in respiration rateduring storage in air in samples from 2.5 and5.0 °C was due to exposure to low temperature;the remainder was attributed to theeffect of low O 2levels. For ethylene production,the corresponding values were about 95and 70%. All fruits stored at 5 °C for 2 weekswere virtually free of chilling injury, surfacemould, decay and off-flavour, and almost allthe fruits were rated good to excellent inappearance. About three-quarters of the fruitswere still in this category after two additionaldays at 10 °C. At 5 °C low O 2atmospheres hadno effect. Storage at 2.5 °C resulted in severechilling injury, which was ameliorated byholding them in 1, 2 or 4% O 2instead of 8 or21% O 2. The best-quality maintenance ofAstra zucchini was in storage at 6 °C in airand 3 °C in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 3% CO 2+ 3%O 2, but storage at 3 °C caused chilling injuryof young fruits (10–16 cm long) after 2 weeks(Gajewski and Roson, 2001). Subsequently,Gajewski (2003) reported that best resultswere obtained if Astra zucchini was kept at6 °C in either 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 3% CO 2+ 3%O 2.Strawberry (Fragaria spp.)Strawberry, Fragaria × ananassa, and wildstrawberry, Fragaria vesca.CA recommendations include: 15–20%CO 2+ 10% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), 1 °C, 90% rh,20% CO 2and 17% O 2(Lawton, 1996), 0–5 °Cin 15–20% CO 2+ 5–10% O 2(Bishop, 1996), amaximum of 20% CO 2and a minimum of 2%O 2(Fellows, 1988), 1.5% CO 2+ 1.5% O 2for 3weeks compared with only 4 days in air (vander Merwe, 1996), and 0–5 °C in 15–20%CO 2+ 5–10% O 2(Kader, 1985, 1989). Woodwardand Topping (1972) showed that highlevels of CO 2in the storage atmosphere at1.7 °C reduced rotting caused by infectionwith B. cinerea, but levels as high as 20% CO 2were injurious. However, they showed thatthere was a temperature interaction with CO 2levels. In CO 2concentrations up to 20%, fruitsstored at 3 °C were in good condition after10 days, but after 15–20 days there was adistinct loss of flavour, which appeared to bethe main limiting factor to storage in the UK.Storage in 10–30% CO 2or 0.5–2.0% O 2slowedrespiration rate and reduced disease levels,but 30% CO 2or

188 Chapter 9species, and it also slowed the fruit metabolism,thus preserving aroma and quality(Ertan et al., 1990).Fruits of the cultivar Chandler were keptin air, 0.25% O 2, 21% O 2+ 50% CO 2or 0.25%O 2+ 50% CO 2(balance N 2) at 5 °C for1–7 days to study the effects of CA on volatilesand fermentation enzymes. Acetaldehyde,ethanol, ethyl acetate and ethyl butyrateconcentrations were greatly increased, whileisopropyl acetate, propyl acetate and butylacetate concentrations were reduced by thethree CA storage treatments compared withthose of control fruits stored in air. CA storageenhanced pyruvate decarboxylase and alcoholdehydrogenase activities but slightlydecreased alcohol acetyl transferase activity.The results indicate that the enhanced pyruvatedecarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenaseactivities cause ethanol accumulation,which in turn drives the biosynthesis of ethylesters; the increased ethanol concentrationalso competes with other alcohols for carboxylgroups for esterification reactions; thereduced alcohol acetyl transferase activityand limited availability of carboxyl groupsdue to ethanol competition decrease productionof other acetate esters (Ke et al., 1994b).Almenar et al. (2006) compared storage in air,3% CO 2+ 18% O 2, 6% CO 2+ 15% O 2, 10%CO 2+ 11% O 2and 15% CO 2+ 6% O 2on Reinade los Valles wild strawberry fruits. Theyfound that 10% CO 2+ 11% O 2at 3 °C prolongedthe shelf-life by maintaining the qualityparameters within acceptable values,through inhibition of B. cinerea, without significantlymodifying consumer acceptance.Three- quarter-coloured Chandler fruitsresponded better to storage at 4 °C in 5% O 2+15% CO 2than fully red fruits, maintainingbetter appearance, firmness and colour over 2weeks’ storage, while achieving similar acidityand total soluble solids contents with minimumdecay development. CA was moreeffective than air storage in maintaining initialanthocyanin and total soluble solids contentsof three-quarter-coloured fruits.Although three-quarter-coloured fruits darkenedand softened in 10 °C storage, the CAstoredfruits remained lighter coloured and asfirm as the at-harvest values of fully red fruits.CA maintained better strawberry quality thanair storage, even at an above-optimum storagetemperature of 10 °C, but CA was more effectiveat the lower temperature of 4 °C (Nuneset al., 2002).Sliced strawberries (cultivars Pajaro andG 3) were dipped in solutions of citric acid,ascorbic acid and/or CaCl 2and were storedin air or in CA for 7 days at 2.5 °C, followed by1 day in air at 20 °C. Whole fruits were alsostored in the same conditions. The respirationrate of slices was higher than whole fruit atboth temperatures. CA slowed the respirationrate and ethylene production of sliced fruits.Firmness of slices was maintained by storagein 12% CO 2and in 0.5% O 2, or by dipping in1% CaCl 2and storing in air or CA storage(Rosen and Kader, 1989).Swede, Rutabaga (Brassicanapus var. napobrassica)CA storage was reported to have a slight to noeffect on keeping quality (SeaLand, 1991).Coating with paraffin wax was reported toreduce weight loss, but if this was too thickthe reduced O 2supply could result in internalbreakdown (Lutz and Hardenburg, 1968).Sweetcorn, Babycorn(Zea mays var. saccharata)Recommendations include: 0–5 °C in 10–20%CO 2+ 2–4% O 2, which had a good effect butwas of no commercial use (Kader, 1985),0–5 °C in 5–10% CO 2+ 2–4% O 2, but it hadonly a slight effect (Saltveit, 1989), 10–20%CO 2+ 2–4% O 2(SeaLand, 1991), a maximumof 20% CO 2(Fellows, 1988) and 80% CO 2+20% air at 15 or 25 °C, which reduced respirationrate (Inaba et al., 1989). CA has beenshown to preserve sugar content; for example,5 °C in 2% O 2+ 15% CO 2for 14 days preservedthe highest sugar level and reduceddeterioration in visual quality (Riad andBrecht, 2003). Ryall and Lipton (1972) alsoreported that storage in 5–10% CO 2retardedsugar loss, while 10% caused injury. CA of 2%O 2+ 10 or 20% CO 2reduced respiration rate

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 189of fresh-cut sweetcorn and maintained highersugar levels during 10 days at 1 °C (Riad andBrecht, 2001). Storage in high CO 2retardedconversion of starch to sugar (Wardlaw, 1938),although cobs may be injured with more than20% CO 2or

190 Chapter 9successful storage of mature green tomatoesat 12–13 °C in 0% CO 2+ 2% O 2, 5% CO 2+ 3%O 2or 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2for 6–10 weeks. Parsonset al. (1974) harvested tomatoes at themature green stage and stored them at 12.8 °Cfor 6 weeks and found that 0% CO 2+ 3% O 2was better than storage in air. Fruits in airwere fully red in 6 weeks; those in 0% CO 2+3% O 2or those in 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2were stillpink, with the latter combination having anadditional delaying effect on ripening. Denniset al. (1979) stored fruits harvested at themature green stage at 13 °C and 93–95% rh inair, 5% CO 2+ 3% O 2or 5% CO 2+ 5% O 2for6–10 weeks. Two greenhouse-grown cultivars(Sonato and Sonatine) and three field-grown(Fortuna, Hundredfold and Vico) were used.CA-stored fruits were found to ripen moreevenly and to a better flavour when removedfrom storage than air-stored fruits, with the5% CO 2+ 3% O 2treatment giving the bestqualityfruit. Mature green fruits of the cultivarsSaba and Saul were stored by Anelli et al.(1989) for 14 days at 12 °C in a room equippedwith an ethylene scrubber or 40 days at 12 °Cin 3% O 2and 3% CO 2. At the end of storagethe fruits had a marketable percentage of90 and 85% for ethylene scrubber and CAstorage, respectively. Phytophthora decayappeared on some fruits by the end of CAstorage. Tataru and Dobreanu (1978) showedthat tomatoes kept best in 3% CO 2+ 3% O 2.Greenhouse-grown mature green and pinktomatoes (cultivar Veegan) were stored in airor in 0.5, 3.0 or 5.0% O 2in N 2or argon. Colourdevelopment was not affected by the backgroundgases N 2or argon, except at 3% O 2,where ripening was delayed by the argonmixture. All the levels of O 2suppressedcolour development in mature green fruitscompared with those stored in air, with maximumsuppression in 0.5% O 2. Most fruits heldin 0.5% O 2rotted after removal to air beforecolour development was complete.Green mature tomatoes of the cultivarRamy were stored for 20 days at 4 or 8 °C in3% O 2+ 0% CO 2, with or without ethyleneremoval, or in 1.5% O 2+ 0% CO 2with ethyleneremoval using potassium permanganate.Fruit ripening was delayed most in fruitsstored in 1.5% O 2+ 0% CO 2with ethyleneremoval (Francile, 1992). The colour of fruitharvested at the pink stage did not changewhen they were stored in 6.4% CO 2+ 5.5% O 2and 9.1% CO 2+ 5.5% O 2, even after 50 days',and in some cases after 70 days’ storage. Thered colour development of the tomatoesexposed to 4% CO 2or

Recommended CA Storage Conditions 191for mature green and 13 °C for pink. Fruitsstored in air at 15 °C had significantly betterflavour and were sweeter and more acceptablethan those in any of the CA conditions(Batu, 2003).Turnip (Brassica rapa var. rapa)CA storage of turnip was reported to haveonly a slight to no effect (SeaLand, 1991).Turnip-rooted Parsley (Petroselinumcrispum ssp. tuberosum)Storage in 11% CO 2+ 10% O 2helped to retainthe green colour of the leaves during storage(Hardenberg et al., 1990), although optimumtemperature for storage in air is about 0 °C(Thompson, 1996).Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)It was stated in SeaLand (1991) that CA storagehad only a slight or no effect. This was supportedby Radulovic et al. (2007), who stated‘Watermelons are exclusively fresh consumed,and CA storage does not offer any benefits towatermelon quality’. Fonseca et al. (2004)found that Royal Sweet had an increasedrespiration rate in storage at 7–9 °C in 14% O 2atmospheres,but they found limited applicabilityof CA or MA packaging. However, Tamas(1992) showed that the storage life of CrimsonSweet was extended from 14–16 days in ambientconditions to 42–49 days by cooling within48 h of harvest and storage at 7–8 °C and85–90% rh in 2% CO 2+ 7% O 2. Changes in fruitappearance, flavour and aroma were minimal,but improvement in the colour intensity andconsistency of the flesh was noticeable.Yam (Dioscorea spp.)Asiatic yam, Lisbon yam, white yam,Dioscorea alata; Asiatic yam, Dioscorea esculentum;Asiatic bitter yam, Dioscorea hispida; bitteryam, Dioscorea dumetorum; Chinese yam,Dioscorea opposita; potato yam, Dioscoreabulbifera; white yam, Dioscorea rotundata;yampie, cush cush, Dioscorea trifida; yellowyam, Dioscorea cayenensis.Little information is available in theliterature on CA storage, but one report indicatedthat it had only a slight to no effect(SeaLand, 1991). Fully mature D. oppositatubers can be stored for long periods of timeat high O 2tensions at 5 °C, which wasalso shown to reduce browning of tubers(Imakawa, 1967).

10TransportA large and increasing amount of fresh fruitsand vegetables are transported by sea. This ismost commonly by refrigerated (reefer) containers(Fig. 10.1), but some ships are fittedwith refrigerated holds. Reefer containerswere first introduced in the 1930s, but it wasonly in the 1950s that large numbers of reeferswere transported on ships. Both the wholeships, often called ‘break bulk’ or ‘reeferships’, and the reefer containers may be fittedwith CA facilities.Kruger and Truter (2003) stated that‘During the last years, the use of CA storagehas considerably contributed towards improvingthe quality of South African avocadosexported to Europe’. Ludders (2002) suggestedthat the main obstacles to the successful marketingof cherimoya could be overcome byusing CA containers for sea-freight transport.Harman (1988) recommended the use of CAcontainers for the New Zealand fruit industry,and considerable research has been carriedout by Lallu et al. (1997, 2005) and Burdonet al. (2005, 2008, 2009) relevant to CA transportof kiwifruit and avocados. Dohring(1997) claimed that:avocados, stone fruit, pears, mangoes,asparagus and tangerine made up over 70%of [CA] container volumes in recent years.Lower value commodities e.g. lettuce,broccoli, bananas and apples, make up agreater percentage of the overall global fruitand vegetable trade volumes but cannotabsorb the added CA costs in most markets.Bananas are shipped commercially fromtropical and subtropical countries in reeferships, some of which have CA equipmentinstalled in their refrigerated holds. For example,over 1000 t of bananas are shipped weeklyfrom the West Indies in CA reefer ships. CAreefer containers are also used to a limitedextent for bananas. Experimental reportspublished over several decades have indicatedvarious gas combinations that havebeen suitable for extending the storage life ofbananas. In 1997 there were problems withbananas ripening during transport on reeferships from the West Indies to the UK. Testswere made using CA reefer containers, buteventually CA reefer ships were used, whichsolved the problem, but added about two UScents per kilo to the shipping costs.Hansen (1986) reported that in transportof fruits and vegetables the benefits of reducedO 2were very good, and those of increased CO 2were also good, in that they both delayed ripening,and high CO 2also reduced chillinginjury symptoms. CO 2in cylinders is used forsoft fruit during transport in 20% CO 2, butHansen (1986) reported that dry ice could beused, which is cheaper. He also reported thatstorage at 0 °C required only one-third of theconcentration of CO 2required at 7 °C for soft© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and192 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

Transport 193Fig. 10.1. A commercial controlled atmosphere container in use in 1993.fruit. DeEll (2002) reported that 15–20% CO 2+5–10% O 2reduced the growth of Botrytis cinereaand other decay-causing organisms duringtransport of blueberry. 10% CO 2+ 5% O 2wasrecommended by SeaLand (1991) for surfacetransport of papaya. 3% O 2+ 5% CO 2was successfullyused for transport of bananas.CA Transport TechnologyReefers are increasingly of standard sizeand capacity (Table 10.1). Champion (1986)reviewed the state of the art of CA transportas it existed at that time and defined the differencebetween CA containers and MA containers.CA containers had some mechanismfor measuring the changes in gases andadjusting them to a preset level. MA containershad the appropriate mixture injected intothe sealed container at the beginning of thejourney with no subsequent control, whichmeans that the atmosphere would constantlychange during transport due to respirationand leakage.The degree of control over the gases inCA containers is affected by how gas-tight thecontainer is; some early systems had a leakagerate of 5 m 3 h −1 or more, but with improvedtechnology systems can be below 1 m 3 (Garrett,1992). Much of the air leakage is throughthe door, and fitting plastic curtains inside thedoor can reduce the leakage, but they are difficultto fit and maintain in practice. Somereefer containers introduced in 1993 had asingle door instead of the double doors, whichare easier to make gas-tight. Other CA containerswere fitted with a rail from which aplastic curtain was fitted to make the containermore gas-tight.According to Garrett (1992) the systemused to generate the atmosphere in a containerfalls into three categories:1. The gases that are required to control theatmosphere are carried with the container ineither a liquid or solid form.2. Membrane technology is used to generatethe gases by separation.3. The gases are generated in the containerand recycled with pressure absorption andswing absorption technology.The first method involves injecting N 2intothe container to reduce the level of O 2, oftenwith some enhancement of CO 2(Anon., 1987).It was claimed that such a system could carrycooled produce for 21 days compared with anearlier model, using N 2injection only, which

194 Chapter 10Table 10.1. Sizes and capacities of reefer containers (Seaco Reefers 1996).Type20-foot (RM2) 40-foot (RM4) 40-foot (RM5) ‘high cube’External dimensions (mm)Length 6,096 12,192 12,192Width 2,438 2,438 2,438Height 2,591 2,591 2,896Internal dimensions (mm)Length 5,501 11,638 11,638Width 2,264 2,264 2,264Height 2,253 2,253 2,557Capacity (m 3 ) 28.06 59.81 68.03Tare (kg) 3,068 4,510 4,620Maximum payload (kg) 21,932 27,990 27,880ISO payload (kg) 17,252 25,970 25,860Table 10.2. Specifi cations for a refrigerated CA container (Freshtainer INTAC 401) a .External dimensions(mm)Internal dimensions(mm) Door (mm) Other dataLength 12,192 11,400Width 2,438 2,280 2,262Height 2,895 2,562 2,519Capacity (m 3 ) 66.6Tare (kg) 5,446Maximum payload (kg) 24,554a Temperature range at 38 °C ambient is −25 to + 29 °C (±0.25 °C); O 2down to 1% (+1% or −0.5%) up to 20 l h −1removal; CO 20–80% (+0.5% or −1%) up to 180 l h −1 removal; humidity 60–98% (±5%); ethylene removal rate120 l h −1 (11.25 mg h −1 ); water recycled to maintain high humidity.could be used only on journeys not exceeding1 week. The gases were carried in the compressedliquid form in steel cylinders at thefront of the container, with access from theoutside. O 2levels were maintained by injectionof N 2if the leakage into the containerwas greater than the utilization of O 2throughrespiration by the stored crop. If the metabolismof the crop was high, the O 2could bereplenished by ventilation.In containers that use membrane technology,the CO 2is generated by the respirationof the crop, and N 2is injected to reducethe O 2level. The N 2is produced by passingthe air through fine porous tubes, made frompolysulphones or polyamides, at a pressureof about 5–6 bar. These will divert most of theO 2through the tube walls, leaving mainly N 2,which is injected into the container (Sharples,1989a). A CA reefer container that has controlsthat can give a more precise control overthe gaseous atmosphere was introduced in1993. The specifications are given in Table10.2. The containers used ventilation to controlO 2levels and a patented molecular sieveto control CO 2. The molecular sieve wouldalso absorb ethylene and had two distinct circuits,which were switched at predeterminedintervals so that while one circuit was absorbingthe other was being regenerated. Theregeneration of the molecular sieve bedscould be achieved when they were warmed to100 °C to drive off the CO 2and ethylene. Thissystem of regeneration is referred to as

Transport 195‘ temperature swing’, where the gases areabsorbed at low temperature and released athigh temperature. Regeneration can also beachieved by reducing the pressure around themolecular sieve, which is called ‘pressureswing’. During the regeneration cycle thetrapped gases are usually ventilated to theoutside, but they can be directed back intothe container if this is required. The levels ofgas, temperature and humidity within thecontainer are all controlled by a computer,which is an integral part of the container. Itmonitors the levels of O 2from a paramagneticanalyser and the CO 2from an infra-red gasanalyser, and adjusts the levels to those whichhave been preset in the computer (Fig. 10.2).Champion (1986) mentions the ‘Tectrol’(total environment control) gas-sealing specifications,which were developed and firstused by the Transfresh Corporation ofCalifornia in 1969. They began with theshipment of stone fruit and avocados fromChile to the USA in 1992. In this system,Total AtmosphereControlFreshtainer - TNE508FreshtainerINTAC unitSabroe TNE508refrigeration unitINTAC compressorsInsulated 40ft high cube containerwith ultra low air leakageafter loading, the reefer containers wereflushed with the desired mixture of gasesand then sealed. The reefer unit had N 2tanks that were used to correct the deviationof O 2. Lime was included to lower the CO 2level and magnesium sulfate to reduce ethylene.This system was only satisfactorywhen O 2was the only gas to be controlledand the journey was short. The name Tectrolis also used for a system where natural orpropane gas is burned with outside air,which is introduced into CA stores to lowerthe O 2and increase CO 2.A system in between MA and CA, called‘Fresh-Air Exchange’, was developed whichhas mechanical ventilation to provide somecontrol over O 2and CO 2. Taeckens (2007)described the version made by Carrier, calledAutoFresh :when the CO 2level reached a preset point,the system activates, drawing in outside airto add O 2and ventilate excess CO 2. BecauseFresh-Air Exchange systems rely on naturalatmosphere, the interior of the containerbeing ventilated will generally be approachinga 78% N 2level, with O 2and CO 2in somecombination making up the balance.He thus maintains that the system was usefulwhere the optimal combined CO 2+ O 2levelswere around 21%, and gives the example forstrawberries at 6% O 2+ 16% CO 2. A Germancompany, Cargofresh, reported that by connecting‘an external N 2supply, an MA containercan be “switched” to a fully fledged CAsystem. In this way, even with a central nitrogensupply, each individual container can beindividually regulated’ (Anon., 2009). Theycalled this system ‘CargoSwitch’, and it waslaunched in February 2008.INTAC atmosphereanalyzerFresh airsupply fanHumidity sensorHumidity controlwater reservoirMPC 2000 CAtotal atmosphere controllerwith data loggerAirtight connection enclosurehousing INTAC fanFig. 10.2. Diagram of controlled atmospherereefer container used in 1993.Cronos CA ContainersThere are several other patented systemsavailable to control the gases in reefer containers.Cronos Containers supply inserts calledthe ‘Cronos CA System’, which can convert astandard reefer container to a CA container.The installation may be permanent or temporaryand is self-contained, taking some 3 h thefirst time. If the equipment has already been

196 Chapter 10installed in a container and subsequently dismantled,then reinstallation can be achievedin about an hour. The complete units measure2 m × 2 m × 0.2 m, which means that 50 ofthem can be fitted into a 40-foot (11.5 m) drycontainer for transport to where they will beused. This facilitates management of the system.It also means that they take up little ofthe cargo space when fitted into the container,only 0.8 m 3 . The unit operates alongside thecontainer’s refrigeration system and is capableof controlling, maintaining and recordingthe levels of O 2, CO 2and humidity to the levelsand tolerances pre-set into a programmablecontroller. Ethylene can also be removedfrom the container by scrubbing. It wasclaimed that this level of control was greaterthan any comparable CA storage system,increasing shipping range and enhancing thequality of fresh fruit, vegetables, flowers, fish,meat, poultry and similar products. The systemis easily attached to the container floorand bulkhead, and takes power from theexisting reefer equipment with minimal alterationto the reefer container. The design andmanufacture is robust enough to allow operationin the harsh (marine) environments thatwill be encountered in typical use. The systemfits most modern reefers and is easy to install,set up, use and maintain. A menu-driven programmablecontroller provides the interfaceto the operator, who simply has to pre-set therequired percentages of each gas to levelsappropriate for the product in transit. Thecontrols are located on the front external wallof the container, and, once set up, a displaywill indicate the measured levels of O 2, CO 2and relative humidity. The system consists ofa rectangular aluminium mainframe, on towhich the various sub-components aremounted (Fig. 10.3).The compressor is located at the top leftof the mainframe and is driven by an integralelectric motor supplied from the control box.Air is extracted from the container and pressurized(up to 4 bar) before passing throughthe remainder of the system. A pressure reliefvalve is incorporated in the compressor, alongwith inlet filters. A bleed supply of externalair is ducted to the compressor and is takenvia the manifold, with a filter mounted externalto the container.The compressed air is cooled prior topassing through the remainder of the system.A series of coils wound around the outside ofthe air cooler radiates heat back into the container.The compressed air then passes intothis component, which removes the pressurepulses produced by the compressor and providesa stable air supply. The water trap passinginto the CA storage system then removesmoisture. Water from this component isducted into the water reservoir and used toincrease the humidity when required. Twoactivated alumina drier beds are used in thisequipment, each located beneath one of theN 2and CO 2beds. Control valves are used toroute the air through parts of the system, asrequired by the conditioning process. Meshfilters are fitted to the outlet that vents N 2andCO 2back into the container and to the outletthat vents oxygen to the exterior of the container.N 2and CO 2beds are located above thedrier sieve beds and contain zeolite for theabsorption of N 2and CO 2.Ethylene bedEthylene can be removed from the containerair if required. A single ethylene absorptionbed is used, which contains a mixture of activatedalumina and Hisea material (a claymineral-based system patented by BOC). Airfrom the container is routed to the bed, whichremains pressurized for several hours and isthen depressurized via the O 2venting lines.The O 2flow is then routed through the bedfor 20 min in order to scrub it. After this theprocess is repeated.Humidity injection systemTo increase the relative humidity within thecontainer, an atomized spray of water isinjected, as required, into the main airflowthrough the reefer. The water supply is takenfrom a reservoir located at the base of themainframe, which is fed from the reefer defrostsystem and the water trap. Air from the instrumentair buffer is used to form the spray bydrawing up the water as required. A furtherstage of moisture removal is carried out using

Transport 197Fig. 10.3. Cronos controlled atmosphere reefer container system (courtesy of Tim Bach).drier beds that are charged with activated alumina.From here the air is routed either directlyto the N 2and CO 2beds or via the ethylene bed,depending on the type of conditioning needed.The reefer process tends to decrease the humiditywithin the container, with water being dischargedfrom the defrost equipment. Whenthe CA storage system is used, this water isdrained into a 5-l reservoir located within themainframe and used to increase the humidityif required. Air from the instrument air bufferis used to draw the water into an atomizinginjection system located in the main reefer airflow.The control valve is operated for a shortperiod, and once the additional water sprayhas been mixed in with the air in the container,the humidity level is measured and the valveoperated again if required.Carbon dioxide injection systemFour 10-l bottles of CO 2are located in themainframe. To increase the level of CO 2within the container the gas is vented via aregulator. CO 2is retained in the molecularsieve, along with the N 2. Normally this wouldbe returned to the container, but if it isrequired to remove CO 2then the flow of gas(which is mainly CO 2at this point) is divertedfor the last few seconds, to be vented outsidethe container. This supply of CO 2is intendedto last for the duration of the longest trip. Acheck to ensure the bottles are full is includedas one of the pre-trip checks.O 2removal is accomplished using amolecular sieve which is pressurized at up to3 bar. N 2and CO 2are retained in the bed. The

198 Chapter 10separated O 2is taken from the sieve bed tothe manifold at the bottom of the mainframeand then vented outside the container. It ispossible to reduce the level of O 2to around4%, although this does depend on a maximumair leakage into the container, and incertain cases O 2levels of 2.0% or even 1.5%can be maintained (Tim Bach, 1997, personalcommunication).Oxygen additionTo add O 2, air from outside the container isallowed to enter by opening a control valvefor a short period. Once the additional air hasbeen mixed in with the air in the container,the O 2level is measured and the valve operatedagain if required.Gas return flowThe N 2and CO 2retained in the main sievebeds are returned to the alumina drier beds inorder to recharge them and remove moisturefrom them. Finally the gas is returned to themain container via a valve located at the bottomof the mainframe. If the CO 2is to beremoved, a modified process occurs.The levels of O 2, CO 2and relative humidityare continually monitored and the valuespassed back to the display. A supply of gas istaken from the general atmosphere within thecontainer via a small pump located within thecontrol box. The gas is passed on to an O 2transducer and then a CO 2transducer, beforebeing returned to the container. The locationof these components is shown in Fig. 10.4. Atransducer located in the airflow through themainframe and connected into the controlbox measures relative humidity.The above sequence of operation is carriedout according to instructions providedby the display. In particular, the measuredvalues of O 2, CO 2and relative humidity arecompared in the display with those pre-setby the operator and the gas conditioningcycle adjusted accordingly. Once set up theprocess is automatic and no further interventionis required by the operator unless a faultoccurs.In addition to providing the operatorinterface, the display has a communicationssocket which allows data to be transferred(e.g. to/from an external computer). The mostfrequent use of this facility will be the downloadingof the data logged during normaloperation of the system – the levels of O 2, CO 2and relative humidity as periodically recorded.Data is output in a form which can be used ina spreadsheet. It is also possible to use theexternal computer to modify system settingsand carry out other diagnostic operations.CA Transport TrialsMangoesMaekawa (1990) reported that green matureIrwin mangoes were transported in a refrigeratedtruck at 12 °C on a car ferry from KumeIsland to Tokyo Port and then from Tokyo toTsukuba University by land. The total journeytook 4 days. On arrival the fruits were storedin 5% O 2+ 5% CO 2at 8, 10 or 12 °C. Fruitquality was retained at all temperatures for1 month. No chilling injury was observed,even at the lowest temperature. Dos Prazeresand de Bode (2009) carried out shipment trialsfor 21 days at 10 °C and 95% rh in 3% O 2. Theyreported that all fruits arrived in good condition,with ‘no quality losses’ and with a shelflifeof up to 10 days. They also did static trialsof storage for 43 days and then an actual shipmenttaking 49 days and found that the cultivarsKent and Tommy Atkins proved the bestcultivars, since they arrived in good condition.All major aroma volatile compounds inripe fruits decreased as the level of CO 2wasincreased over the range of 3, 6 or 9% at 2% O 2during 21 days’ storage of the cultivar KensingtonPride at 13 °C. Storage in 2% O 2+ 6%CO 2at 13 °C appeared to be promising forextending the shelf-life and maintaining fruitquality, while storage in 2% O 2+ 2% CO 2appeared to be better at maintaining the aromacompounds of ripe fruits (Lalel et al., 2005).Successful simulated commercial export ofmangoes using the ‘Transfresh’ system of CAcontainer technology was described by Ferrar(1988). Peacock (1988) described a CA

Transport 199Gas feedto sensorsRH sensorMountingbracketCompressorAir coolerN 2 andCO 2 bed11FilterhousingsCO 2 regulator19Control boxx17Connectorto displayN 2 andCO 2 bed16Ethylenebed13Air bufferHumidityinjectionsystem12WatertrapWater Air Water Air9756108171218315 144WaterreservoirManifoldCO 2 cylindersDrier sieve bedsKeyElectrical power cablesElectrical signal cablesGas flow linesWater flow linesControl valves (numbered)Gas line connectorsCheck (one-way) valves;arrow indicates flow directionNeedle valvesFig. 10.4. Schematic layout of Cronos controlled atmosphere system (courtesy of Tim Bach).

200 Chapter 10transport experiment in Australia where mangoeswere harvested from three commercialsites in Queensland when the total soluble solidswere 13–15%. Fruits were de-stalked intwo of the three sources and washed, treatedwith 500 ppm benomyl at 52 °C for 5 min,cooled and sprayed with prochloraz (200 ppm),dried and sorted, and finally size-graded andpacked in waxed fibreboard cartons. Afterpacking, fruits were transported by road to apre-cooling room overnight (11 °C). Pulp temperatureswere 18–19 °C the following morning.After 36 h of transport to Brisbane andovernight holding in a conventional coolroom, the fruits were placed in a CA shippingcontainer. At loading, the pulp temperaturewas 12 °C. Fruits were stored in the containerat 13 °C with 5% O 2+ 1% CO 2for 18 days. Ripeningwas significantly delayed in CA storage,although there were problems with CO 2control,related to the efficiency of the scrubbingsystem. There was virtually no anthracnosedisease but very high levels of stem-end rot.On removal from the CA container, fruitsimmediately began to ooze sap and the losscontinued for at least 24 h.KiwifruitLallu et al. (1997) described experiments onCA transport of kiwifruit in containers wherethe atmosphere was controlled by either N 2flushing and ‘Purafil’ (potassium permanganateabsorbed on to a clay mineral) or limeand Purafil and a third with no CA. N 2flushing + Purafil maintained CO 2levels ofapproximately 1% and O 2at 2.0–2.5%, whilewith lime + Purafil the CO 2levels were 3–4%and the O 2levels increased steadily to 10%. Onarrival the ethylene levels in the three containerswere less than 0.02 µl l −1 , indicating that thepotassium permanganate was not necessary.However, they concluded that CA containerscan result in benefits to fruit quality.Avocado and bananaEksteen and Truter (1989) stored avocadosand bananas in two ‘Freshtainer’ 40-foot CAcontainers controlled by microprocessors.The set conditions for avocados were7.4 ± 0.5 °C for 8 days, followed by 5.5 ± 0.5 °Cfor 7 days, with 2.0 ± 0.5% O 2and a maximumof 10 ± 0.5% CO 2. Those for bananas were:12.7 ± 0.5 °C for 8 days, followed by 13.5 ± 0.5 °Cfor 11 days, with 2.0 ± 0.5% O 2and a maximumof 7.0 ± 0.5% CO 2. They reported thatthe containers were capable of very accuratecontrol within the specified conditions. Alsothe fruit quality was better than that of thecontrols, which were 2 weeks’ storage at5.5 °C for avocados and 13.5 ± 0.5 °C forbananas, both in air in insulated containers.Hypobaric ContainersVarious other methods have been used formodifying the atmosphere during fruit andvegetable transport, including hypobaric containers.A commercial hypobaric containerwas developed in the mid-1970s and used forfish and meat as well as fruits and vegetables.However, to prevent implosion it was verystrongly constructed and therefore heavy andexpensive. The Grumman Corporation in theUSA constructed a hypobaric container whichthey called ‘Dormavac’. It was operated at2.2–2.8 °C and a pressure of 15 mm Hg, andthey tested it in commercial situations butwere unable to make it profitable, resulting inlosses of some $50 million (Anon., undated).Alvarez (1980) described experiments wherepapaya fruits were subjected to subatmosphericpressure of 20 mm Hg at 10 °Cand 90–98% rh for 18–21 days during shipmentin a hypobaric container from Hawaii toLos Angeles and New York. Both ripeningand disease development were inhibited.Fruits ripened normally after removal fromthe hypobaric containers, but abnormal softeningunrelated to disease occurred in 4–45%of fruits of one packer. It was found thathypobaric stored fruits had 63% less peduncleinfection, 55% less stem-end rot and 45%fewer fruit surface lesions than those storedin a refrigerated container at normal atmosphericpressure. A hypobaric system calledVacuFresh sm was described by Burg (2004). Ithad a very slow removal of air, and therefore

Transport 201it was claimed that there was no desiccationproblem with fruits and vegetables transportedin these containers.OzoneA company, Purfresh Transport, developed areefer container with patented technologywhich has a slow ozone input throughout thetransport period. They claimed ‘. . . ozonemolecules kill moulds, yeasts, and bacteria inthe air and on surfaces by up to 99%, as wellas to consume and regulate ethylene levels’. Itwas reported to have been successfully testedon avocados, bananas, berries, citrus, cucumbers,grapes, kiwifruit, mangoes, melons,onions, peppers, pineapples, pome fruit,potatoes, stone fruit, tomatoes and tropicals(Bordanaro, 2009). The company carried out atrial on transport of nectarines from Californiato Taiwan taking 14 days. They reportedthat the Purfresh container ‘outperformed theCA treatment on net weight loss, fruit pressure,brix content, and microbial counts’.MA packagingMA packaging has been developed for particulartransport situations. For long-distancetransport of bananas, a system called ‘Banavac’was developed and patented by the UnitedFruit Company (Badran, 1969). The systemuses PE film bags, 0.04 mm thick, in which thefruits are packed (typically 18.14 kg); a vacuumis applied and the bags are sealed. Typical gascontents that develop in the bags through fruitrespiration are about 5% CO 2and 2% O 2duringtransport at 13–14 °C (De Ruiter, 1991).

GlossaryAtmosphere Measurementand ControlCarbon dioxide and oxygen levelsIncreasingly in scientific journals the CO 2and O 2levels in CA stores are expressed askilopascals, which is a unit of pressurewhere 1 Pascal = 1 Newton m −2 . This relatesto the partial pressure of the gases aroundthe fruit or vegetable and is approximatelyrelated to the percentage of the pure gas,since 1 atmosphere = 10 5 Newton m −2 = 100%.Normal atmospheric pressure is 1013.25millibars, and 1 millibar is equivalent toapproximately 0.1%. One atmosphere is101.325%, so 1% is a pressure of approximately1% of one atmosphere. If one atmospherewas exactly 1000 millibars, then 1%would be exactly 1% of an atmosphere. Interms of percentages, levels of CO 2and O 2in store are referred to as percentage by volumerather than by mass. For a constituentof a total atmosphere (in this case CO 2andO 2as a constituent of atmospheric air),the volume of the constituent divided bythe volume of total = partial pressure of theconstituent divided by the pressure of thetotal. So the volume of a constituent isdivided by the volume of the total. For 5%CO 2, it would be 5 divided by 101.35 = 4.9%CO 2. In this book, in order to simplifythe information and provide comparisonsbetween work of different authors, allthe levels of gases are expressed as apercentage on the basis that 1% = approxi -mately 1 kPa.EthyleneEthylene is an autocatalytic gas producedby fruits and vegetables that stimulates theirrespiration rate and initiates ripening of climactericfruit. Traditionally, levels in storeshave been referred to as parts per million orppm, which is based on mass for mass orvolume for volume. It has become moreconventional to express these terms asmicro- litres per litre and abbreviated as µll −1 . They are the same, so 100 µ l −1 ethylene =100 ppm.Ethylene absorbentsEthysorb ® and Purafil ® are brand names forpotassium permanganate absorbed on to aninert mineral that can oxidize ethylene, butthe reaction is non-reversible. It is availablein sachets that can be placed inside MApackages.© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and202 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

Glossary 203HumidityStore humidity is referred to as percentagerelative humidity (rh – humidity relative tothat which is saturated), but it is also referredto as VPD (vapour pressure deficit), whichrelates the gaseous water in the atmosphereto its maximum capacity at a given temperature.VPD in air is the difference between thesaturation vapour pressure and the actualvapour pressure at a given temperature. Itcan be expressed in millibars (mb) or millimetresof mercury (mm Hg). The vapour pressureis determined from the dry bulb and wetbulb readings by substitution in an equation(Regnault, August and Apjohn quoted byAnon., 1964):e = e w− Ap(T − T)where:e is the vapour pressure;e wis the saturation vapour pressure atthe temperature (T) of wet bulb;p is the atmospheric pressure;T is the temperature of the dry bulb;T is the temperature of the wet bulb; andA is a ‘constant’ that depends on the rateof ventilation of the psychrometer, thelatent heat of evaporation of water andthe temperature scale in which the thermometersare graduated.Examples of the relationship betweenrelative humidity and vapour pressure at differenttemperatures are given as follows:ScrubbingThis is the selective removal of CO 2from theatmosphere by adsorption or absorption. Insome cases this is referred to as product-generatedcontrolled atmospheres or injectedcontrolled atmospheres.Controlled AtmosphereBishop (1996) defined CA storage as ‘A lowO 2and/or high CO 2atmosphere created bynatural respiration or artificial means . . .controlled by a sequence of measurementsand corrections throughout the storageperiod’. In traditional CA storage the gasesare measured periodically and adjusted tothe predetermined level by the introductionof fresh air or N 2or passing the store atmospherethrough a chemical to remove CO 2.There are also different types of CA storage,depending mainly on the method or degreeof control of the gases. Some researchers preferto use the terms ‘static CA storage’ and‘flushed CA storage’ to define the two mostcommonly used systems (D.S. Johnson, 1997,personal communication). ‘Static’ is wherethe product generates the atmosphere and‘flushed’ is where the atmosphere is suppliedfrom a flowing gas stream that purges thestore continuously. Systems may be designedwhich utilize flushing initially to reduce theDepression of the wet bulb (°C)Dry bulb (°C) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 7.0 9.0Vapour pressure (millibars)20 23.4 22.3 21.3 20.3 19.3 18.3 17.4 10.3 7.116 18.2 17.3 16.4 15.5 14.6 13.8 13.0 6.8 4.014 16.0 15.1 14.3 13.5 12.7 11.9 11.1 5.4 2.712 14.0 13.2 12.5 11.7 10.9 10.2 9.5 4.1 1.610 12.3 11.5 10.8 10.1 9.4 8.7 8.0 2.9 0.6Relative humidity (%)20 100 96 91 87 83 78 74 44 3016 100 95 90 85 81 76 71 37 3014 100 95 90 84 79 74 70 33 2512 100 94 89 83 78 73 68 29 1110 100 94 88 82 77 71 65 24 5

204 GlossaryO 2content, then either injecting CO 2or allowingit to build up through respiration, andthen the maintenance of this atmosphere byventilation and scrubbing. Scrubbing is theselective removal of CO 2from the atmosphereby adsorption or absorption. In somecases these are referred to as productgeneratedcontrolled atmospheres or injectedcontrolled atmospheres.DCADynamic controlled atmosphere storage wasdefined by Toivonen and DeEll (2001),DeLong et al. (2004), Burdon et al. (2008) andLafer (2008) as when the gas mixture willconstantly change due to metabolic activityof the respiring fruits or vegetables in thestore and leakage of gases through doorsand walls. Where the O 2level falls below athreshold level, several metabolic processeswill change. These include ethanol synthesis,and the chloroplasts will be stressed,causing them to fluoresce. DCA uses themeasurement of either chlorophyll fluorescenceor ethanol production to control the O 2level in the store.MA FilmsMany films have been used in MA packagingand some of the more important ones aredescribed as follows:CellophaneCellophane is a thin, transparent sheet madeof regenerated cellulose with low gas permeability.It was invented by the Swiss chemistJacques E. Brandenberger in 1900 and is completelybiodegradable, but releases carbondisulfide and other by-products of the manufacturingprocess. 25 µ clear PP is sometimesreferred to as cellophane in the USA. Cellophaneis a registered trademark of InnoviaFilms Ltd, UK. To make cellulose or cellophanefilm, cellulose is dissolved in a mixtureof sodium hydroxide and carbon disulfideand then recast into sulfuric acid. The cellophaneproduced is very hydrophilic andtherefore moisture sensitive, but it has goodmechanical properties. Cellophane is oftencoated with nitrocellulose wax or PVdC(polyvinylidene chloride) to improve barrierproperties, and in such form it is used forpackaging of baked goods, processed meat,cheese and candies.ULOUltra-low oxygen storage was first investigatedat the East Malling Research Station inthe UK in the early 1980s, where it wasdefined as O 2levels of 2% or less. It has subsequentlybeen used widely and more commonlyrefers to O 2levels of

Glossary 205CPPCast film extrusion machinery is used to placethin layers of plastic on top of paper, cardboard,tape and other materials. These castfilm extrusion lines are similar to blown film.This type of plastic extrusion equipment canalso be used for laminating a variety of materialsby applying heat and pressure. Castpolypropylene (CPP) is one such film.EVAEthylene vinyl acetate co-polymer has highflexibility in sheet form, has higher permeabilityto water vapour and gases than LDPEand is mainly used as a component of thesealant layer in lids and base films.EVOHEthylene vinyl alcohol co-polymer is moisturesensitive, has a very high gas barrier andis sandwiched between the main formableand sealant layer to provide protection, but itis expensive.Gelpack ®Films are made from polyethylene blendedwith crushed volcanic rock during manufacture,creating microscopic holes in the film.HDPEHigh-density polyethylene has a highersoftening point than LDPE, provides superiorbarrier properties and has better gas barrierproperties than LLDPE but poor clarity. It isused as one of the layers in the lid materialin co-extruded form. HDPE has 75–90% crystallinestructure with an ordered lineararrangement of the molecules, with littlebranching and a molecular weight of 90,000–175,000. It has a typical density range of0.995–0.970 g cm −1 and has greater tensilestrength, stiffness and hardness than lowdensitypolyethylene. High-density polyethylenefilm has the following specifications:520–4000 O 2cm 3 m −2 day −1 and 3900–10,000CO 2cm 3 m −2 day −1 at 1 atmosphere for0.0254 mm thick at 22–25 °C at various orunreported relative humidity, and 4–10 watervapour g m −2 day −1 at 37.8 °C and 90% rh(Schlimme and Rooney, 1994).High-impact polystyreneThis is an opaque, thermoformable, moderatelylow gas-barrier material and is used as acomponent of a laminate or for co-extrusion.IonomersIonomers are polyethylene-based films.Al-Ati and Hotchkiss (2003) investigatedaltering PE ionomer films with permselectivitesbetween 4–5 CO 2and 0.8–1.3 O 2. Permselectivityis the ratio of CO 2:O 2permeationcoefficients. The results on fresh-cut applessuggest that packaging films with CO 2:O 2permselectivities lower than those commerciallyavailable (

206 Glossary1 atmosphere for 0.0254 mm thick at 22–25 °Cat various or unreported relative humidity,and 6.0–23.2 water vapour g m −2 day −1 at37.8 °C and 90% rh (Schlimme and Rooney,1994). It is an inert film with low permeabilityfor water vapour but high gas permeability.LLDPELinear low-density polyethylene is used predominantlyin film applications owing to itstoughness, flexibility and relative transparency.It is a variation of basic LDPE film buthas better impact strength, tear resistance,higher tensile strength and elongation, greaterresistance to environmental stress crackingand better puncture resistance. LLDPE combinesthe properties of low-density polyethylenefilm and high-density polyethylene film,giving a more crystalline structure than lowdensitypolyethylene film but with a controllednumber of branches, which makes it tougherand suitable for heat sealing. It is made fromethylene with butene, hexene or octane, withthe latter two co-monomers giving enhancedimpact resistance and tear strength. Permeabilitywas given as 7000–9300 O 2cm 3 m −2 day −1 at1 atmosphere for 0.0254 mm thick at 22–25 °Cat various or unreported relative humidity,and 16–31 water vapour g m −2 day −1 at 37.8 °Cand 90% rh (Schlimme and Rooney, 1994).MDPEMedium-density polyethylene is typicallyused in gas pipes and fittings, sacks, shrinkfilm, packaging film, carrier bags and screwclosures. It has a density in the range of0.926 to 0.940, 2600–8293 O 2cm 3 m −2 day −1and 7700–38,750 CO 2cm 3 m −2 day −1 at 1 atmospherefor 0.0254 mm thick at 22–25 °C atvarious or unreported relative humidity, and8–15 water vapour g m −2 day −1 at 37.8 °C and90% rh (Schlimme and Rooney, 1994).OPPOriented polypropylene provides a highmoisture vapour barrier and gas barrier,seven to ten times that of polyethylene. OPPcoated with polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)in low-gauge form provides a high barrier tomoisture vapour.PEPolyethylene is a thermoplastic polymer consistingof long chains of the monomer ethylenemanufactured by the chemical industry. It iscreated through polymerization of ethane andcan be manufactured through radical polymerization,anionic addition polymerization, ioncoordination polymerization or cationic additionpolymerization. Each method results in adifferent type of polyethylene. Polyethylene isclassified mainly on its density and branching,and its mechanical properties depend on theextent and type of branching, the crystal structureand the molecular weight. It is a white,waxy substance, which was first synthesizedby the German chemist Hans von Pechmannin 1898 while heating diazomethane. However,it wasn’t until 1933 that the first industriallypractical polyethylene was synthesized byEric Fawcett, Reginald Gibson and MichaelPerrin at the ICI works in the UK. Perrin developeda reproducible high-pressure synthesisfor polyethylene, which became the basis forindustrial LDPE in 1939. LDPE is used for theubiquitous ‘polythene bag’ so frequently usedin fresh produce packaging. Subsequently catalystshave been developed to promote ethylenepolymerization at more mild temperaturesand pressures. By the end of the 1950s both thePhillips catalyst (developed by 1951 by RobertBanks and John Hogan at Phillips Petroleum)and Ziegler-type catalyst (developed by KarlZiegler in 1953) were being used for HDPEproduction. A third type of catalyst system,called metallocene, was discovered in 1976 inGermany by Walter Kaminsky and HansjörgSinn. The Ziegler and metallocene catalystshave proved to be very flexible at co-polymerizingethylene with other olefins and havebecome the basis for the wide range of polyethyleneresins. Many different types of PE arecurrently available, including ultra-highmolecularweight PE, high-molecular weightPE, high-density PE, high-density cross-linkedPE and PEX (cross-linked PE), but the ones

Glossary 207used in modified atmosphere packaging are:MDPE (medium-density PE), which is used inshrink film and packaging film; LDPE (lowdensityPE) and LLDPE (linear low-densityPE), which have a high degree of tough ness,flexibility and relative transparency; andVLDPE (very low-density PE), used in foodpackaging and stretch wrap. Ionomers are PEbasedfilms characterized by a differentamount of acrylic acid groups, percentage ofneutralization and type of counter ions. Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) can be used tomanufacture thin oriented films with excellentthermal properties (−70 to +150 °C); thereforeit is used for pre-cooked meals and ‘boil in thebag’ but not for modified atmosphere packagingof fresh fruits and vegetables.PET or PETEPolyethylene terephthalate is a saturated,thermoplastic polyester resin made by condensingethylene glycol and terephthalic acidand is commonly used as a synthetic fibrecalled polyester. In modified atmospherepackaging this film is either laminated orextrusion coated with polyethylene. It is usedin various forms in modified atmospherepackaging, e.g. as a low-gauge oriented filmof high clarity as lid material and in crystallineor amorphous form as in-line preformedor thermoformed trays.PolyolefinPO are prepared from olefins, especially ethyleneand propylene, into a range of highshrink,multilayer, high-speed machineableshrink films, with high tensile strength, highclarity and balanced heat shrinkage in alldirections. Cryovac is a commonly usedgroup of PO that can be used for fruit, generallyusing foam trays.PPPolypropylene is chemically similar to PEand can be extruded or co-extruded to providea sealant layer. It was first polymerized byKarl Rehn in 1951 and Giulio Natta in 1954 inSpain.PSPolystyrene is a clear, brittle thermoplasticwith a high tensile strength but a poor barrierto moisture vapour and gases. It can beblended with styrene–butadiene or styrenepolybutadiene to achieve the required properties,but they can affect its clarity.PVCPolyvinyl chloride is most widely used as thethermoformable base for MA packages since itprovides a good gas barrier and a moderatebarrier to moisture vapour. The barrier propertiesand strength characteristics vary withthickness. It was discovered in 1835 by theFrench chemist Henri Victor Regnault, when itappeared as a white solid inside flasks of vinylchloride that had been left exposed to sunlight.In the early 20th century Ivan Ostromislenskyand Fritz Klatte of the German chemical companyGriesheim-Elektron attempted to usePVC in commercial products, but difficultiesin processing prevented development. In 1926,Waldo Semon of the B.F. Goodrich Companydeveloped a method to plasticize PVC byblending it with various additives which madeit more flexible and easier to process, resultingin its widespread commercial use. The propertiesof PVC can range in form from soft andflexible to hard and rigid, either of which maybe solid or cellular, depending on the type ofplasticizer used.PVDCPolyvinylidene chloride is a co-polymer ofvinylidene chloride and, with vinyl chloride,is used as a gas barrier coating on polyesterand OPP for films used for lids and in filmform as a sandwiched barrier layer. It has lowpermeability to water vapour and gases.

208 GlossaryVLDPEVery low-density polyethylene is used forhose and tubing, ice and frozen food bags,food packaging and stretch wrap.Xtend ®These films are manufactured from polymerswhich, it is claimed, give a ‘correct balance’between O 2and CO 2while excess moisture isallowed to escape. Various films have beendeveloped with a range of permeabilities.Xtend ® films prevent water condensationinside the bags (Porat et al., 2004) and are oftwo types: low water conductance, whichgives an internal humidity of 93%, and highwater conductance, which gives an internalhumidity of 90% (Lichter et al., 2005). Aharoniet al. (2008) used hydrophilic Xtend ® filmsmanufactured from various proprietaryblends of polyamides with other polymericand non-polymeric compounds with microperforations,which allowed humidity levels thatprevented accumulation of condensed waterto develop inside the packs. They showed thatsuitable combinations of O 2and CO 2weredeveloped in the microperforated Xtend ® .Yam starchMali and Grossmann (2003) made a film from4.0 g of yam starch plus 1.3 or 2.0 g glycerol in100 g of filmogenic solution. They tested thefilm on packaging strawberries stored at 4 °Cand 85% rh and compared it with PVC filmpackaging. Both films significantly reduceddecay of the fruits compared with the control,but PVC reduced softening and weight lossmore than the yam starch film.ZeinZein is a class of prolamine hydrophobic proteinsproduced from maize which are madeinto biodegradable transparent films. Theirtensile strength varies between 7 and 30 MPaand the puncture strengths between 37 and191 MPa, and they have a higher O 2than CO 2permeability. The lowest water vapourpermeability was 0.012 × 10 −9 g·m/m 2·s·Pa.(Tomoyuki et al., 2002). Emmambux and Stading(2007) studied the addition of plasticizersand found that they increased the strain anddecreased stress. At a low level of plasticizers(6.25% and 12%), zein films deformed andfractured through micro-crack formation andpropagation. At high plasticization, onlymicropores were observed during tensiledeformation. The filler material oil andDimodan ® increased, but Vestosint ® decreased,tensile strain in comparison with the control.Zein films are expensive and have been developedin various thicknesses as coatings onbakery products and medical tablets, as well asfor fruit coatings, including tomatoes andapples. The industry standard for high-glossfruit coating of fresh fruits and vegetables hasbeen shellac-based formulations, which haveproblems with whitening and low gas permeability.However, zein produced by dissolvingit in aqueous alcohol with propylene glycolwas found to be a superior substitute. Internalatmospheres ranged from 4 to 11% for CO 2and 6 to 19 for O 2in zein-coated Gala apples.An optimum formulation with 10% zein and10% propylene glycol was developed, andwhen applied to apples maintained overallfruit quality comparable to commercial shellaccoating (Bai et al., 2003).Modified Atmosphere PackagingMA packaging or MA storage is where thefruit or vegetable is enclosed within sealedplastic film, which is slowly permeable to therespiratory gases. The gases will changewithin the package, thus producing lowerconcentrations of O 2and higher concentrationsof CO 2than exist in fresh air. Bishop(1996) defined MA as ‘. . . an atmosphere ofthe required composition is created by respiration,or mixed and flushed into the productenclosure. This mixture is expected to bemaintained over the storage life and no furthermeasurement or control takes place’.MA storage can also refer to stores orcontainers that are gas-tight but have a panelset within them which is slowly permeable to

Glossary 209gases. In both MA storage and MA packagingthe level of the gases around the fruit or vegetablewill depend on:●●●●●the mass of fruit or vegetable within thepack or containerthe temperature of the fruit or vegetableand the surrounding airthe type and thickness of plastic film ormembrane usedwhether moisture condenses on the filmor membrane surfaceexternal airflow around the film ormembrane.Since there are so many variable and interactingfactors it has been necessary to use mathematicalmodelling techniques in order topredict the levels of gases around the fruit orvegetable.Active packagingThis system usually involves the inclusion ofa desiccant or O 2absorber within or as part ofthe packaging material.Shrink-wrappingShrink films are plastic films usually madefrom polyolefin, but PE and PVC are alsoused. The film should have a low permeabilityto water vapour and O 2but high permeabilityto CO 2. It should be thin (about17–19 µm thick) but have high tensile strengthand be transparent. The film is placed overthe product, which is then passed through atunnel where heated air is blown over it,causing the film to shrink. The temperatureand residence time in the tunnel are developedby experience, but should not be morethan 180–210 °C for individual wraps and140–145 °C for tray wraps, and the residencetime is usually 15–30 s.Vacuum packagingVacuum packaging uses a range of low- ornon-permeable films (barrier films) or containers,into which the fresh fruit or vegetableis placed and the air is sucked out.EMAPEquilibrium modified atmosphere packagingis the most commonly used packaging technologyfor fresh-cut produce. High- permeablefilms for O 2and CO 2achieve an atmosphereinside the packages that remains constantduring the marketing chain (Jacxsens et al.,2002).MIPModified interactive packaging uses an LDPEimpregnated with minerals which, whenblended together, form a permeable film. Thisallows for a set percentage of O 2to enter thebag at any given time, but the exchange doesnot exceed three parts O 2to one part CO 2.High humidity is maintained inside thepackage with minimal condensation, whichreduces the risk of spoilage through fungal orbacterial infection.ZeoliteZeolites are microporous aluminium silicateminerals commonly used as commercialadsorbents. They have been incorporated intoplastic films to improve modified atmospherepackaging. Among these a commercial product,FH film, containing zeolites embeddedinto polyethylene (Evert-Fresh Co. Inc.,Japan), was reported to be suitable for extendingthe shelf-life of fruits and vegetables.Dirim et al. (2003) found that hot-pressed,co-extruded zeolite polyethylene film wasquite satisfactory as a packaging material.Melo et al. (2002) found that stored cherimoyafruits packed in zeolite film had extendedstorage life compared with those stored nonwrapped.Zeolites are also used as scrubbersin controlled atmosphere stores: for example,a zeolite called clinoptilolite is used, whichhas the following structure:(Na 2K 2Ca) 3(Ai Si 9 30 O 72 ) 24 H 2 OExchangeable cations Structural cations

ReferencesAbbott, J. 2009. Horticulture Week. http://www.hortweek.com/news/921352/Interview-David-Johnsonagronomist-post-harvest-physiologist-East-Malling-Research/accessed October 2009.Abdel-Rahman, M. and Isenberg, F.M.R. 1974. Effects of growth regulators and controlled atmosphere onstored carrots. Journal of Agricultural Science, 82, 245–249.Abdul-Karim, M.N.B., Nor, L.M. and Hassan, A. 1993. The storage of sapadilla Manikara achras L. at 10, 15,and 20 °C. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Proceedings, 50, 443.Abdul Rahman, A.S., Maning, N. and Dali, O. 1997. Respiratory metabolism and changes in chemicalcomposition of banana fruit after storage in low oxygen atmosphere. Seventh International ControlledAtmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616,USA [abstract], 51.Abdul Raouf, U.M., Beuchat, L.R. and Ammar, M.S. 1993. Survival and growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7on salad vegetables. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 59, 1999–2006.Abdullah, H. and Pantastico, E.B. 1990. Bananas. Association of Southeast Asian Nations-COFAF, Jakarta,Indonesia.Abdullah, H. and Tirtosoekotjo, S. 1989. Association of Southeast Asian Nations Horticulture Produce DataSheets. Association of Southeast Asian Nations Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.Abe, Y. 1990. Active packaging – a Japanese perspective. In Day, B.P.F. Editor. International Conference onModified Atmosphere Packaging Part 1. Campden Food and Drinks Research Association, ChippingCampden, UK.Adamicki, F. 1989. Przechowywanie warzyw w kontrolowanej atmosferze. Biuletyn Warzywniczy Supplement,I, 107–113.Adamicki, F. 2001.The effect of modified interactive packaging (MIP) on post-harvest storage of somevegetables. Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin, 54, 213–218.Adamicki, F. 2003. Effect of controlled atmosphere and temperature on physiological disorders of storedChinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L var. pekinensis). Acta Horticulturae, 600, 297–301.Adamicki, F. and Badełek, E. 2006. The studies on new technologies for storage prolongation and maintainingthe high quality of vegetables. Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin, 65, 63–72.Adamicki, F. and Elkner, K. 1985. Effect of temperature and a controlled atmosphere on cauliflower storageand quality. Biuletyn Warzywniczy, 28, 197–224.Adamicki, F. and Gajewski, M. 1999. Effect of controlled atmosphere on the storage of Chinese cabbage(Brassica rapa L var. pekinensis). Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin, 50, 61–70.Adamicki, F. and Kepka, A.K. 1974. Storage of onions in controlled atmospheres. Acta Horticulturae, 38,53–73.Adamicki, F., Dyki, B. and Malewski, W. 1977a. Effect of CO 2on the physiological disorders observed inonion bulbs during CA storage. Quality of Plant Foods and Human Nutrition, XXVII, 239–248.© A. Keith Thompson 2010. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruits and210 Vegetables, Second Edition (A. Keith Thompson)

References 211Adamicki, F., Dyki, B. and Malewski, W. 1977b. Effects of carbon dioxide on the physiological disordersobserved in onion bulbs during CA storage. Qualitas Plantarum, 27, 239–248.Agar, I.T., Bangerth, F. and Streif, J. 1994b. Effect of high CO 2and controlled atmosphere concentrations onthe ascorbic acid, dehydroascorbic acid and total vitamin C content of berry fruits. Acta Horticulturae,398, 93–100.Agar, I.T., Cetiner, S., Garcia, J.M. and Streif, J. 1994c. A method of chlorophyll extraction from fruit peduncles:application to redcurrants. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry, 18, 209–212.Agar, I.T., Hess-Pierce, B., Sourour, M.M. and Kader, A.A. 1997. Identification of optimum preprocessingstorage conditions to maintain quality of black ripe ‘Mananillo’ olives. Seventh International ControlledAtmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616,USA [abstract], 118.Agar, I.T., Streif, J. and Bangerth, F. 1991. Changes in some quality characteristics of red and black currantsstored under CA and high CO 2conditions. Gartenbauwissenschaft, 56, 141–148.Agar, I.T., Streif, J. and Bangerth, F. 1994a. Effect of high CO 2and controlled atmosphere (CA) storage onthe keepability of blackberry cv, ‘Thornfree’. Commissions C2,D1,D2/3 of the International Institute ofRefrigeration International Symposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 271–280.Agoreyo, B.O., Golden, K.D., Asemota, H.N. and Osagie, A.U. 2007. Postharvest biochemistry of the plantain(Musa paradisiacal L.). Journal of Biological Sciences, 7, 136–144.Aharoni, N., Rodov, V., Fallik, E., Porat, R., Pesis, E. and Lurie, S. 2008. Controlling humidity improvesefficacy of modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables. Acta Horticulturae, 804,121–128.Aharoni, N., Yehoshua, S.B. and Ben-Yehoshua, S. 1973. Delaying deterioration of romaine lettuce by vacuumcooling and modified atmosphere produced in polyethylene packages. Journal of the AmericanSociety for Horticultural Science, 98, 464–468.Aharoni, Y. and Houck, L.G. 1980. Improvement of internal color of oranges stored in O 2-enriched atmospheres.Scientia Horticulturae, 13, 331–338.Aharoni, Y. and Houck, L.G. 1982. Change in rind, flesh, and juice color of blood oranges stored inair supplemented with ethylene or in O 2-enriched atmospheres. Journal of Food Science, 47,2091–2092.Aharoni, Y., Nadel-Shiffman, M. and Zauberman, G. 1968. Effects of gradually decreasing temperaturesand polyethylene wraps on the ripening and respiration of avocado fruits. Israel Journal of AgriculturalResearch, 18, 77–82.Ahmad, S. and Thompson, A.K. 2006. Effect of controlled atmosphere storage on ripening and quality ofbanana fruit. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 81, 1021–1024.Ahmad, S., Thompson, A.K., Asi, A.A., Mahmood Khan Chatha, G.A. and Shahid, M.A. 2001. Effect of reducedO 2and increased CO 2(controlled atmosphere storage) on the ripening and quality of ethylenetreated banana fruit. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, 3, 486–490.Ahmed, E.M. and Barmore, C.R. 1980. Avocado. In Nagy, S. and Shaw, P.E. Editors. Tropical and SubtropicalFruits: Composition, Properties and Uses. AVI Publishing, Westport, Connecticut, 121–156.Ahrens, F.H. and Milne, D.L. 1993. Alternative packaging methods to replace SO 2treatment for litchis exportedby sea. Yearbook South African Litchi Growers’ Association, 5, 29–30.Akamine, E.K. 1969. Controlled atmosphere storage of papayas. Proceedings of the 5th Annual Meeting, HawaiiPapaya Industry Association, 12–20 September. Hawaii Cooperative Extension Service, MiscellaneousPublication 764.Akamine, E.K. and Goo, T. 1969. Effects of controlled atmosphere storage on fresh papayas Carica papaya L.variety Solo with reference to shelf-life extension of fumigated fruits. Hawaii Agricultural ExpermentalStation Research Bulletin, 144.Akamine, E.K. and Goo, T. 1971. Controlled atmosphere storage of fresh pineapples (Ananas comosus [L.],Merr. ‘Smooth Cayenne’). Hawaii Agricultural Expermental Station Research Bulletin, 152.Akbudak, B., Özer, M.H. and Erturk, U. 2003. A research on controlled atmosphere (CA) storage of cv.‘Elstar’ on rootstock of MM 106. Acta Horticulturae, 599, 657–663.Akbudak, B., Özer, M.H. and Erturk, U. 2004. Effect of controlled atmosphere storage on quality parametersand storage period of apple cultivars ‘Granny Smith’ and ‘Jonagold’. Journal of Applied Horticulture(Lucknow), 6, 48–54.Akbudak, B., Tezcan, H. and Eris, A. 2008. Determination of controlled atmosphere storage conditions for‘0900 Ziraat’ sweet cherry fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 795, 855–859.Al-Ati, T. and Hotchkiss, J.H. 2002. Effect of the thermal treatment of ionomer films on permeability andpermselectivity. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 86, 2811–2815.

212 ReferencesAl-Ati, T. and Hotchkiss, J.H. 2003. The role of packaging film permselectivity in modified atmospherepackaging. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 51, 4133–4138.Ali Koyuncu, M., Dilmaçünal, T. and Özdemir, Ö. 2009. Modified and controlled atmosphere storage ofapricots. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey[abstract], 10.Ali Niazee, M.T., Richardson, D.G., Kosittrakun, M. and Mohammad, A.B. 1989. Non-insecticidal quarantinetreatments for apple maggot control in harvested fruits. Proceedings of the Fifth InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 1,193–205.Alique, R. and Oliveira, G.S. 1994. Changes in sugars and organic acids in cherimoya Annona cherimola Mill.fruit under controlled atmosphere storage. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 42, 799–803.Alique, R., Martinez, M.A. and Alonso, J. 2003. Influence of the modified atmosphere packaging on shelflifeand quality of Navalinda sweet cherry. European Food Research and Technology, 217, 416–420.Allen, F.W. and McKinnon, L.R. 1935. Storage of Yellow Newtown apples in chambers supplied with artificialatmospheres. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 32, 146.Allen, F.W. and Smock, R.M. 1938. CO 2storage of apples, pears, plums and peaches. Proceedings of theAmerican Society for Horticultural Science, 35, 193–199.Allwood, M.E. and Cutting, J.G.M. 1994. Progress report: gas treatment of ‘Fuerte’ avocados to reduce colddamage and increase storage life. Yearbook South African Avocado Growers’ Association, 17, 22–26.Almeida, D.P.F. and Valente, C.S. 2005. Storage life and water loss of plain and curled leaf parsley. ActaHorticulturae, 682, 1199–1202.Almenar, E., Hernandez-Muñoz, P., Lagaron, J.M., Catala, R. and Gavara, R. 2006. Controlled atmospherestorage of wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca L.) fruit. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 54, 86–91.Alvarez, A.M. 1980. Improved marketability of fresh papaya by shipment in hypobaric containers. Hort-Science, 15, 517–518.Alves, R.E., Filgueiras, H.A.C., Almeida, A.S., Machado, F.L.C., Bastos, M.S.R., Lima, M.A.C. et al.2005. Postharvest use of 1-MCP to extend storage life of melon in Brazil – current research status.Acta Horticulturae, 682, 2233–2237.Amjad, M., Iqbal J., Rees, D., Iqbal, Q., Nawaz, A. and Ahmad, T. 2009. Effect of packaging material anddifferent storage regimes on shelf-life of green hot pepper fruits. 10th International Controlled & ModifiedAtmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract].Amodio, M.L., Colelli, G., de Cillis, F.M., Lovino, R. and Massignan, L. 2003. Controlled-atmosphere storageof fresh-cut ‘Cardoncello’ mushrooms (Pleurotus eryngii). Acta Horticulturae, 599, 731–735.Amodio, M.L., Rinaldi, R. and Colelli, G. 2005. Effects of controlled atmosphere and treatment with1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on ripening attributes of tomatoes. Acta Horticulturae, 682, 737–742.Amorós, A., Pretel, M.T., Zapata, P.J., Botella, M.A., Romojaro, F. and Serrano, M. 2008. Use of modifiedatmosphere packaging with microperforated polypropylene films to maintain postharvest loquatfruit quality. Food Science and Technology International, 14, 95–103.Anandaswamy, B. 1963. Pre-packaging of fresh produce. IV. Okra Hibiscus esculentus. Food Science Mysore,12, 332–335.Anandaswamy, B. and Iyengar, N.V.R. 1961. Pre-packaging of fresh snap beans Phaseolus vulgaris. Food Science,10, 279.Anderson, R.E. 1982. Long term storage of peaches and nectarine intermittently warmed during controlledatmosphere storage. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 107, 214–216.Andre, P., Blanc, R., Buret, M., Chambroy, Y., Flanzy, C., Foury, C. et al. 1980b. Globe artichoke storage trialscombining the use of vacuum pre-refrigeration, controlled atmospheres and cold. Revue Horticole, 211,33–40.Andre, P., Buret, M., Chambroy, Y., Dauple, P., Flanzy, C. and Pelisse, C. 1980a. Conservation trials of asparagusspears by means of vacuum pre-refrigeration, associated with controlled atmospheres andcold storage. Revue Horticole, 205, 19–25.Andrich, G. and Fiorentini, R. 1986. Effects of controlled atmosphere on the storage of new apricot cultivars.Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 37, 1203–1208.Andrich, G., Zinnai, A., Balzini, S., Silvestri, S. and Fiorentini, R. 1994. Fermentation rate of Golden Deliciousapples controlled by environmental CO 2. Commissions C2, D1, D2/3 of the International Instituteof Refrigeration International Symposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 233–242.Anelli, G., Mencarelli, F. and Massantini, R. 1989. One time harvest and storage of tomato fruit: technicaland economical evaluation. Acta Horticulturae, 287, 411–415.

References 213Anon. (undated). A Broad Look at the Practical and Technical Aspects of Hypobaric Storage. Dormavac Corp.,Miami, Florida.Anon. 1919. Food Investigation Board. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Report for the Year, 1918.Anon. 1920. Food Investigation Board. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Report for the Year, 1920,16–25.Anon. 1937. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Annual Report for the Year 1936–37, 185–186.Anon. 1941. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. Annual Report for 1940, Bulletin 378.Anon. 1958. Food Investigation Board. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Report for the Year 1957,35–36.Anon. 1964. Hygrometric Tables, Part III: Aspirated Psychrometer Readings Degrees Celsius. Her Majesty’s StationeryOffice, London.Anon. 1968. Fruit and Vegetables. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-conditioned Engineering,Guide and Data Book 361.Anon. 1974. Atmosphere Control in Fruit Stores. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, AgriculturalDevelopment and Advisory Service, Short Term Leaflet, 35.Anon. 1978. Banana CA storage. Bulletin of the International Institue of Refrigeration, 18, 312.Anon. 1987. Freshtainer makes freshness mobile. International Fruit World, 45, 225–231.Anon. 1997. Squeezing the death out of food. New Scientist, 2077, 28–32.Anon. 1998. Fruit & Vegetables Storage and Transport Database V1. CSIRO/Sydney Postharvest Laboratory.Anon. 2003. Quality changes and respiration behaviour of mushrooms under modified atmosphere conditions.Champignonberichten, 205, 6–7.Anon. 2009. www.cargofresh.com accessed September 2009.Anon. 2010. http://www4.agr.gc.ca/IH5_Reports/faces/cognosSubmitter.jsp accessed January 2010.Antonio Lizana, L. and Ochagavia, A. 1997. Controlled atmosphere storage of mango fruits (Mangiferaindica L.) cvs Tommy Atkins and Kent. Acta Horticulturae, 455, 732–737.Antoniolli, L.R., Benedetti, B.C., Sigrist, J.M.M. and de Silveira, N.F.A. 2007. Quality evaluation of fresh-cut‘Perola’ pineapple stored in controlled atmosphere. Ciencia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 27, 530–534.Antoniolli, L R., Benedetti, B.C., Sigrist, J.M.M., Filho, S., Men de Sá, Alves, M. and Ricardo, E. 2006. Metabolicactivity of fresh-cut ‘Pérola’ pineapple as affected by cut shape and temperature. Brazilian Journalof Plant Physiology, 18, 413–417.Antunes, M.D.C. and Sfakiotakis, E.M. 2002. Ethylene biosynthesis and ripening behaviour of ‘Hayward’kiwifruit subjected to some controlled atmospheres. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 26, 167–179.Antunes, M.D.C., Miguel, M.G., Metelo, S., Dandlen, S. and Cavaco, A. 2008. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropeneapplication prior to storage on fresh-cut kiwifruit quality. Acta Horticulturae, 796, 173–178.Anuradha, G. and Saleem, S. 1998. Certain biochemical changes and the rate of ethylene evolution in berfruits Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. cultivar Umran as affected by the various post harvest treatmentsduring storage. International Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 16, 233–238.Apeland, J. 1985. Storage of Chinese cabbage Brassica campestris L. pekinensis Lour Olsson in controlled atmospheres.Acta Horticulturae, 157, 185–191.Apelbaum, A., Aharoni, Y. and Temkin-Gorodeiski, N. 1977. Effects of sub-atmospheric pressure on theripening processes of banana fruits. Tropical Agriculture Trinidad, 54, 39–46.Aracena, J.J., Sargent, S.A., Brecht, J.K. and Campbell, C.A. 1993. Environmental factors affecting vascularstreaking, a postharvest physiological disorder of cassava root (Manihot esculenta Crantz). Acta Horticulturae,343, 297–299.Arevalo-Galarza, L., Bautista-Reyes, B., Saucedo-Veloz, C. and Martinez-Damian, T. 2007. Cold storageand 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) applications on sapodilla (Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen) fruits.Agrociencia (Montecillo), 41, 469–477.Argenta, L.C, Mattheis, J. and Xuetong, F. 2001. Delaying ‘Fuji’ apple ripening by 1-MCP treatment andmanagement of storage temperature. Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 23, 270–273.Argenta, L.C., Xuetong, F. and Mattheis, J. 2000. Delaying establishment of controlled atmosphere or CO 2exposure reduces ‘Fuji’ apple CO 2injury without excessive fruit quality loss. Postharvest Biology andTechnology, 20, 221–229.Arnal, L., Besada, C., Navarro, P. and Salvador, A. 2008. Effect of controlled atmospheres on maintainingquality of persimmon fruit cv. ‘Rojo Brillante’. Journal of Food Science, 73, S26–S30.Arpaia, M.L., Mitchell, F.G., Kader, A.A. and Mayer, G. 1985. Effects of 2% O 2and various concentrationsof CO 2with or without ethylene on the storage performance of kiwifruit. Journal of the American Societyfor Horticultural Science, 110, 200–203.

214 ReferencesArtes Calero, F., Escriche, A., Guzman, G. and Marin, J.G. 1981. Violeta globe artichoke storage trials in acontrolled atmosphere. Congresso Internazionale di Studi sul Carciofo, 30, 1073–1085.Artes-Hernandez, F., Aguayo, E., Artes, F. and Tomas-Barberan, F.A. 2007. Enriched ozone atmosphereenhances bioactive phenolics in seedless table grapes after prolonged shelf-life. Journal of the Scienceof Food and Agriculture, 87, 824–831.Artes-Hernandez, F., Artes, F., Villaescusa, R. and Tudela, J.A. 2003. Combined effect of modified atmospherepackaging and hexanal or hexenal fumigation during long-term cold storage of table grapes.Acta Horticulturae, 600, 401–404.Artes-Hernandez, F., Tomás-Barberán, F.A. and Artez, F. 2006. Modified atmosphere packaging preservesquality of SO 2-free ‘Superior Seedless’ table grapes. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 39, 15–24.Arvanitoyannis, I.S., Khah, E.M., Christakou, E.C. and Bletsos, F.A. 2005. Effect of grafting and modifiedatmosphere packaging on eggplant quality parameters during storage. International Journal of FoodScience & Technology, 40, 311–322.Asghari, M. 2009. Effect of hot water treatment and low density polyethylene bag package on quality attributesand storage life of muskmelon fruit, 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere ResearchConference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 22.Athanasopoulos, P., Katsaboxakis, K., Thanos, A., Manolopoulou, H., Labrinos, G. and Probonas, V. 1999.Quality characteristics of apples preserved under controlled atmosphere storage in a pilot plant scale.Fruits (Paris), 54, 79–86.Attri, B.L. and Swaroop, K. 2005. Post harvest storage of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) at ambient andlow temperature conditions. Horticultural Journal, 18, 98–101.Awad, M., de Oliveira, A.I. and Correa, D. de L. 1975. The effect of Ethephon, GA and partial vacuum onrespiration in bananas (Musa acuminata). Revista de Agricultura, Piracicaba, Brazil, 50, 109–113.Awad, M.A.G., Jager, A., Roelofs, F.P., Scholtens, A. and de Jager, A. 1993. Superficial scald in Jonagold asaffected by harvest date and storage conditions. Acta Horticulturae, 326, 245–249.Ayhan, Z., Eştürk, O. and Müftüoğlu, F. 2009. Effects of coating, modified atmosphere (MA) and plasticfilm on the physical and sensory properties of apricot. 10th International Controlled & Modified AtmosphereResearch Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 19.Aziz Al-Harthy, A., East, A.R., Hewett, E.W. and Mawson, A.J. 2009. Controlled atmosphere storage of‘Opal Star’ feijoa. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April2009, Turkey [abstract], 11.Badran, A.M. 1969. Controlled atmosphere storage of green bananas. U.S. Patent 17 June 3, 450, 542.Bai, J., Alleyne, V., Hagenmaier, R.D., Mattheis, J.P. and Baldwin, E.A. 2003. Formulation of zein coatingsfor apples (Malus domestica Borkh). Postharvest Biology and Technology, 28, 259–268.Baldwin, E., Plotto, A. and Narciso, J. 2007. Effect of 1-MCP, harvest maturity, and storage temperatureon tomato flavor compounds, color, and microbial stability. http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?seq_no_115=207169 accessed June 2009.Ballantyne, A., Stark, R. and Selman, J.D. 1988. Modified atmosphere packaging of broccoli florets. InternationalJournal of Food Science and Technology, 23, 353–360.Banaras, M., Bosland, P.W. and Lownds, N.K. 2005. Effects of harvest time and growth conditions on storageand post-storage quality of fresh peppers (Capsicum annuum L.). Pakistan Journal of Botany, 37,337–344.Bangerth, F. 1974. Hypobaric storage of vegetables. Acta Horticulturae, 38, 23–32.Bangerth, F. 1984. Changes in sensitivity for ethylene during storage of apple and banana fruits underhypobaric conditions. Scientia Horticulturae, 24, 151.Barden, C.L. 1997. Low oxygen storage of ‘Ginger Gold’ apples. Postharvest Horticulture Series – Departmentof Pomology, University of California, 16, 183–188.Barmore, C.R. 1987. Packaging technology for fresh and minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Journalof Food Quality, 10, 207–217.Basanta, A.L. and Sankat, C.K. 1995. Storage of the pomerac Eugenia malaccensis. In Kushwaha, L.,Serwatowski, R. and Brook, R. Editors. Technologias de Cosecha y Postcosecha de Frutas y Hortalizas [Harvestand Postharvest Technologies for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables]. Proceedings of a conference heldin Guanajuato, Mexico, 20–24 February 1995, 567–574.Bastrash, S., Makhlouf, J., Castaigne, F. and Willemot, C. 1993. Optimal controlled atmosphere conditionsfor storage of broccoli florets. Journal of Food Science, 58, 338–341, 360.Batu, A. 1995. Controlled atmosphere storage of tomatoes. PhD thesis, Silsoe College, Cranfield University,UK.

References 215Batu, A. 2003. Effect of long-term controlled atmosphere storage on the sensory quality of tomatoes. ItalianJournal of Food Science, 15, 569–577.Batu, A. and Thompson, A.K. 1994. The effects of harvest maturity, temperature and thickness of modifiedatmosphere packaging films on the shelf-life of tomatoes. Commissions C2, D1, D2/3 of the InternationalInstitute of Refrigeration International Symposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 305–316.Batu, A. and Thompson, A.K. 1995. Effects of controlled atmosphere storage on the extension of postharvestqualities and storage life of tomatoes. Workshop of the Belgium Institute for Automatic Control,Ostend, Belgium, June 1995, 263–268.Baumann, H. 1989. Adsorption of ethylene and CO 2by activated carbon scrubbers. Acta Horticulturae, 258,125–129.Bautista, O.K. 1990. Postharvest Technology for Southeast Asian Perishable Crops. Technology and LivelihoodResource Center, Philippines.Bautista, P.B. and Silva, M.E. 1997. Effects of CA treatments on guava fruit quality. Seventh InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California95616, USA [abstract], 113.Bayram, E., Dundar, O. and Ozkaya, O. 2009. The effect of different packing types on the cold storage Hicaznarpomegranate. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 62.Beaudry, R.M. and Gran, C.D. 1993. Using a modified-atmosphere packaging approach to answer somepost-harvest questions: factors influencing the lower O 2limit. Acta Horticulturae, 326, 203–212.Bellincontro, A., de Santis, D., Fardelli, A., Mencarelli, F. and Botondi, R. 2006. Postharvest ethylene and1-MCP treatments both affect phenols, anthocyanins, and aromatic quality of Aleatico grapes andwine. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 12, 141–149.Ben, J.M. 2001. Some factors affecting flesh browning in ‘Gala Must’ apples. Folia Horticulturae, 13, 61–67.Ben Arie, R. 1996. Fresher via boat than airplane. Peri News, 11, Spring 1996.Ben Arie, R. and Or, E. 1986. The development and control of husk scald on ‘Wonderful’ pomegranate fruitduring storage. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 111, 395–399.Ben Arie, R. and Sonego, L. 1985. Modified-atmosphere storage of kiwifruit Actinidia chinensis Planch withethylene removal. Scientia Horticulturae, 27, 263–273.Ben Arie, R., Levine, A., Sonego, L. and Zutkhi,Y. 1993. Differential effects of CO 2at low and high O 2on thestorage quality of two apple cultivars. Acta Horticulturae, 326, 165–174.Ben Arie, R., Nerya, O., Zvilling, A., Gizis, A. and Sharabi-Nov, A. 2001. Extending the shelf-life of‘Triumph’ persimmons after storage with 1-MCP. Alon Hanotea, 55, 524–527.Ben Arie, R., Roisman, Y., Zuthi, Y. and Blumenfeld, A. 1989. Gibberellic acid reduces sensitivity of persimmonfruits to ethylene. Advances in Agricultural Biotechnology, 26, 165–171.Ben Yehoshua, S., Fang, DeQiu, Rodov, V., Fishman, S. and Fang, D.Q. 1995. New developments in modifiedatmosphere packaging part II. Plasticulture, 107, 33–40.Bender, R.J., Brecht, J.K. and Campbell, C.A. 1994. Responses of ‘Kent’and ‘Tommy Atkins’ mangoes toreduced O 2and elevated CO 2. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 107, 274–277.Benjamas, 2001. Annual Report 2000–2001. Horticultural Research Institute, Department of Agriculture,Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperative, Bangkok, Thailand, 22–23.Berard, J.E. 1821. Mémoire sur la maturation des fruits. Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 16, 152–183.Berard, L.S. 1985. Effects of CA on several storage disorders of winter cabbage. Controlled atmospheres forstorage and transport of perishable agricultural commodities. 4th National Controlled Atmosphere ResearchConference, July 1985, 150–159.Berard, L.S., Vigier, B. and Dubuc Lebreux, M.A. 1986. Effects of cultivar and controlled atmosphere storageon the incidence of black midrib and necrotic spot in winter cabbage. Phytoprotection, 67, 63–73.Berger, H., Galletti, Y.L., Marin, J., Fichet, T. and Lizana, L.A 1993. Efecto de atmosfera controlada y elencerado en la vida postcosecha de Cherimoya Annona cherimola Mill. cv. Bronceada. Proceedings of theInteramerican Society for Tropical Horticulture, 37, 121–130.Berrang, M.E., Brackett, R.E. and Beuchat, L.R. 1989. Growth of Aeromonas hydrophila on fresh vegetablesstored under a controlled atmosphere. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 55, 2167–2171.Berrang, M.E., Brackett, R.E. and Beuchat, L.R. 1990. Microbial, color and textural qualities of freshasparagus, broccoli, and cauliflower stored under controlled atmosphere. Journal of Food Protection,53, 391–395.Berry, G. and Aked, J. 1997. Controlled atmosphere alternatives to the post-harvest use of sulphurdioxide to inhibit the development of Botrytis cinerea in table grapes. Seventh International Controlled

216 ReferencesAtmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616,USA [abstract], 100.Bertolini, P. 1972. Preliminary studies on cold storage of cherries. Universita di Bologna, Notiziatio CRIOF –Centro per la Protezione e Conservazione dei Prodotti Ortofrutticoli, 3.11.Bertolini, P., Baraldi, E., Mari, M., Donati, I. and Lazzarin, R. 2005. High-CO 2for the control of Botrytis cinerearot during long term storage of red chicory. Acta Horticulturae, 682, 2021–2027.Bertolini, P., Baraldi, E., Mari, M., Trufelli, B. and Lazzarin, R. 2003. Effects of long term exposure to high-CO 2during storage at 0 o C on biology and infectivity of Botrytis cinerea in red chicory. Journal of Phytopathology,151, 201–207.Bertolini, P., Pratella, G.C., Tonini, G. and Gallerani, G. 1991. Physiological disorders of ‘Abbe Fetel’ pearsas affected by low-O 2and regular controlled atmosphere storage. Technical Innovations in Freezing andRefrigeration of Fruits and Vegetables. Paper presented at a conference held in Davis, California, USA,9–12 July, 1989, 61–66.Betts, G.D. (editor) 1996. A Code of Practice for the Manufacture of Vacuum and Modified Atmosphere PackagedChilled Foods. Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association Guideline, 11.Biale, J.B. 1950. Postharvest physiology and biochemistry of fruits. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 1,183–206.Bishop, D.J. 1994. Application of new techniques to CA storage. Commissions C2, D1, D2/3 of the InternationalInstitute of Refrigeration International Symposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 323–329.Bishop, D.J. 1996. Controlled atmosphere storage. In Dellino, C.J.V. Editor. Cold and Chilled Storage Technology.Blackie, London, 53–92.Blank, H.G. 1973. The possibility of simple CO 2absorption in CA storage. Mitteilungen des Obstbauversuchsringesdes Alten Landes, 28, 202–208.Blazek, J. 2007. Apple cultivar ‘Meteor’. Nove Odrudy Ovoce, 15–18.Blednykh, A.A., Akimov, Yu. A., Zhebentyaeva, T.N. and Untilova, A.E. 1989. Market and flavour qualitiesof the fruit in sweet cherry following storage in a controlled atmosphere. Byulleten’ GosudarstvennogoNikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, 69, 98–102.Bleinroth, E.W., Garcia, J.L.M. and Yokomizo 1977. Conseracao de quatro variedades de manga pelo frio eem atmosfera controlada. Coletanea de Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos, 8, 217–243.Blythman, J. 1996. The Food We Eat. Michael Joseph, London.Bogdan, M., Ionescu, L., Panait, E. and Niculescu, F. 1978. Research on the technology of keeping peachesin cold storage and in modified atmosphere. Lucrari Stiintifice, Institutul de Cerctari Pentru ValorifocareaLegumelor si Fructelor, 9, 53–60.Bohling, H. and Hansen, H. 1977. Storage of white cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata in controlled atmospheres.Acta Horticulturae, 62, 49.Bohling, H. and Hansen, H. 1989. Studies on the metabolic activity of oyster mushrooms Pleurotus ostreatusJacq. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 573–577.Boon-Long, P., Achariyaviriya, S. and Johnson, G.I. 1994. Mathematical modelling of modified atmosphereconditions. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Proceedings, 58, 63–67.Boonyaritthongchai, P. and Kanlayanarat, S. 2003a. Modified atmosphere and carbon dioxide shock treatmentfor prolonging storage life of ‘Rong-rien’ rambutan fruits. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 823–828.Boonyaritthongchai, P. and Kanlayanarat, S. 2003b. Controlled atmosphere storage to maintain quality of‘Rong-rein’ rambutan fruits. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 829–832.Bordanaro, C. 2009. http://www.purfresh.com accessed September 2009.Botrel, N., Fonseca, M.J. de O., Godoy, R.L.O. and Barboza, H.T.G. 2004. Storage of ‘Prata Ana’ bananas incontrolled atmosphere. Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, 29, 125–129.Bowden, A.P. 1993. Modified atmosphere packaging of Cavendish and Apple bananas. MSc thesis, CranfieldUniversity, UK.Bower, J.P., Cutting, J.G.M. and Truter, A.B. 1990. Container atmosphere, as influencing some physiologicalbrowning mechanisms in stored Fuerte avocados. Acta Horticulturae, 269, 315–321.Brackmann, A. 1989. Effect of different CA conditions and ethylene levels on the aroma production of apples.Acta Horticulturae, 258, 207–214.Brackmann, A. and Waclawovsky, A.J. 2000. Storage of apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cv. Braeburn. CienciaRural, 30, 229–234.Brackmann, A., Benedetti, M., Steffens, C.A. and de Mello, A.M. 2002b. Effect of temperature and controlledatmosphere conditions in the storage of ‘Fuji’ apples with watercore incidence. Revista Brasileira deAgrociencia, 8, 37–42.

References 217Brackmann, A., de Freitas, S.T., Giehl, R.F.H., de Mello, A.M., Benedetti, M., de Oliveira, V.R. and Guarienti,A.J.W. 2004. Controlled atmosphere conditions for ‘Kyoto’ persimmon storage. Ciencia Rural, 34,1607–1609.Brackmann, A., de Mello, A.M., de Freitas, S.T., Vizzotto, M. and Steffens, C.A. 2001. Storage of ‘RoyalGala’ apple under different temperatures and carbon dioxide and oxygen partial pressure. RevistaBrasileira de Fruticultura, 23, 532–536.Brackmann, A., Guarienti, A.J.W., Saquet, A.A., Giehl, R.F.H. and Sestari, I. 2005b. Controlled atmospherestorage conditions for ‘Pink Lady’ apples. Ciencia Rural, 35, 504–509.Brackmann, A., Neuwald, D.A., Ribeiro, N.D. and de Freitas, S.T. 2002c. Conservation of three bean genotypes(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) of the group Carioca in cold storage and controlled atmosphere. CienciaRural, 32, 911–915.Brackmann, A., Pinto, J.A.V., Neuwald, D.A., Giehl, R.F.H. and Sestari, I. 2005a. Temperature and optimizationconditions for controlled atmosphere storaging of Gala apple. Revista Brasileira de Agrociencia,11, 505–508.Brackmann, A., Steffens, C.A. and Waclawovsky, A.J. 2002a. Influence of harvest maturity and controlledatmosphere conditions on the quality of ‘Braeburn’ apple. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira,37, 295–301.Brackmann, A., Streif, J. and Bangerth, F. 1993. Relationship between a reduced aroma production andlipid metabolism of apples after long-term controlled-atmosphere storage. Journal of the AmericanSociety for Horticultural Science, 118, 243–247.Brackmann, A., Streif, J. and Bangerth, F. 1995. Influence of CA and ULO storage conditions on qualityparameters and ripening of preclimacteric and climacteric harvested apple fruits. II. Effect on ethylene,CO 2, aroma and fatty acid production. Gartenbauwissenschaft, 60, 1–6, 23.Bradshaw, B. 2007. Packaging adds 20 per cent to cost of store fruit. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-449276/Packaging-adds-20-cent-cost-store-fruit.html accessed June 2009.Bramlage, W.J., Bareford, P.H., Blanpied, G.D., Dewey, D.H., Taylor, S., Porritt, S.W. et al. 1977. CO 2treatmentsfor ‘McIntosh’ apples before CA storage. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science,102, 658–662.Brash, D.W., Corrigan, V.K. and Hurst, P.L. 1992. Controlled atmosphere storage of ‘Honey ‘n’ Pearl’ sweetcorn. Proceedings Annual Conference, Agronomy Society of New Zealand, 22, 35–40.Brecht, J.K., Kader, A.A., Heintz, C.M. and Norona, R.C. 1982. Controlled atmosphere and ethylene effectson quality of California canning apricots and clingstone peaches. Journal of Food Science, 47, 432–436.Brigati, S. and Caccioni, D. 1995. Influence of harvest period, pre- and post-harvest treatments and storagetechniques on the quality of kiwifruits. Rivista di Frutticoltura e di Ortofloricoltura, 57, 41–43.Brigati, S., Pratella, G.C. and Bassi, R. 1989. CA and low O 2storage of kiwifruit: effects on ripening anddisease. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee,Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 41–48.Bron, I.U., Clemente, D.C., Vitti Kluge, R.A., de Arruda, M.C., Jacomino, A.P. and Lima, D.P.P. 2005. Influenceof low temperature storage and 1-methylcyclopropene on the conservation of fresh-cut watercress.Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 8, 121–126.Brooks, C. and Cooley, J.S. 1917. Effect of temperature, aeration and humidity on Jonathan-spot and scaldof apples in storage. Journal of Agricultural Research, 12, 306–307.Brooks, C. and McColloch, L.P. 1938. Stickiness and spotting of shelled green lima beans. US Department ofAgriculture, Technical Bulletin 625.Broughton, W.J. and Wong, H.C. 1979. Storage conditions and ripening of chiku fruits Achras sapota. ScientiaHorticulturae, 10, 377–385.Broughton, W.J., Hashim, A.W., Shen, T.C. and Tan, I.K.P. 1977. Maturation of Malaysian fruits. I. Storageconditions and ripening of papaya Carica papaya L. cv. Sunrise Solo. Malaysian Agricultural Researchand Development Institute Research Bulletin, 5, 59–72.Budu, A.S., Joyce, D.C., Aked, J. and Thompson, A.K. (2001). Respiration of intact and minimally processedpineapple fruit. Tropical Science, 41, 119–125.Budu, A.S., Joyce, D.C. and Terry, L.A. 2007. Quality changes in sliced pineapple under controlled atmospherestorage. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 82, 934–940.Bufler, G. 2009. Exogenous ethylene inhibits sprout growth in onion bulbs. Annals of Botany, 103, 23–28.Burdon, J., Lallu, N., Billing, D., Burmeister, D., Yearsley, C., Wang, M. et al. 2005. Carbon dioxide scrubbingsystems alter the ripe fruit volatile profiles in controlled-atmosphere stored ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 35, 133–141.

218 ReferencesBurdon, J., Lallu, N., Haynes, G., McDermott, K. and Billing, D. 2008. The effect of delays in establishmentof a static or dynamic controlled atmosphere on the quality of ‘Hass’ avocado fruit. Postharvest Biologyand Technology, 49, 61–68.Burdon, J., Lallu, N., Haynes, G., Pidakala, P., McDermott, K. and Billing, D. 2009. Dynamic controlled atmospherestorage of New Zealand grown ‘Hass’avocado fruit. 10th International Controlled & ModifiedAtmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 6.Burg, S.P. 1975. Hypobaric storage and transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables. In Haard, N.F. andSalunkhe, D.K. Editors. Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables. A.V.I. PublishingCompany Inc., Westport, Connecticut, USA, 172–188.Burg, S.P. 1993. Current status of hypobaric storage. Acta Horticulturae, 326, 259–266.Burg, S.P. 2004. Postharvest Physiology and Hypobaric Storage of Fresh Produce. CABI Publishing, Wallingford,UK.Burg, S.P. and Burg, E.A. 1967. Molecular requirements for the biological activity of ethylene. Plant Physiology,42, 144–152.Burmeister, D.M. and Dilley, D.R. 1994. Correlation of bitter pit on Northern Spy apples with bitter pit-likesymptoms induced by Mg 2+ salt infiltration. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 4, 301–308.Burton, K.S. and Twyning, R.V. 1989. Extending mushroom storage life by combining modified atmospherepackaging and cooling. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 565–571.Burton, W.G. 1974a. Some biophysical principles underlying the controlled atmosphere storage of plantmaterial. Annals of Applied Biology, 78, 149–168.Burton, W.G. 1974b. The O 2uptake, in air and in 5% O 2, and the CO 2out-put, of stored potato tubers.Potato Research, 17, 113–137.Burton, W.G. 1982. Postharvest Physiology of Food Crops. Longmans Ltd, London and New York.Burton, W.G. 1989. The Potato, 3rd edn. Longmans, London and New York.Calara, E.S. 1969. The effects of varying CO 2levels in the storage of ‘Bungulan’ Bananas. BS thesis, Universityof the Philippines, Los Baños, Laguna, The Philippines.Callesen, O. and Holm, B.M. 1989. Storage results with red raspberry. Acta Horticulturae, 262, 247–254.Cameron, A.C. 2003. Modified-atmosphere packaging of perishable horticultural commodities can be arisky business. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 305–310.Cameron, A.C., Boylan-Pett, W. and Lee, J. 1989. Design of modified atmosphere packaging systems: modellingO 2concentrations within sealed packages of tomato fruits. Journal of Food Science, 54, 1413–1421.Cantwell, M.I. 1995. Post-harvest management of fruits and vegetable stems. In Barbara, G., Inglese, P. andPimienta-Barrios, E. Editors. Agro-ecology, Cultivation and Uses of Cactus Pear. FAO Plant Production andProtection Paper, 132, 120–136.Cantwell, M.I., Hong, G., Kang, J. and Nie, X. 2003. Controlled atmospheres retard sprout growth, affectcompositional changes, and maintain visual quality attributes of garlic. Acta Horticulturae, 600,791–794.Cantwell, M.I., Reid, M.S., Carpenter, A., Nie, X. and Kushwaha, L. 1995. Short-term and long-term highCO 2treatments for insect disinfestation of flowers and leafy vegetables. In Kushwaha, L., Serwatowski,R. and Brook, R. Editors. Technologias de Cosecha y Postcosecha de Frutas y Hortalizas. Harvest andPostharvest Technologies for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Proceedings of a conference held in Guanajuato,Mexico, 20–24 February 1995, 287–292.Carpenter, A. 1993. Controlled atmosphere disinfestation of fresh Supersweet sweet corn for export. Proceedingsof the Forty-Sixth New Zealand Plant Protection Conference, 10–12 August, 57–58.Castro, E. de, Biasi, B., Mitcham, E., Tustin, S., Tanner, D. and Jobling, J. 2007. Carbon dioxide-induced fleshbrowning in Pink Lady apples. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 132, 713–719.Celikel, F.G., Ozelkok, S. and Burak, M. 2003. A study on modified atmosphere storage of sweet cherry.Acta Horticulturae, 628, 431–438.Cenci, S.A., Soares, A.G., Bilbino, J.M.S. and Souza, M.L.M. 1997. Study of the storage of Sunrise Solo papayafruits under controlled atmosphere. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference,13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 112.Ceponis, M.J. and Cappellini, R.A. 1983. Control of postharvest decays of blueberries by carbon dioxideenrichedatmospheres. Plant Disease, 67, 169–171.Cetiner, A.I. 2009. Use of IPN (fire-resistant foam) sandwich panels in construction of CA storages. InternationalControlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 54.Chamara, D., Illeperuma, K. and Galappatty, P.T. 2000. Effect of modified atmosphere and ethylene absorberson extension of storage life of ‘Kolikuttu’ banana at ambient temperature. Fruits (Paris), 55, 381–388.

References 219Chambroy, V., Souty, M., Reich, M., Breuils, L., Jacquemin, G. and Audergon, J.M. 1991. Effects of differentCO 2treatments on post harvest changes of apricot fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 293, 675–684.Champion, V. 1986. Atmosphere control – an air of the future. Cargo System, November issue, 28–33.Chapon, J.F. and Trillot, M. 1992. Pomme. L’entreposage longue durée en Italie du Nord. Infos Paris,78, 42–46.Charles, F., Rugani, N. and Gontard, N. 2005. Influence of packaging conditions on natural microbial populationgrowth of endive. Journal of Food Protection, 68, 1020–1025.Charoenpong, C. and Peng, A.C. 1990. Changes in beta-carotene and lipid composition of sweetpotatoesduring storage. Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center, Special Circular, 121,15–20.Chase, W.G. 1969. Controlled atmosphere storage of Florida citrus. Proceedings of the First InternationalCitrus Symposium, 3, 1365–1373.Chauhan, O.P., Raju, P.S., Dasgupta, D.K. and Bawa, A.S. 2006. Modified atmosphere packaging of banana(cv. Pachbale) with ethylene, carbon di-oxide and moisture scrubbers and effect on its ripening behaviour.American Journal of Food Technology, 1, 179–189.Chávez Franco, S.H., Saucedo-Veloz, C., Peña-Valdivia, C.B., Corrales, J.J.E. and Valle-Guadarrama, S.2004. Aerobic–anaerobic metabolic transition in ‘Hass’ avocado fruits. Food Science and Technology International,10, 391–398.Chawan, T. and Pflug, I.J. 1968. Controlled atmosphere storage of onion. Michigan Agricultural StationQuarterly Bulletin, 50, 449–475.Cheah, L.H., Irving, D.E., Hunt, A.W. and Popay, A.J. 1994. Effect of high CO 2and temperature on Botrytisstorage rot and quality of kiwifruit. Proceedings of the Forty-Seventh New Zealand Plant Protection Conference,Waitangi Hotel, New Zealand, 9–11 August, 1994, 299–303.Chen, N. and Paull, R.E. 1986. Development and prevention of chilling injury in papaya fruits. Journal ofthe American Society of Horticultural Science, 111, 639.Chen, P.M. and Varga, D.M. 1997. Determination of optimum controlled atmosphere regimes for the controlof physiological disorders of ‘D’Anjou’ pears after short-term, mid-term and long-term storage.Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California,Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 9.Chen, P.M., Mellenthin, W.M., Kelly, S.B. and Facteau, T.J. 1981. Effects of low oxygen and temperature onquality retention of ‘Bing’ cherries during prolonged storage. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 105, 533–535.Chervin, C., Kreidl, S.L., Franz, P.R., Hamilton, A.J., Whitmore, S.R., Thomann, T.. et al. 1999. Evaluationof a non-chemical disinfestation treatment on quality of pome fruit and mortality of lepidopterouspests. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 39, 335–344.Chiabrando, V. and Peano, G.G.C. 2006. Effect of storage methods on postharvest quality of highbushblueberry. Italus Hortus, 13, 114–117.Choi Young Hun, Ko Sang Uk, Kim Seung Hwa, Kim Yong Ho, Kang Sung Ku and Lee Chang Hoo 2002.Influence of modified atmosphere packaging on fruit quality of ‘Tsunokaori’ tangor during cold storage.Korean Journal of Horticultural Science & Technology, 20, 340–344.Chope, G.A., Terry, L.A. and White, P.J. 2007. The effect of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on the physicaland biochemical characteristics of onion cv. SS1 bulbs during storage Postharvest Biology and Technology,44, 131–140.Christakou, E.C., Arvanitoyannis, I.S., Khah, E.M. and Bletsos, F. 2005. Effect of grafting and modified atmospherepackaging (MAP) on melon quality parameters during storage. Journal of Food, Agriculture &Environment, 3, 145–152.Chu, C.L. 1992. Postharvest control of San Jose scale on apples by controlled atmosphere storage. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 1, 361–369.Chung, D.S. and Son, Y.K. 1994. Studies on CA storage of persimmon Diospyros kaki T. and plum Prunussalicina L. Rural Development Administration, Journal of Agricultural Science, Farm Management, AgriculturalEngineering, Sericulture, and Farm Products Utilization, 36, 692–698.Church, I.J. and Parsons, A.L. 1995. Modified atmosphere packaging technology: a review. Journal of theScience of Food and Agriculture, 67, 143–152.Church, N. 1994. Developments in modified-atmosphere packaging and related technologies. Trends inFood Science and Technology, 5, 345–352.Colelli, G. and Martelli, S. 1995. Beneficial effects on the application of CO 2-enriched atmospheres on freshstrawberries Fragaria × ananassa Duch. Advances in Horticultural Science, 9, 55–60.

220 ReferencesColelli, G., Mitchell, F.G. and Kader, A.A. 1991. Extension of postharvest life of ‘Mission’ figs by CO 2enrichedatmospheres. HortScience, 26, 1193–1195.Colgan, R.J., Dover, C.J., Johnson, D.S. and Pearson, K. 1999. Delayed CA and oxygen at 1% or less controlsuperficial scald without CO 2injury on Bramley’s Seedling apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology,16, 223–231.Cooper, T., Retamales, J. and Streif, J. 1992. Occurrence of physiological disorders in nectarine and possibilitiesfor their control. Erwerbsobstbau, 34, 225–228.Coquinot, J.P. and Richard, L. 1991. Methods of controlling scald in the apple Granny Smith without chemicals.Neuvième colloque sur les recherches fruitières, ‘La maîtrise de la qualité des fruits frais’, Avignon, 4–6December 1990, 373–380.Corrales-Garcia, J. 1997. Physiological and biochemical responses of ‘Hass’ avocado fruits to cold-storagein controlled atmospheres. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 50.Costa, M.A.C., Brecht, J.K., Sargent, S.A. and Huber, D.J. 1994. Tolerance of snap beans to elevated CO 2levels. 107th Annual Meeting of the Florida State Horticultural Society, Orlando, Florida, USA, 30 October–1November 1994. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 107, 271–273.Crank, J. 1975. The Mathematics of Diffusion, 2nd edn, Claredon Press, Oxford, UK.Crisosto, C.H. 1997. Ethylene safety. Central Valley Postharvest Newsletter, Cooperative Extension, University ofCalifornia, 6, 4.Crisosto, C.H., Garner, D. and Crisosto, G. 2003a. Developing optimum controlled atmosphere conditionsfor ‘Redglobe’table grapes. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 803–808.Crisosto, C.H., Garner, D. and Crisosto, G. 2003b. Developing optimal controlled atmosphere conditionsfor ‘Thompson Seedless’ table grapes. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 817–821.Czynczyk, A. and Bielicki, P. 2002. Ten-year results of growing the apple cultivar ‘Ligol’ in Poland.Sodininkyste ir Darzininkyste, 21, 12–21.Dalrymple, D.G. 1967. The Development of Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit. Division of Marketing andUtilization Sciences, Federal Extension Service, US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.Damen, P. 1985. Verlengen afzetperiode vollegrondsgroenten. Groenten en Fruit, 40, 82–83.Daniels, J.A., Krishnamurthi, R. and Rizvi, S.S. 1985. A review of effects of CO 2on microbial growth andfood quality. Journal of Food Protection, 48, 532–537.Day, B.P.F. 1994. Modified atmosphere packaging and active packaging of fruits and vegetables.Minimal Processing of Foods, 14–15 April 1994, Kirkkonummi, Finland. VTT-Symposium, 142,173–207.Day, B.P.F. 1996. High O 2modified atmosphere packaging for fresh prepared produce. Postharvest News andInformation, 7, 31N–34N.Day, B.P.F. 2003. Novel MAP applications for fresh prepared produce. In Ahvenainen, R. Editor. Novel FoodPackaging Techniques. Woodhead Publishing, Oxford, UK.de la Plaza, J.L. 1980. Controlled atmosphere storage of Cherimoya. Proceedings of the International Congresson Refrigeration, 3, 701.de la Plaza, J.L. Muñoz Delgado, L. and Inglesias, C. 1979. Controlled atmosphere storage of Cherimoya.Bulletin Institute International de Friod, 59, 1154.De Martino, G., Mencarelli, F. and Golding, J.B. 2007. Preliminary investigation into the uneven ripeningof banana (Musa sp.) peel. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 35, 193–199.De Reuck, K., Sivakumar, D. and Korsten, L. 2009. Integrated application of 1-methylcyclopropene andmodified atmosphere packaging to improve quality retention of litchi cultivars during storage. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 52, 71–77.De Ruiter, M. 1991. Effect of gases on the ripening of bananas packed in banavac. MSc thesis, CranfieldInstitute of Technology, UK.De Santana, L.R.R., Benedetti, B.C., Sigrist, J.M.M., Sato, H.H. and Sarantópoulos, C.I.G.L. 2009. Modifiedatmosphere packages and cold storage to maintain quality of ‘Douradão’peaches. 10th InternationalControlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 19.De Wild, H. 2001. 1-MCP kan voor grote doorbraak in bewaring zorgen. [1-MCP can make a big breakthroughfor storage.] Fruitteelt Den Haag, 91, 12–13.De Wild, H. and Roelofs, F. 1992. Pruimen zijn drie weken te bewaren. [Plums can be stored for 3 weeks.]Fruitteelt Den Haag, 82, 20–21.DeEll, J.R. 2002. Modified atmospheres for berry crops. Ohio State University Extension Newsletter, 6,number 27.

References 221DeEll, J.R. and Murr, D.P. 2009. Fresh market quality program ca storage guidelines and recommendationsfor apples. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/facts/03-073.htm accessed January2010.DeEll, J.R. and Prange, R.K. 1998. Disorders in ‘Cortland’ apple fruit are induced by storage at 0 o C incontrolled atmosphere. HortScience, 33, 121–122.DeEll, J.R., Murr, D.P., Wiley, L. and Mueller, R. 2005. Interactions of 1-MCP and low oxygen CA storage onapple quality. Acta Horticulturae, 682, 941–948.DeEll, J.R., Prange, R.K. and Murr, D.P. 1995. Chlorophyll fluorescence as a potential indicator of controlled-atmospheredisorders in ‘Marshall’ McIntosh apples. HortScience, 30, 1084–1085.DeEll, J.R., Toivonen, P.M.A., Cornut, F., Roger, C. and Vigneault, C. 2006. Addition of sorbitol with KMnO 4improves broccoli quality retention in modified atmosphere packages. Journal of Food Quality, 29,65–75.Del Nobile, M.A., Licciardello, F., Scrocco, C., Muratore, G. and Zappa, M. 2007. Design of plastic packagesfor minimally processed fruits. Journal of Food Engineering, 79, 217–224.Del-Valle, V., Hernandez- Muñoz, P., Catala, R. and Gavara, R. 2009. Optimization of an equilibrium modifiedatmosphere packaging (EMAP) for minimally processed mandarin segments. Journal of FoodEngineering, 91, 474–481.Delate, K.M. and Brecht, J.K. 1989. Quality of tropical sweetpotatoes exposed to controlled-atmospheretreatments for postharvest insect control. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 114,963–968.Delate, K.M., Brecht, J.K. and Coffelt, J.A. 1990. Controlled atmosphere treatments for control of sweetpotatoweevil Coleoptera: Curculionidae, in stored tropical sweetpotatoes. Journal of Economic Entomology,82, 461–465.DeLong, J.M., Prange, R.K. and Harrison, P.A. 2007. Chlorophyll fluorescence-based low-O 2CA storage oforganic ‘Cortland’ and ‘Delicious’ apples. Acta Horticulturae, 737, 31–37.DeLong, J.M., Prange, R.K., Leyte, J.C. and Harrison, P.A. 2004. A new technology that determines lowoxygenthresholds in controlled-atmosphere-stored apples. HortTechnology, 14, 262–266.Deng, W.M., Fan, L.H., Song, J., Mir, N., Verschoor, J. and Beaudry, R.M. 1997. MAP of apple fruit: effect ofcultivar, storage duration, and carbon dioxide on the lower oxygen limit. Postharvest HorticultureSeries – Department of Pomology, University of California, 16, 156–161.Deng Yun, Wu Ying and Li Yun Fei, 2006. Physiological responses and quality attributes of ‘Kyoho’ grapesto controlled atmosphere storage. Lebensmittelwissenschaft und Technologie, 39, 584–590.DeLong, J.M., Prange, R.K., Bishop, C., Harrison, P.A. and Ryan, D.A.J. 2003. The influence of 1-MCP onshelf-life quality of highbush blueberry. HortScience, 38, 417–418.Dennis, C., Browne, K.M. and Adamicki, F. 1979. Controlled atmosphere storage of tomatoes. Acta Horticulturae,93, 75–83.Denny, F.E. and Thornton, N.C. 1941. Carbon dioxide prevents the rapid increase in the reducing sugarcontent of potato tubers stored at low temperatures. Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute ofPlant Research, 12, 79–84.Denny, F.E., Thornton, N.C. and Schroeder, E.M. 1944. The effect of carbon dioxide upon the changes in thesugar content of certain vegetables in cold storage. Contributions of the Boyce Thompson Institute, 13,295–311.Deol, I.S. and Bhullar, S.S. 1972. Effects of wrappers and growth regulators on the storage life of mangofruits. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 12, 114.Deschene, A., Paliyath, G., Lougheed, E.C., Dumbroff, E.B. and Thompson, J.E. 1991. Membrane deteriorationduring postharvest senescence of broccoli florets: modulation by temperature and controlled atmospherestorage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 1, 19–31.DGCL, 2004. Dalian Refrigeration Company Limited. http://en.daleng.cn/project/index.jsp?catid=148accessed March 2009.Dick, E. and Marcellin, P. 1985. Effect of high temperatures on banana development after harvest. Prophylactictests. Fruits, 40, 781–784.Dijkink, B.H., Tomassen, M.M., Willemsen, J.H.A. and van Doorn, W.G. 2004. Humidity control during bellpepper storage, using a hollow fiber membrane contactor system. Postharvest Biology and Technology,32, 311–320.Dilley, D.R. 1990. Historical aspects and perspectives of controlled atmosphere storage. In Calderon, M.and Barkai-Golan, R. Editors. Food Preservation by Modified Atmospheres. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Floridaand Boston, Massachusetts, 187–196.

222 ReferencesDilley, D.R. 2006. Development of controlled atmosphere storage technologies. Stewart Postharvest Reviews,6, 1–8.Dilley, D.R., Lange, E. and Tomala, K. 1989. Optimizing parameters for controlled atmosphere storage ofapples. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee,Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 1, 221–226.Dingman, D.W. 2000. Growth of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in bruised apple (Malus domestica) tissue as influencedby cultivar, date of harvest, and source. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 66, 1077–1083.Dirim, S.N., Esin, A. and Bayindirli, A. 2003. New protective polyethylene based film containing zeolitesfor the packaging of fruits and vegetables: film preparation. Turkish Journal of Engineering and EnvironmentalScience, 27, 1–9.Dohring, S. 1997. Over sea and over land: putting CA research and technology to work for internationalshipments of fresh produce. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 23.Dong Hua Qiang, Jiang Yue Ming, Wang Yue Hua, Huang Jian Bo, Lin Li Chao and Ning Zheng Xiang2005. Effects of hot water treatments on chilling tolerance of harvested bitter melon. Transactions of theChinese Society of Agricultural Engineering, 21, 186–188.Dori, S., Burdon, J.N., Lomaniec, E. and Pesis, E. 1995. Effect of anaerobiosis on aspects of avocado fruitripening. Acta Horticulturae, 379, 129–136.Dos Prazeres J.N. and de Bode, N. 2009. Successful shipments of tropical fruits (papaya, lime, mango andbanana) under controlled atmosphere conditions for long distance. 10th International Controlled &Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 10.dos Santos, A.F., Silva, S.deM. and Alves, R.E. 2006a. Storage of Suriname cherry under modified atmosphereand refrigeration: I – postharvest chemical changes. Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 28, 36–41.dos Santos, A.F., Silva, S.deM., Mendonca, R.M.N. and Filgueiras, H.A.C. 2006b. Storage of Suriname cherryunder modified atmosphere and refrigeration: quality and postharvest conservation. RevistaBrasileira de Fruticultura, 28, 42–45.Dourtoglou, V.G., Yannovits, N.G., Tychopoulos, V.G. and Vamvakias, M.M. 1994. Effect of storage underCO 2atmosphere on the volatile, amino acid, and pigment constituents in red grape Vitis vinifera L.var. Agiogitiko. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 42, 338–344.Drake, S.R. 1993. Short-term controlled atmosphere storage improved quality of several apple cultivars.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 118, 486–489.Drake, S.R. and Eisele, T.A. 1994. Influence of harvest date and controlled atmosphere storage delay on thecolor and quality of ‘Delicious’ apples stored in a purge-type controlled-atmosphere environment.HortTechnology, 4, 260–263.Drake, S.R., Elfving, D.C., Drake, M.A., Eisele, T.A., Drake, S.L. and Visser, D.B. 2006. Effects of aminoethoxyvinylglycine,ethephon, and 1-methylcyclopropene on apple fruit quality at harvest and afterstorage. HortTechnology, 16, 16–23.Dubodel, N.P. and Tikhomirova, N.T. 1985. Controlled atmosphere storage of mandarins. Sadovodstvo, 6, 18.Dubodel, N.P., Panyushkin, Yu.A., Burchuladze, A.Sh. and Buklyakova, N.N. 1984. Changes in sugars ofmandarin fruits in controlled atmosphere storage. Subtropicheskie Kul’tury, 1, 83–86.Dull, G.G., Young, R.R. and Biale, J.B. 1967. Respiratory patterns in fruit of pineapple, Ananas comosus,detached at different stages of development. Plant Physiology, 20, 1059.Eaks, I.L. 1956. Effects of modified atmospheres on cucumbers at chilling and non-chilling temperatures.Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 67, 473.Eaves, C.A. 1934. Gas and cold storage as related fruit under Annapolis Valley conditions. Annual ReportNova Scotia Fruit Growers Association, 71, 92–98.EC 2005. http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/protection/evaluation/newactive/1-methylcyclopropene_draft_review_report.pdf accessed April 2009.Eksteen, G.J. and Truter, A.B. 1989. Transport simulation test with avocados and bananas in controlled atmospherecontainers. Yearbook of the South African Avocado Growers’ Association, 12, 26–32.Eksteen, G.J., Bodegom, P. van and Van Bodegom, P. 1989. Current state of CA storage in Southern Africa.Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington,USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 1, 487–494.El-Goorani, M.A. and Sommer, N.F. 1979. Suppression of postharvest plant pathogenic fungi by carbonmonoxide. Phytopathology, 69, 834–838.El-Shiekh, A.F., Tong, C.B.S., Luby, J.J., Hoover, E.E. and Bedford, D.S. 2002. Storage potential of cold-hardyapple cultivars. Journal of American Pomological Society, 56, 34–45.

References 223Elgar, H.J., Burmeister, D.M. and Watkins, C.B. 1998. Storage and handling effects on a CO 2-related internalbrowning disorder of ‘Braeburn’ apples. HortScience, 33, 719–722.Ella, L., Zion, A., Nehemia, A. and Amnon, L. 2003. Effect of the ethylene action inhibitor 1-methylcyclopropeneon parsley leaf senescence and ethylene biosynthesis. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 30,67–74.Ellis, G. 1995 Potential for all-year-round berries. The Fruit Grower, December, 17–18.Emmambux, M.N. and Stading, M. 2007. In situ tensile deformation of zein films with plasticizers andfiller materials. Food Hydrocolloids, 21, 1245–1255.Eris, A., Turkben, C., Özer, M.H., Henze, J. and Sass, P. 1994. A research on controlled atmosphere CA storageof peach cv. Hale Haven. Acta Horticulturae, 368, 767–776.Erkan, M. and Pekmezci, M. 2000. Investigations on controlled atmosphere (CA) storage of Star Rubygrapefruit grown in Antalya conditions. Bahce, 28, 87–93.Ertan, U., Ozelkok, S., Celikel, F. and Kepenek, K. 1990. The effects of pre-cooling and increased atmosphericconcentrations of CO 2on fruit quality and postharvest life of strawberries. Bahce, 19, 59–76.Ertan, U., Ozelkok, S., Kaynaş, K. and Oz, F. 1992. Bazi onemli elma cesitlerinin normal ve kontrollu atmosferdedepolanmalari uzerinde karsilastirmali arastirmalar – I. Akici sistem. Bahce, 21, 77–90.Escalona, V.H., Aguayo, E. and Artes, F. 2006. Metabolic activity and quality changes of whole and freshcutkohlrabi (Brassica oleracea L. gongylodes group) stored under controlled atmospheres. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 41, 181–190.Escalona, V.H., Aguayo, E. and Artes, F. 2007. Extending the shelf-life of kohlrabi stems by modified atmospherepackaging. Journal of Food Science, 72, S308–S313.Escalona, V.H., Ortega, F., Artes-Hernandez, F., Aguayo, E. and Artes, F. 2005. Test of a respiration modelfor a celery plants modified atmosphere packaging system at commercial pallet scale. Acta Horticulturae,674, 531–536.Escalona, V.H., Verlinden, B.E., Geysen, S. and Nicolai, B.N. 2006. Changes in respiration of fresh-cut butterheadlettuce under controlled atmospheres using low and superatmospheric oxygen conditionswith different carbon dioxide levels. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 39, 48–55.Escribano, M.I., Del Cura, B., Muñoz, M.T. and Merodio, C. 1997. High CO 2–low temperature interactionon ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase and polygalacturonase protein levels in cherimoya fruit.Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California,Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 115.Eum Hyang Lan and Lee Seung Koo 2003. Effects of methyl jasmonic acid on storage injury of ‘Nok-Kwang’ hot pepper fruits during modified atmosphere storage. Journal of the Korean Society for HorticulturalScience, 44, 297–301.Evelo, R.G. 1995. Modelling modified atmosphere systems. COST 94, the post-harvest treatment of fruitand vegetables: systems and operations for post-harvest quality. Proceedings of a Workshop, Milan,Italy, 14–15 September, 1993, 147–153.Fabi, J.P., Cordenunsi, B.R., de Mattos Barreto, G.P, Mercadante, A.Z, Lajolo, F.M. and Oliveira do Nascimento,J.R. 2007. Papaya fruit ripening: response to ethylene and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP).Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 55, 6118–6123.Fan, X., Blankenship, S.M. and Mattheis, J.P. 1999. 1-Methylcyclopropene inhibits apple ripening. Journal ofthe American Society for Horticultural Science, 124, 690–695.Farber, J.M. 1991. Microbiological aspects of modified-atmosphere packaging technology – a review. Journalof Food Protection, 54, 58–70.Fellman, J.K., Mattinson, D.S., Bostick, B.C., Mattheis, J.P. and Patterson, M.E. 1993. Ester biosynthesis in‘Rome’ apples subjected to low-oxygen atmospheres. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 3, 201–214.Fellows, P.J. 1988. Food Processing Technology. Ellis Horwood, London, New York Toronto, Sydney, Tokyoand Singapore.Feng, X., Apelbaum, A., Sisler, E.C. and Goren, R., 2000. Control of. ethylene responses in avocado fruitwith 1-methylcyclopropene. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 20, 143–150.Fernández-Trujillo, J.P., Serrano, J.M. and Martínez, J.A. 2009. Quality of red sweet pepper fruit treatedwith 1-MCP during a simulated post-harvest handling chain. Food Science and Technology International,15, 23–30.Ferrar, P. 1988. Transport of fresh fruit and vegetables. Australian Centre for International Agricultural ResearchProceedings, 23.Fidler, J.C. 1963. Refrigerated storage of fruits and vegetables in the UK, the British Commonwealth, theUnited States of America and South Africa. Ditton Laboratory Memoir, 93.

224 ReferencesFidler, J.C. 1970. Recommended conditions for the storage of apples. Report of the East Malling Research Stationfor 1969, 189–190.Fidler, J.C. and Mann, G. 1972. Refrigerated Storage of Apples and Pears – a Practical Guide. CommonwealthAgricultural Bureau, UK.Fidler, J.C., Wilkinson, B.G., Edney, K.L. and Sharples R.O. 1973. The biology of apple and pear storage.Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux Research Review, 3.Finger, F.L., Della-Justina, M.E., Casali, V.W.D. and Puiatti, M. 2008. Temperature and modified atmosphereaffect the quality of okra. Scientia Agricola, 65, 360–364.Fisher, D.V. 1939. Storage of Delicious apples in artificial atmospheres. Proceedings of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 37, 459–462.Flores, F.B., Martinez-Madrid, M.C., Ben Amor, M., Pech, J.C., Latche, A. and Romojaro, F. 2004. Modifiedatmosphere packaging confers additional chilling tolerance on ethylene-inhibited cantaloupe Charentaismelon fruit. European Food Research and Technology, 219, 614–619.Folchi, A., Pratella, G.C., Bertolini, P., Cazzola, P.P. and Eccher Zerbini, P. 1994. Effects of oxygen stress onstone fruits. COST 94. The Post-harvest Treatment of Fruit and Vegetables: Controlled Atmosphere Storage ofFruit and Vegetables. Proceedings of a Workshop, Milan, Italy, 22–23 April, 1993, 107–119.Folchi, A., Pratella, G.C., Tian, S.P. and Bertolini, P. 1995. Effect of low O 2stress in apricot at different temperatures.Italian Journal of Food Science, 7, 245–253.Fonseca, J.M., Rushing, J.W. and Testin, R.F. 2004. The anaerobic compensation point of fresh-cut watermelonand postprocess handling implications. HortScience, 39, 562–564.Fonseca, M.J. de O., Leal, N.R., Cenci, S.A., Cecon, P.R. and Smith, R.E.B. 2006. Postharvest controlled atmospherestorage of ‘Sunrise Solo’ and ‘Golden’ pawpaws. Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, 31,154–161.Forney, C.F., Jordan, M.A. and Nicholas, K.U.K.G. 2003. Effect of CO 2on physical, chemical, and qualitychanges in ‘Burlington’ blueberries. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 587–593.Forney, C.F., Rij, R.E. and Ross, S.R. 1989. Measurement of broccoli respiration rate in film wrapped packages.HortScience, 24, 111–113.Francile, A.S. 1992. Controlled atmosphere storage of tomato. Rivista di Agricoltura Subtropicale e Tropicale,86, 411–416.Frenkel, C. 1975. Oxidative turnover of auxins in relation to the onset of ripening in Bartlett pear. PlantPhysiology, 55, 480–484.Frenkel, C. and Patterson, M.E. 1974. Effect of CO 2on ultrastructure of ‘Bartlett pears’. HortScience, 9,338–340.Fu, L., Cao, J., Li, Q., Lin, L. and Jiang, W. 2007. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene on fruit quality and physiologicaldisorders in Yali pear (Pyrus bretschneideri Rehd.) during storage. Food Science and TechnologyInternational, 13, 49–54.Fuchs, Y., Zauberman, G. and Yanko, U. 1978. Controlled atmosphere storage of mango. Ministry of Agriculture,Institute for Technology and Storage of Agricultural Products: Scientific Activities 1974–1977, 184.Fulton, S.H. 1907. The cold storage of small fruits. US Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry,Bulletin, 108, September, 17.Gadalla, S.O. 1997. Inhibition of sprouting of onions during storage and marketing. PhD thesis, CranfieldUniversity, UK.Gajewski, M. 2003. Sensory and physical changes during storage of zucchini squash (Cucurbita pepo var.giromontina Alef.). Acta Horticulturae, 604, 613–617.Gajewski, M. and Roson, W. 2001. Effect of controlled atmosphere storage on the quality of zucchini squash(Cucurbita pepo var. giromontina Alef.). Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin, 54, 207–211.Gallerani, G., Pratella, G.C., Cazzola, P.P. and Eccher-Zerbini, P. 1994. Superficial scald control via low-O 2treatment timed to peroxide threshold value. COST 94. The Post-harvest Treatment of Fruit and Vegetables:Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit and Vegetables. Proceedings of a workshop, Milan, Italy,22–23 April, 1993, 51–60.Gane, R. (1934). Production of ethylene by some ripening fruits. Nature, 134, 1008.Gang Ma, Ran Wang, Cheng-Rong Wang, Masaya Kato, Kazuki Yamawaki, Fei-Fei Qin and Hui-Lian Xu2009. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene on expression of genes for ethylene biosynthesis enzymes andethylene receptors in post-harvest broccoli. Plant Growth Regulation, 57, 223–232.Garcia, J.M., Castellano, J.M., Morilla, A., Perdiguero, S. and Albi, M.A. 1993. CA-storage of Mill olives.COST 94. The Post-harvest Treatment of Fruit and Vegetables: Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit andVegetables. Proceedings of a workshop, Milan, Italy, 22–23 April, 1993, 83–87.

References 225Gariepy, Y., Raghavan, G.S.V., Plasse, R., Theriault, R. and Phan, C.T. 1985. Long term storage of cabbage,celery, and leeks under controlled atmosphere. Acta Horticulturae, 157, 193–201.Gariepy, Y., Raghavan, G.S.V. and Theriault, R. 1984. Use of the membrane system for long-term CA storageof cabbage. Canadian Agricultural Engineering, 26, 105–109.Gariepy, Y., Raghavan, G.S.V., Theriault, R. and Munroe, J.A. 1988. Design procedure for the silicone membranesystem used for controlled atmosphere storage of leeks and celery. Canadian Agricultural Engineering,30, 231–236.Garrett, M. 1992. Applications of controlled atmosphere containers. BEHR’S Seminare Hamburg, 16–17November 1992, Munich, Germany.Gasser, F., Datwyler, D., Schneider, K., Naunheim, W. and Hoehn, E. 2005. Effects of decreasing oxygenlevels in the storage atmosphere on the respiration and production of volatiles of ‘Idared’ apples. ActaHorticulturae, 682, 1585–1592.Gasser, F., Eppler, T., Naunheim, W., Gabioud, S. and Hoehn, E. 2008. Control of the critical oxygen levelduring dynamic CA storage of apples by monitoring respiration as well as chlorophyll fluorescence.Acta Horticulturae, 796, 69–76.Gasser, F., Mattle, S. and Hohn, E. 2004. Cherry: storage trials 2003. Obst und Weinbau, 140, 6–10.Geeson, J.D. 1984. Improved Long Term Storage of Winter White Cabbage and Carrots. Agricultural and FoodResearch Council, Fruit, Vegetable and Science, London, 19, 21.Geeson, J.D. 1989. Modified atmosphere packaging of fruits and vegetables. Acta Horticulturae, 258,143–150.Geeson, J.D. and Smith, S.M. 1989. Retardation of apple ripening during distribution by the use of modifiedatmospheres. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 245–253.Geeson, J.D., Genge, P.M., Sharples, R.O. and Smith, S.M. 1990a. Limitations to modified atmosphere packagingfor extending the shelf-life of partly ripened Doyenné du Comice pears. International Journal ofFood Science & Technology, 26, 225–231.Geeson, J.D., Genge, P.M., Smith, S.M. and Sharples, R.O. 1990b. The response of unripe Conference pears tomodified atmosphere retail packaging. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 26, 215–224.Gil, M.I., Conesa, M.A. and Artes, F. 2003. Effects of low-oxygen and high-carbon dioxide atmosphere onpostharvest quality of artichokes. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 385–388.Gil-Izquierdo, A., Conesa, M., Ferreres, F. and Gil, M. 2004. Influence of modified atmosphere packagingon quality, vitamin C and phenolic content of artichokes (Cynara scolymus L.). European Food Researchand Technology, 215, 21–27.Girard, B. and Lau, O.L. 1995. Effect of maturity and storage on quality and volatile production of ‘Jonagold’apples. Food Research International, 28, 465–471.Goffings, G. and Herregods, M. 1989. Storage of leeks under controlled atmospheres. Acta Horticulturae,258, 481–484.Goffings, G., Herregods, M. and Sass, P. 1994. The influence of the storage conditions on some quality parametersof Jonagold apples. Acta Horticulturae, 368, 37–42.Gökmen V., Akbudak, B., Serpen, A., Acar, J., Turan, Z.M. and Eri , A. 2007. Effects of controlled atmospherestorage and low-dose irradiation on potato tuber components affecting acrylamide and colorformations upon frying. European Food Research and Technology, 224, 743–748.Golias, J. 1987. Zpusoby odstraneni etylenu z atmosfery komory se skladovanou zeleninou. [Methods ofethylene removal from vegetable storage chambers.] Bulletin, Vyzkumny a Slechtitelsky Ustav ZelinarskyOlomouc, 31, 51–60.Gomez, P.A. and Artes, F. 2004. Keeping quality of green celery as affected by modified atmosphere packaging.European Journal of Horticultural Science, 69, 215–219.Gonzalez Aguilar, G., Vasquez, C., Felix, L., Baez, R., Siller, J. and Ait, O. 1994. Low O 2treatment beforestorage in normal or modified atmosphere packaging of mango. Postharvest physiology, pathologyand technologies for horticultural commodities: recent advances. Proceedings of an InternationalSymposium Held at Agadir, Morocco, 16–21 January 1994, 185–189.Goodenough, P.W. and Thomas, T.H. 1980. Comparitive physiology of field grown tomatoes duringripening on the plant or retarded ripening in controlled atmosphere. Annals of Applied Biology, 94,445–455.Goodenough, P.W. and Thomas, T.H. 1981. Biochemical changes in tomatoes stored in modified gas atmospheres.I Sugars and acids. Annals of Applied Biology, 98, 507–516.Gorini, F. 1988. Storage and postharvest treatment of brassicas. I. Broccoli. Annali dell’Istituto Sperimentaleper la Valorizzazione Tecnologica dei Prodotti Agricoli, Milano, 19, 279–294.

226 ReferencesGoulart, B.L., Evensen, K.B., Hammer, P. and Braun, H.L. 1990. Maintaining raspberry shelf-life: Part 1. Theinfluence of controlled atmospheric gases on raspberry postharvest longevity. Pennsylvania FruitNews, 70, 12–15.Goulart, B.L., Hammer, P.E., Evensen, K.B., Janisiewicz, B. and Takeda, F. 1992. Pyrrolnitrin, captan withbenomyl, and high CO 2enhance raspberry shelf-life at 0 or 18 °C. Journal of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 117, 265–270.Gözlekçi, S., Erkan, M., Karaşahin, I. and Şahin, G. 2008. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on fig(Ficus carica cv. Bardakci) storage. Acta Horticulturae, 798, 325–330.Graell, J. and Recasens, I. 1992. Effects of ethylene removal on ‘Starking Delicious’ apple quality in controlledatmosphere storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 2, 101–108.Grierson, W. 1971. Chilling injury in tropical and subtropical fruits: IV. The role of packaging and waxingin minimizing chilling injury of grapefruit. Proceedings of the Tropical Region, American Society for HorticulturalScience, 15, 76–88.Grozeff, G.G., Micieli, M.E., Gómez, F., Fernández, L., Guiamet, J.J., Chaves, A.R. and Bartoli, C.G. 2010.1-Methyl cyclopropene extends postharvest life of spinach leaves. Postharvest Biology and Technology,55, 182–185.Gudkovskii, V.A. 1975. Storage of apples in a controlled atmosphere. Tematicheskii Sbornik Nauchnykh RabotInstituta Plodovodstva i Vinogradarstva i Opytnykh Stantsii, 3, 256–268.Guerra, N.B., Livera, A.V.S., da Rocha, J.A.M.R. and Oliveira, S.L. 1995. Storage of soursop Annonamuricata, L. in polyethylene bags with ethylene absorbent. In Kushwaha, L., Serwatowski, R. andBrook, R. Editors. Technologias de Cosecha y Postcosecha de Frutas y Hortalizas. Harvest and PostharvestTechnologies for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Proceedings of a conference held in Guanajuato, Mexico,20–24 February 1995, 617–622.Gui Fen Qi, Chen Fang, Wu Ji Hong, Wang Zheng Fu, Liao Xiao Jun and Hu Xiao Song 2006. Inactivationand structural change of horseradish peroxidase treated with supercritical carbon dioxide. FoodChemistry, 97, 480–489.Gunes, G., Liu, R.H. and Watkins, C.B. 2002. Controlled-atmosphere effects on postharvest quality andantioxidant activity of cranberry fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 5932–5938.Gunes, N.T. 2008. Ripening regulation during storage in quince (Cydonia oblonga Mill.) fruit. Acta Horticulturae,796, 191–196.Guo, L., Ma, Y., Sun, D.W. and Wang, P. 2008. Effects of controlled freezing-point storage at 0 °C on quality ofgreen bean as compared with cold and room-temperature storages. Journal of Food Engineering, 86, 25–29.Guo Yan, Ma ShuShang, Zhu YuHan and Zhao Gang 2007. Effects of 1-MCP treatment on postharvestphysiology and storage quality of Pink Lady apple with different maturity. Journal of Fruit Science, 24,415–420.Haard, N.F. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1975. Symposium: Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables.AVI Publishing Company Incorporated, Westport, Connecticut, USA.Haffner, K., Rosenfeld, H.J., Skrede, G. and Wang Laixin 2002. Quality of red raspberry Rubus idaeus L.cultivars after storage in controlled and normal atmospheres. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 24,279–289.Haffner, K.E. 1993. Storage trials of ‘Aroma’ apples at the Agricultural University of Norway. Acta Horticulturae,326, 305–313.Han Bing, Wang Wen Sheng and Shi Zhi Ping 2006. Effect of control atmosphere storage on physiologicaland biochemical change of Dong jujube. Scientia Agricultura Sinica, 39, 2379–2383.Hansen, H. 1975. Storage of Jonagold apples – preliminary results of storage trials. Erwerbsobstbau, 17,122–123.Hansen, H. 1977. Lagerungsversuche mit neu im Anbau aufgenommenen Apfelsorten. [Storage trials withless common apple varieties.] Obstbau Weinbau, 14, 223–226.Hansen, H. 1986. Use of high CO 2concentrations in the transport and storage of soft fruit. Obstbau, 11,268–271.Hansen, H. and Rumpf, G. 1978. Quality and storability of the apple cultivar Undine. Erwerbsobstbau, 20,231–232.Hansen, K., Poll, L., Olsen, C.E. and Lewis, M.J. 1992. The influence of O 2concentration in storage atmosphereson the post-storage volatile ester production of ‘Jonagold’ apples. Lebensmittel Wissenschaftand Technologie, 25, 457–461.Hansen, M., Olsen, C.E., Poll, L. and Cantwell, M.I. 1993. Volatile constituents and sensory quality ofcooked broccoli florets after aerobic and anaerobic storage. Acta Horticulturae, 343, 105–111.

References 227Harb, J.Y. and Streif, J. 2004a. Controlled atmosphere storage of highbush blueberries cv. ‘Duke’. EuropeanJournal of Horticultural Science, 69, 66–72.Harb, J. and Streif, J. 2004b. Quality and consumer acceptability of gooseberry fruits (Ribes uvacrispa) followingCA and air storage. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 79, 329–334.Harb, J. and Streif, J. 2006. The influence of different controlled atmosphere storage conditions on the storabilityand quality of blueberries cv. ‘Bluecrop’. Erwerbsobstbau, 48, 115–120.Harb, J., Bisharat, R. and Streif, J. 2008b. Changes in volatile constituents of blackcurrants (Ribes nigrum L.cv. ‘Titania’) following controlled atmosphere storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 47, 271–279.Harb, J., Streif, J. and Bangerth, K.F. 2008a. Aroma volatiles of apples as influenced by ripening and storageprocedures. Acta Horticulturae, 796, 93–103.Harb, J., Streif, J., Bangerth, F. and Sass, P. 1994. Synthesis of aroma compounds by controlled atmospherestored apples supplied with aroma precursors: alcohols, acids and esters. Acta Horticulturae, 368,142–149.Hardenburg, R.E. 1955. Ventilation of packaged produce. Onions are typical of items requiring effectiveperforation of film bags. Modern Packaging, 28, 140 199–200.Hardenburg, R.E. and Anderson, R.E. 1962. Chemical Control of Scald on Apples Grown in Eastern UnitedStates. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Washington, DC,51–54.Hardenburg, R.E., Anderson, R.E. and Finney, E.E. Jr 1977. Quality and condition of ‘Delicious’ apples afterstorage at 0 deg C and display at warmer temperatures. Journal of the America Society for HorticulturalScience, 102, 210–214.Hardenburg, R.E., Watada, A.E. and Wang, C.Y. 1990. The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables andflorist and nursery stocks. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, AgricultureHandbook 66.Harkett, P.J. 1971. The effect of O 2concentration on the sugar content of potato tubers stored at low temperature.Potato Research, 14, 305–311.Harman, J.E. 1988. Quality maintenance after harvest. New Zealand Agricultural Science, 22, 46–48.Harris, C.M. and Harvey, J.M. 1973. Quality and decay of California strawberries stored in CO 2enrichedatmospheres. Plant Disease Reporter, 57, 44–46.Hartmans, K.J., van Es, A. and Schouten, S. 1990. Influence of controlled atmosphere CA storage on respiration,sprout growth and sugar content of cv. Bintje during extended storage at 4 °C. 11th TriennialConference of the European Association for Potato Research, Edinburgh, UK, 8–13 July, 1990, 159–160.Haruenkit, R. and Thompson, A.K. 1993. Storage of fresh pineapples. Australian Centre for InternationalAgricultural Research Proceedings, 50, 422–426.Haruenkit, R. and Thompson, A.K. 1996. Effect of O 2and CO 2levels on internal browning and compositionof pineapples Smooth Cayenne. Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical Fruits, KualaLumpur, Malaysia, 23–26 July 1996, 343–350.Hassan, A., Atan, R.M. and Zain, Z.M. 1985. Effect of modified atmosphere on black heart developmentand ascorbic acid content in ‘Mauritius’ pineapple Ananas comosus cv. Mauritius during storage atlow temperature. Association of Southeast Asian Nations Food Journal, 1, 15–18.Hatfield, S.G.S. 1975. Influence of post-storage temperature on the aroma production by apples after controlled-atmospherestorage. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture, 26, 1611–1612.Hatfield, S.G.S. and Patterson, B.D. 1974. Abnormal volatile production by apples during ripening aftercontrolled atmosphere storage. Facteurs et Régulation de la Maturation des Fruits. Colleques Internationaux,CNRS, Paris, 57–64.Hatton, T.T. and Cubbedge, R.H. 1982. Conditioning Florida grapefruit to reduce chilling injury duringlow temperature storage. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 107, 57.Hatton, T.T. and Reeder, W.F. 1966. Controlled atmosphere storage of ‘Keitt’ mangoes. Proceedings of theCaribbean Region of the American Society for Hoticultural Science, 10, 114–119.Hatton, T.T. and Reeder, W.F. 1968. Controlled atmosphere storage of papayas. Proceedings of the TropicalRegion of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 13, 251–256.Hatton, T.T. and Spalding, D.H. 1990. Controlled atmosphere storage of some tropical fruits. In Calderon,M. and Barkai-Golan, R. Editors. Food Preservation by Modified Atmospheres. CRC Press, Boca Raton,Florida and Boston, Massachusetts, 301–313.Hatton, T.T., Cubbedge, R.H. and Grierson, W. 1975. Effects of prestorage carbon dioxide treatments anddelayed storage on chilling injury of ‘Marsh’ grapefruit. Proceedings of the Florida State Society for HorticulturalScience, 88, 335.

228 ReferencesHee Ju Park, Ik KooYoon and Yong Joon Yang 2009. Quality changes in peaches ‘Mibaekdo’ and ‘Hwangdo’from 1-MCP treatment. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 68.Hellickson, M.L., Adre, N., Staples, J. and Butte, J. 1995. Computer controlled evaporator operation duringfruit cool-down. In Kushwaha, L., Serwatowski, R. and Brook, R. Editors. Technologias de Cosecha yPostcosecha de Frutas y Hortalizas. Harvest and Postharvest Technologies for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables.Proceedings of a conference held in Guanajuato, Mexico, 20–24 February 1995, 546–553.Henderson, J.R. and Buescher, R.W. 1977. Effects of sulfur dioxide and controlled atmospheres on brokenenddiscoloration and processed quality attributes in snap beans. Journal of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 102, 768–770.Hennecke, C., Kopcke, D. and Dierend, W. 2008. Storage of apples in dynamic controlled atmosphere.Erwerbsobstbau, 50, 19–29.Henze, J. 1989. Storage and transport of Pleurotus mushrooms in atmospheres with high CO 2concentrations.Acta Horticulturae, 258, 579–584.Hermansen, A. and Hoftun, H. 2005. Effect of storage in controlled atmosphere on post-harvest infectionsof Phytophthora brassicae, and chilling injury in Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L pekinensis (Lour)Hanelt). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85, 1365–1370.Hertog, M.L.A.T.M., Nicholson, S.E. and Jeffery, P.B. 2004. The effect of modified atmospheres on the rateof firmness change of ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 31, 251–261.Hesselman, C.W. and Freebairn, H.T. 1969. Rate of ripening of initiated bananas as influenced by oxygenand ethylene. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 94, 635.Hewett, E.W. and Thompson, C.J. 1988. Modified atmosphere storage for reduction of bitter pit in someNew Zealand apple cultivars. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 16, 271–277.Hewett, E.W. and Thompson, C.J. 1989. Modified atmosphere storage and bitter pit reduction in ‘Cox’sOrange Pippin’ apples. Scientia Horticulturae, 39, 117–129.Hill, G.R. Jr 1913. Respiration of fruits and growing plant tissue in certain cases, with reference to ventilationand fruit storage. Cornell University, Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin, 330.Hodges, D.M., Munro, K.D., Forney, C.F. and McRae, K. 2006. Glucosinolate and free sugar content incauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis cv. Freemont) during controlled-atmosphere storage. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 40, 123–132.Hoehn, E., Prange, R.K. and Vigneault, C. 2009. Storage technology and applications and storage temperatureon the shelf-life and quality of pomegranate fruits cv. Ganesh. Postharvest Biology and Technology,22, 61–69.Hofman, P.J., Joblin-Décor, M., Meiburg, G.F., MacNish, A.J. and Joyce, D.C. 2001. Ripening and qualityresponses of avocado, custard apple, mango and papaya fruit to 1-methylcyclopropene. AustralianJournal of Experimental Agriculture, 41, 567–572.Homma, T., Inoue, E., Matsuda, T. and Hara, H. 2008. Changes in fruit quality factors in Japanese chestnut(Castanea crenata Siebold & Zucc.) during long-term storage. Horticultural Research (Japan), 7, 591–598.Hong, Q.Z., Sheng, H.Y., Chen, Y.F. and Yang, S.J. 1983. Effects of CA storage with a silicone window onsatsuma oranges. Journal of Fujiart Agricultural College, 12, 53–60.Hong, Y.P., Choi, J.H. and Lee, S.K. 1997. Optimum CA condition for four apple cultivars grown in Korea.Postharvest Horticulture Series – Department of Pomology, University of California, 16, 241–245.Hongxia Liu, Weibo Jiang, Ligang Zhou, Baogang Wang and Yunbo Luo 2005. The effects of 1-methylcyclopropeneon peach fruit (Prunus persica L. cv. Jiubao) ripening and disease resistance. InternationalJournal of Food Science & Technology, 40, 1–7.Horvitz, S., Yommi, A., Lopez Camelo, A. and Godoy, C. 2004. Effects of maturity stage and use of modifiedatmospheres on quality of sweet cherries cv. Sweetheart. Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias,Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, 36, 39–48.Hotchkiss, J.H. and Banco, M.J. 1992. Influence of new packaging technologies on the growth of microorganismsin produce. Journal of Food Protection, 55, 815–820.Houck, L.G., Aharoni, Y. and Fouse, D.C. 1978. Colour changes in orange fruit stored in high concentrationsof O 2and in ethylene. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, 91, 136–139.Hribar, J., Bitenc, F. and Bernot, D. 1977. Optimal harvesting date and storage conditions for the applecultivar Stayman Red. Jugoslovensko Vocarstvo, 10, 687–693.Hribar, J., Plestenjak, A., Vidrih, R., Simcic, M. and Sass, P. 1994. Influence of CO 2shock treatment and ULOstorage on apple quality. Acta Horticulturae, 368, 634–640.HSE. 1991. Confined Spaces. Health and Safety Executive UK, Information Sheet 15.

References 229Hu Wen Zhong, Tanaka, S., Uchino, T., Akimoto, K., Hamanaka, D. and Hori, Y. 2003. Atmospheric compositionand respiration of fresh shiitake mushroom in modified atmosphere packages. Journal of theFaculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, 48, 209–218.Huang ChaoChia, Huang HueySuey and Tsai ChinYu 2002. A study on controlled atmosphere storage ofcabbage with sealed plastic tent. Journal of Agricultural Research of China, 51, 33–42.Huelin, F.E. and Tindale, G.B. 1947. The gas storage of Victorian apples. Journal of Agriculture, VictorianDepartment of Agriculture, 45, 74–80.Hughes, P.A., Thompson, A.K., Plumbley, R.A. and Seymour, G.B. 1981. Storage of capsicums Capsicumannum [L.], Sendt. under controlled atmosphere, modified atmosphere and hypobaric conditions.Journal of Horticultural Science, 56, 261–265.Hulme, A.C. 1956. CO 2injury and the presence of succinic acid in apples. Nature, 178, 218.Hulme, A.C. 1971. The Biochemistry of Fruits and their Products, Vol. 2. Academic Press, London andNew York.Hunsche, M., Brackmann, A. and Ernani, P.R. 2003. Effect of potassium fertilization on the postharvestquality of ‘Fuji’ apples. Pesquisa Agropecuaria Brasileira, 38, 489–496.Ilangantileke, S. and Salokhe, V. 1989. Low pressure atmosphere storage of Thai mango. Proceedings of theFifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June,Vol. 2, 103–117.Imahori, Y., Kishioka, I., Uemura, K., Makita, E., Fujiwara, H., Nishiyama, Y. et al. 2007. Effects of shorttermexposure to low oxygen atmospheres on phsyiological responses of sweetpotato roots. Journal ofthe Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 76, 258–265.Imakawa, S. 1967. Studies on the browning of Chinese yam. Memoir of the Faculty of Agriculture, HokkaidoUniversity, Japan, 6, 181.Inaba, A., Kiyasu, P. and Nakamura, R. 1989. Effects of high CO 2plus low O 2on respiration in several fruitsand vegetables. Scientific Reports of the Faculty of Agriculture, Okayama University, 73, 27–33.Ionescu, L., Millim, K., Batovici, R., Panait, E. and Maraineanu, L. 1978. Resarch on the storage of sweetand sour cherries in cold stores with normal and controlled atmospheres. Lucrari Stiintifice, Institutulde Cerctari Pentru Valorifocarea Legumelor si Fructelor, 9, 43–51.Isenberg, F.M.R. 1979. Controlled atmosphere storage of vegetables. Horticultural Review, 1, 337–394.Isenberg, F.M.R. and Sayle, R.M. 1969. Modified atmosphere storage of Danish cabbage. Proceedings of theAmerican Society of Horticultural Science, 94, 447–449.Isidoro, N and. Almeida, D.P.F. 2006. Alpha-farnesene, conjugated trienols, and superficial scald in ‘Rocha’pear as affected by 1-methylcyclopropene and diphenylamine. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 42,49–56.Isshiki Maya, Terai Hirofumi and Suzuki Yasuo 2005. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene on quality of sudachis(Citrus sudachi hort. ex Shirai) during storage. Food Preservation Science, 31, 61–65.Itai, A. and Tanahashi, T. 2008. Inhibition of sucrose loss during cold storage in Japanese pear (Pyrus pyrifoliaNakai) by 1-MCP. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 48, 355–363.Ito, S., Kakiuchi, N., Izumi, Y. and Iba, Y. 1974. Studies on the controlled atmosphere storage of satsumamandarin. Bulletin of the Fruit Tree Research Station, B. Okitsu, 1, 39–58.Izumi, H., Watada, A.E. and Douglas, W. 1996a. Optimum O 2or CO 2atmosphere for storing broccoli floretsat various temperatures. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 121, 127–131.Izumi, H., Watada, A.E., Nathanee, P.K. and Douglas, W. 1996b. Controlled atmosphere storage of carrotslices, sticks and shreds. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 9, 165–172.Jacobsson, A., Nielsen, T. and Sjoholm, I. 2004b. Effects of type of packaging material on shelf-life of freshbroccoli by means of changes in weight, colour and texture. European Food Research and Technology,218, 157–163.Jacobsson, A., Nielsen, T., Sjoholm, I. and Wendin, K. 2004a. Influence of packaging material and storagecondition on the sensory quality of broccoli. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 301–310.Jacxsens, L., Devlieghere, F. and Debevere, J. 2002. Predictive modeling for packaging design: equilibriummodified atmosphere packages of fresh-cut vegetables subjected to a simulated distribution chain.International Journal of Food Microbiology, 73, 331–341.Jacxsens, L., Devliegherre, F., Van Der Steen, C., Siro, I. and Debevere, J. 2003. Application of ethylene adsorbersin combination with high oxygen atmospheres for the storage of strawberries and raspberries.Acta Horticulturae, 600, 311–318.Jadhao, S.D., Borkar, P.A., Ingole, M.N., Murumkar, R.B. and Bakane, P.H. 2007. Storage of kagzi lime withdifferent pretreatments under ambient condition. Annals of Plant Physiology, 21, 30–37.

230 ReferencesJankovic, M. and Drobnjak, S. 1992. The influence of the composition of cold room atmosphere on thechanges of apple quality. Part 1. Changes in chemical composition and organoleptic properties.Review of Research Work at the Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, 37, 135–138.Jankovic, M. and Drobnjak, S. 1994. The influence of cold room atmosphere composition on apple qualitychanges. Part 2. Changes in firmness, mass loss and physiological injuries. Review of Research Work atthe Faculty of Agriculture, Belgrade, 39, 73–78.Jansasithorn, R. and Kanlavanarat, S. 2006. Effect of 1-MCP on physiological changes in banana ‘Khai’.Acta Horticulturae, 712, 723–728.Jeffery, D., Smith, C., Goodenough, P.W., Prosser, T. and Grierson, D. 1984. Ethylene independent and ethylenedependent biochemical changes in ripening tomatoes. Plant Physiology, 74, 32.Jiang, W., Zhang, M., He, J. and Zhou, L. 2004. Regulation of 1-MCP-treated banana fruit quality by exogenousethylene and temperature. Food Science and Technology International, 10, 15–20.Jiang, Y.M., Joyce, D.C. and MacNish, A.J. 1999. Extension of the shelf-life of banana fruit by 1-methylcyclopropenein combination with polyethylene bags. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 16, 187–193.Jiang, Y.M., Joyce, D.C. and Terry, L.A. 2001. 1-Methylcyclopropene treatment affects strawberry fruit decay.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 23, 227–232.Jobling, J.J. and McGlasson, W.B. 1995. A comparison of ethylene production, maturity and controlled atmospherestorage life of Gala, Fuji and Lady Williams apples (Malus domestica, Borkh.). PostharvestBiology and Technology, 6, 209–218.Jobling, J.J., McGlasson, W.B., Miller, P. and Hourigan, J. 1993. Harvest maturity and quality of new applecultivars. Acta Horticulturae, 343, 53–55.Jog, K.V. 2004. Cold storage industry in India. http://www.ninadjog.com/krishna/ColdStoragesIndia.pdf accessed January 2010.Johnson, D.S.1994a. Prospects for increasing the flavour of ‘Cox’s Orange Pippin’ apples stored undercontrolled atmosphere conditions. COST 94. The Post-harvest Treatment of Fruit and Vegetables: QualityCriteria. Proceedings of a workshop, Bled, Slovenia, 19–21 April 1994, 39–44.Johnson, D.S. 1994b. Storage conditions for apples and pears. East Malling Research Association Review1994–1995.Johnson, D.S. 2001. Storage regimes for Gala. The Apple and Pear Research Council News, 27, 5–8.Johnson, D.S. 2008. Factors affecting the efficacy of 1-MCP applied to retard apple ripening. Acta Horticulturae,796, 59–67.Johnson, D.S. and Colgan, R.J. 2003. Low ethylene CA induces adverse effects on the quality of Queen Coxapples treated with AVG during fruit development. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 441–448.Johnson, D.S. and Ertan, U. 1983. Interaction of temperature and O 2level on the respiration rate and storagequality of Idared apples. Journal of Horticultural Science, 58, 527–533.Johnson, D.S., Dover, C.J. and Pearson, K. 1993. Very low oxygen storage in relation to ethanolproduction and control of superficial scald in Bramley’s Seedling apples. Acta Horticulturae, 326,175–182.Johnson, G.I., Boag, T.S., Cooke, A.W., Izard, M., Panitz, M. and Sangchote, S. 1990a. Interaction of postharvest disease control treatments and gamma irradiation on mangoes. Annals of Applied Biology, 116,245–257.Johnson, G.I., Sangchote, S. and Cooke, A.W. 1990b. Control of stem end rot Dothiorella dominicana andother postharvest diseases of mangoes cultivar Kensington Pride during short and long term storage.Tropical Agriculture, 67, 183–187.Jomori, M.L.L., Kluge, R.A. and Jacomino, A.P. 2003. Cold storage of ‘Tahiti’ lime treated with 1-methylcyclopropene.Scientia Agricola, 60, 785–788.Kader, A.A. 1985. Modified atmosphere and low-pressure systems during transport and storage. In Kader,A.A., Kasmire, R.F., Mitchell, F.G., Reid, M.S., Sommer, N.F. and Thompson, J.F. Editors. PostharvestTechnology of Horticultural Crops. Cooperative Extension, University of California, Division of Agricultureand Natural Resources, 59–60.Kader, A.A. 1986. Biochemical and physiological basis for effects on controlled and modified atmosphereson fruits and vegetables. Food Technology, 40, 99–104.Kader, A.A. 1989. A summary of CA requirements and recommendations for fruit other than pome fruits.Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington,USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 303–328.Kader, A.A. 1992. Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops. ANR Publications, 3311, Division of Agricultureand Natural Resources, University of California, Oakland, California, USA.

References 231Kader, A.A. 1993. Modified and controlled atmosphere storage of tropical fruits. In PostharvestHandling of Tropical Fruits. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Proceedings, 50,239–249.Kader, A.A. 1997. A summary of CA requirements and recommendations for fruits other than pome fruits.Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California,Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 49.Kader, A.A., Chastagner, G.A., Morris, L.L. and Ogawa, J.M. 1978. Effects of carbon monoxide on decay,physiological responses, ripening, and composition of tomato fruits. Journal of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 103, 665–670.Kader, A.A., Chordas, A. and Elyatem, S. 1984. Responses of pomegranates to ethylene treatment and storagetemperature. California Agriculture, 38, 7–8, 14–15.Kaji, H., Ikebe, T. and Osajima, Y. 1991. Effects of environmental gases on the shelf-life of Japanese apricot.Journal of the Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology, 38, 797–803.Kajiura, I. 1972. Effects of gas concentrations on fruit. V. Effects of CO 2concentrations on natsudaidai fruit.Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 41, 215–222.Kajiura, I. 1973. The effects of gas concentrations on fruits. VII. A comparison of the effects of CO 2at differentrelative humidities, and of low O 2with and without CO 2in the CA storage of natsudaidai. Journalof the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 42, 49–55.Kajiura, I. and Iwata, M. 1972. Effects of gas concentrations on fruit. IV. Effects of O 2concentration on natsudaidaifruits. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 41, 98–106.Kamath, O.C., Kushad, M.M. and Barden, J.A. 1992. Postharvest quality of ‘Virginia Gold’ apple fruit. FruitVarieties Journal, 46, 87–89.Kane, O. and Marcellin, P. 1979. Effects of controlled atmosphere on the storage of mango. Fruits, 34, 123–129.Kang Ho Min and Park Kuen Woo 2000. Comparison of storability on film sources and storage temperaturefor Oriental melon in modified atmosphere storage. Journal of the Korean Society for HorticulturalScience, 41, 143–146.Karaoulanis, G. 1968. The effect of storage under controlled atmosphere conditions on the aldehyde andalcohol contents of oranges and grape. Annual Report of the Ditton Laboratory, 1967–1968.Kawagoe, Y., Morishima, H., Seo, Y. and Imou, K. 1991. Development of a controlled atmosphere-storagesystem with a gas separation membrane part 1 – apparatus and its performance. Journal of the JapaneseSociety of Agricultural Machinery, 53, 87–94.Kaynaş, K., Ozelkok, S. and Surmeli, N. 1994. Controlled atmosphere storage and modified atmospherepackaging of cauliflower. Commissions C2,D1,D2/3 of the International Institute of Refrigeration InternationalSymposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 281–288.Kaynaş, K., Sakaldaş, M., Kuzucu, F.C. and Uyar, E. 2009. The combined effects of 1-methylcyclopropaneand modified atmosphere packaging on fruit quality of Fuyu persimmon fruit during storage.10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey[abstract], 20.Kays, S.J. 1997. Postharvest Physiology of Perishable Plant Products. Exon Press, Athens, Georgia, USA.Ke, D.Y. and Kader, A.A. 1989. Tolerance and responses of fresh fruits to O 2levels at or below 1%. Proceedingsof the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA,14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 209–216.Ke, D.Y. and Kader, A.A. 1992a. Potential of controlled atmospheres for postharvest insect disinfestation offruits and vegetables. Postharvest News and Information, 3, 31N–37N.Ke, D.Y. and Kader, A.A 1992b. External and internal factors influence fruit tolerance to low O 2atmospheres.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 117, 913–918.Ke, D.Y., El Wazir, F., Cole, B., Mateos, M. and Kader, A.A. 1994a. Tolerance of peach and nectarine fruits toinsecticidal controlled atmospheres as influenced by cultivar, maturity, and size. Postharvest Biologyand Technology, 4, 135–146.Ke, D.Y., Rodriguez Sinobas, L. and Kader, A.A. 1991a. Physiology and prediction of fruit tolerance to lowO 2atmospheres. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 116, 253–260.Ke, D.Y., Rodriguez-Sinobas, L. and Kader, A.A. 1991b. Physiological responses and quality attributes ofpeaches kept in low O 2atmospheres. Scientia-Horticulturae, 47, 295–303.Ke, D.Y., Zhou, L. and Kader, A.A, 1994b. Mode of O 2and CO 2action on strawberry ester biosynthesis.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 119, 971–975.Kelly, M.O. and Saltveit, M.E. Jr 1988. Effect of endogenously synthesized and exogenously applied ethanolon tomato fruit ripening. Plant Physiology, 88, 143–147.

232 ReferencesKerbel, E., Ke, D. and Kader, A.A. 1989. Tolerance of ‘Fantasia’ nectarine to low O 2and high CO 2atmospheres.Technical Innovations in Freezing and Refrigeration of Fruits and Vegetables. Paper presented at aconference held in Davis, California, USA, 9–12 July, 325–331.Kesar R., Trivedi, P.K. and Nath, P. 2010. Gene expression of pathogenesis-related protein during bananaripening and after treatment with 1-MCP. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 55, (in press).Kester, J.J. and Fennema, O.R. 1986. Edible films and coatings – a review. Food Technology, 40, 46–57.Khan, A.S. and Singh, Z. 2007. 1-MCP regulates ethylene biosynthesis and fruit softening during ripeningof ‘Tegan Blue’ plum. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 43, 298–306.Khan, A.S., Singh, Z. and Swinny, E.E. 2009. Postharvest application of 1-methylcyclopropene modulatesfruit ripening, storage life and quality of ‘Tegan Blue’ Japanese plum kept in ambient and cold storage.International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 44, 1272–1280.Khanbari, O.S. and Thompson, A.K 1994. The effect of controlled atmosphere storage at 4°C on crisp colourand on sprout growth, rotting and weight loss of potato tubers. Potato Research, 37, 291–300.Khanbari, O.S. and Thompson, A.K. 1996. Effect of controlled atmosphere, temperature and cultivar onsprouting and processing quality of stored potatoes. Potato Research, 39, 523–531.Khanbari, O.S. and Thompson, A.K. 2004. The effect of controlled atmosphere storage at 8 o C on fry colour,sprout growth and rotting of potato tubers cv. Record. University of Aden, Journal of Natural and AppliedSciences, 8, 331–340.Khitron Ya, I. and Lyublinskaya, N.A 1991. Increasing the effectiveness of storing table grape. Sadovodstvoi Vinogradarstvo, 7, 19–21.Kidd, F. 1919. Laboratory experiments on the sprouting of potatoes in various gas mixtures nitrogen, O 2and CO 2. New Phytologist, 18, 248–252.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1917. The controlling influence of CO 2. IV. On the production of secondary dormancyin seeds of Brassica alba following a treatment with CO 2, and the relation of this phenomenon to thequestion of stimuli in growth processes. Annals of Botany, 34, 439–446.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1923. Brown heart – a functional disease of apples and pears. Food Investigation BoardSpecial Report, 12, 3–4.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1925. The course of respiratory activity throughout the life of an apple. Report of theFood Investigation Board London for 1924, 27–34.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1927a. A relation between the concentration of O 2and CO 2in the atmosphere, rate ofrespiration, and the length of storage of apples. Report of the Food Investigation Board London for 1925,1926, 41–42.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1927b. A relation between the respiratory activity and the keeping quality of apples.Report of the Food Investigation Board London for 1925, 1926, 37–41.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1930. The gas storage of fruit. II Optimum temperatures and atmospheres. Journal ofPomology and Horticultural Science, 8, 67–77.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1934. Injurious effects of pure O 2upon apples and pears at low temperatures. Reportof the Food Investigation Board London for 1933, 74–77.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1935a. Gas storage of apples. Report of the Food Investigation Board London for 1934,103–109.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1935b. The refrigerated gas storage of apples. Department of Scientific and IndustrialResearch, Food Investigation Leaflet, 6.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1938. The action of CO 2on the respiratory activity of apples. Report of the Food InvestigationBoard London for 1937, 101–102.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1939. The gas storage of Cox’s Orange Pippin apples on a commercial scale. Report ofthe Food Investigation Board London for 1938, 153–156.Kidd, F. and West, C. 1949. Resistance of the skin of the apple fruit to gaseous exchange. Report of the FoodInvestigation Board London for 1939, 64–68.Kim, Y, Brecht, J.K. and Talcott, S.T. 2007. Antioxidant phytochemical and fruit quality changes in mango(Mangifera indica L.) following hot water immersion and controlled atmosphere storage. Food Chemistry,105, 1327–1334.Kitagawa, H. and Glucina, P.G. 1984. Persimmon culture in New Zealand. New Zealand Department of Scientificand Industrial Research, Information Series, 159.Kitsiou, S. and Sfakiotakis, E. 2003. Modified atmosphere packaging of ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit: compositionof the storage atmosphere and quality changes at 10 and 20 o C. Acta Horticulturae, 610, 239–244.Klein, J.D. and Lurie, S. 1992. Prestorage heating of apple fruit for enhanced postharvest quality: interactionof time and temperature. HortScience, 27, 326–328.

References 233Klieber, A. and Wills, R.B.H. 1991. Optimisation of storage conditions for ‘Shogun’ broccoli. Scientia Horticulturae,47, 201–208.Klieber, A., Bagnato, N., Barrett, R. and Sedgley, M. 2002. Effect of post-ripening nitrogen atmosphere storageon banana shelf-life, visual appearance and aroma. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 25, 15–24.Klieber, A., Bagnato, N., Barrett, R. and Sedgley, M. 2003. Effect of post-ripening atmosphere treatments onbanana. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 51–54.Kluge, K. and Meier, G. 1979. Flavour development of some apple cultivars during storage. Gartenbau, 26,278–279.Knee, M. 1973. Effects of controlled atmosphere storage on respiratory metabolism of apple fruit tissue.Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 24, 289–298.Knee, M. 1990. Ethylene effects on controlled atmosphere storage of horticultural crops. In Calderon, M.and Barkai-Golan, R. Editors. Food Preservation by Modified Atmospheres. CRC Press, Boca Raton,Florida and Boston, Massachusetts, 225–235.Knee, M. and Aggarwal, D. 2000. Evaluation of vacuum containers for consumer storage of fruits andvegetables. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 19, 55–60.Knee, M. and Bubb, M. 1975. Storage of Bramley’s Seedling apples. II. Effects of source of fruit, pickingdate and storage conditions on the incidence of storage disorders. Journal of Horticultural Science, 50,121–128.Knee, M. and Looney, N.E. 1990. Effect of orchard and postharvest application of daminozide on ethylenesynthesis by apple fruit. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 9, 175–179.Knee, M. and Sharples, R.O. (1979). Influence of CA storage on apples. In Quality in Stored and ProcessedVegetables and Fruit. Proceedings of a Symposium at Long Ashton Research Station, University ofBristol, UK, 8–12 April 1979, 341–352.Koelet, P.C. 1992. Industrial Refrigeration. MacMillan, London.Koichiro Yamashita, Wataru Sasaki, Kazuo Fujisaki and Hiroshi Haga 2009. Effects of controlled atmospherestorage on storage life and shelf-life of the Japanese onion cultivar Super-Kitamomiji. 10thInternational Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract],53.Kollas, D.A. 1964. Preliminary investigation of the influence of controlled atmosphere storage on the organicacids of apples. Nature, 204, 758–759.Konopacka, D. and Pocharski, W. J. 2002. Effect of picking maturity, storage technology and shelf-life onchanges of apple firmness of ‘Elstar’, ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Gloster’ cultivars. Journal of Fruit and OrnamentalPlant Research, 10, 15–26.Kosson, R. and Stepowska, A. 2005. The effect of equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging on qualityand storage ability of sweet pepper fruits. Vegetable Crops Research Bulletin, 63, 139–148.Koyakumaru, T., Adachi, K., Sakoda, K., Sakota, N. and Oda, Y. 1994. Physiology and quality changes ofmature green mume Prunus mume Sieb. et Zucc. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science,62, 877–887.Koyakumaru, T., Sakoda, K., Ono, Y. and Sakota, N. 1995. Respiratory physiology of mature-green mumePrunus mume Sieb. et Zucc. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 64, 639–648.Krala, L., Witkowska, M., Kunicka, A. and Kalemba, D. 2007. Quality of savoy cabbage stored under controlledatmosphere with the addition of essential oils. Polish Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 57,45–50Kramchote, S., Jirapong, C. and Wongs-Aree, C. 2008. Effects of 1-MCP and controlled atmosphere storageon fruit quality and volatile emission of ‘Nam Dok Mai’ mango. Acta Horticulturae, 804, 485–492Kruger, F.J. and Truter, A.B. 2003. Relationship between preharvest quality determining factors and controlledatmosphere storage in South African export avocados. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 109–113.Ku, V.V.V. and Wills, R.B.H. 1999. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene on the storage life of broccoli. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 17, 127–132.Kubo, Y., Inaba, A., Kiyasu, H. and Nakamura, R. 1989b. Effects of high CO 2plus low O 2on respiration inseveral fruits and vegetables. Scientific Reports of the Faculty of Agriculture, Okayama University, 73,27–33.Kubo, Y., Inaba, A. and Nakamura, R. 1989a. Effects of high CO 2on respiration in various horticulturalcrops. Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 58, 731–736.Kucukbasmac, F., Ozkaya, O., Agar, T. and Saks, Y. 2008. Effect of retail-size modified atmosphere packagingbags on postharvest storage and shelf-life quality of ‘0900 Ziraat’ sweet cherry. Acta Horticulturae,795, 775–780.

234 ReferencesKumar, A. and Brahmachari, V.S. 2005. Effect of chemicals and packaging on ripening and storage behaviourof banana cv. Harichhaal (AAA) at ambient temperature. Horticultural Journal, 18, 86–90.Kumar, J., Mangal, J.L. and Tewatia, A.S. 1999. Effect of storage conditions and packing materials on shelflifeof carrot cv. Hisar Gairic. Vegetable Science, 26, 196–197.Kupferman, E. undated. Storage scald in apples and pears. http://postharvest.tfrec.wsu.edu/EMK2000C.pdf accessed May 2009.Kupferman, E. 1989. The early beginnings of controlled atmosphere storage. Post Harvest Pomology Newsletter,7, 3–4Kupferman, E. 2001. Controlled atmosphere storage of apples and pears. Washington State University.Postharvest Information Network Article. http://postharvest.tfrec.wsu.edu/EMK2001D.pdf accessedMay 2009.Kupper, W., Pekmezci, M. and Henze, J. 1994. Studies on CA-storage of pomegranate Punica granatum L.,cv. Hicaz. Acta Horticulturae, 398, 101–108.Kurki, L. 1979. Leek quality changes during CA storage. Acta Horticulturae, 93, 85–90.Kwok, C.Y. 2010. Paiola. www.mafc.com.my accessed January 2010.Ladaniya, M.S. 2004. Response of ‘Kagzi’ acid lime to low temperature regimes during storage. Journal ofFood Science and Technology (Mysore), 41, 284–288.Lafer, G. 2001. Influence of harvest date on fruit quality and storability of ‘Braeburn’ apples. Acta Horticulturae,553, 269–270.Lafer, G. 2005. Effects of 1-MCP treatments on fruit quality and storability of different pear varieties. ActaHorticulturae, 682, 1227–1232.Lafer, G. 2008. Storability and fruit quality of ‘Braeburn’ apples as affected by harvest date, 1-MCP treatmentand different storage conditions. Acta Horticulturae, 796, 179–184.Lalel, H.J.D. and Singh, Z. 2006. Controlled atmosphere storage of ‘Delta R2E2’ mango fruit affects productionof aroma volatile compounds. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 81, 449–457.Lalel, H.J.D., Singh, Z. and Tan, S.C. 2005. Elevated levels of CO 2in controlled atmosphere storage affectsshelf-life, fruit quality and aroma volatiles of mango. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology,80, 551–556.Lallu, N., Billing, D. and McDonald, B. 1997. Shipment of kiwifruit under CA conditions from New Zealandto Europe. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, Universityof California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 28.Lallu, N., Burdon, J., Billing, D., Burmeister, D., Yearsley, C., Osman, S. et al. 2005. Effect of carbon dioxideremoval systems on volatile profiles and quality of ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit stored in controlled atmosphererooms. HortTechnology, 15, 253–260.Landfald, R. 1988. Controlled-atmosphere storage of the apple cultivar Aroma. Norsk Landbruksforskning, 2,5–13.Lange, E., Nowacki, J. and Saniewski, M. 1993. The effect of methyl jasmonate on the ethylene producingsystem in preclimacteric apples stored in low oxygen and high carbon dioxide atmospheres. Journalof Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research, 1, 9–14.Laszlo, J.C. 1985. The effect of controlled atmosphere on the quality of stored table grape. Deciduous FruitGrower, 35, 436–438.Lau, O.L. 1989a. Storage of ‘Spartan’ and ‘Delicious’ apples in a low-ethylene, 1.5% O 2plus 1.5% CO 2atmosphere.HortScience, 24, 478–480.Lau, O.L. 1989b. Responses of British Columbia-grown apples to low-oxygen and low-ethylene controlledatmosphere storage. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 107–114.Lau, O.L. 1997. Influence of climate, harvest maturity, waxing, O 2and CO 2on browning disorders of‘ Braeburn’ apples. Postharvest Horticulture Series – Department of Pomology, University of California, 16,132–137.Lau, O.L. and Yastremski, R. 1993. The use of 0.7% storage oxygen to attenuate scald symptoms in ‘Delicious’apples: effect of apple strain and harvest maturity. Acta Horticulturae, 326, 183–189.Lawton, A.R. 1996. Cargo Care. Cambridge Refrigeration Technology, Cambridge, UK [these recommendationswere given as general guidelines and CRT accept no responsibility for their use].Lee, B.Y., Kim, Y.B. and Han, P.J. 1983. Studies on controlled atmosphere storage of Korean chestnut, Castaneacrenata var. dulcis Nakai. Research-Reports, Office of Rural Development, S. Korea, Soil Fertilizer, CropProtection, Mycology and Farm Products Utilization, 25, 170–181.Lee, D.S., Hagger, P.E., Lee, J. and Yam, K.L. 1991. Model for fresh produce repiration in modified atmospheresbased on the principles of enzyme kinetics. Journal of Food Science, 56, 1580–1585.

References 235Lee, H.D., Yun, H.S., Og Lee, W., Jeong, H. and Choe, S.Y. 2009. The effect of pressurized CA (controlledatmosphere) treatment on the storage qualities of peach. 10th International Controlled & Modified AtmosphereResearch Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 8.Lee, H.D., Yun, H.S., Park, W.K. and Choi, J.U. 2003. Estimation of conditions for controlled atmosphere(CA) storage of fresh products using modelling of respiration characteristics. Acta Horticulturae, 600,677–680.Lee, S.K., Shin, I.S. and Park, Y.M. 1993. Factors involved in skin browning of non astringent ‘Fuju’ persimmon.Acta Horticulturae, 343, 300–303.Lee Yong Jae, Lee Yong Moon, Kwon Oh Chang, Cho Young Su, Kim Tae Choon and Park Youn Moon 2003.Effects of low oxygen and high carbon dioxide concentrations on modified atmosphere-related disorderof ‘Fuju’ persimmon fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 601, 171–176.Levin, A., Sonego, L., Zutkhi, Y., Ben Arie, R. and Pech, J.C. 1992. Effects of CO 2on ethylene production byapples at low and high O 2concentrations. Cellular and molecular aspects of the plant hormone ethylene.Proceedings of the International Symposium on Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Biosynthesis andAction of the Plant Hormone Ethylene, Agen, France, 31August–4 September 1992. Current Plant Scienceand Biotechnology in Agriculture, 16, 150–151.Leyte, J.C. and Forney, C.F. 1999. Controlled atmosphere tents for storing fresh commodities in conventionalrefrigerated rooms. HortTechnology, 9, 672–674.Li, Y., Wang, V.H., Mao, C.Y. and Duan, C.H. 1973. Effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide on after ripeningof tomatoes. Acta Botanica Sinica, 15, 93–102.Liang Li Song, Wang Gui Xi and Sun Xiao Zhen 2004. Effect of postharvest high CO 2shock treatment onthe storage quality and performance of Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima Blume). Scientia Silvae,Sinicae, 40, 91–96.Lichter, A., Zutahy, Y., Kaplunov, T., Aharoni, N. and Lurie, S. 2005. The effect of ethanol dip and modifiedatmosphere on prevention of Botrytis rot of table grapes. HortTechnology, 15, 284–291.Lidster, P.D., Lawrence, R.A., Blanpied, G.D. and McRae, K.B. 1985. Laboratory evaluation of potassiumpermanganate for ethylene removal from controlled atmosphere apple storages. Transactions of theAmerican Society of Agricultural Engineers, 28, 331–334.Lill, R.E. and Corrigan, V.K. 1996. Asparagus responds to controlled atmospheres in warm conditions.International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 31, 117–121.Lima, L.C., Brackmann, A., Chitarra, M.I.F., Boas, E.V. de B.V. and Reis, J.M.R. 2002. Quality characteristicsof ‘Royal Gala’ apple, stored under refrigeration and controlled atmosphere. Ciencia e Agrotecnologia,26, 354–361.Lima, L.C., Hurr, B.M. and Huber, D.J. 2005. Deterioration of beit alpha and slicing cucumbers (Cucumissativus L.) during storage in ethylene or air: responses to suppression of ethylene perception andparallels to natural senescence. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 37, 265–276.Lipton, W.J. 1967. Some effects of low-oxygen atmospheres on potato tubers. American Journal of PotatoResearch, 44, 292–299.Lipton, W.J. 1968. Market quality of asparagus-effects of maturity at harvest and of high CO 2atmospheresduring simulated transit. USDA Marketing Research Report, 817.Lipton, W.J. 1972. Market quality of radishes stored in low O 2atmospheres. Journal of the American Societyfor Horticultural Science, 97, 164.Lipton, W.J. and Mackey, B.E. 1987. Physiological and quality responses of Brussels sprouts to storage incontrolled atmospheres. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 112, 491–496.Little, C.R., Holmes, R.J. and Faragher, J. (editor) 2000. Storage Technology for Apples and Pears. Institute forHorticulture Development Agriculture, Victoria, Knoxville, Australia.Liu, F.W. 1976a. Banana response to low concentrations of ethylene. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 101, 222–224.Liu, F.W. 1976b. Storing ethylene pretreated bananas in controlled atmosphere and hypobaric air. Journal ofthe American Society for Horticultural Science, 101, 198–201.Liu, F.W. 1977. Varietal and maturity differences of apples in response to ethylene in controlled atmospherestorage. Journal of American Society of Horticultural Science, 102, 93–95.Lizana, A. and Figuero, J. 1997. Effect of different CA on post harvest of Hass avocado. Seventh Inter nationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California95616, USA [abstract], 114.Lizana, L.A., Fichet, T., Videla, G., Berger, H. and Galletti, Y.L. 1993. Almacenamiento de aguacates pultas cv.Gwen en atmosfera controlada. Proceedings of the Interamerican Society for Tropical Horticulture, 37, 79–84.

236 ReferencesLopez, M.L., Lavilla, T., Recasens, I., Riba, M. and Vendrell, M. 1998. Influence of different oxygen andcarbon dioxide concentrations during storage on production of volatile compounds by Starking Deliciousapples. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 634–643.Lopez-Briones, G., Varoquaux, P., Bareau, G. and Pascat, B. 1993. Modified atmosphere packaging of commonmushroom. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 28, 57–68.Lougheed, E.C. and Lee, R. 1989. Ripening, CO 2and C 2H 4production, and quality of tomatofruits held in atmospheres containing nitrogen and argon. Proceedings of the Fifth InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2,141–150.Lovino, R., de Cillis, F.M. and Massignan, L. 2004. Improving the shelf-life of edible mushrooms by combinedpost-harvest techniques. Italus Hortus, 11, 97–99.Lu Chang Wen and Toivonen, P.M.A. 2000. Effect of 1 and 100 % O 2atmospheric pretreatments of whole‘Spartan’ apples on subsequent quality and shelf-life of slices stored in modified atmosphere packages.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 18, 99–107.Luchsinger, L., Mardones, C. and Leshuk, J. 2005. Controlled atmosphere storage of ‘Bing’ sweet cherries.Acta Horticulturae, 667, 535–537.Ludders, P. 2002. Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.) – botany, cultivation, storage and uses of a tropical–subtropical fruit. Erwerbsobstbau, 44, 122–126.Luo, Y. and Mikitzel, L.J. 1996. Extension of postharvest life of bell peppers with low O 2. Journal of the Scienceof Food and Agriculture, 70, 115–119.Lurie, S. 1992. Controlled atmosphere storage to decrease physiological disorders in nectarines. InternationalJournal of Food Science & Technology, 27, 507–514.Lurie, S., Lers, A., Zhou, H.W. and Dong, L. 2002. The role of ethylene in nectarine ripening following storage.Acta Horticulturae, 592, 607–613.Lurie, S., Zeidman, M., Zuthi, Y. and Ben Arie, R. 1992. Controlled atmosphere storage to decrease physiologicaldisorders in peaches and nectarine. Hassadeh, 72, 1118–1122.Lutz, J.M. and Hardenburg, R.E. 1968. The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables and florist and nurserystocks. United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 66.Maekawa, T. 1990. On the mango CA storage and transportation from subtropical to temperate regions inJapan. Acta Horticulturae, 269, 367–374.Magness, J.R. and Diehl, H.C. 1924. Physiological studies on apples in storage. Journal of AgriculturalResearch, 27, 33–34.Magomedov, M.G. 1987. Technology of grape storage in regulated gas atmosphere. Vinodelie i VinogradarstvoSSSR, 2, 17–19.Maguire, K.M. and MacKay, B.R. 2003. A controlled atmosphere induced internal browning disorder of‘Pacific Rose’ apples. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 281–284.Mahajan, P.V. and Goswami, T.K. 2004. Extended storage life of litchi fruit using controlled atmosphereand low temperature. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, 28, 388–403.Maharaj, R. and Sankat, C.K. 1990. The shelf-life of breadfruit stored under ambient and refrigerated conditions.Acta Horticulturae, 269, 411–424.Makhlouf, J., Castaigne, F., Arul, J., Willemot, C. and Gosselin, A. 1989a. Long term storage of broccoliunder controlled atmosphere. HortScience, 24, 637–639.Makhlouf, J., Willemot, C., Arul, J., Castaigne, F. and Emond, J.P. 1989b. Regulation of ethylene biosynthesisin broccoli flower buds in controlled atmospheres. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 114, 955–958.Malakou, A. and Nanos, G.D. 2005. A combination of hot water treatment and modified atmosphere packagingmaintains quality of advanced maturity ‘Caldesi 2000’ nectarines and ‘Royal Glory’ peaches.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 38, 106–114.Mali, S. and Grossmann, M.V.E. 2003. Effects of yam starch films on storability and quality of fresh strawberries(Fragaria ananassa). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 7005–7011.Mandeno, J.L. and Padfield, C.A.S. 1953. Refrigerated gas storage of apples in New Zealand. I. Equipmentand experimental procedure. New Zealand Journal of Science and Technology, B34, 462–469.Manganaris, G.A., Vicente, A.R. and Crisosto, C.H. 2008. Effect of pre-harvest and post-harvest conditionsand treatments on plum fruit quality. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutritionand Natural Resources, 9, 1–10.Manleitner, S., Lippert, F. and Noga, G. 2003. Post-harvest carbohydrate change of sweet corn dependingon film wrapping material. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 603–605.

References 237Manzano-Mendez, J.E. and Dris, R. 2001. Effect of storage atmosphere and temperature on soluble solidsin mamey amarillo (Mammea americana L.) fruits. Acta Horticulturae, 553, 675–676.Marcellin, P. 1973. Controlled atmosphere storage of vegetables in polyethylene bags with silicone rubberwindows. Acta Horticulturae, 38, 33–45.Marcellin, P. and Chaves, A. 1983. Effects of intermittent high CO 2treatment on storage life of avocadofruits in relation to respiration and ethylene production. Acta Horticulturae, 138, 155–163.Marcellin, P. and LeTeinturier, J. 1966. Étude d’une installation de conservation de pommes en atmosphèrecontrolée. International Institution of Refrigeration Bulletin, Annex 1966-1, 141–152.Marcellin, P., Pouliquen, J. and Guclu, S. 1979. Refrigerated storage of Passe Crassane and Comice pears inan atmosphere periodically enriched in CO 2: preliminary tests. Bulletin de l’Institut International duFroid, 59, 1152.Marchal, J. and Nolin, J. 1990. Fruit quality. Pre- and post-harvest physiology. Fruits, Special Issue, 119–122.Marecek, J. and Machackova, L. 2003. Development of compressive stress changes and modulus of elasticitychanges of champignons stored at different variants of controlled atmosphere at temperature 8 o C.Acta Universitatis Agriculturae, et Silviculturae, Mendelianae Brunensis, 51, 77–83.Martinez-Cayuela, M., Plata, M.C., Sanchez-de-Medina, L., Gil, A. and Faus, M.J. 1986. Changes in variousenzyme activities during ripening of cherimoya in controlled atmosphere. ARS Pharmaceutica, 27,371–380.Martinez-Damian, M.T. and Trejo, M.C.de. 2002. Changes in the quality of spinach stored in controlledatmospheres. Revista Chapingo. Serie Horticultura, 8, 49–62.Martinez-Javega, J.M., Jimenez Cuesta, M. and Cuquerella, J. 1983. Conservacion frigoric del melon ‘Tendral’.Anales del Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Agrarias Agricola, 23, 111–124.Martinez-Romero, D., Castillo, S., Valverde, J.M., Guillen, F., Valero, D. and Serrano, M. 2005. The use ofnatural aromatic essential oils helps to maintain post-harvest quality of ‘Crimson’ table grapes. ActaHorticulturae, 682, 1723–1729.Martins, C.R., Girardi, C.L., Corrent, A.R., Schenato, P.G. and Rombaldi, C.V. 2004. Periods of cold precedingthe storage in controlled atmosphere in the conservation of ‘Fuyu’ persimmon. Ciencia e Agrotecnologia,28, 815–822.Massignan, L., Lovino, R., Cillis, F.M. de and Santomasi, F. 2006. Cold storage of cherries with a combinationof modified and controlled atmosphere. Rivista di Frutticoltura e di Ortofloricoltura, 68, 63–66.Mateos, M., Ke, D., Cantwell, M. and Kader, A.A. 1993. Phenolic metabolism and ethanolic fermentation of intactand cut lettuce exposed to CO 2-enriched atmospheres. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 3, 225–233.Mattheis, J.P., Buchanan, D.A. and Fellman, J.K. 1991. Change in apple fruit volatiles after storage in atmospheresinducing anaerobic metabolism. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 39, 1602–1605.Mattus, G.E. 1963. Regular and automatic CA storage. Virginia Fruit, June 1963.Mazza, G. and Siemens, A.J. 1990. CO 2concentration in commercial potato storages and its effect on qualityof tubers for processing. American Potato Journal, 67, 121–132.McCollum, T. and Maul, D. 2009. 1-MCP inhibits degreening, but stimulates respiration and ethylenebiosynthesis in grapefruit. http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=156365 accessed January 2010.McDonald, J.E. 1985. Storage of broccoli. Annual Report, Research Station, Kentville, Nova Scotia, 114.McGlasson, W.B. and Wills, R.B.H. 1972. Effects of O 2and CO 2on respiration, storage life and organic acidsof green bananas. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 25, 35–42.McKay, S. and Van Eck, A. 2006. Red currants and gooseberries: extended season and marketing flexibilitywith controlled atmosphere storage. New York Fruit Quarterly, 14, 43–45.McKenzie, M.J., Greer, L.A., Heyes, J.A. and Hurst, P.L. 2004. Sugar metabolism and compartmentation inasparagus and broccoli during controlled atmosphere storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 32,45–56.McLauchlan, R.L., Barker, L.R. and Johnson, G.I. 1994. Controlled atmospheres for Kensington mango storage:classical atmospheres. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Proceedings, 58, 41–44.Meberg, K.R., Gronnerod, K. and Nystedt, J. 1996. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage of apple at theNorwegian Agricultural College. Nordisk Jordbruksforskning, 78, 55.Meberg, K.R., Haffner, K. and Rosenfeld, H.J. 2000. Storage and shelf-life of apples grown in Norway. I.Effects of controlled atmosphere storage on ‘Aroma’. Gartenbauwissenschaft, 65, 9–16.Medlicott, A.P. and Jeger, M.J. 1987. The development and application of postharvest treatments to manipulateripening of mangoes. In Prinsley, R.T. and Tucker, G. Editors. Mangoes – a Review. CommonwealthScience Council, UK.

238 ReferencesMeheriuk, M. 1989a. CA storage of apples. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere ResearchConference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 257–284.Meheriuk, M. 1989b. Storage chacteristics of Spartlett pear. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 215–219.Meheriuk, M. 1993. CA storage conditions for apples, pears and nashi. Proceedings of the Sixth InternationalControlled Atmosphere Conference, 15–17 June 1983, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 819–839.Meinl, G., Nuske, D. and Bleiss, W. 1988. Influence of ethylene on cabbage quality under long term storageconditions. Gartenbau, 35, 265.Meir, S., Akerman, M., Fuchs, Y. and Zauberman, G. 1993. Prolonged storage of Hass avocado fruits usingcontrolled atmosphere. Alon Hanotea, 47, 274–281.Melo, M.R., de Castro, J.V., Carvalho, C.R.L. and Pommer, C.V. 2002. Cold storage of cherimoya packedwith zeolit film. Bragantia, 61, 71–76.Mencarelli, F. 1987a. The storage of globe artichokes and possible industrial uses. Informatore Agrario, 43, 79–81.Mencarelli, F. 1987b. Effect of high CO 2atmospheres on stored zucchini squash. Journal of the AmericanSociety for Horticultural Science, 112, 985–988.Mencarelli, F., Botondi, R., Kelderer, M. and Casera, C. 2003. Influence of low O 2and high CO 2storage onquality of organically grown winter melon and control of disorders of organically grown apples byULO in commercial storage rooms. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 71–76.Mencarelli, F., Fontana, F. and Massantini, R. 1989. Postharvest practices to reduce chilling injury CI oneggplants. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee,Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 49–55.Mencarelli, F., Lipton, W.J. and Peterson, S.J. 1983. Responses of ‘zucchini’ squash to storage in low O 2atmospheresat chilling and non-chilling temperatures. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 108, 884–890.Mendoza, D.B. 1978. Postharvest handling of major fruits in the Philippines. Aspects of Postharvest Horticulturein ASEAN, 23–30.Mendoza, D.B., Pantastico, E.B. and Javier, F.B. 1972. Storage and handling of rambutan (Nephelium lappaceumL.). Philippines Agriculturist, 55, 322–332.Menjura Camacho, S. and Villamizar, C.F. 2004. Handling, packing and storage of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea)for reducing plant waste in Central Markets of Bogotá, Colombia. Proceedings of the InteramericanSociety for Tropical Horticulture, 47, 68–72.Menniti, A.M. and Casalini, L. 2000. Prevention of post-harvest diseases on cauliflower. Colture Protette, 29,67–71.Mercer, M.D. and Smittle, D.A. 1992. Storage atmospheres influence chilling injury and chilling injury inducedchanges in cell wall polysaccharides of cucumber. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 117, 930–933.Mertens, H. 1985. Storage conditions important for Chinese cabbage. Groenten en Fruit, 41, 62–63.Mertens, H. and Tranggono 1989. Ethylene and respiratory metabolism of cauliflower Brassica olereacea L.convar. botrytis in controlled atmosphere storage. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 493–501.Miccolis, V. and Saltveit, M.E. Jr. 1988. Influence of temperature and controlled atmosphere on storage of‘Green Globe’ artichoke buds. HortScience, 23, 736–741.Mignani, I. and Vercesi, A. 2003. Effects of postharvest treatments and storage conditions on chestnut quality.Acta Horticulturae, 600, 781–785.Miller, E.V. and Brooks, C. 1932. Effect of CO 2content of storage atmosphere on carbohydrate transformationin certain fruits and vegetables. Journal of Agricultural Research, 45, 449–459.Miller, E.V. and Dowd, O.J. 1936. Effect of CO 2on the carbohydrates and acidity of fruits and vegetables instorage. Journal of Agricultural Research, 53, 1–7.Miranda, M.R.A.de, Silva, F.S.da, Alves, R.E., Filgueiras, H.A.C. and Araujo, N.C.C. 2002. Storage of twotypes of sapodilla under ambient conditions. Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 24, 644–646.Miszczak, A. and Szymczak, J.A. 2000. The influence of harvest date and storage conditions on taste andapples aroma. Zeszyty Naukowe Instytutu Sadownictwa i Kwiaciarstwa w Skierniewicach, 8, 361–369.Mitcham, E., Zhou, S. and Bikoba, V. 1997. Development of carbon dioxide treatment for Californian tablegrapes. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University ofCalifornia, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 65.Mizukami, Y., Saito, T. and Shiga, T. 2003. Enzyme activities related to ascorbic acid in spinach leaves duringstorage. Journal of the Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology, 50, 1–6.Mohammed, M. 1993. Storage of passionfruit in polymeric films. Proceedings of the Interamerican Society forTropical Horticulture, 37, 85–88.

References 239Monzini, A. and Gorini, F.L. 1974. Controlled atmosphere in the storage of vegetables and flowers. Annalidell’Istituto Sperimentale per la Valorizzazione Tecnologica dei Prodotti Agricoli, 5, 277–291.Moor, U., Mölder, K., Tõnutare, T. and Põldma, P. 2009. Effect of active and passive MAP on postharvestquality of raspberry ‘Polka’. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference,4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 65.Morais, P.L.D., Miranda, M.R.A., Lima, L.C.O., Alves, J.D., Alves, R.E. and Silva, J.D. 2008. Cell wall biochemistryof sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) submitted to 1-methylcyclopropene. Brazilian Journal of PlantPhysiology, 20, 85–94.Morales, H., Sanchis, V., Rovira, A., Ramos, A.J. and Marín, S. 2007. Patulin accumulation in apples duringpostharvest: effect of controlled atmosphere storage and fungicide treatments. Food Control, 18,1443–1448.Moran, R.E. 2006. Maintaining fruit firmness of ‘McIntosh’ and ‘Cortland’ apples with aminoethoxyvinylglycineand 1-methylcyclopropene during storage. HortTechnology, 16, 513–516.Moreno, J. and de la Plaza, J.L. 1983. The respiratory intensity of cherimoya during refrigerated storage: aspecial case of climacteric fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 138, 179.Moretti, C.L., Araújo, A.L., Marouelli, W.A. and Silva, W.L.C. (undated). 1-Methylcyclopropene delays to -mato fruit ripening. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-05362002000400030accessed May 2009.Morris, L., Yang, S.F. and Mansfield, D. (1981). Postharvest physiology studies. Californian Fresh MarketTomato Advisory Board Annual Report (1980–1981), 85–105.Mota, W.F.da, Finger, F.L., Cecon, P.R., Silva, D.J.H.da, Correa, P.C., Firme, L.P. and Neves, L.L.de M. 2006.Shelf-life of four cultivars of okra covered with PVC film at room temperature. Horticultura Brasileira,24, 255–258.Moura, M.L. and Finger, F. 2003. Production of volatile compounds in tomato fruit (Lycopersicon esculentumMill.) stored under controlled atmosphere. Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, 28, 25–28.Moya-Leon, M.A., Vergara, M., Bravo, C., Pereira, M. and Moggia, C. 2007. Development of aroma compoundsand sensory quality of ‘Royal Gala’ apples during storage. Journal of Horticultural Science &Biotechnology, 82, 403–413.Nahor, H.B., Scheerlinck, N., Verboven, P., Impe, J.van and Nicolai, B. 2003. Combined discrete and continuoussimulation of controlled atmosphere (CA) storage systems. Communications in Agriculturaland Applied Biological Sciences, 68, 17–21.Nahor, H.B., Schotsmans, W., Scheerlinck, N. and Nicolaï, B.M. 2005. Applicability of existing gas exchangemodels for bulk storage of pome fruit: assessment and testing. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 35,15–24.Naichenko, V.M. and Romanshchak, S.P. 1984. Growth regulators in fruit of the plum cultivar VengerkaObyknovennaya during ripening and long term storage. Fizioliya I Biokhimiya Kul’turnykh Rastenii, 16,143–148.Nair, H. and Tung, H.F. 1988. Postharvest physiology and storage of Pisang Mas. Proceedings of the UKMSimposium Biologi Kebangsaan Ketiga, Kuala Lumpur, November 1988, 22–24.Nakamura, N., Sudhakar Rao, D.V., Shiina, T. and Nawa, Y. 2003. Effects of temperature and gas compositionon respiratory behaviour of tree-ripe ‘Irwin’ mango. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 425–429.Nardin, K. and Sass, P. 1994. Scald control on apples without use of chemicals. Acta Horticulturae, 368,417–428.Neale, M.A., Lindsay, R.T. and Messer, H.J.M. 1981. An experimental cold store for vegetables. Journal ofAgricultural Engineering Research, 26, 529–540.Negi, P.S. and Roy, S.K. 2000. Storage performance of savoy beet (Beta vulgaris var. bengalensis) in differentgrowing seasons. Tropical Science, 40, 211–213.Nerd, A. and Mizrahi, Y. 1993. Productivity and postharvest behaviour of black sapote in the Israeli Negevedesert. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Proceedings, 50, 441 [abstract].Neri, D.M., Hernandez, F.A.D. and Guemes, V.N. 2004. Influence of wax and plastic covers on the qualityand conservation time of fruits of Eureka lemon. Revista Chapingo. Serie Ingenieria Agropecuaria, 7,99–102.Neuwald, D.A., Sestari, I., Giehl, R.F.H., Pinto, J.A.V., Sautter, C.K. and Brackmann, A. 2008. Maintainingthe quality of the persimmon ‘Fuyu’ through storage in controlled atmosphere. Revista Brasileira deArmazenamento, 33, 68–75.Neuwirth, G.R. 1988. Respiration and formation of volatile flavour substances in controlled atmospherestoredapples after periods of ventilation at different times. Archiv fur Gartenbau, 36, 417–422.

240 ReferencesNeves, L.C., Bender, R.J., Rombaldi, C.V. and Vieites, R.L. 2004. Storage in passive modified atmosphere of‘Golden Star’ starfruit (Averrhoa carambola L.). Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 26, 13–16.Nichols, R. 1971. A Review of the Factors Affecting the Deterioration of Harvested Mushrooms. Report 174, GlasshouseCrops Research Institute, Littlehampton, UK.Nicolas, J., Rothan, C. and Duprat, F. 1989. Softening of kiwifruit in storage. Effects of intermittent highCO 2treatments. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 185–192.Nicotra, F.P. and Treccani, C.P. 1972. Ripeness for harvest and for refrigeration in relation to controlled atmospherestorage in the apple cv. Morgenduft. Rivista della Ortoflorofrutticoltura Italiana, 56, 207–218.Niedzielski, Z. 1984. Selection of the optimum gas mixture for prolonging the storage of green vegetables.Brussels sprouts and spinach. Industries Alimentaires et Agricoles, 101, 115–118.Nilsson, T. 2005. Effects of ethylene and 1-MCP on ripening and senescence of European seedless cucumbers.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 36, 113–125.Niranjana, P., Gopalakrishna, R.K.P., Sudhakar, R.D.V. and Madhusudhan, B. 2009. Effect of controlled atmospherestorage (CAS) on antioxidant enzymes and dpph-radical scavenging activity of mango(Mangifera indica L.) Cv. Alphonso. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 9,779–792.Noomhorm, A. and Tiasuwan, 1988. Effect of controlled atmosphere storage for mango. N. Paper, AmericanSociety of Agricultural Engineers, 88, 6589.Nunes, M.C.N., Morais, A.M.M.B., Brecht, J.K. and Sargent, S.A. 2002. Fruit maturity and storage temperatureinfluence response of strawberries to controlled atmospheres. Journal of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 127, 836–842.Nuske, D. and Muller, H. 1984. Erste Ergebnisse bei der industriemassigen Lagerung von Kopfkohl unterCA Lagerungsbedingungen. Nachrichtenblatt fur den Pflanzenschutz in der DDR, 38, 185–187.Nyanjage, M.O., Nyalala, S.P.O., Illa, A.O., Mugo, B.W., Limbe, A.E. and Vulimu, E.M. 2005. Extendingpost-harvest life of sweet pepper (Capsicum annum L. ‘California Wonder’) with modified atmospherepackaging and storage temperature. Agricultura Tropica et Subtropica, 38, 28–32.Ogaki, C., Manago, M., Ushiyama, K. and Tanaka, K. 1973. Studies on controlled atmosphere storage ofsatsumas. I. Gas concentration, relative humidity, wind velocity and pre-storage treatment. Bulletin ofthe Kanagawa Horticultural Experiment Station, 21, 1–23.Ogata, K., Yamauchi, N. and Minamide, T. 1975. Physiological and chemical studies on ascorbic acid infruits and vegetables. 1. Changes in ascorbic acid content during maturation and storage of okra.Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science, 44, 192–195.O’Hare, T.J. and Prasad, A. 1993. The effect of temperature and CO 2on chilling symptoms in mango. ActaHorticulturae, 343, 244–250.O’Hare, T.J., Prasad, A. and Cooke, A.W. 1994. Low temperature and controlled atmosphere storage oframbutan. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 4, 147–157.Olsen, K. 1986. Views on CA storage of apples. Post Harvest Pomology Newsletter, 4, no. 2, July–August.Olsen, N., Thornton, R.E., Baritelle, A. and Hyde, G. 2003. The influence of storage conditions on physicaland physiological characteristics of Shepody potatoes. Potato Research, 46, 95–103.Omary, M.B., Testin, R.F., Barefoot, S.F. and Rushing, J.W. 1993. Packaging effects on growth of Listeriainnocua in shredded cabbage. Journal of Food Science, 58, 623–626.Ortiz, A. and Lara, I. 2008. Cell wall-modifying enzyme activities after storage of 1-MCP-treated peachfruit. Acta Horticulturae, 796, 137–142.Ortiz, A., Echeverría, G., Graell, J. and Lara, I. 2009. Overall quality of ‘Rich Lady’ peach fruit after air- orCA storage. The importance of volatile emission. Food Science and Technology, 42, 1520–1529.Othieno, J.K., Thompson, A.K. and Stroop, I.F. 1993. Modified atmosphere packaging of vegetables. PostharvestTreatment of Fruit and Vegetables. COST’94 workshop, 14–15 September 1993, Leuven, Belgium,247–253.Otma, E.C. 1989. Controlled atmosphere storage and film wrapping of red bell peppers Capsicum annuumL. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 515–522.Oudit, D.D. 1976. Polythene bags keep cassava tubers fresh for several weeks at ambient temperature.Journal of the Agricultural Society of Trinidad and Tobago, 76, 297–298.Overholser, E.L. 1928. Some limitations of gas storage of fruits. Ice and Refrigeration, 74, 551–552.Özer, M.H., Eris, A. and Türk, R.S. 1999. A research on controlled atmosphere storage of kiwifruit. ActaHorticulturae, 485, 293–300.Özer, M.H., Erturk, U. and Akbudak, B. 2003. Physical and biochemical changes during controlled atmosphere(CA) storage of cv. Granny Smith. Acta Horticulturae, 599, 673–679.

References 241Padilla-Zakour, O.I., Tandon, K.S. and Wargo, J.M. 2004. Quality of modified atmosphere packaged‘Hedelfingen’ and ‘Lapins’ sweet cherries. HortTechnology, 14, 331–337.Pakkasarn, S., Kanlayanarat, S. and Uthairatanakij, A. 2003a. High carbon dioxide storage for improvingthe postharvest life of mangosteen fruit (Garcinia mangosteen L.). Acta Horticulturae, 600, 813–816.Pakkasarn, S., Kanlayanarat, S. and Uthairantanakij, A. 2003b. Effect of controlled atmosphere on the storagelife of mangosteen fruit (Garcinia mangostana L.). Acta Horticulturae, 600, 759–762.Pal, R.K. and Buescher, R.W. 1993. Respiration and ethylene evolution of certain fruits and vegetables inresponse to CO 2in controlled atmosphere storage. Journal of Food Science and Technology Mysore, 30,29–32.Pal, R.K., Singh, S.P., Singh, C.P. and Asrey, R. 2007. Response of guava fruit (Psidium guajava L. cv.Lucknow-49) to controlled atmosphere storage. Acta Horticulturae, 735, 547–554.Pala, M., Damarli, E. and Alikasifoglu, K. 1994. A study of quality parameters in green pepper packaged inpolymeric films. Commissions C2, D1, D2/3 of the International Institute of Refrigeration InternationalSymposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 305–316.Palma, T., Stanley, D.W., Aguilera, J.M. and Zoffoli, J.P. 1993. Respiratory behavior of cherimoya Annonacherimola Mill. under controlled atmospheres. HortScience, 28, 647–649.Pan Chao Ran, Lin He Tong and Chen Jin Quan 2006. Study on low temperature and controlled atmospherestorage with silicone rubber window pouch of chinquapin. Transactions of the Chinese Society ofAgricultural Machinery, 37, 102–106.Pan Yong Gui 2008. The physiological changes of Durio zibethinus fruit after harvest and storage techniques.South China Fruits, 4, 45–47.Panagou, E.Z., Vekiari, S.A. and Mallidis, C. 2006. The effect of modified atmosphere packaging of chestnutsin suppressing fungal growth and related physicochemical changes during storage in retailpackages at 0 and 8 degrees C. Advances in Horticultural Science, 20, 82–89.Pantastico, Er.B. (editor) 1975. Postharvest Physiology, Handling and Utilization of Tropical and Sub-tropicalFruits and Vegetables. AVI Publishing Co., Westport, Connecticut, USA.Pariasca, J.A.T., Miyazaki, T., Hisaka, H., Nakagawa, H. and Sato, T. 2001. Effect of modified atmospherepackaging (MAP) and controlled atmosphere (CA) storage on the quality of snow pea pods (Pisumsativum L. var. saccharatum). Postharvest Biology and Technology, 21, 213–223.Park, N.P., Choi, E.H. and Lee, O.H. 1970. Studies on pear storage. II. Effects of polyethylene film packagingand CO 2shock on the storage of pears, cv. Changsyprang. Korean Journal of Horticultural Science,7, 21–25.Park Hyung Woo, Cha Hwan Soo, Kim Yoon Ho, Lee Seon Ah and Yoon Ji Yoon 2007. Change in the qualityof ‘Fuji’ apples by using functional MA (modified atmosphere) film. Korean Journal of HorticulturalScience & Technology, 25, 37–41.Park Yong Seo and Jung Soon Teck 2000. Effects of CO 2treatments within polyethylene film bags on fruitquality of fig fruits during storage. Journal of the Korean Society for Horticultural Science, 41, 618–622.Parsons, C.S. and Spalding, D.H. 1972. Influence of a controlled atmosphere, temperature, and ripeness onbacterial soft rot of tomatoes. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 97, 297–299.Parsons, C.S., Anderson, R.E. and Penny, R.W. 1970. Storage of mature green tomatoes in controlled atmospheres.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 95, 791–793.Parsons, C.S., Anderson, R.E. and Penny, R.W. 1974. Storage of mature-green tomatoes in controlled atmospheres.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 95, 791–794.Parsons, C.S., Gates, J.E. and Spalding D.H. 1964. Quality of some fruits and vegetables after holding innitrogen atmospheres. American Society for Horticultural Science, 84, 549–556.Passam, H.C. 1982. Experiments on the storage of eddoes and tannias (Colocasia and Xanthosoma spp.) underambient conditions. Tropical Science, 24, 39–46.Paull, R.E. and Chen Ching Cheng 2003. Postharvest physiology, handling and storage of pineapple. ThePineapple: Botany, Production and Uses, 253–279.Paull, R.E. and Rohrbach, K.G. 1985. Symptom development of chilling injury in pineapple fruit. Journal ofthe American Society for Horticultural Science, 110, 100–105.Paull, R.E., Cavaletto, C.G. and Ragone, D. 2005. Breadfruit: potential new export crop for the Pacific.http://www.reeis.usda.gov/web/crisprojectpages/194131.html accessed May 2009.Peacock, B.C. 1988. Simulated commercial export of mangoes using controlled atmosphere container technology.Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research Proceedings, 23, 40–44.Pekmezci, M., Erkan, M., Gubbuk, H., Karasahin, I. and Uzun, I. 2004. Modified atmosphere storage and ethyleneabsorbent enables prolonged storage of ‘Hayward’ kiwifruits. Acta Horticulturae, 632, 337–341.

242 ReferencesPelleboer, H. 1983. A new method of storing Brussels sprouts shows promise. Bedrijfsontwikkeling, 14,828–831.Pelleboer, H. 1984. A future for CA storage of open grown vegetables. Groenten en Fruit, 39, 62–63.Pelleboer, H. and Schouten, S.P. 1984. New method for storing Chinese cabbage is a success. Groenten enFruit, 40, 16–51.Pendergrass, A. and Isenberg, F.M.R. 1974. The effect of relative humidity on the quality of stored cabbage.HortScience, 9, 226–227.Pereira, A.de M., Faroni, L.R.D., de Sousa, A.H., Urruchi, W.I. and Roma, R.C.C. 2007. Immediate and latenteffects of ozone fumigation on the quality of maize grains. Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, 32,100–110.Perez Zungia, F.J., Muñoz Delgado, L. and Moreno, J. 1983. Conservacion frigoric de melon cv. ‘TendralNegro’ en atmosferas normal y controlada. Primer Congreso Nacional, II, 985–994.Perkins-Veazie, P. and Collins, J.K. 2002. Quality of erect-type blackberry fruit after short intervals of controlledatmosphere storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 25, 235–239.Pesis, E. and Sass, P. 1994. Enhancement of fruit aroma and quality by acetaldehyde or anaerobic treatmentsbefore storage. Acta Horticulturae, 368, 365–373.Pesis, E., Ampunpong, C., Shusiri, B., Hewett, E.W. and Pech, J.C. 1993a. High carbon dioxide treatmentbefore storage as inducer or reducer of ethylene in apples. Current Plant Science and Biotechnology inAgriculture, 16, 152–153.Pesis, E., Levi, A., Sonego, L. and Ben Arie, R. 1986. The effect of different atmospheres in polyethylenebags on deastringency of persimmon fruits. Alon Hanotea, 40, 1149–1156.Pesis, E., Marinansky, R., Zauberman, G. and Fuchs, Y. 1993b. Reduction of chilling injury symptoms ofstored avocado fruit by prestorage treatment with high nitrogen atmosphere. Acta Horticulturae, 343,251–255.Pesis, E., Marinansky, R., Zauberman, G. and Fuchs, Y. 1994. Prestorage low-oxygen atmosphere treatmentreduces chilling injury symptoms in ‘Fuerte’ avocado fruit. HortScience, 29, 1042–1046.Peters, P. and Seidel, P. 1987. Gentle harvesting of Brussels sprouts and recently developed cold storagemethods for preservation of quality. Proceedings of a conference held in Grossbeeren, German DemocraticRepublic, 15–18 June, 262, 301–309.Peters, P., Jeglorz, J. and Kastner, B. 1986. Investigations over several years on conventional and cold storageof Chinese cabbage. Gartenbau, 33, 298–301.Piagentini, A.M., Guemes, D.R. and Pirovani, M.E. 2002. Sensory characteristics of fresh-cut spinach preservedby combined factors methodology. Journal of Food Science, 67, 1544–1549.Pinheiro, A.C.M., Boas, E.V.deB.V. and Mesquita, C.T. 2005. Action of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) onshelf-life of ‘Apple’ banana. Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura, 27, 25–28.Pinto, J.A.V., Brackmann, A., Steffens, C.A., Weber, A. and Eisermann, A.C. 2007. Temperature, low oxygenand 1-methylcyclopropene on the quality conservation of ‘Fuyu’ persimmon. Ciencia Rural, 37,1287–1294.Platenius, H., Jamieson, F.S. and Thompson, H.C. 1934. Studies on cold storage of vegetables. Cornell UniversityAgricultural Experimental Station Bulletin, 602.Plich, H. 1987. The rate of ethylene production and ACC concentration in apples cv. Spartan stored in lowO 2and high CO 2concentrations in a controlled atmosphere. Fruit Science Reports, 14, 45–56.Pocharski, W., Lange, E., Jelonek, W. and Rutkowski, K. 1995. Storability of new apple cultivars. Materiayogolnopolskiej konferencji naukowej Nauka Praktyce Ogrodniczej z okazji XXV-lecia Wydziau OgrodniczegoAkademii Rolniczej w Lublinie, 93–97.Polderdijk, J.J., Boerrigter, H.A.M., Wilkinson, E.C., Meijer, J.G. and Janssens, M.F.M. 1993. The effects ofcontrolled atmosphere storage at varying levels of relative humidity on weight loss, softening anddecay of red bell peppers. Scientia Horticulturae, 55, 315–321.Poma Treccarri, C. and Anoni, A. 1969. Controlled atmosphere packaging of polyethylene and defoliationof the stalks in the cold storage of artichokes. Riv Octoflorofruttic Hal, 53, 203.Porat, R., Weiss, B., Cohen, L., Daus, A. and Aharoni, N. 2004. Reduction of postharvest rind disorders incitrus fruit by modified atmosphere packaging. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 33, 35–43.Porat, R., Weiss, B., Fuchs, Y., Sandman, A., Ward, G., Kosto, I. and Agar, T. 2009. Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging for preserving pomegranate fruit during prolonged storage and transport.Acta Horticulturae, 818, 299–304.Praeger, U. and Weichmann, J. 2001. Influence of oxygen concentration on respiration and oxygen partialpressure in tissue of broccoli and cucumber. Acta Horticulturae, 553, 679–681.

References 243Prange, R.K (not dated). Currant, gooseberry and elderberry. The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables.http://www.ba.ars.usda.gov/hb66/058currant.pdf accessed 4 April 2009.Prange, R.K. and Lidster, P.D. 1991. Controlled atmosphere and lighting effects on storage of winter cabbage.Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 71, 263–268.Prange, R.K., Daniels-Lake, B.J., Jeong, J.-C. and Binns, M. 2005. Effects of ethylene and 1-methylcyclopropeneon potato tuber sprout control and fry color. American Journal of Potato Research, 82, 123–128.Prono-Widayat, H., Huyskens-Keil, S. and Lu 2003. Dynamic CA-storage for the quality assurance ofpepino (Solanum muricatum Ait.). Acta Horticulturae, 600, 409–412.Pujantoro, L., Tohru, S. and Kenmoku, A. 1993. The changes in quality of fresh shiitake Lentinus edodes instorage under controlled atmosphere conditions. Proceedings of ICAMPE ’93, 19–22 October, KOEX,Seoul, Korea, The Korean Society for Agricultural Machinery, 423–432.Qi Xing Jiang, Liang Shen Miao, Zhou Li Qiou and Chai Xue Qing 2003. Study on effects of small controlled-atmosphereenvironment on keeping bayberry fruits fresh. Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis, 15,237–240.Quazi, H.H. and Freebairn, H.T. 1970. The influence of ethylene, oxygen and carbon dioxide on the ripeningof bananas. Botanical Gazette, 131, 5.Radulovic, M., Ban, D., Sladonja, B. and Lusetic-Bursic, V. 2007. Changes of quality parameters in watermelonduring storage. Acta Horticulturae, 731, 451–455.Raghavan, G.S.V., Gariepy, Y., Theriault, R., Phan, C.T. and Lanson, A. 1984. System for controlled atmospherelong term cabbage storage. International Journal of Refrigeration, 7, 66–71.Raghavan, G.S.V., Tessier, S., Chayet, M., Norris, E.G. and Phan, C.T. 1982. Storage of vegetables in a membranesystem. Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 25, 433–436.Ragnoi, S. 1989. Development of the market for Thai lychee in selected European countries. MSc thesis,Silsoe College, Cranfield Institute of Technology, UK.Rahman, A.S.A., Huber, D. and Brecht, J.K. 1993a. Respiratory activity and mitochondrial oxidative capacityof bell pepper fruit following storage under low O 2atmosphere. Journal of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 118, 470–475.Rahman, A.S.A., Huber, D. and Brecht, J.K. 1993b. Physiological basis of low O 2induced residual respiratoryeffect in bell pepper fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 343, 112–116.Rahman, A.S.A., Huber, D.J. and Brecht, J.K. 1995. Low-O 2-induced poststorage suppression of bell pepperfruit respiration and mitochondrial oxidative activity. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 120, 1045–1049.Rahman, M.M., Zakaria, M., Ahmad, S., Hossain, M.M. and Saikat, M.M.H. 2008. Effect of temperature andwrapping materials on the shelf-life and quality of cauliflower. International Journal of SustainableAgricultural Technology, 4, 84–90.Rai, D.R. and Shashi, P. 2007. Packaging requirements of highly respiring produce under modified atmosphere:a review. Journal of Food Science and Technology (Mysore), 44, 10–15.Rai, D.R., Tyagi, S.K., Jha, S.N. and Mohan, S. 2008. Qualitative changes in the broccoli (Brassica oleraceaitalica) under modified atmosphere packaging in perforated polymeric film. Journal of Food Science andTechnology (Mysore), 45, 247–250.Rakotonirainy, A.M., Wang, Q. and Padua, I.G.W. 2008. Evaluation of zein films as modified atmospherepackaging for fresh broccoli. Journal of Food Science, 66, 1108–1111.Ramin, A.A. and Khoshbakhat, D. 2008. Effects of microperforated polyethylene bags and temperatures onthe storage quality of acid lime fruits. American Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Science,3, 590–594.Ramin, A.A. and Modares, B. 2009. Improving postharvest quality and storage life of green olives usingCO 2. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey[abstract], 39.Ramm, A.A. 2008. Shelf-life extension of ripe non-astringent persimmon fruit using 1-MCP. Asian Journalof Plant Sciences, 7, 218–222.Ranasinghe, L., Jayawardena, B. and Abeywickrama, K.2005. An integrated strategy to control post-harvestdecay of Embul banana by combining essential oils with modified atmosphere packaging. InternationalJournal of Food Science & Technology, 40, 97–103.Reichel, M. 1974. The behaviour of Golden Delicious during storage as influenced by different harvestdates. Gartenbau, 21, 268–270.Reichel, M., Meier, G. and Held, W.H. 1976. Results of experiments on the storage of apple cultivars in refrigeratedor controlled atmosphere stores. Gartenbau, 23, 306–308.

244 ReferencesRemón, S., Ferrer, A., Lopez-Buesa, P. and Oria, R. 2004. Atmosphere composition effects on Burlat cherrycolour during cold storage. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 84, 140–146.Remón, S., Marquina, P., Peiró, J.M. and Oria, R. 2003. Storage potential of sweetheart cherry in controlledatmospheres. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 763–769.Renault, P., Houal, L., Jacquemin, G. and Chambroy, Y. 1994. Gas exchange in modified atmosphere packaging.2. Experimental results with strawberries. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 29,379–394.Renel, L. and Thompson, A.K. 1994. Carambola in controlled atmosphere. Inter-American Institute for Cooperationon Agriculture, Tropical Fruits Newsletter, 11, 7.Resnizky, D. and Sive, A. 1991. Storage of different varieties of apples and pears cv. Spadona in ‘ultra-ultra’low O 2conditions. Alon Hanotea, 45, 861–871.Retamales, J., Manríquez, D., Castillo, P. and Defilippi, B. 2003. Controlled atmosphere in Bing cherriesfrom Chile and problems caused by quarantine treatments for export to Japan. Acta Horticulturae, 600,149–153.Reust, W., Schwarz, A. and Aerny, J. 1984. Essai de conservation des pommes de terre en atmosphére controlée.Potato Research, 27, 75–87.Reyes, A.A. 1988. Suppression of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and watery soft rot of celery by controlled atmospherestorage. Plant Disease, 72, 790–792.Reyes, A.A. 1989. An overview of the effects of controlled atmosphere on celery diseases in storage. Proceedingsof the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington,USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 57–60.Reyes, A.A. and Smith, R.B. 1987. Effect of O 2, CO 2, and carbon monoxide on celery in storage. HortScience,22, 270–271.Riad, G.S. and Brecht, J.K. 2001. Fresh-cut sweetcorn kernels. Proceedings of the Florida State HorticulturalSociety, 114, 160–163.Riad, G.S. and Brecht, J.K. 2003. Sweetcorn tolerance to reduced O 2with or without elevated CO 2and effectsof controlled atmosphere storage on quality. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society,116, 390–393.Richardson, D.G. and Meheriuk, M. 1989. CA recommendations for pears including Asian pears. Proceedingsof the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA,14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 285–302.Rinaldi, M.M., Benedetti, B.C. and Moretti, C.L. 2009. Respiration rate, ethylene production and shelf-lifeof minimally processed cabbage under controlled atmosphere. 10th International Controlled & ModifiedAtmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 34.Ritenour, M.A., Wardowski, W.F. and Tucker, D.P. 2009. Effects of water and nutrients on the postharvestquality and shelf-life of citrus. University of Florida, IFAS Extension solutions for your life publication#HS942. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/CH158 accessed October 2009.Rizzo, V. and Muratore, G. 2009. Effects of packaging on shelf-life of fresh celery. Journal of Food Engineering,90, 124–128.Rizzolo, A., Cambiaghi, P., Grassi, M. and Zerbini, P.E. 2005. Influence of 1-methylcyclopropene and storageatmosphere on changes in volatile compounds and fruit quality of Conference pears. Journal ofAgricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 9781–9789.Robbins, J.A. and Fellman, J.K. 1993. Postharvest physiology, storage and handling of red raspberry. PostharvestNews and Information, 4, 53N–59N.Roberts, R. 1990. An overview of packaging materials for MAP. International Conference on Modified AtmospherePackaging Part 1. Campden Food and Drinks Research Association, Chipping Campden, UK.Robinson, J.E., Brown, K.M. and Burton, W.G. 1975. Storage characteristics of some vegetables and softfruits. Annals of Applied Biology, 81, 339–408.Robinson, T.L., Watkins, C.B., Hoying, S.A., Nock, J.F. and Iungermann, K.I. 2006. Aminoethoxyvinylglycineand 1-methylcyclopropene effects on ‘McIntosh’ preharvest drop, fruit maturation and fruitquality after storage. Acta Horticulturae, 727, 473–480.Robitaille, H.A. and Badenhop, A.F. 1981. Mushroom response to postharvest hyperbaric storage. Journalof Food Science, 46, 249–253.Rodov, V., Horev, B., Vinokur, Y., Goldman, G. and Aharoni, N. 2003. Modified-atmosphere and modifiedhumiditypackaging of whole and lightly processed cucurbit commodities: melons, cucumbers,squash. Australian Postharvest Horticulture Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 1–3 October, 2003,167–168.

References 245Rodriguez, Z. and Manzano, J.E. 2000. Effect of storage temperature and a controlled atmosphere containing5.1% CO on physicochemical attributes of the melon (Cucumis melo L.) hybrid Durango. Proceedingsof the Interamerican Society for Tropical Horticulture, 42, 386–390.Roe, M.A., Faulks, R.M. and Belsten, J.L. 1990. Role of reducing sugars and amino acids in fry colour ofchips from potato grown under different nitrogen regimes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,52, 207–214.Roelofs, F. 1992. Supplying red currants until Christmas. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 82, 11–13.Roelofs, F. 1993a. Choice of cultivar is partly determined by storage experiences. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 83,20–21.Roelofs, F. 1993b. Research results of red currant storage trials 1992: CO 2has the greatest influence on thestorage result. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 83, 22–23.Roelofs, F. 1994. Experience with storage of red currants in 1993: unexpected quality problems come to thesurface. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 84, 16–17.Roelofs, F. and Breugem, A. 1994. Storage of plums. Choose for flavour, choose for CA. Fruitteelt Den Haag,84, 12–13.Rogiers, S.Y. and Knowles, N.R. 2000. Efficacy of low O 2and high CO 2atmospheres in maintaining thepostharvest quality of saskatoon fruit (Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.). Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 80,623–630.Rohani, M.Y. and Zaipun, M.Z. 2007. MA storage and transportation of ‘Eksotika’ papaya. Acta Horticulturae,740, 303–311.Romanazzi, G., Nigro, F. and Ippolito, A. 2008. Effectiveness of a short hyperbaric treatment tocontrol postharvest decay of sweet cherries and table grapes. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 49,440–442.Romero, I., Sanchez-Ballesta, M.T., Maldonado, R., Escribano, M.I. and Merodio, C. 2008. Anthocyanin,antioxidant activity and stress-induced gene expression in high CO 2-treated table grapes stored atlow temperature. Journal of Plant Physiology, 165, 522–530.Romo Parada, L., Willemot, C., Castaigne, F., Gosselin, C. and Arul, J. 1989. Effect of controlled atmosphereslow O 2, high CO 2on storage of cauliflower Brassica oleracea L., Botrytis group. Journal of FoodScience, 54, 122–124.Romphophak, T., Siriphanich, J., Promdang, S. and Ueda, Y. 2004. Effect of modified atmosphere storageon the shelf-life of banana ‘Sucrier’. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology, 79, 659–663.Rosen, J.C. and Kader, A.A. 1989. Postharvest physiology and quality maintenance of sliced pear andstrawberry fruits. Journal of Food Science, 54, 656–659.Rouves, M. and Prunet, J.P. 2002. New technology for chestnut storage: controlled atmosphere and itseffects. Infos-Ctifl, 186, 33–35.Roy, S., Anantheswaran, R.C. and Beelman, R.B. 1995. Fresh mushroom quality as affected by modifiedatmosphere packaging. Journal of Food Science, 60, 334–340.Rukavishnikov, A.M., Strel’tsov, B.N., Stakhovskii, A.M. and Vainshtein, I.I. 1984. Commercial fruit andvegetable storage under polymer covers with gas-selective membranes. Khimiya v Sel’skom Khozyaistve,22, 26–28.Rupasinghe, H.P.V., Murr, D.P., Paliyath, G. and Skog, L. 2000. Inhibitory effect of 1-MCP on ripening andsuperficial scald development in ‘McIntosh’ and ‘Delicious’ apples. Journal of Horticultural Science &Biotechnology, 75, 271–276.Rutkowski, K., Miszczak, A. and Plocharski, W. 2003. The influence of storage conditions and harvest dateon quality of ‘Elstar’ apples. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 809–812.Ryall, A.L. 1963. Proceedings of the Seventeenth National Conference on Handling Perishables, Purdue, USA,11–14 March.Ryall, A.L. and Lipton, W.J. 1972. Handling, Transporation and Storage of Fruits and Vegetables. 1. AVI PublishingCo. Inc., Westport, Connecticut, USA.Sa, C.R.L., Silva, E.deO., Terao, D. and Oster, A.H. 2008. Effects of KMnO 4and 1-MCP with modifiedatmosphere on postharvest conservation of Cantaloupe melon. Revista Ciencia Agronomica, 39,60–69.Saijo, R. 1990. Post harvest quality maintenance of vegetables. Tropical Agriculture Research Series, 23,257–269.Saito, M. and Rai, D.R. 2005. Qualitative changes in radish (Raphanus spp.) sprouts under modifiedatmosphere packaging in micro-perforated films. Journal of Food Science and Technology (Mysore), 42,70–72.

246 ReferencesSaltveit, M.E. 1989. A summary of requirements and recommendations for the controlled and modifiedatmosphere storage of harvested vegetables. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled AtmosphereResearch Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 329–352.Saltveit, M.E. 2003. Is it possible to find an optimal controlled atmosphere? Postharvest Biology and Technology,27, 3–13.Salunkhe, D.K. and Wu, M.T. 1973. Effects of low oxygen atmosphere storage on ripening and associatedbiochemical changes of tomato fruits. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 98,12–14.Salunkhe, D.K. and Wu, M.T. 1974. Subatmospheric storage of fruits and vegetables. Lebensmittel Wissenschaftund Technologie, 7, 261–267.Salunkhe, D.K. and Wu, M.T. 1975. Subatmospheric storage of fruits and vegetables. In Haard, N.F. andSalunkhe, D.K. Editors. Postharvest Biology and Handling of Fruits and Vegetables. A.V.I. PublishingCompany Inc., Westport, Connecticut, USA, 153–171.Samisch, R.M. 1937. Observations on the effect of gas storage upon Valencia oranges. Proceedings of theAmerican Society for Horticultural Science, 34, 103–106.Samosornsuk, W., Bunsiri, A. and Samosornsuk, S. 2009. Effect of concentrations of oxygen and/or carbondioxide on the microbial growth control in fresh-cut lemongrass. 10th International Controlled & ModifiedAtmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 39.Samsoondar, J., Maharaj, V. and Sankat, C.K. 2000. Inhibition of browning of the fresh breadfruit throughshrink-wrapping. Acta Horticulturae, 518, 131–136.Sanchez-Mata, M.C., Camara, M. and Diez-Marques, C. 2003. Extending shelf-life and nutritive value ofgreen beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), by controlled atmosphere storage: macronutrients. Food Chemistry,80, 309–315.Sandy Trout Food Preservation Laboratory 1978. Banana CA storage. Bulletin of the International Institute ofRefrigeration, 583, 12–16.Sankat, C.K. and Maharaj, R. 1989. Controlled atmosphere storage of papayas. Proceedings of the Fifth InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989,Vol. 2, 161–170.Sankat, C.K. and Maharaj, R. 2007. A review of postharvest storage technology of breadfruit. Acta Horticulturae,757, 183–191.Santos, C.M.S., Boas, E.V.de B.V., Botrel, N. and Pinheiro, A.C.M. 2006. Effect of controlled atmosphere onpostharvest life and quality of ‘Prata Ana’ banana. Ciencia e Agrotecnologia, 30, 317–322.Sanz, C., Perez, A.G., Olias, R. and Olias, J.M. 1999. Quality of strawberries packed with perforated polypropylene.Journal of Food Science, 64, 748–752.Sarananda, K.H. and Wilson Wijeratnam, R.S. 1997. Changes in susceptibility to crown rot during maturationof Embul bananas and effect of low oxygen and high carbon dioxide on extent of crown rot.Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California,Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 110.Saray, T. 1988. Storage studies with Hungarian paprika Capsicum annuum L. var. annuum and cauliflowerBrassica cretica convar. botrytis used for preservation. Acta Horticulturae, 220, 503–509.Satyan, S., Scott, K.J. and Graham, D. 1992. Storage of banana bunches in sealed polyethylene tubes. Journalof Horticultural Science, 67, 283–287.Saucedo Veloz, C., Aceves Vega, E. and Mena Nevarez, G. 1991. Prolongacion del tiempo de frigoconservaciony comercializacion de frutos de aguacate ‘Hass’ mediante tratamientos con altas concentracionesde CO 2. [Prolonging the duration of cold storage and marketing of Hass avocado fruits by treatmentwith high concentrations of CO 2.] Proceedings of the Interamerican Society for Tropical Horticulture IIISymposium on Management, Quality and Postharvest Physiology of Fruits, Vina del Mar, Chile, 7–12 October,1991, 35, 297–303.Scalon, S.deP.Q., Scalon Filho, H., Sandre, T.A., da Silva, E.F. and Krewer, E.C.D. 2000. Quality evaluationand sugar beet postharvest conservation under modified atmosphere. Brazilian Archives of Biology andTechnology, 43, 181–184.Scalon, S.deP.Q., Vieira, M.doC. and Zarate, N.A.H. 2002. Combinations of calcium, modified atmosphereand refrigeration in conservation postharvest of Peruvian carrot. Acta Scientiarum, 24, 1461–1466.Schaik, A. 1994. CA-storage of Elstar. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 84, 10–11.Schaik, A.C.R.van 1985. Storage of Gloster and Karmijn. Fruitteelt, 75, 1066–1067.Schaik, A.van and van Schaik, A. 1994. Influence of a combined scrubber/separator on fruit quality: percentageof storage disorders ap67 to be reduced slightly. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 84, 14–15.

References 247Schales, F.D. 1985. Harvesting, packaging, storage and shipping of greenhouse vegetables. Hydroponicsworldwide: state of the art in soil less crop production. Proceedings of a conference, Hawaii, February1985, edited by Savage, A.J, 70–76.Schallenberger, R.S., Smith, O. and Treadaway, R.H. 1959. Role of sugars in the browning reaction in potatochips. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 7, 274.Schlimme, D.V. and Rooney, M.L. 1994. Packaging of minimally processed fruits and vegetables. In Wiley,R.C. Editor. Minimally Processed Refrigerated Fruits and Vegetables. Chapman and Hall, New York andLondon, 135–182.Schmitz, S.M. 1991. Investigation on alternative methods of sprout suppression in temperate potato stores.MSc thesis, Silsoe College, Cranfield Institute of Technology, UK.Schotsmans, W., Molan, A. and MacKay, B. 2007. Controlled atmosphere storage of rabbiteye blueberriesenhances postharvest quality aspects. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 44, 277–285.Schouten, S.P. 1985. New light on the storage of Chinese cabbage. Groenten en Fruit, 40, 60–61.Schouten, S.P. 1992. Possibilities for controlled atmosphere storage of ware potatoes. Aspects of Applied Biology,33, 181–188.Schouten, S.P. 1994. Increased CO 2concentration in the store is disadvantageous for the quality of culinarypotatoes. Kartoffelbau, 45, 372–374.Schouten, S.P. 1997. Improvement of quality of Elstar apples by dynamic control of ULO conditions. SeventhInternational Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California,Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 7.Schreiner, M., Huyskens-Keil, S., Krumbein, A., Prono-Widayat, H., Peters, P. and Lüdders, P. 2003. Interactionsof pre- and post-harvest influences on fruit and vegetable quality as basic decision for chainmanagement. Acta Horticulturae, 604, 211–217.Schulz, F.A. 1974. The occurrence of apple storage rots under controlled conditions. Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenkrankheitenund Pflanzenschutz, 81, 550–558.Scott, K.J. and Wills, R.B.H. 1974. Reduction of brown heart in pears by absorption of ethylene fromthe storage atmosphere. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, 14,266–268.Scott, K.J., Blake, J.R., Strachan, G., Tugwell, B.L. and McGlasson, W.B. 1971. Transport of bananas at ambienttemperatures using polyethylene bags. Tropical Agriculture Trinidad, 48, 245–253.SeaLand 1991. Shipping Guide to Perishables. SeaLand Services Inc., Iselim, New Jersey, USA.Seljasen, R., Hoftun, H. and Bengtsson, G.B. 2003. Critical factors for reduced sensory quality of fresh carrotsin the distribution chain. Acta Horticulturae, 604, 761–767.Serrano, M., Martinez-Romero, D., Guillen, F., Castillo, S. and Valero, D. 2006. Maintenance of broccoliquality and functional properties during cold storage as affected by modified atmosphere packaging.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 39, 61–68.Seubrach, P., Photchanachai, S., Srilaong, V. and Kanlayanarat, S. 2006. Effect of modified atmosphere byPVC and LLDPE film on quality of longan fruits (Dimocarpus longan lour) cv. Daw. Acta Horticulturae,712, 605–610.Seymour, G.B., Thompson, A.K. and John, P. 1987. Inhibition of degreening in the peel of bananas ripenedat tropical temperatures. I. The effect of high temperature changes in the pulp and peel during ripening.Annals of Applied Biology, 110, 145–151.Sfakiotakis, E., Niklis, N., Stavroulakis, G. and Vassiliadis, T. 1993. Efficacy of controlled atmosphere andultra low O 2–low ethylene storage on keeping quality and scald control of ‘Starking Delicious’ apples.Acta Horticulturae, 326, 191–202.Shan-Tao, Z. and Liang, Y. 1989. The application of carbon molecular sieve generator in CA storage ofapple and tomato. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference,Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 241–248.Sharples, R.O. 1980. The influence of orchard nutrition on the storage quality of apples and pears grown inthe United Kingdom. In Atkinson, D., Jackson, J.E., Sharples, R.O. and Waller, W.M. Editors. MineralNutrition of Fruit Trees. Butterworths, London and Boston, Massachusetts, 17–28.Sharples, R.O. 1986. Obituary Cyril West. Journal of Horticultural Science, 61, 555.Sharples, R.O. 1989a. Storage of perishables. In Cox S.W.R. Editor. Engineering Advances for Agriculture andFood. Institution of Agricultural Engineers Jubilee Conference 1988, Butterworths, Cambridge, UK,251–260.Sharples, R.O. 1989b. Kidd, F. and West, C. In Janick, J. Editor. Classical Papers in Horticultural Science. PrenticeHall, New Jersey, 213–219.

248 ReferencesSharples, R.O. and Johnson, D.S. 1987. Influence of agronomic and climatic factors on the response of applefruit to controlled atmosphere storage. HortScience, 22, 763–766.Sharples, R.O. and Stow, J.R. 1986. Recommended conditions for the storage of apples and pears. Report ofthe East Malling Research Station for 1985, 165–170.Shellie, K.C., Neven, L.G. and Drake, S.R. 2001. Assessing ‘Bing’ sweet cherry tolerance to a heated controlledatmosphere for insect pest control. HortTechnology, 11, 308–311.Shiomi Shinjiro, Chono Kumi, Nishikawa Miho, Okabe Mami and Andnakamura Reinosuke 2002. Effectof 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on respiration, ethylene production and color change of pineapplefruit after harvest. Food Preservation Science, 28, 235–241.Shipway, M.R. 1968. The Refrigerated Storage of Vegetables and Fruits. Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries andFood, UK, 324.Shorter, A.J., Scott, K.J. and Graham, D. 1987. Controlled atmosphere storage of bananas in bunches atambient temperatures. CSIRO Food Research Queensland, 47, 61–63.Singh, A.K., Kashyap, M.M., Gupta, A.K. and Bhumbla, V.K. 1993. Vitamin-C during controlled atmospherestorage of tomatoes. Journal of Research Punjab Agricultural University, 30, 199–203.Singh, B., Littlefield, N.A. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1972. Accumulation of amino acids and organic acids inapple and pear fruits under controlled atmosphere storage conditions and certain associated changesin metabolic processes. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 29, 245–251.Singh, S.P. and Pal, R.K. 2008a. Response of climacteric-type guava (Psidium guajava L.) to postharvesttreatment with 1-MCP. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 47, 307–314.Singh, S.P. and Pal, R.K. 2008b. Controlled atmosphere storage of guava (Psidium guajava L.) fruit. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 47, 296–306.Singh, S.P. and Rao, D.V.S. 2005. Effect of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) on the alleviation ofchilling injury and dietary antioxidants levels in ‘Solo’ papaya during low temperature storage. EuropeanJournal of Horticultural Science, 70, 246–252.Siro, I., Devlieghere, F., Jacxsens, L., Uyttendaele, M. and Debevere, J. 2006. The microbial safety of strawberryand raspberry fruits packaged in high-oxygen and equilibrium-modified atmospheres comparedto air storage. International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 41, 93–103.Sitton, J.W., Fellman, J.K. and Patterson, M.E. 1997. Effects of low-oxygen and high-carbon dioxide atmosphereson postharvest quality, storage and decay of ‘Walla Walla’ sweet onions. Seventh InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California95616, USA [abstract], 60.Sivakumar, D. and Korsten, L. 2007. Influence of 1-MCP at simulated controlled atmosphere transportconditions and MAP storage on litchi quality. South African Litchi Growers’ Association Yearbook, 19,39–41.Sivakumar, D., Zeeman, K. and Korsten, L. 2007. Effect of a biocontrol agent (Bacillus subtilis) and modifiedatmosphere packaging on postharvest decay control and quality retention of litchi during storage.Phytoparasitica, 35, 507–518.Sive, A. and Resnizky, D. 1979. Extension of the storage life of ‘Red Rosa’ plums by controlled atmospherestorage. Bulletin de l’Institut International du Froid, 59, 1148.Sive, A. and Resnizky, D. 1985. Experiments on the CA storage of a number of mango cultivars in 1984.Alon Hanotea, 39, 845–855.Skog, L.J., Schaefer, B.H. and Smith, P.G. 2003. On-farm modified atmosphere packaging of sweet cherries.Acta Horticulturae, 628, 415–422.Skrzynski, J. 1990. Black currant fruit storability in controlled atmospheres. I. Vitamin C content and controlof mould development. Folia Horticulturae, 2, 115–124.Smith, R.B. 1992. Controlled atmosphere storage of ‘Redcoat’ strawberry fruit. Journal of the American Societyfor Horticultural Science, 117, 260–264.Smith, R.B. and Reyes, A.A. 1988. Controlled atmosphere storage of Ontario grown celery. Journal of theAmerican Society for Horticultural Science, 113, 390–394.Smith, R.B., Skog, L.J., Maas, J.L. and Galletta, G.J. 1993. Enhancement and loss of firmness in strawberriesstored in atmospheres enriched with CO 2. Acta Horticulturae, 348, 328–333.Smith, W.H. 1952. The Commercial Storage of Vegetables. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,London, Food Investigation Leaflet, 15.Smith, W.H. 1957. Storage of black currents. Nature, 179, 876.Smittle, D.A. 1988. Evaluation of storage methods for ‘Granex’ onions. Journal of the American Society forHorticultural Science, 113, 877–880.

References 249Smittle, D.A. 1989. Controlled atmosphere storage of Vidalia onions. Proceedings of the Fifth InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2,171–177.Smock, R.M. 1938. The possibilities of gas storage in the United States. Refrigeration Engineering, 36,366–368.Smock, R.M. and Van Doren, A. 1938. Preliminary studies on the gas storage of McIntosh and NorthwesternGreening. Ice and Refrigeration, 95, 127–128.Smock, R.M. and Van Doren, A. 1939. Studies with modified atmosphere storage of apples. RefrigeratingEngineering, 38, 163–166.Smock, R.M. and Van Doren, A. 1941. Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, 762.Smock, R.M., Mendoza, D.B. Jr and Abilay, R.M. 1967. Handling bananas. Philippines Farms and Gardens, 4,12–17.Smoot, J.J. 1969. Decay of Florida citrus fruits stored in controlled atmospheres and in air. Proceedings of theFirst International Citrus Symposium, 3, 1285–1293.Snowdon, A.L. 1990. A Colour Atlas of Postharvest Diseases and Disorders of Fruits and Vegetables. Volume 1:General Introduction and Fruits. Wolfe Scientific Ltd, London.Snowdon, A.L. 1992. A Colour Atlas of Postharvest Diseases and Disorders of Fruits and Vegetables. Volume 2:Vegetables. Wolfe Scientific Ltd, London.Sobiczewski, P., Bryk, H. and Berczynski, S. 1999. Efficacy of antagonistic bacteria in protection of applesagainst Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum under CA conditions. Acta Horticulturae, 485, 351–356.Somboonkaew, N. 2001. Modified atmosphere packaging for rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum Linn. cvRongrien). MSc thesis, Writtle College, University of Essex, UK.Somboonkaew, N. and Terry L.A. 2009. Effect of packaging films on individual anthocyanins in pericarp ofimported non-acid treated litchi. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference,4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 27.Son, Y.K., Yoon, I.W., Han, P.J and Chung, D.S. 1983. Studies on storage of pears in sealed polyethylenebags. Research Reports, Office of Rural Development, S. Korea, Soil Fertilizer, Crop Protection, Mycology andFarm Products Utilization, 25, 182–187.Song, J., Fan, L., Forney, C.F., Jordan, M.A., Hildebrand, P.D., Kalt, W. and Ryan, D.A.J. 2003. Effect ofozone treatment and controlled atmosphere storage on quality and phytochemicals in highbush blueberries.Acta Horticulturae, 600, 417–423.Souza, F.C. and Ferraz, A.C.deO. 2009. PP film is effective in keeping the quality of ‘Roxo De Valinhos’ figstored under active and passive modified atmosphere at room temperature. 10th International Controlled& Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 64.Spalding, D.H. and Reeder, W.F. 1972. Postharvest disorders of mangoes as affected by fungicides and heattreatments. Plant Disease Reporter, 56, 751–753.Spalding, D.H. and Reeder, W.F. 1974. Quality of ‘Tahiti’ limes stored in a controlled atmosphere or underlow pressure. Proceedings of the Tropical Region American Society for Horticultural Science, 18, 128–135.Spalding, D.H. and Reeder, W.F. 1975. Low-oxygen, high carbon dioxide controlled atmosphere storage forthe control of anthracnose and chilling injury of avocados. Phytopathology, 65, 458–460.Spotts, R.A., Sholberg, P.L., Randall, P., Serdani, M. and Chen, P.M. 2007. Effects of 1-MCP and hexanal ondecay of d’Anjou pear fruit in long-term cold storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 44, 101–106.Srilaong, V., Kanlayanarat, S. and Tatsumi, Y. 2005. Effects of high O 2pretreatment and high O 2map onquality of cucumber fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 682, 1559–1564.Sritananan, S., Uthairatanakij, A., Srilaong, V., Kanlayanarat, S. and Wongs-Aree, C. 2006. Efficacy of controlledatmosphere storage on physiological changes of lime fruit. Acta Horticulturae, 712, 591–597.Staby, G.L. 1976. Hypobaric storage – an overview. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant PropagationSociety, 26, 211–215.Staden, O.L. 1986. Post-harvest research on ornamentals in the Netherlands. Acta Horticulturae, 181, 19–24.Stahl, A.L. and Cain, J.C. 1937. Cold storage studies of Florida citrus fruit. III. The relation of storage atmosphereto the keeping quality of citrus fruit in cold storage. Florida Agricultural Experiment Station,Bulletin 316, October.Stahl, A.L. and Cain, J.C. 1940. Storage and preservation of micellaneous fruits and vegetables. FloridaAgricultural Experiment Station, Annual Report, 88.Steffens, C.A., Brackmann, A., Lopes, S.J., Pinto, J.A.V., Eisermann, A.C., Giehl, R.F.H. and Webber, A.2007b. Internal breakdown and respiration of ‘Bruno’ kiwifruit in relation to storage conditions.Ciencia Rural, 37, 1621–1626.

250 ReferencesSteffens, C.A., Brackmann, A. and Streck, N.A. 2007a. Permeability of polyethilene films and utilization inthe storage of fruits. Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, 32, 93–99.Steinbauer, C.E. 1932. Effects of temperature and humidity upon length of rest period of tubers of Jerusalemartichoke (Helianthus tuberosus). Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 29,403–408.Stenvers, N. 1977. Hypobaric storage of horticultural products. Bedrijfsontwikkeling, 8, 175–177.Stewart, D. 2003. Effect of high O 2and N 2atmospheres on strawberry quality. Acta Horticulturae, 600,567–570.Stewart, J.K. and Uota, M. 1971. CO 2injury and market quality of lettuce held under controlled atmosphere.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 96, 27–31.Stoll, K. 1972. Largerung von Früchten und Gemusen in kontrollierter Atmosphäre. Mitt. Eidg. Forsch. Anst.Obst Wein Gartenbau Wädenswil Flugschrift, 77.Stoll, K. 1974. Storage of vegetables in modified atmospheres. Acta Horticulturae, 38, 13–23.Stoll, K. 1976. Lagerung der Birnensorte ‘Gute Luise’. [Storage of the pear cultivar Louise Bonne.]Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Obst und Weinbau, 112, 304–309.Stow, J.R. 1986. The effects of storage atmosphere and temperature on the keeping quality of Spartanapples. Annals of Applied Biology, 109, 409–415.Stow, J.R. 1995. The effects of storage atmosphere on the keeping quality of ‘Idared’ apples. Journal of HorticulturalScience, 70, 587–595.Stow, J.R. 1996a. Gala breaks through the storage barrier. Grower, 126, 26–27.Stow, J.R. 1996b. The effects of storage atmosphere on the keeping quality of ‘Idared’ apples. Journal ofHorticultural Science, 70, 587–595.Stow, J.R., Dover, C.J. and Genge, P.M. 2000. Control of ethylene biosynthesis and softening in ‘Cox’s OrangePippin’ apples during low-ethylene, low-oxygen storage. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 18,215–225.Stow, J.R., Jameson, J. and Senner, K. 2004. Storage of cherries: the effects of rate of cooling, store atmosphereand store temperature on storage and shelf-life. Journal of Horticultural Science & Biotechnology,79, 941–946.Streif, J. 1989. Storage behaviour of plum fruits. Acta Horticulturae, 258, 177–184.Streif, J. and Saquet, A.A. 2003. Internal flesh browning of ‘Elstar’ apples as influenced by pre- and postharvestfactors. Acta Horticulturae, 599, 523–527.Streif, J., Retamales, J., Cooper, T. and Sass, P. 1994. Preventing cold storage disorders in nectarine. ActaHorticulturae, 368, 160–165.Streif, J., Saquet, A.A. and Xuan, H. 2003. CA-related disorders of apples and pears. Acta Horticulturae, 600,223–230.Streif, J., Xuan, H., Saquet, A.A. and Rabus, C. 2001. CA-storage related disorders in ‘Conference’ pears.Acta Horticulturae, 553, 635–638.Strempfl, E., Mader, S. and Rumpolt, J. 1991. Trials of storage suitability of important apple cultivars in acontrolled atmosphere. Mitteilungen Klosterneuburg, Rebe und Wein, Obstbau und Fruchteverwertung, 41,20–26.Strop, I. 1992. Effects of plastic film wraps on the marketable life of asparagus and broccoli. MSc thesis,Silsoe College, Cranfield Institute of Technology, UK.Sudhakar Rao, D.V. and Gopalakrishna Rao, K.P. 2009. Controlled atmosphere storage of mango cultivars‘Alphonso’ and ‘Banganapalli’ to extend storage-life and maintain quality. Journal of Horticultural Science& Biotechnology, 83, 351–359.Sudto, T. and Uthairatanakij, A. 2007. Effects of 1-MCP on physico-chemical changes of ready-to-eat durian‘Mon-Thong’. Acta Horticulturae, 746, 329–334.Suslow, T.V. and Cantwell, M. 1998. Peas-snow and snap pod peas. Perishables Handling Quarterly, Universityof California Davis, 93, 15–16.Sziro, I., Devlieghere, F., Jacxsens, L., Uyttendaele, M. and Debevere, J. 2006. The microbial safety of strawberryand raspberry fruits packaged in high oxygen and equilibrium modified atmospheres comparedto air storage. International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 41, 93–103.Taeckens, J. 2007. Understanding container atmosphere control technologies. http://www.corp.carrier.com/static/ContainerFiles/Files/Knowledge_Center/Controlled_Atmosphere/ContainerAtmosphereControl.pdfaccessed May 2009.Tahir, I.I. and Ericsson, N.A. 2003. Effect of postharvest heating and CA-storage on storability and qualityof apple cv. ‘Aroma’. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 127–134.

References 251Tahir, I. and Olsson, M. 2009. The fruit quality of five plum cultivars ‘Prunus domestica L.’ related to harvestingdate and ultra low oxygen atmosphere storage. 10th International Controlled & Modified AtmosphereResearch Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 74.Tamas, S. 1992. Cold storage of watermelons in a controlled atmosphere. Elelmezesi Ipar, 46, 234–239, 242.Tan, S.C. and Mohamed, A.A. 1990. The effect of CO 2on phenolic compounds during the storage of ‘Mas’banana in polybag. Acta Horticulturae, 269, 389.Tancharoensukjit, S. and Chantanawarangoon, S. 2008. Effect of controlled atmosphere on quality of freshcutpineapple cv. Phuket. Proceedings of the 46th Kasetsart University Annual Conference, Kasetsart, Thailand,29 January–1 February 2008, 73–80.Tano, K., Oule, M.K., Doyon, G., Lencki, R.W. and Arul, J. 2007. Comparative evaluation of the effect ofstorage temperature fluctuation on modified atmosphere packages of selected fruit and vegetables.Postharvest Biology and Technology, 46, 212–221.Tataru, D. and Dobreanu, M. 1978. Research on the storage of several vegetables in a controlled atmosphere.Lucrari Stiintifice Institutul de Cercetari pentru Valorificarea Legumelor si Fructelor, 9, 13–20.Tay, S.L. and Perera, C.O. 2004. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene treatment and edible coatings on the qualityof minimally processed lettuce. Journal of Food Science, 69, 131–135.Techavuthiporn, C., Kakaew, P., Puthmee, T. and Kanlayanarat, S. 2009. The effect of controlled atmosphereconditions on the quality decay of shredded unripe papaya. 10th International Controlled &Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 57.Teixeira, G., Durigan, J.F, Santos, L.O. and Ogassavara, F.O. 2009. High levels of carbon dioxide injuresguava (Psidium guajaba L. cv. Pedro Sato) stored under controlled atmosphere. 10th International Controlled& Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 15.Testoni, A. and Eccher Zerbini, P. 1993. Controlled atmosphere storage trials with kiwifruits, prickly pearsand plums. COST ’94. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit and Vegetables. Proceedings of a workshop,22–23 April 1993 Milan, Italy, 131–136.Testoni, A., Lovati, F., Nuzzi, M. and Pellegrino, S. 2002. First evaluations of harvesting date and storagetechnologies for Pink Lady ® Cripps Pink apple grown in the Piedmont area. Rivista di Frutticoltura edi Ortofloricoltura, 64, 67–73.Thatcher, R.W. 1915. Enzymes of apples and their relation to the ripening process. Journal of AgriculturalResearch, 5, 103–105.Thompson, A.K. 1971. The storage of mango fruit. Tropical Agriculture Trinidad, 48, 63–70.Thompson, A.K. 1981. Reduction of losses during the marketing of arracacha. Acta Horticulturae, 116, 55–60.Thompson, A.K. 1996. Postharvest Technology of Fruit and Vegetables. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.Thompson, A.K. 2003. Fruit and Vegetables. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK.Thompson, A.K. and Arango, L.M 1977. Storage and marketing cassava in plastic films. Proceedings of theTropical Region of the American Horticultural Science, 21, 30–33.Thompson, A.K., Been, B.O. and Perkins, C. 1972. Handling, storage and marketing of plantains. Proceedingsof the Tropical Region of the American Society of Horticultural Science, 16, 205–212.Thompson, A.K., Been, B.O. and Perkins, C. 1974a. Effects of humidity on ripening of plantain bananas.Experientia, 30, 35–36.Thompson, A.K., Been, B.O. and Perkins, C. 1974b. Prolongation of the storage life of breadfruits. Proceedingsof the Caribbean Food Crops Society, 12, 120–126.Thompson, A.K., Been, B.O. and Perkins, C. 1974c. Storage of fresh breadfruit. Tropical Agriculture Trinidad,51, 407–415.Thompson, A.K., Magzoub, Y. and Silvis, H. 1974d. Preliminary investigations into desiccation and degreeningof limes for export. Sudan Journal of Food Science Technology, 6, 1–6.Thompson, A.K., Mason, G.F. and Halkon, W.S. 1971. Storage of West Indian seedling avocado fruits. Journalof Horticultural Science, 46, 83–88.Thornton, N.C. 1930. The use of carbon dioxide for prolonging the life of cut flowers. American Journal ofBotany, 17, 614–626.Tian Shi Ping, Jiang Ai Li, Xu Yong and Wang You Sheng 2004. Responses of physiology and quality ofsweet cherry fruit to different atmospheres in storage. Food Chemistry, 87, 43–49.Tiangco, E.L., Agillon, A.B. and Lizada, M.C.C. 1987 Modified atmosphere storage of ‘Saba’ bananas.Association of Southeast Asian Nations Food Journal, 3, 112–116.Toivonen, P.M.A. and DeEll, J.R. 2001. Chlorophyll fluorescence, fermentation product accumulation, andquality of stored broccoli in modified atmosphere packages and subsequent air storage. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 23, 61–69.

252 ReferencesTome, P.H.F., Santos, J.P., Cabral, L.C., Chandra, P.K. and Goncalves, R.A. 2000. Use of controlled atmospherewith CO 2and N 2for the preservation of technological qualities of beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)during storage. Revista Brasileira de Armazenamento, 25, 16–22.Tomkins, R.B. and Sutherland, J. 1989. Controlled atmospheres for seafreight of cauliflower. Acta Horticulturae,247, 385–389.Tomkins, R.G. 1957. Peas kept for 20 days in gas store. Grower, 48, 226–227.Tomkins, R.G. 1966. The storage of mushrooms. Mushroom Growers Association Bulletin, 202, 534, 537, 538,541.Tomoyuki Yoshino, Seiichiro Isobe and Takaaki Maekawa 2002. Influence of preparation conditions on thephysical properties of Zein films. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 79, 345–349.Tongdee, S.C. 1988. Banana Postharvest Handling Improvements. Report of the Thailand Institute of Scienceand Technology Research, Bangkok.Tongdee, S.C., Suwanagul, A. and Neamprem, S. 1990. Durian fruit ripening and the effect of variety, maturitystage at harvest and atmospheric gases. Acta Horticulturae, 269, 323–334.Tonini, G. and Tura, E. 1997. New CA storage strategies for reducing rots (Botrytis cinerea and Phialophoraspp.) and softening in kiwifruit. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 104.Tonini, G., Barberini, K., Bassi, F. and Proni, R. 1999. Effects of new curing and controlled atmosphere storagetechnology on Botrytis rots and flesh firmness in kiwifruit. Acta Horticulturae, 498, 285–291.Tonini, G., Brigati, S. and Caccioni, D. 1989. CA storage of kiwifruit: influence on rots and storability. Proceedingsof the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington,USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 69–76.Tonini, G., Caccioni, D. and Ceroni, G. 1993. CA storage of stone fruits: effects on diseases and disorders.COST ’94. Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit and Vegetables. Proceedings of a workshop 22–23 April1993, Milan, Italy, 95–105.Torres, A.V., Zamudio-Flores, P.B., Salgado-Delgado, R. and Bello-Pérez, L.A. 2008. Biodegradation of lowdensitypolyethylene–banana starch films. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 110, 3464–3472.Trierweiler, B., Krieg, M. and Tauscher, B. 2004. Antioxidative capacity of different apple cultivars afterlong-time storage. Journal of Applied Botany and Food Quality, 78, 117–119.Truter, A.B. and Combrink, J.C. 1992. Controlled atmosphere storage of peaches, nectarine and plums.Journal of the Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences, 2, 10–13.Truter, A.B. and Combrink, J.C. 1997. Controlled atmosphere storage of South African plums. Seventh InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis,California 95616, USA [abstract], 47.Truter, A.B., Combrick, J.C., Fourie, P.C. and Victor, S.J. 1994. Controlled atmosphere storage of prior toprocessing of some canning peach and apricot cultivars in South Africa. Commissions C2,D1,D2/3of the International Institute of Refrigeration International Symposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey,243–254.Truter, A.B., Eksteen, G.J. and Van der Westhuizen, A.J.M. 1982. Controlled-atmosphere storage of apples.Deciduous Fruit Grower, 32, 226–237.Tsantili, E., Karaiskos, G. and Pontikis, C. 2003. Storage of fresh figs in low oxygen atmosphere. Journal ofHorticultural Science & Biotechnology, 78, 56–60.Tsay, L.M. and Wu, M.C. 1989. Studies on the postharvest physiology of sugar apple. Acta Horticulturae,258, 287–294.Tsiprush, R.Ya., Zhamba, A.I. and Bodyul, K.P. 1974. The effect of storage regime on apple quality in relationto growing conditions. Sadovodstvo, Vinogradarstvo i Vinodelie Moldavii, 1, 52–54.Tugwell, B. and Chvyl, L. 1995. Storage recommendations for new varieties. Pome Fruit Australia, May, 4–5.Tulin Oz, A. and Eris, A. 2009. Effects of controlled atmosphere storage on differently harvested Haywardkiwifruits ethylene production. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference,4–7 April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 73.Turbin, V.A. and Voloshin, I.A. 1984. Storage of table grape varieties in a controlled gaseous environment.Vinodelie i Vinogradarstvo SSSR, 8, 31–32.Ullah Malik, A., Hameed, R., Imran, M. and Schouten, S. 2009. Effect of controlled atmosphere on storabilityand shelf-life and quality of green slender chilies (Capsicum annuum L.). 10th International Controlled& Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey [abstract], 9.Urban, E. 1995. Nachlagerungsverhalten von Apfelfruchten. [Postharvest storage of apples.] Erwerbsobstbau,37, 145–151.

References 253USA 2002. The United States Federal Register: July 26, 2002 Vol. 67, No. 144, pp. 48796–48800,http://regulations.vlex.com/vid/pesticides-raw-commodities-methylcyclopropene-22883760accessed January 2010.Valverde, J.M., Guillen, F., Martinez-Romero, D., Castillo, S., Serrano, M. and Valero, D. 2005. Improvementof table grapes quality and safety by the combination of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)and eugenol, menthol, or thymol. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 7458–7464.van der Merwe, J.A. 1996. Controlled and modified atmosphere storage. In Combrink, J.G. Editor. IntegratedManagement of Post-harvest Quality. South Africa INFRUiTEC ARC/LNR, 104–112.van der Merwe, J.A., Combrink, J.C. and Calitz, F.J. 2003. Effect of controlled atmosphere storage afterinitial low oxygen stress treatment on superficial scald development on South African-grown GrannySmith and Topred apples. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 261–265.van der Merwe, J.A., Combrick, J.C., Truter, A.B. and Calitz, F.J. 1997. Effect of initial low oxygen stresstreatment and controlled atmosphere storage at increased carbon dioxide levels on the post-storagequality of South African-grown ‘Granny Smith’ and ‘Topred’ apples. Seventh International ControlledAtmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616,USA [abstract], 8.Van Doren, A., Hoffman, M.B. and Smock, R.M. 1941. CO 2treatment of strawberries and cherries in transitand storage. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 38, 231–238.Van Eeden, S.J. and Cutting, J.G.M. 1992. Ethylene and ACC levels in ripening ‘Topred’ apples after storagein air and controlled atmosphere. Journal of the Southern African Society for Horticultural Sciences, 2, 7–9.Van Eeden, S.J., Combrink, J.C., Vries, P.J. and Calitz, F.J. 1992. Effect of maturity, diphenylamine concentrationand method of cold storage on the incidence of superficial scald in apples. Deciduous FruitGrower, 42, 25–28.Van Leeuwen, G. and Van de Waart, A. 1991. Delaying red currants is worthwhile. Fruitteelt Den Haag, 81,14–15.Vanstreels, E., Lammertyn, J., Verlinden, B.E., Gillis, N., Schenk, A. and Nicolai, B.M. 2002. Red discolorationof chicory under controlled atmosphere conditions. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 26,313–322.Velde, M.D.van de and Hendrickx, M.E. 2001. Influence of storage atmosphere and temperature on qualityevolution of cut Belgian endives. Journal of Food Science, 66, 1212–1218.Veltman, R.H., Verschoor, J.A. and Van Dugteren, J.H.R. 2003. Dynamic control system (DCS) for apples(Malus domestica Borkh. cv ‘Elstar’): optimal quality through storage based on product response. (Specialissue: Optimal controlled atmosphere.) Postharvest Biology and Technology, 27, 79–86.Venturini, M.E., Jaime, P., Oria, R. and Blanco, D. 2000. Efficacy of different plastic films for packing ofendives from hydroponic culture: microbiological evaluation. Alimentaria, 37, 87–94.Vidigal, J.C., Sigrist, J.M.M., Figueiredo, I.B. and Medina, J.C. 1979. Cold storage and controlled atmospherestorage of tomatoes. Boletim do Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos Brasil, 16, 421–442.Vigneault, C. and Raghavan, G.S.V. 1991. High pressure water scrubber for rapid O 2pull-down in controlledatmosphere storage. Canadian Agricultural Engineering, 33, 287–294.Vilasachandran, T., Sargent, S.A. and Maul, F. 1997. Controlled atmosphere storage shows potentialfor maintaining postharvest quality of fresh litchi. Seventh International Controlled AtmosphereResearch Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract],54.Villanueva, M.J., Tenorio, M.D., Sagardoy, M., Redondo, A. and Saco, M.D. 2005. Physical, chemical, histologicaland microbiological changes in fresh green asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) stored in modifiedatmosphere packaging. Food Chemistry, 91, 609–619.Villatoro, C., Echeverria, G., Graell, J., Lopez, M.L. and Lara, I. 2008. Long-term storage of Pink Lady applesmodifies volatile-involved enzyme activities: consequences on production of volatile esters. Journalof Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 56, 9166–9174.Villatoro, C., Lara, I., Graell, J., Echeverría. G. and López, M.L. 2009. Cold storage conditions affect thepersistence of diphenylamine, folpet and imazalil residues in ‘Pink Lady ® ’ apples. Food Science andTechnology, 42, 557–562.Vina, S.Z., Mugridge, A., Garcia, M.A., Ferreyra, R.M., Martino, M.N., Chaves, A.R. and Zaritzky, N.E.2007. Effects of polyvinylchloride films and edible starch coatings on quality aspects of refrigeratedBrussels sprouts. Food Chemistry, 103, 701–709.Viraktamath, C.S. et al. 1963. Pre-packaging studies on fresh produce III. Brinjal eggplant Solanum melongena.Food Science Mysore 12, 326–331 [Horticultural Abstracts 1964].

254 ReferencesVisai, C., Vanoli, M., Zini, M. and Bundini, R. 1994.Cold storage of Passa Crassana pears in normal andcontrolled atmosphere. Commissions C2, D1, D2/3 of the International Institute of Refrigeration InternationalSymposium, 8–10 June, Istanbul, Turkey, 255–262.Voisine, R., Hombourger, C., Willemot, C., Castaigne, D. and Makhlouf, J. 1993. Effect of high CO 2storageand gamma irradiation on membrane deterioration in cauliflower florets. Postharvest Biology and Technology,2, 279–289.Wade, N.L. 1974. Effects of O 2concentration and ethephon upon the respiration and ripening of bananafruits. Journal of Experimental Botany, 25, 955–964.Wade, N.L. 1979. Physiology of cold storage disorders of fruit and vegetables. In Lyons, J.M., Graham, D.and Raison, J.K. Editors. Low Temperature Stress in Crop Plants. Academic Press, New York.Wade, N.L. 1981. Effects of storage atmosphere, temperature and calcium on low temperature injury ofpeach fruit. Scientia Horticulturae, 15, 145–154.Waelti, H., Zhang, Q., Cavalieri, R.P. and Patterson, M.E.1992. Small scale CA storage for fruits and vegetables.American Society of Agricultural Engineers Meeting Presentation, paper no. 926568.Walsh, J.R., Lougheed, E.C., Valk, M. and Knibbe, E.A. 1985. A disorder of stored celery. Canadian Journal ofPlant Science, 65, 465–469.Wang, C.Y. 1979. Effect of short-term high CO 2treatment on the market quality of stored broccoli. Journalof Food Science, 44, 1478–1482.Wang, C.Y. 1983. Postharvest responses of Chinese cabbage to high CO 2treatment or low O 2storage. Journalof the American Society for Horticultural Science, 108, 125–129.Wang, C.Y. 1990. Physiological and biochemical effects of controlled atmosphere on fruit and vegetables.In Calderon, M. and Barkai-Golan, R. Editors. Food Preservation by Modified Atmospheres. CRC Press,Boca Raton, Florida and Boston, Massachusetts, 197–223.Wang, C.Y. and Ji, Z.L. 1988. Abscisic acid and 1-aminocyclopropane 1-carboxylic acid content of Chinesecabbage during low O 2storage. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 113, 881–883.Wang, C.Y. and Ji, Z.L. 1989. Effect of low O 2storage on chilling injury and polyamines in zucchini squash.Scientia Horticulturae, 39, 1–7.Wang, C.Y. and Kramer, G.F. 1989. Effect of low O 2storage on polyamine levels and senescence in Chinesecabbage, zucchini squash and McIntosh apples. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled AtmosphereResearch Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 19–27.Wang, G.X., Han, Y.S. and Yu, L. 1994. Studies on ethylene metabolism of kiwifruit after harvest. Acta AgriculturaeUniversitatis Pekinensis, 20, 408–412.Wang, L. and Vestrheim, S. 2002. Controlled atmosphere storage of sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.). ActaAgriculturae Scandinavica, 52, 143–146.Wang Baogang, Wang Jianhui, Feng Xiaoyuan, Lin Lin, Zhao Yumei and Jiang Weibo 2007. Effects of1-MCP and exogenous ethylene on fruit ripening and antioxidants in stored mango. Plant GrowthRegulation, 57, 185–192.Wang Gui Xi, Liang Li Song and Sun Xiao Zhen 2004. The effects of postharvest low oxygen treatment onthe storage quality of chestnut. Acta Horticulturae Sinica, 31, 173–177.Wang Yan Ping, Dai Gui Fu, Wu Ji An, Li Zong Wei, Qin Guang Yong, Su Ming Jie et al. 2000. Studies on therespiration characters of chestnut during storage. Journal of Fruit Science, 17, 282–285.Wang ZhenYong and Dilley, D.R. 2000. Hypobaric storage removes scald-related volatiles during the lowtemperature induction of superficial scald of apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 18, 191–199.Wang ZhenYong, Kosittrakun, M. and Dilley, D.R. 2000. Temperature and atmosphere regimens to controla CO 2-linked disorder of ‘Empire’ apples. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 18, 183–189.Wardlaw, C.W. 1938. Tropical fruits and vegetables: an account of their storage and transport. Low TemperatureResearch Station, Trinidad, Memoir 7. Reprinted from Tropical Agriculture Trinidad, 14.Wardlaw, C.W. and Leonard E.R. 1938. The low temperature research station. Tropical Agriculture, 15, 179–182.Warren, O., Sargent, S.A., Huber, D.J., Brecht, J.K., Plotto, A. and Baldwin, E. 2009. Influence of postharvestaqueous 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on the aroma volatiles and shelf-life of ‘Arkin’ carambola.American Society for Horticultural Science Poster Board # 109. Tuesday 28 July 2009, MillenniumHotel, St. Louis, Illinois. http://ashs.confex.com/ashs/2009/webprogram/Paper2624.html accessedJuly 2009.Waskar, D.P., Nikam, S.K. and Garande, V.K. 1999. Effect of different packaging materials on storage behaviourof sapota under room temperature and cool chamber. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research,33, 240–244.

References 255Watkins, C.B. and Miller, W.B. (2003) Implications of 1-methylcyclopropene registration for use on horticulturalproducts. In: Vendrell, M., Klee, H., Pech, J.C. and Romojaro, F. Editors. Biology and Technologyof the Plant Hormone Ethylene III. IOS Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 385–390.Watkins, C.B. and Nock, J. 2004. SmartFresh (1-MCP) – the good and bad as we head into the 2004 season!New York Fruit Quarterly, 12, 2–7.Watkins, C.B., Burmeister, D.M., Elgar, H.J. and Fu WenLiu 1997. A comparison of two carbon dioxiderelatedinjuries of apple fruit. Postharvest Horticulture Series – Department of Pomology University ofCalifornia, 16, 119–124.Weber, J. 1988. The efficiency of the defence reaction against soft rot after wound healing of potato tubers.1. Determination of inoculum densities that cause infection and the effect of environment. PotatoResearch, 31, 3–10.Wei, Y. and Thompson A.K. 1993. Modified atmosphere packaging of diploid bananas Musa AA. PostharvestTreatment of Fruit and Vegetables. COST ’94 workshop, 14–15 September 1993, Leuven, Belgium,235–246.Weichmann, J. 1973. Die Wirkung unterschiedlichen CO 2-Partialdruckes auf den Gasstoffwechsel vonMohren Daucus carota L. Gartenbauwissenschaft, 38, 243–252.Weichmann, J. 1981. CA storage of horseradish, Armoracia rusticana Ph. Gartn. B. Mey et Scherb. Acta Horticulturae,116, 171–181.Wermund, U. and Lazar, E.E. 2003. Control of grey mould caused by the postharvest pathogen Botrytis cinereaon English sweet cherries ‘Lapin’ and ‘Colney’ by controlled atmosphere (CA) storage. ActaHorticulturae, 599, 745–748.Westercamp, P. 1995. Conservation de la prune President – influence de la date de recolte sur la conservationdes fruits. Infos Paris, 113, 34–37.Whiting, D.C. 2003. Potential of controlled atmosphere and air cold storage for postharvest disinfestationof New Zealand kiwifruit. Acta Horticulturae, 600, 143–148.Wild, B.L., McGlasson, W.B. and Lee, T.H. 1977. Long term storage of lemon fruit. Food Technology in Australia,29, 351–357.Wilkinson, B.G. 1972. Fruit storage. East Malling Reseach Station Annual Report for 1971, 69–88.Wilkinson, B.G. and Sharples, R.O. 1973. Recommended storage conditions for the storage of apples andpears. East Malling Reseach Station Annual Report, 212.Willaert, G.A., Dirinck, P.J., Pooter, H.L. and Schamp, N.N. 1983. Objective measurement of aroma qualityof Golden Delicious apples as a function of controlled-atmosphere storage time. Journal of Agriculturaland Food Chemistry, 31, 809–813.Williams, M.W. and Patterson, M.E. 1964. Non-volatile organic acids and core breakdown of ‘Bartlett’pears. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 12, 89.Williams, O.J., Raghavan, G.S.V., Golden, K.D. and Gariepy, Y. 2003. Postharvest storage of Giant Cavendishbananas using ethylene oxide and sulphur dioxide. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,83, 180–186.Wills, R.B.H. 1990. Postharvest technology of banana and papaya in ASEAN: an overview. Association ofSoutheast Asian Nations Food Journal, 5, 47–50.Wills, R.B.H., Klieber, A., David, R. and Siridhata, M. 1990. Effect of brief pre-marketing holding of bananasin nitrogen on time to ripen. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 30, 579–581.Wills, R.B.H., Pitakserikul, S. and Scott, K.J. 1982. Effects of pre-storage in low O 2or high CO 2concentrationson delaying the ripening of bananas. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 33, 1029–1036.Wilson, L.G. 1976. Handling of postharvest tropical fruit. Horticultural Science, 11, 120–121.Win, T.O., Srilaong, V., Heyes, J., Kyu, K.L. and Kanlayanarat, S. 2006. Effects of different concentrations of1-MCP on the yellowing of West Indian lime (Citrus aurantifolia, Swingle) fruit. Postharvest Biology andTechnology, 42, 23–30.Wold, A.B., Lea, P., Jeksrud, W.K., Hansen, M., Rosenfeld, H.J., Baugerod, H. and Haffner, K. 2006. Antioxidantactivity in broccoli cultivars (Brassica oleracea var. italica) as affected by storage conditions.Acta Horticulturae, 706, 211–217.Woltering, E.J., van Schaik, A.C.R. and Jongen, W.M.F. 1994. Physiology and biochemistry of controlledatmosphere storage: the role of ethylene. COST ’94. The Post-harvest Treatment of Fruit and Vegetables:Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Fruit and Vegetables. Proceedings of a workshop, Milan, Italy, 22–23April 1993, 35–42.Woodruff, R.E. 1969. Modified atmosphere storage of bananas. Proceedings of the National Controlled AtmosphereResearch Conference, Michigan State University, Horticultural Report, 9, 80–94.

256 ReferencesWoodward, J.R. and Topping, A.J. 1972. The influence of controlled atmospheres on the respiration ratesand storage behaviour of strawberry fruits. Journal of Horticultural Science, 47, 547–553.Worakeeratikul, W., Srilaong, V., Uthairatanakij, A. and Jitareerat, P. 2007. Effect of whey protein concentrateon quality and biochemical changes in fresh-cut rose apple. Acta Horticulturae, 746, 435–441.Workman, M.N. and Twomey, J. 1969. The influence of storage atmosphere and temperature on the physiologyand performance of Russet Burbank seed potatoes. Journal of the American Society for HorticulturalScience, 94, 260–263.Worrel, D.B. and Carrington, C.M.S. 1994. Post-harvest storage of breadfruit. Inter-American Institute forCo-operation on Agriculture, Tropical Fruits Newsletter, 11, 5.Wright, H., DeLong, J., Gunawardena, A. and Prange, R. 2009. Improving our understanding of the relationshipbetween chlorophyll fluorescence-based F-alpha, oxygen, temperature and anaerobic volatiles.10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7 April 2009, Turkey[abstract], 4.WTO 2008. In G/SPS/N/USA/1683/Add.1 dated 9 April 2008, www.fedfin.gov.ae/uaeagricent/sps/files/GEN842.doc accessed January 2010.Wu, M.T., Jadhav, S.J. and Salunkhe, D.K. 1972. Effects of sub atmospheric pressure storage on ripening oftomato fruits. Journal of Food Science, 37, 952–956.Xue, Y.B., Yu, L. and Chou, S.T. 1991. The effect of using a carbon molecular sieve nitrogen generator tocontrol superficial scald in apples. Acta Horticulturae Sinica, 18, 217–220.Yahia, E.M. 1989. CA storage effect on the volatile flavor components of apples. Proceedings of the Fifth InternationalControlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989,Vol. 1, 341–352.Yahia, E.M. 1991. Production of some odor-active volatiles by ‘McIntosh’ apples following low-ethylenecontrolled-atmosphere storage. HortScience, 26, 1183–1185.Yahia, E.M. 1995. The current status and the potential use of modified and controlled atmospheres inMexico. In Kushwaha, L., Serwatowski, R. and Brook, R. Editors. Technologias de Cosecha y Postcosechade Frutas y Hortalizas. Harvest and Postharvest Technologies for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Proceedings ofa conference held in Guanajuato, Mexico, 20–24 February, 523–529.Yahia, E. 1998. Modified and controlled atmospheres for tropical fruits. Horticultural Reviews, 22, 123–183.Yahia, E.M. and Kushwaha, L. 1995. Insecticidal atmospheres for tropical fruits. In Kushwaha, L., Serwatowski,R. and Brook, R. Editors. Technologias de Cosecha y Postcosecha de Frutas y Hortalizas. Harvest andPostharvest Technologies for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables. Proceedings of a conference held in Guanajuato,Mexico, 20–24 February, 282–286.Yahia, E.M. and Tiznado Hernandez, M. 1993. Tolerance and responses of harvested mango to insecticidallow O 2atmospheres. HortScience, 28, 1031–1033.Yahia, E.M. and Vazquez Moreno, L. 1993. Responses of mango to insecticidal O 2and CO 2atmospheres.Lebensmittel Wissenschaft and Technologie, 26, 42–48.Yahia, E.M., Guevara, J.C., Tijskens, L.M.M. and Cedeño, L. 2005. The effect of relative humidity on modifiedatmosphere packaging gas exchange. Acta Horticulturae, 674, 97–104.Yahia, E.M., Medina, F. and Rivera, M. 1989. The tolerance of mango and papaya to atmospheres containingvery high levels of CO 2and/or very low levels of O 2as a possible insect control treatment. Proceedingsof the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference, Wenatchee, Washington,USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 2, 77–89.Yahia, E.M., Rivera, M. and Hernandez, O. 1992. Responses of papaya to short-term insecticidal O 2atmosphere.Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 117, 96–99.Yamashita, F., Tonzar, A.C., Fernandes, J.G., Moriya, S. and Benassi, M.deT. 2000. Influence of differentmodified atmosphere packaging on overall acceptance of fine table grapes var. Italia stored underrefrigeration. Ciencia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 20, 110–114.Yang, S.F. (1985). Biosynthesis and action of ethylene. HortScience, 20, 41–45.Yang, Y.J. and Henze, J. 1987. Influence of CA storage on external and internal quality characteristics ofbroccoli Brassica oleracea var. italica. I. Changes in external and sensory quality characteristics. Gartenbauwissenschaft,52, 223–226.Yang, Y.J. and Henze, J. 1988. Influence of controlled atmosphere storage on external and internal qualityfeatures of broccoli Brassica oleracea var. italica. II. Changes in chlorophyll and carotenoid contents.Gartenbauwissenschaft, 53, 41–43.Yang, Y.J. and Lee, K.A. 2003. Postharvest quality of satsuma mandarin fruit affected by controlled atmosphere.Acta Horticulturae, 600, 775–779.

References 257Yang Hong Shun, Feng Guo Ping and Li Yun Fei 2004. Contents and apparent activation energies of chlorophylland ascorbic acid of broccoli under controlled atmosphere storage. Transactions of the ChineseSociety of Agricultural Engineering, 20, 172–175.Yang Yong Joon 2001. Postharvest quality of satsuma mandarin fruit affected by controlled atmosphere.Korean Journal of Horticultural Science & Technology, 19, 145–148.Yang Yong Joon, Hwang Yong Soo and Park Youn Moon 2007. Modified atmosphere packaging extendsfreshness of grapes ‘Campbell Early’ and ‘Kyoho’. Korean Journal of Horticultural Science & Technology,25, 138–144.Yearsley, C.W., Lallu, N., Burmeister, D., Burdon, J. and Billing, D. 2003 Can dynamic controlled atmospherestorage be used for ‘Hass’ avocados? New Zealand Avocado Growers Association Annual ReseachReport, 3, 86–92.Yildirim, I.K. and Pekmezci, M. 2009. Effect of controlled atmosphere (CA) storage on postharvest physiologyof ‘Hayward’ kiwifruit. 10th International Controlled & Modified Atmosphere Research Conference, 4–7April 2009, Turkey [poster abstract], 79.Yonemoto, Y., Inoue, H. and Okuda, H. 2004. Effects of storage temperatures and oxygen supplementationon reducing titratable acid in ‘Ruby Star’ passionfruit (Passiflora edulis × P. edulis f. flavicarpa). JapaneseJournal of Tropical Agriculture, 48, 111–114.Yonghua Zheng, Chien Y. Wang, Shiow Y. Wang and Wei Zheng 2003. Anthocyanins and antioxidant capacity.Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry,51, 7162–7169.Young, N., deBuckle, T.S., Castel Blanco, H., Rocha, D. and Velez, G. 1971. Conservacion of Yuca Fresca. InstitutoInvestigacion Tecnologia Bogata Colombia report.Yu Hong, Wang ChuanYong, Gu Yin and He ShanAn 2006. Effects of different packaging materials on thephysiology and storability of blueberry fruits. Journal of Fruit Science, 23, 631–634.Zagory, D. 1990. Application of computers in the design of modified atmosphere packaging to fresh produce.International Conference on Modified Atmosphere Packaging, Part 1. Campden Food and DrinksResearch Association, Chipping Campden, UK.Zagory, D., Ke, D. and Kader, A.A. 1989. Long term storage of ‘Early Gold’ and ‘Shinko’ Asian pears in lowoxygen atmospheres. Proceedings of the Fifth International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference,Wenatchee, Washington, USA, 14–16 June, 1989, Vol. 1, 353–357.Zainon Mohd. Ali, Chin Lieng Hong, Muthusamy Marimuthu and Hamid Lazan 2004. Low temperaturestorage and modified atmosphere packaging of carambola fruit and their effects on ripening relatedtexture changes, wall modification and chilling injury symptoms. Postharvest Biology and Technology,33, 181–192.Zanon, K. and Schragl, J. 1988. Lagerungsversuche mit Weisskraut. [Storage experiments with white cabbage.]Gemuse, 24, 14–17.Zhang, D. and Quantick, P.C. 1997. Preliminary studies on effects of modified atmosphere packaging onpostharvest storage of longan fruit. Seventh International Controlled Atmosphere Research Conference,13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA [abstract], 55.Zhang You Lin 2002. Combined technology of kiwifruit storage and freshness-keeping with freshnesskeepingreagent at low temperature and modified atmosphere. Transactions of the Chinese Society ofAgricultural Engineering, 18, 138–141.Zhang You Lin and Zhang Run Guang 2005. Integrated preservation technologies of low temperature storage,controlled atmosphere packaging with silicon window bags and thiabendazole fumigation forgarlic shoot storage. Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering, 21, 167–171.Zhang Ze Huang, Xu Jia Hui, Li Wei Xin and Lin Qi Hua 2006. Proper storage temperature and MAP freshkeepingtechnique of wampee. Journal of Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (Natural ScienceEdition), 35, 593–597.Zhansheng Ding, Shiping Tian, Yousheng Wang, Boqiang Li, Zhulong Chana, Jin Hana and Yong Xu 2006.Physiological response of loquat fruit to different storage conditions and its storability. PostharvestBiology and Technology, 41, 143–150.Zhao, H. and Murata, T. 1988. A study on the storage of muskmelon ‘Earl’s Favourite’. Bulletin of the Facultyof Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 38, 713 [abstract].Zheng, Y.H. and Xi, Y.F. 1994. Preliminary study on colour fixation and controlled atmosphere storage offresh mushrooms. Journal of Zhejiang Agricultural University, 20, 165–168.Zheng, Y.H., Wang, C.Y., Wang, S.Y. and Zheng, W. 2003. Effect of high-oxygen atmospheres on blueberryphenolics, anthocyanins, and antioxidant capacity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51,7162–7169.

258 ReferencesZhong Qiu Ping, Xia Wen Shui and Jiang Yue Ming 2006. Effects of 1-methylcyclopropene treatments onripening and quality of harvested sapodilla fruit. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 44, 535–539.Zhou, L.L., Yu, L. and Zhou, S.T. 1992a. The effect of garlic sprouts storage at different O 2and CO 2levels.Acta Horticulturae Sinica, 19, 57–60.Zhou, L.L., Yu, L., Zhao, Y.M., Zhang, X. and Chen, Z.P. 1992b. The application of carbon molecular sievegenerators in the storage of garlic sprouts. Acta Agriculturae, Universitatis Pekinensis, 18, 47–51.Zisheng Luo 2007. Effect of 1-methylcyclopropene on ripening of postharvest persimmon (Diospyroskaki L.) fruit. Food Science and Technology, 40, 285–291.Zoffoli, J.P., Rodriguez, J., Aldunce, P. and Crisosto, C. 1997. Development of high concentration carbondioxide modified atmosphere packaging systems to maintain peach quality. Seventh International ControlledAtmosphere Research Conference, 13–18 July 1997, University of California, Davis, California95616, USA [abstract], 45.Zong, R.J., Morris, L. and Cantwell, M. 1995. Postharvest physiology and quality of bitter melon(Momordica charantia L.). Postharvest Biology and Technology, 6, 65–72.

IndexRepeated page numbers, e.g., 48, 48–49, indicate that there are two references to the subject onone page, with unrelated text between them. Further information regarding specific fruits andvegetables can be found in the alphabetically arranged sections on pages 48 to 58, 93 to 113 and116 to 191.abscisic acid 149absorbentscarbon dioxide 12, 31–34, 86, 95, 194–195,200, 203, 204ethylene 34, 38, 86–87, 194–195, 196, 200, 202modified atmosphere packaging 86–87, 202oxygen 86acidity 60, 63–64ACP see anaerobic compensation pointActinidia chinensis 161active packaging 86–87, 209Aeromonas caviae 115Aeromonas hydrophila 147Agaricus bisporus 169Albelmoschus esculentus 171Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum 163Allium cepa 186Allium cepa var. cepa 171Allium sativum 159Alternaria spp. 78Alternaria alternata 56, 104–105Amelanchier alnifolia (saskatoon fruit) 66, 68aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) 58–59anaerobic compensation point (ACP) 36–37anaerobic respiration see respiration, anaerobicAnanas comosus 178Annona cherimola 153Annona muricata 185Annona squamosa 189annonas1-methylcyclopropene treatment 52modified atmosphere packaging 100,111–112, 185, 209recommended conditions 153, 185, 189residual effects of storage 24antioxidants 66and high oxygen storage 18and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 48, 54,57for scald control 74–75Apium graveolens var. dulce 152Apium graveolens var. rapaceum 152applesaminoethoxyvinylglycine treatment 58–59anaerobic respiration 16, 35–36Braeburn browning disorder 23, 44, 49, 120carbon dioxide injury 13, 16, 23, 50, 117carbon dioxide shock treatment 18cultivars, recommended conditions116–137delayed storage 23N-dimethylaminosuccinamic acid treatment47ethylene production 20–21, 21flavour 12, 13–15, 18, 43, 60, 61, 62, 62–63, 63,64fungal diseases 76harvesting 43, 44–45259

260 Indexapples continuedhigh-oxygen storage 17humidity effects 23, 30hypobaric storage 40insect control 78, 79, 79–80interrupted storage 23–24membrane gas control system storage 371-methylcyclopropene treatment 47, 48,48–50modified atmosphere packaging 85, 91, 93nutrients in 66oxygen injury 13, 16patulin content 42peel colour 16, 18, 43physiological disorders 9, 22, 72, 73 see alsoBraeburn browning disorder; scaldpostharvest high temperature treatment 46,47postharvest processing effects 91preharvest factors 43, 44recommended conditions 12, 32, 116–137residual effects of storage 25respiration rate in storage 22, 68, 69scald 36, 40, 44, 46, 47, 49–50, 73, 74, 75temperature effects 22texture 13–15, 18, 43ultra-low oxygen storage 36, 42, 59, 63apricotsmodified atmosphere packaging 93recommended conditions 137–139apricots, Japanese 138–139Armoracia rusticana 161arracacha roots 88, 93Arracacia xanthorrhiza 93artichokes, globemodified atmosphere packaging 85, 93–94recommended conditions 139artichokes, Jerusalem 139Artocarpus altilis 146Artocarpus communis 146ascorbic acid 64–66asparagusmodified atmosphere packaging 84, 85, 94recommended conditions 140Asparagus officinalis 140Aspergillus clavatus 42atmosphere generators 35auberginescarbon dioxide injury 16–17modified atmosphere packaging 94recommended conditions 140respiration rate in storage 69scald 17, 140Australia, research in 7Averrhoa carambola 150AVG see aminoethoxyvinylglycineavocadoscarbon dioxide shock treatment 19chilling injury 19, 20, 25chlorophyll fluorescence monitoring 36cultivars, recommended conditions141–142dynamic CA storage 36high-nitrogen treatment 20hypobaric storage 40insect control 78interrupted storage 241-methylcyclopropene treatment 50modified atmosphere packaging 94off-flavour development 62oxygen injury 17recommended conditions 140–142residual effects of storage 24transport conditions 195, 200babycorn see sweetcornBacillus subtilis 104–105bacteria, pathogenic 78see also under name of pathogenbananascarbon dioxide injury 143degreening 21, 51ethylene production 21high-nitrogen storage 19high-oxygen storage 18high temperature injury 18, 24hypobaric storage 39–40interrupted storage 241-methylcyclopropene treatment 47, 48,50–51modified atmosphere packaging 82, 86, 88,94–96peel colour 21, 50, 51, 94–95recommended conditions 142–144residual effects of storage 25respiration rate in storage 69ripening 25, 26, 50–51, 69, 95, 143, 143–144pressure ripening 38, 95transport conditions 192, 200, 201Banavac system 201bayberries 144bayberries, Chinese 144beansbacterial diseases 78discoloration 73modified atmosphere packaging 88, 96recommended conditions 144, 159beetrecommended conditions 144sugar beet, modified atmosphere packaging96Belgian endives 155–156bell peppers see peppers, sweet

Index 261Berard, Jaques Etienne 2Beta vulgaris 144bilberries 145–146bitter melons 168–169bitter pit 9, 72blackberries 144–145fungal diseases 77blackcurrants 145blueberriesfungal diseases 77high-oxygen storage 18insect control 781-methylcyclopropene treatment 51modified atmosphere packaging 96phenolics 68recommended conditions 16, 145–146transport conditions 193boron 43Botrytis cinerea 56, 77on blueberries 193on grapes 18, 41, 103on kiwifruit 23on strawberries 22, 188Braeburn browning disorder 23, 44, 49, 120Brassica napus var. napobrassica 188Brassica oleracea var. botrytis 151Brassica oleracea var. capitata 148Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera 148Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes 162Brassica oleracea var. italica 146Brassica pekinensis 156Brassica rapa var. rapa 191breadfruit1-methylcyclopropene treatment 51modified atmosphere packaging 88, 96recommended conditions 146break bulk cargo ships 192breakdown, internal 73–74broccolicarbon dioxide shock treatment 191-methylcyclopropene treatment 51–52modified atmosphere packaging 36, 66, 82,84, 86, 88, 90, 96–97modified interactive packaging 90postharvest processing effects 90recommended conditions 22, 146–148respiration rate in storage 69temperature effects 22brown core 22, 73brown heart 72brown stain 72Brussels sproutsmodified atmosphere packaging 84, 97physiological disorders 73recommended conditions 148butter beans 148Byssochlamys nivea 42cabbagesethylene production 20fungal diseases 76membrane gas control system storage 37modified atmosphere packaging 86, 91, 97necrotic spots 74postharvest processing effects 91recommended conditions 148–149respiration rate in storage 69cabbages, Chinese 156–157cactus pear 150calcium hydroxide see lime, hydratedCanada, research in 7Candida spp. 105Capsicum annum 156Capsicum annum var. grossum 150Capsicum frutescens 156capsicumscarbon monoxide effects 22chilling injury 22delayed storage 23hypobaric storage 391-methylcyclopropene treatment 52modified atmosphere packaging 97–98recommended conditions 150residual effects of storage 25see also pepperscarambolaschilling injury 881-methylcyclopropene treatment 52modified atmosphere packaging 88recommended conditions 150carbon, activated 31, 32, 33, 34carbon dioxideabsorption 12, 31–34, 86, 95, 195, 200, 203, 204control of levelsin CA containers 194–195, 196, 197–198in dynamic CA storage 36equipment 30–31, 31–35, 37–38generators 35in hypobaric stores 40in modified atmosphere packaging 81,82–87and disease control 71ethylene interaction 11, 12, 20, 20–22, 26and fruit ripening 26health and safety 42, 115humidity interaction 22–23, 26, 82injury by 11, 13–17, 19, 23, 26, 192 see alsoBraeburn browning disorderand 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 50and insect control 71, 78–80level changeseffects of 11, 12in non-CA stores 26measurement 202in modified interactive packaging 89–90

262 Indexcarbon dioxide continuedoxygen interaction 11, 68, 71and pressure ripening 38and respiration rates 11, 68–70scrubbing 8, 31–34, 203, 204shock treatment 18–19supercritical 19temperature interaction 11, 16, 22, 77–78carbon monoxide 22health and safety 22injury by 35cardoncello mushrooms 169Carica papaya 173carrotshigh-oxygen storage 18modified atmosphere packaging 86,98–99Peruvian see arracacha rootsrecommended conditions 150–151respiration rate in storage 69, 70cassavahumidity effects 23modified atmosphere packaging 99recommended conditions 151vascular streaking 23, 75–76, 151Castanea crenata 101Castanea henryi 86Castanea mollissima 155Castanea sativa 155cauliflowermodified atmosphere packaging 99recommended conditions 151–152celeriacethylene production 21recommended conditions 152celerycarbon monoxide effects 22fungal diseases 76membrane gas control system storage 37modified atmosphere packaging 86, 88,99–100recommended conditions 152cereals 159–160cherimoyasmodified atmosphere packaging 100, 209recommended conditions 153residual effects of storage 24cherriescolour, external 100, 101flavour 61fungal diseases 77hyperbaric storage 40–41insect control 78, 79modified atmosphere packaging 100–101recommended conditions 153–155cherries, sour 155cherries, Suriname 101chestnutsmodified atmosphere packaging 101recommended conditions 155chestnuts, Chinese 155chestnuts, Japanese 101Chichorium spp. 155chicorymodified atmosphere packaging 102recommended conditions 155–156chilliesmodified atmosphere packaging 83, 101recommended conditions 156chilling injury 17, 29, 72–73and carbon dioxide 14, 15, 19, 192and carbon monoxide treatment 22and low oxygen treatment 25and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 49in modified atmosphere packaging 88and nitrogen treatment 20China, commercial storage 7–8chinquapin fruit 86chlorophyll 66fluorescence 36, 121, 122, 204Citrullus lanatus 191citrus fruitchilling injury 88curing 46degreening 53, 86diseases 44equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging91flavour 60–61, 62, 64high-oxygen storage 17humidity effects 22–231-methylcyclopropene treatment 53, 54, 58modified atmosphere packaging 82, 85–86,86, 88, 101–102, 104in non-CA stores 26peel colour 17, 53, 54, 86postharvest high temperature treatment 46preharvest factors 43, 44recommended conditions 157, 160–161, 163,163–164, 164–165, 169–170, 173respiration rate in storage 69Citrus spp. 101, 157, 164Citrus aurantiifolia 163Citrus latifolia 61Citrus limon 163Citrus natsudaidai 69, 169Citrus pardisi 160Citrus sinensis 173Citrus sudachi 58Citrus unshiu 85, 102Cladosporium spp. 104Clausena lansium 113Clostridium botulinum 78, 114Colletotrichum gloeosporioides 46

Index 263Colocasia spp. 112colour, external 15, 16, 17, 18, 188and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 50, 51,54, 57and modified atmosphere packaging 94–95,100, 101, 104, 113see also degreeningcommercial use, history of 2–10conditions, recommended 1, 116–191see also under name of fruit or vegetablecontainers, CA 35, 192–201gas generation 193–196, 196–198gas-tight 193refrigerated 9, 192, 193, 194, 195, 201contamination see health and safetycore flush 22, 73courgettesrecommended conditions 186–187residual effects of storage 25Cronos CA system 195–198Cryptococcus spp. 105cucumberscarbon dioxide shock treatment 19hypobaric storage 401-methylcyclopropene treatment 52modified atmosphere packaging 88, 102recommended conditions 157–158respiration rate in storage 69Cucumis melo 168Cucumis sativus 157Cucurbita spp. 186cultivarsrecommended conditionsfor apples 116–137for avocados 141–142for mangoes 165–167for persimmons 178susceptibility to injury 17, 72, 75, 117curing 46, 78, 79currants 44, 77, 111, 145recommended conditions 184–185custard apple 52Cydia pomonella 79Cydonia oblonga 183Cylas formicarius elegantulus 79cylinders, gas 31, 32, 34, 35, 192, 193, 194Cymbopogon flexuosus 104Cynara scolymus 139Daikon radishes see radishesDaminozide 47Daucus carota ssp. sativa 150DCA storage see dynamic CA storagedegreening 21–22, 51, 53in modified atmosphere packaging 86delayed storage 23desiccation 29–30, 86, 201N-dimethylaminosuccinamic acid 47Dioscorea spp. 191Diospyros kaki 178diseases 12, 167–168bacterial 78 see also under name of pathogenbiological control 104–105carbon monoxide treatment 22and delayed storage 23essential oil treatments 100, 103and fertilizers 43fungal 22, 46, 76–78, 114 see also under name ofpathogenin high-nitrogen storage 19–20in high-oxygen storage 18hyperbaric storage technique 40, 41and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 48, 50,52, 53, 54, 55, 55–56in modified atmosphere packaging 18, 82, 84,103, 114–115in modified interactive packaging 90moisture effects 44ozone treatment 159–160, 201postharvest high temperature treatment46–47resistance to 41, 48, 71, 78sulfur dioxide treatments 54, 103, 143, 160during transport 200, 201see also health and safety; physiologicaldisordersdurians1-methylcyclopropene treatment 52recommended conditions 158Durio zibethinus 158dynamic CA (DCA) storage 35–37, 49, 120,123–124, 204economic aspects 12, 81, 192eggplantscarbon dioxide injury 16–17modified atmosphere packaging 94recommended conditions 140respiration rate in storage 69scald 17, 140EMAP see equilibrium modified atmospherepackagingendivesmodified atmosphere packaging 102recommended conditions 155–156Epiphyas postvittana 79equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging(EMAP) 91, 115, 209Eriobotrya japonica 106Erwinia carotovora 78escallions see onionsescaroles 155–156

264 IndexEscherichia coli 104, 111, 114essential oil treatments 100, 103ethanoldetection 35–36, 204and off-flavour development 62ethyleneabsorption 34, 38, 86–87, 194–195, 196, 200,202carbon dioxide interaction 11, 12, 20, 20–22,26control of levels 33, 34, 194in CA containers 194–195, 196health and safety 41–42in high-oxygen storage 17–18in hypobaric stores 39inhibitors 43, 47–59measurement 202in modified atmosphere packaging 86–87, 88oxygen interaction 11, 20, 21, 22and pressure ripening 38production in CA stores 20–21and ripening 21, 44, 49, 50, 50–51, 54, 55, 69,202and scald 74, 75and water stress 82Eugenia uniflora 101European chestnuts see chestnutsFeijoa sellowiana 158feijoascarbon dioxide shock treatment 19recommended conditions 158fermentation see respiration, anaerobicfertilizers 43Ficus carica 158figsethylene production 21fungal diseases 771-methylcyclopropene treatment 52–53modified atmosphere packaging 102recommended conditions 158films for modified atmosphere packagingequilibrium modified atmosphere packagingfilms 91modified interactive packaging films 89–90,209toxicity 115types 81, 82–83, 84, 87, 88, 204–208, 209flavour 12, 60–64and fruit ripening 60and high-nitrogen storage 19and high oxygen levels 17and interrupted storage 24off-flavour 12, 13–15, 61–62, 182and timing of harvest 43flowers 11, 21, 39flushed storage 35, 203–204Fragaria spp. 187France, research in 2French beans see beansFresh-Air Exchange system 195fruitcarbon dioxide injury 13–15climacteric 11, 12, 20, 21, 38, 69, 202ethylene production 20–21high-nitrogen storage 19, 20oxygen injury 14–15residual effects of storage 24respiration rates in storage 67–68see also under name of fruitfungi, pathogenic 22, 46, 76–78, 114see also under name of pathogenFusarium pallidoroseum 55Garcinia mangosteen 168garden peas see peasgarlicpostharvest drying treatment 46recommended conditions 159gas flushing 35, 83–84gas levelscontrol equipment 30–38effects of varying 11–25in hyperbaric stores 40in hypobaric stores 38–39, 40interactions 11–25measurement 202in modified atmosphere packaging 81, 82–87in non-CA stores 26during transport 192–193see also under name of gasgases, health and safety 41generators for CA stores 35gibberellic acid 69, 178gooseberries 159gooseberries, Chinese 161–162grain legumes 159grapefruitdegreening 53hypobaric storage 401-methylcyclopropene treatment 53modified atmosphere packaging 101postharvest hot water treatment 47recommended conditions 160–161grapescarbon dioxide shock treatment 18flavour 61, 62, 63fungal diseases 77hyperbaric storage 40–411-methylcyclopropene treatment 53modified atmosphere packaging 68, 88,102–103

Index 265phenolics 68recommended conditions 160sulphur dioxide treatment 103, 160green beans see beansgreen onions see onionsgrowing region effects 43, 44guavashypobaric storage 401-methylcyclopropene treatment 53recommended conditions 161respiration rate in storage 69harvestmaturity of produce 44–45timing 43, 44–45HarvestWatch system 36, 121, 122, 204health and safety 41–42, 47, 48, 74–75contamination of produce 97, 102, 104, 105,111, 113–115, 147modified atmosphere packaging 81Helianthus tuberosus 139Hemiberlasia spp. 80Hibiscus esculentus 171history of CA storage research 1–2, 2–10, 28Holland, research in 8hollow fibre equipment 33–34, 194horseradishcarbon dioxide shock treatment 19recommended conditions 161respiration rate in storage 70hot peppers see peppers, chillihumidifiers 30humidity, relativein CA containers 196–197, 198and carbon dioxide control 32and carbon dioxide interaction 22–23, 26control 29–30high humidity treatment, postharvest 46, 82in hypobaric stores 38–39measurement 203in modified atmosphere packaging 82,87–88in modified interactive packaging 90and oxygen interaction 22–23and refrigeration 29–30hydrated lime see lime, hydratedhydroxide scrubbers 34hyperbaric storage 40–41hypobaric storage 38–40containers 200–201and refrigeration 39, 40India, research in 8insect control 71, 78–80, 159–160, 167interrupted storage 23–24, 175Ipomoea batatas 189irrigation 44jacketed stores 30jujubepostharvest hot water treatment 46recommended conditions 161kaki 178Kidd, Franklin 3, 4–5, 6, 7kidney beans see beanskiwifruitdelayed storage 23ethylene production 21fungal diseases 76–77insect control 801-methylcyclopropene treatment 53modified atmosphere packaging 87, 103physiological disorders 31, 76recommended conditions 161–162transport conditions 200kohlrabimodified atmosphere packaging 103recommended conditions 162–163Lactuca sativa 163lansats 163Lansium domesticum 163lanzonesmodified atmosphere packaging 103recommended conditions 163leekscarbon monoxide effects 22membrane gas control system storage 37recommended conditions 163lemongrass 104lemonsmodified atmosphere packaging 88, 104recommended conditions 163respiration rate in storage 69Lentinus edodes 169lettucesbrown stain 72carbon monoxide effects 22high-nitrogen storage 191-methylcyclopropene treatment 53–54modified atmosphere packaging 83–84, 88,91, 104modified interactive packaging 90off-flavour development 62postharvest processing effects 91recommended conditions 163respiration rate in storage 69life, marketable see shelf-life

266 Indexlima beans 148lime, hydrated 12, 31, 32, 95, 195, 200limesdegreening 86flavour 611-methylcyclopropene treatment 54modified atmosphere packaging 86, 104peel colour 54, 86recommended conditions 163–164Listeria innocua 97Listeria monocytogenes 111, 114–115, 115Litchi chinensis 164litchiscolour 54, 1041-methylcyclopropene treatment 54modified atmosphere packaging 104–105recommended conditions 164skin browning 73longans 105loquats 106lychees see litchislycopene 66Lycopersicon esculentum 189MA packaging see modified atmosphere packagingmaizerecommended conditions 159–160sweetcorngas levels 17modified atmosphere packaging 112recommended conditions 188–189Malus domestica 116Malus pumila 116mamey fruit 164Mammea americana 164mandarinsequilibrium modified atmosphere packaging91recommended conditions 164–165see also satsumasmange tout see peasMangifera indica 165mangoescarbon dioxide injury 16cultivars, recommended conditions 165–167disease 167–168hypobaric storage 40insect control 78, 1671-methylcyclopropene treatment 54modified atmosphere packaging 106postharvest hot water treatment 46recommended conditions 165–167transport conditions 198, 200wax coating 40mangosteens 168Manihot esculenta 151Manilkara zapota 185manioc see cassavamarketable life see shelf-lifemarrows 186maturity at harvest 44–45, 1161-MCP see 1-methylcyclopropenemeasurementof atmosphere 202bushels (US) 2of humidity 203melonschilling injury 88hypobaric storage 401-methylcyclopropene treatment 54–55modified atmosphere packaging 88, 106–107off-flavour development 62recommended conditions 168respiration rate in storage 69melons, bitter 168–169membrane gas control systems 31, 37for CA containers 193, 1941-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) 8, 43, 47–58, 59Mexico, commercial storage 8–9MIP see modified interactive packagingmodelling storage conditions 41, 91–92modified atmosphere (MA) packaging 1, 81–115,208–209absorbents 86–87, 202and acidity 64active packaging 86–87, 209adjustable diffusion leaks 84–86anti-fogging chemicals 82, 88chlorophyll fluorescence monitoring 36contamination 113–115diseases 18, 82, 84, 103, 114–115economic aspects 81equilibrium modified atmosphere packaging91, 115, 209ethylene in 86–87, 88filmsfor equilibrium modified atmospherepackaging 91for modified interactive packaging89–90, 209toxicity 115types 81, 82–83, 84, 87, 88, 204–208, 209gas concentrations 81, 82–87gas flushing 83–84harvest maturity of produce 44health and safety 113–115high oxygen 18humidity effects 82, 87–88of minimally processed produce 90–91,114–115, 148modelling storage conditions 91–92modified interactive packaging (MIP) 89–90,209

Index 267and nutrition 66phenolic content of fruit 68and preharvest conditions 44quantities of produce 84recommended conditions 93–113respiration 88, 90, 208shrink-wrapping 88, 209temperature effects 88for transport 193, 201vacuum packing 88–89, 209modified interactive packaging (MIP) 89–90, 209molecular sieves 33, 34, 194–195, 197, 198see also membrane gas control systemsMomordica charantia 168monitoring equipment for gas level control 30–31,39Musa spp. (banana) 94–95, 142–144Musa spp. (plantain) 179Musa vars. 94–95, 142mushroomsbacterial diseases 78cardoncello 169hyperbaric storage 40modified atmosphere packaging 84, 107oyster 169recommended conditions 169shiitake 169muskmelons see melonsmycotoxins 42Myrica rubra 144Myzus persicae 79nashi pears see pears, Asiannatsudaidaishumidity effects 22–23, 170recommended conditions 169–170respiration rate in storage 69nectarinesbreakdown, internal 73–74insect control 78, 79interrupted storage 24recommended conditions 170Nephellium lappaceum 184New Zealand, research in 9nitrogencontrol of fungal diseases 77generators 33–34, 35high-nitrogen storage 19–20in membrane gas control systems 37in modified atmosphere packaging 83–84for oxygen control 19, 31, 32, 33–34, 193–194,195purging, for carbon dioxide control 31,34–35ripening inhibition 19, 20nutritional value of produce 64–66, 68off-flavours 61–62okrachilling injury 88modified atmosphere packaging 88, 107recommended conditions 171temperature effects 22Olea europaea 171olives 171onionscarbon dioxide injury 17, 1721-methylcyclopropene treatment 55modified atmosphere packaging 84, 107physiological disorders 17, 72, 172postharvest drying treatment 46recommended conditions 30, 171–172, 186respiration rate in storage 69sprouting 172–173Opuntia ficus indica 150Opuntia robusta 150orangesflavour 62, 64high-oxygen storage 17modified atmosphere packaging 82, 101peel colour 17recommended conditions 173respiration rate in storage 69Otaheite apples see roseapplesOxydrain system 8, 31, 35oxygenabsorbents 86anaerobic compensation point 36–37and anaerobic respiration 11, 16, 19, 35–36carbon dioxide interaction 11, 68, 71control of levelsin CA containers 193–194, 195, 196, 198equipment 30–31, 32, 33–34, 34–35,35–38, 37–38generators 35in hypobaric stores 38–39, 40in modified atmosphere packaging 81,82–87by nitrogen 19, 31, 32, 33–34, 34–35,193–194, 195and disease control 71ethylene interaction 11, 20, 21, 22health and safety 42, 115high-oxygen storage 17–18, 115humidity interaction 82injury by 13–17, 26and insect control 71, 78–80level changeseffects of 11–12in non-CA stores 26measurement 202in modified interactive packaging 89–90and respiration rates 11, 68–69, 69–70temperature interaction 11, 16, 22

268 Indexoxygen continuedultra-low oxygen (ULO) stores 27, 31, 36, 42,59, 63, 116, 127, 204oyster mushrooms 169ozone 159–160, 201papayaschilling injury 88insect control 78, 791-methylcyclopropene treatment 55modified atmosphere packaging 88, 107recommended conditions 173–174transport conditions 192parsleyhypobaric storage 661-methylcyclopropene treatment 55modified atmosphere packaging 108nutrients in 66parsley, turnip-rooted 191Passiflora edulis 174passionfruitmodified atmosphere packaging 108recommended conditions 174–175patulin 42pawpaws see papayaspeacheschilling injury 73flavour 61, 62high-nitrogen storage 19hypobaric storage 40insect control 79interrupted storage 241-methylcyclopropene treatment 55–56modified atmosphere packaging 108recommended conditions 175residual effects of storage 24pearsbrown heart 72carbon dioxide injury 17carbon dioxide shock treatment 18–19chilling injury 73flavour 60, 62, 63high-oxygen storage 17insect control 78maturity at harvest 44membrane gas control system storage 371-methylcyclopropene treatment 48, 56modified atmosphere packaging 84, 85, 86, 108preharvest factors 43recommended conditions 139–140, 176–178scald 19, 56, 74–75pears, Asian1-methylcyclopropene treatment 50recommended conditions 139–140peasflavour 61, 62, 63–64modified atmosphere packaging 108nutrients in 66recommended conditions 175Penicillium spp. 77Penicillium expansum 42, 56Penicillium malicorticis 76Penicillium patulum 42Penicillium urticae 42pepinos 178pepperscherryrecommended conditions 156chillimodified atmosphere packaging 83, 101recommended conditions 156sweetethylene production 20hypobaric storage 40modified interactive packaging 90recommended conditions 150residual effects of storage 24see also capsicumsPersea americana 140persimmonscultivars, recommended conditions 1781-methylcyclopropene treatment 56–57modified atmosphere packaging 108–109recommended conditions 178pest control see diseases; insect controlPetroselinum crispum ssp. tuberosum 191Pezicula spp. 76Phaseolus lunatus 148Phaseolus vulgaris 73, 144, 159phenolics in fruit 18, 66, 68, 72Phomopsis spp. 77physiological disorders 60, 71–76, 151and carbon dioxide 9, 11, 13–17, 18–19, 23, 26,31, 117, 172delayed storage effects 23and dynamic CA storage 36humidity effects 22–23and hypobaric storage 40interrupted storage effects 24and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 49–50and modified atmosphere packaging 82and nitrogen 19and oxygen 13–17, 26temperature effects 22see also Braeburn browning disorder; chillinginjury; scaldPhytophthora brassicae 76pineapplescolour, external 57ethylene production 21hypobaric storage 401-methylcyclopropene treatment 48, 57modified atmosphere packaging 90–91, 109

Index 269postharvest processing effects 90–91, 109recommended conditions 178–179Pisum sativum 175plant growth regulators 47, 69, 149, 178plantainsmodified atmosphere packaging 82, 84, 87, 109recommended conditions 179see also bananasplastic films see films for modified atmospherepackagingplastic tents, sealed 37–38Pleurotus eryngii 169Pleurotus ostreatus 169plumsbreakdown, internal 73chilling injury 72–73high-nitrogen storage 19insect control 781-methylcyclopropene treatment 57off-flavour development 62recommended conditions 180–181residual effects of storage 25pomegranatesmodified atmosphere packaging 109recommended conditions 181pomerac fruit see roseapplesPortuguese chestnuts 155postharvest treatments 46–59, 90–91potassium hydroxide 34potassium permanganate see absorbents, ethylenepotatoesbacterial diseases 78curing 46, 78flavour 182fry colour 25, 57, 182, 183high-nitrogen storage 19high-oxygen storage 181-methylcyclopropene treatment 57postharvest high temperature treatment 46recommended conditions 181–183residual effects of storage 25, 182respiration rate in storage 69, 182sprouting 4, 18, 25, 57, 183wound healing 46pre-storage treatments 18–19, 46–59, 116, 157–158preharvest factors 43–45, 71–72, 145pressure ripening 38, 95pressure swing adsorption (PSA) 33for CA containers 193pressure swing in molecular sieves 33, 34, 195pressure testing for fruit firmness 24–25pressurized water scrubbers 34prickly pears 150processing, minimal 90–91, 114–115, 147–148, 188produce, quality of 1, 11–12, 26Prunus avium 153Prunus cerasus 153Prunus domestica 57, 180Prunus persica 175Prunus persica var. nectarine 170Prunus salicina 57PSA see pressure swing adsorptionPseudomonas spp. 102Psidium guajava 161pummelos 160–161pumpkins 186Punica granatum 181Pyrus communis 176Pyrus pyrifolia 139Pyrus ussuriensis var. sinensis 139Quadraspidiotius perniciosus 79quinces 183radishesmodified atmosphere packaging 44, 109recommended conditions 183–184temperature during growth 44rainfall 44rambutansmodified atmosphere packaging 110–111recommended conditions 184Raphanus sativus 183Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus 109raspberriesfungal diseases 77modified atmosphere packaging 111recommended conditions 184residual effects of storage 24recommended conditions for storage 1, 116–191see also under name of fruit or vegetableredcurrantsirrigation 44modified atmosphere packaging 111recommended conditions 184–185reefer containers 9, 96, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 201reefer ships 9, 10, 192refrigerants 29refrigeration 28–29and humidity 29–30and hypobaric storage 39, 40reefer containers 9, 96, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196,201ships’ holds 192relative humidity see humidity, relativeresistance to diseases 41, 48, 71, 78respirationanaerobic 11, 16, 35–36, 36–37and flavour 60, 62and nitrogen levels 19and modified atmosphere packaging 81, 82,84, 88, 90, 208

270 Indexrespiration continuedin non-CA stores 26effect of postharvest processing 90rates 3, 11, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25modelling 91–92monitoring 31, 36effects of storage conditions 67–70and temperature 22during transport 193, 194Rhagoletis cingulata 79Rhizopus spp. 77, 78rhubarb 111Ribes spp. 77Ribes grossularia 159Ribes nigrum 145Ribes sativum 184Ribes uva-crispa 159ripening of fruit 11, 25and carbon dioxide 12, 26and ethylene 21, 44, 49, 50, 50–51, 54, 55, 69,202and flavour 60modified atmosphere packaging 84and nitrogen 19, 20pressure ripening 38, 95temperature effects 22roseapplesmodified atmosphere packaging 111recommended conditions 185Rubus spp. 144Rubus idaeus 184runner beans see beansrutabagas 188safety see health and safetySalmonella spp. 104, 111, 115salsify 185sapodillas1-methylcyclopropene treatment 57–58modified atmosphere packaging 111recommended conditions 185sapotas see sapodillassapote, black 96saskatoon fruit 66, 68satsumasflavour 60–61recommended conditions 164–165scaldof apples 36, 40, 44, 46, 47, 49–50, 73, 74, 75of aubergines 17, 140control of 49–50, 56, 73, 74–75and ethylene 74, 75and modified atmosphere packaging 107,109of pears 19, 56, 74–75Sclerotinia spp. 77scrubbingof carbon dioxide 8, 31–34, 203, 204of ethylene 38using zeolites 33, 209selective diffusion membrane scrubbers 34sharon fruit 178shelf-life 1, 24, 38and carbon dioxide 18, 35and modified atmosphere packaging 90, 115,209and nitrogen 20shiitake mushrooms 169shock treatment by high carbon dioxide 18–19shrink-wrapping 88, 209snap beans see beanssnow peas see peassodium hydroxide 31, 34Solanum melongena 140Solanum muricatum 178Solanum tuberosum 181soursopsmodified atmosphere packaging 111–112, 185recommended conditions 185South Africa, commercial storage 9South-east Asia, research 8Spanish chestnuts see chestnutsSpinaca oleraceace 186spinach1-methylcyclopropene treatment 58modified atmosphere packaging 112recommended conditions 186spring onions see onionssproutingonions 172–173potatoes 4, 18, 25, 57, 183sprouting broccoli see broccolisquashes see courgettesstatic CA storage 35, 203stone fruitinsect control 78in non-CA stores 26transport conditions 195storage life 11, 26and timing of harvest 43and respiration rate 67–70storage practices, ancient 2, 28storesconstruction 27–28gas-tight 30CA containers 193construction 27–28pressure differences 27–28testing 28humidity control 29–30jacketed 30temperature control 28–29traditional 27

Index 271strawberriescarbon monoxide effects 22colour 188flavour 62, 77fungal diseases 22, 77, 188high-nitrogen storage 19insect control 781-methylcyclopropene treatment 48, 58minimally processed 188modified atmosphere packaging 68, 88, 112,208recommended conditions 187–188respiration rate in storage 69–70texture 187transport conditions 35, 195stress responses, monitoring 35–37sudachis 58sugar apples 189sugar beet see beetsugar peas see peassulfur dioxide 54, 103, 143, 160swedesmodified atmosphere packaging 86recommended conditions 188sweet cherries see cherriessweet chestnuts see chestnutssweet potatoescuring 79insect control 79off-flavour development 62postharvest high temperature treatment 46recommended conditions 189respiration rate in storage 69sweetcorngas levels 17modified atmosphere packaging 112recommended conditions 188–189sweetsops 189Syzygium malaccese 185tangerines 101tangors 101–102tapioca see cassavataro 112Tectrol system 31, 195temperaturecarbon dioxide interaction 11, 16, 22, 77–78control 28–29, 38and delayed storage 23and fungal diseases 77–78during growth 44high temperature treatment, postharvest46–47injury by 18, 24and insect control 78, 79long-term storage 29in modified atmosphere packaging 88in modified interactive packaging 90oxygen interaction 11, 16, 22effect on produce 26and respiration 22temperature swing regeneration 194–195temperature-swing scrubbers 34texture 12, 13–15, 43, 60, 187measuring 24–25and 1-methylcyclopropene treatment 49, 50Thysanoptera spp. 79tomatoesbacterial diseases 78carbon monoxide effects 22chilling injury 22colour, external 113degreening 21–22flavour 60, 64fungal diseases 77, 78high-nitrogen storage 19high-oxygen storage 17–18hypobaric storage 40lycopene 66maturity at harvest 44, 1131-methylcyclopropene treatment 58modified atmosphere packaging 44, 64, 88,112–113modified interactive packaging 90recommended conditions 36, 189–191respiration rate in storage 69Tragopogen porrifolius 185transport 1, 192–201CA containerscarbon dioxide levels 35technology 193–198gas level control 192–193modified atmosphere packaging 103by sea 26, 192trials of CA containers 198–200tuna (Opuntia) 150Turkeycommercial storage 9–10research in 9turnip-rooted celery see celeriacturnip-rooted parsley 191turnips 191ultra-low oxygen (ULO) storage 27, 31, 116, 204and aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatment59and diseases 42dynamic control 36and volatile aromatic compound production63, 127United Kingdom, research in 4–7United States of America, research in 2–4

272 IndexVaccinium spp. 157Vaccinium corymbosum 145Vaccinium myrtillus 145vacuum packing 88–89, 209varieties see cultivarsvegetable marrows 186vegetablescarbon dioxide injury 14–15high-nitrogen storage 191-methylcyclopropene treatment 48oxygen injury 14–15residual effects of storage 24respiration rates in storage 67–68see also under name of vegetableventilation, intermittent 23–24vitamin A 66vitamin C 64–66Vitis vinifera 53, 160volatile compounds, aromatic 12, 60, 61, 62–63and carbon dioxide levels 31and carbon dioxide shock treatment 18,19and ethylene inhibitor treatments 49, 50, 52,54, 58, 59and high oxygen storage 17and interrupted storage 24and ultra-low oxygen storage 63, 127wampees 113water relations 44watercress 58watermelons 191wax coating of mangoes 40West, Cyril 3, 4–5, 6, 7West Indies, research in 10whortleberries 145–146Witloof chicory 155–156Xanthosoma spp. 112yamsmodified atmosphere packaging 113postharvest high temperature treatment 46recommended conditions 191yang tao 161–162yuca see cassavaZea mays var. saccharata 188zeolites 33, 100, 209Ziziphus jujuba 161zucchini see courgettesZygosaccharomyces spp. 105