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EuropeanJournalofEducationalStudiesVolume 2, Issue 2June 2010THE MAP WAY OF QUALITY ASSURANCE AND ACCREDITATION INSOCIAL GROUP WORK EDUCATION IN EGYPT TOWARDSINTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTALI MOSA AL-SHAHAT ABDEL KARIEMTHE PERCEIVED CORPORATE IMAGE OF PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLSBY STUDENTS’ AND PARENTS’ VIEWSSONER POLAT, ELIF ABAT AND SONGÜL TEZYÜREKTHE EFFECT OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CAREER GROUP GUIDANCE ONTHE SELF-EFFICACY LEVELS OF CAREER DECISION MAKING IN STUDENTSHASAN BOZGEYİKLİ, HÜSEYİN DOĞANAN ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS’ UTILIZATION IN URBAN AND RURALSECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MID-WESTERN STATES OF NIGERIAVINCENT .O. IBADINTHE INFLUENCE OF AGE, OWNERSHIP AND TYPE OF UNIVERSITY ONRESOURCE SITUATION IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIESAJAYI, I.A. AND ABIODUN-OYEBANJI, O.J.THE AFFECT OF SPORT ACTIVITIES ON PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS(SAMPLE OF BURSA PROVINCE)MEHMET GÖRALREPOSITIONING NIGERIAN YOUTHS FOR ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENTTHROUGH ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATIONJANE ITOHAN OVIAWEFROM EMPOWERMENT TO TRANSFORMATION: A CAPACITY BUILDINGMODEL FOR ACADEMICS IN DISTANCE HIGHER EDUCATIONINSTITUTIONS IN AFRICADELE BRAIMOH, OSIKI, J.O. AND MPINE MAKOECOMPARISON OF SOME BIOMOTORIC DEVELOPMENTS OF 14 YEARSOLD WHO EXERCISE AND THOSE NOT EXERCISEYAĞMUR AKKOYUNLU AND ERCAN ŞİRİNFACTOR – ANALYTIC STUDY OF TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON SELF-EFFICACY IN BOTSWANA JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS:IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL QUALITY.ADEDOYIN O.OLEARNER E-TIVITIES: EXPLORING MALAYSIAN LEARNERS’ ROLES INASYNCHRONOUS COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATIONRANJIT KAUR SIDHU AND MOHAMED AMIN EMBIPERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS ABOUT SOCIAL STUDIESGOALS AND CONTENT AREAS IN OMANMOHAMMED ABDULLAH AL-NOFL

Europan Journal ofEducational ScienceA PEER REVIEVED INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Volume 2, Issue 2, June 2010ISSN 1946-6331----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Managing EditorAli Ozel, Dumlupinar UniversityPublication CoordinatorTaskin Inan, Dumlupinar UniversityEditorial BoardGerald S. Greenberg, Ohio State University, USAHakki Yazici, Afyon Kocatepe University, TurkeyHayati Akyol, Gazi University, TurkeyHayati Doganay, Ataturk University, TurkeyLaurie Katz, Ohio State University, USALisandra Pedraza, University of Puerto Rico inRio Piedras, Puerto RicoLutfi Ozav, Usak University, TurkeyJames F. Petersen Texas State University San Marcos, TXUSARamazan Ozey, Marmara University, TurkeySamara Madrid, Northern Illinois University, USASamia Abdel Aziz-Ahmed Sayed, National ResearchCenter, EgyptThomas M. Kontuly The University of Utah USAMihai Maxim, Bucharest University, RomaniaIbrahim Atalay, Dokuz Eylul University, TurkeyIbrahim S. Rahim, National Research Center, EgyptJanet Rivera, NOVA University, USAMehmet Bahar, Abant Izzet Baysal University, TurkeyAnjum HALAI, Aga Khan University, PAKISTANMustafa Aydgodu, Gazi University, TurkeyPavol Prokop, Trnava University, SlovakiaMilan Kubiatko, Masaryk University, Czech RepublicPetra Juzlová, Masaryk University, Czech RepublicIldar S. SAFUANOV, Pedagogical Institute of NaberezhnyeChelny, RUSSIAN FEDERATIONBorislav V. TOSHEV, University of Sofia, BULGARIAWeb: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.comCopyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, USA

Europan Journal ofEducationalScienceA PEER REVIEVED INTERNATIONALJOURNAL----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Volume 2, Issue 2, June 2010ISSN 1946-6331----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------THE MAP WAY OF QUALITY ASSURANCE AND ACCREDITATION IN SOCIAL GROUP WORK EDUCATION IN EGYPT TOWARDSINTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTALI MOSA AL-SHAHAT ABDEL KARIEMTHE PERCEIVED CORPORATE IMAGE OF PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY STUDENTS’ AND PARENTS’ VIEWSSONER POLAT, ELIF ABAT AND SONGÜL TEZYÜREKTHE EFFECT OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CAREER GROUP GUIDANCE ONTHE SELF- EFFICACY LEVELS OF CAREER DECISION MAKING IN STUDENTSHASAN BOZGEYİKLİ, HÜSEYİN DOĞANAN ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS’ UTILIZATION IN URBAN AND RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN MID-WESTERN STATES OFNIGERIAVINCENT .O. IBADINTHE INFLUENCE OF AGE, OWNERSHIP AND TYPE OF UNIVERSITY ON RESOURCE SITUATION IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIESAJAYI, I.A. AND ABIODUN-OYEBANJI, O.J.THE AFFECT OF SPORT ACTIVITIES ON PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS (SAMPLE OF BURSA PROVINCE)MEHMET GÖRALREPOSITIONING NIGERIAN YOUTHS FOR ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT THROUGH ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATIONMRS. JANE ITOHAN OVIAWEFROM EMPOWERMENT TO TRANSFORMATION: A CAPACITY BUILDING MODEL FOR ACADEMICS IN DISTANCE HIGHEREDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN AFRICADELE BRAIMOH, OSIKI, J.O. AND MPINE MAKOECOMPARISON OF SOME BIOMOTORIC DEVELOPMENTS OF 14 YEARS OLD WHO EXERCISE AND THOSE NOT EXERCISEYAĞMUR AKKOYUNLU AND ERCAN ŞİRİNFACTOR – ANALYTIC STUDY OF TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON SELF-EFFICACY IN BOTSWANA JUNIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS:IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL QUALITY.ADEDOYIN O.OLEARNER E-TIVITIES: EXPLORING MALAYSIAN LEARNERS’ ROLES IN ASYNCHRONOUS COMPUTER-MEDIATEDCOMMUNICATIONRANJIT KAUR SIDHU AND MOHAMED AMIN EMBIPERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS ABOUT SOCIAL STUDIES GOALS AND CONTENT AREAS IN OMANMOHAMMED ABDULLAH AL-NOFLWeb: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.comCopyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, USA

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European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationThe Map Way of Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Social Group Work Educationin Egypt towards International DevelopmentAli Mosa Al-Shahat Abdel KariemLecturer in the Department of Social Group Work,Faculty of Social Work, Helwan University, Helwan, EgyptE-mail address for correspondence: m.zeidan@exeter.ac.uk____________________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The mankind’s earliest unified and strong country of 80 million people and annual growth rate exceeded 7.2%attaining the peak of its power, wealth and civilisation more than 7 thousand years ago is in need for national futuredevelopment creation operation to transform Egypt from being developing country to be a highly international leadingdeveloped country. This requires creating new era of national future development generally and within strategic sectors ofdefence and national security, health and education particularly. Although Quality Assurance and Accreditation in HigherEducation (QAAHE) generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University inEgypt particularly is of wide capacity including human and material resources, the current picture indicates the need forfurther and future development focusing on qualitative factors in the first instance. To create this new era of national futuredevelopment and using qualitative methodology, this research comes with a new philosophy aimed at advancing QAAHEgenerally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularlyfrom the national and/or regional level to the international level, and stating how this development of QAAHE in Egyptshould be constructed. This is to create a new vision through which higher education institutions in Egypt can provide ahighly international quality higher education available for all on the basis of merit without discrimination providing Egyptwith the generations who are literate, healthy, able to work, prepared and qualified for protecting themselves and theircountry. This research seeks to establish and assess whether there is a need for framing the map way of QAAHE generallyand in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly towards anew era of international development, operating via establishing a United Nations Organisation for International QualityAssurance and Accreditation in Higher Education (UNOIQAAHE) as a multidimensional international organisation withinthe systematic structure of the United Nations system for governing and operating International Quality Assurance andAccreditation in Higher Education (IQAAHE).Key words: Quality, Accreditation, Higher Education, Institution__________________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONGlobalisation created a new global system with different forms of political economic orders like contractual relationships andtrans-national governance, new global functions such as credit-rating agencies as global regulatory bodies, and new globalroles like microstates as partially sovereign predatory actors (Cooley, 2003: Pp. 673-681). The current global case indicatesthat our world lives the culmination of development passing by global public goods which include a variety of global rules,commerce, transport, communication and new technologies to global public bads which include climate change, infectiousdiseases, financial contagion, conflict and insecurity to pressing challenges which include the rapid pace of technologicalchange, the diminishing cost of transportation, the increasing flows if international capital, the increased internationalmigration, the fear of the spread of disease and threats to the environment, peace and security and at last to the debatesregarding the tragedy of the restrictions accompanying the granting of private intellectual prosperity rights in general andhealth and agricultural in particular indicating the need to reach explicit agreements, co-operate to establish new and adequaterules, generate new products and services, dedicate efforts and partnerships to contribute to advancing strategic sectorsamongst them is health, agriculture, environment, trade, finance and other development sectors (Lele, 2003).49

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Within a new social context and in an increasingly interconnected world, law and policy makers, courts and scholars are inneed to give adequate consideration to the theoretical bases for the exercises of legal jurisdiction that is able to operateadequately in an international environment full of challenges which include: electronic trade; international taxation andcomputer crimes, which make countries’ governments across the globe currently face major challenges requiring nationalattempts combining governments and peoples to maintain distinctive regimes aimed at: enriching descriptive social and legalunderstanding to assert national jurisdiction over their countries while maintaining international co-operation andunderstanding (Berman, 2002). Over the past recent years, international rules are affecting international borders more andmore leading national courts to experience universal jurisdiction against a wide range of issues (Roth, 2001: P. 153).In this regard, the United Nations Charter views sovereignty as a set of guidelines for constructing an ideal states systemcomprised a separate but formally equal and sovereign nation states ensuring that the leaders of states are obligated stewardsof their citizens interests protecting and promoting their welfare and prosperity and the fulfilment of their economic andsocial rights, where sovereignty ultimately derives from the people as a power exercised by, for, and on behalf of the peopleof a state. However, cosmopolitan theorists of distributive justice hold that obligations to redistribute wealth to those overseasis generally as strong as those who share citizenship advocating global morals, with a view not to halt states borders but torestructure the current global system (Cabrera, 2005: Pp. 171-182).The emergence of quality in business and industry contributed (via the influence of public management as a response to thecurrent world order) to leading a movement establishing national agencies for evaluating and enhancing the quality of highereducation as a cultural phenomenon identifying the potential challenges facing nations and elaborating adequate solutions toaddress them via socialising quality as a culture and way of life (Harvey and Stensaker 2008: Pp. 432-438). New forms ofeducation which include: distance education programmes; twinning arrangements, branch campuses, franchised operations,overseas partnerships, corporate universities, virtual universities and many other forms in addition to recent developments inpromoting education as a trade in services are adding pressing pressures to the quality concerns (Stella and Gnanam, 2004:Pp. 143-148).In this regard and in 2000, the national strategy for enhancing higher education system in Egypt adopted 25 projects amongstthem is the project of quality assurance and accreditation in higher education. On October 21 st , 2001 was the MinisterialDecree number 1515 to form the National Quality Assurance and Accreditation Committee, which was followed by otherreforming Decrees which include: Decree number 1531 on June 9th, 2003; Decree number 714 on May 18 th , 2006; andDecree number 1453 on August 1 st , 2006. On November 8 th , 2007 was the Presidential Decree to establish the NationalAuthority for Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Education, after it had been ratified from the Parliament Council by theLaw number 82 of 2006, which was followed by another Presidential Decree number 25 of 2007. (QAAP, a, 2004, QAAP, b,2004, www.naqaae.org and www.qaap.net )This research argues that internationalising Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Higher Education (QAAHE) generallyand in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly has theproof of the adequacy, the nature of the evidence and characteristics of the methodology in order to assist in achieving totallife development creation operation in Egypt. QAAHE is a life culture rather than an enhancing methodology. It is amethodology for theorising envisions and planning operations required for advancing means to a productive life rather thanenhancing certain education sector. This research is an investigation based on discussions and arguments examining andexploring current operation in the development of QAAHE generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Facultyof Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly. This research is directed to conducting a research case studyaimed at investigating current operations in the development of QAAHE in Egypt, with a view to assess the need whetherestablishing a United Nations Organisation for International Quality assurance and Accreditation in Higher Education(UNOIQAAHE), as a multidimensional international organisation within the systematic structure of the United Nationssystem (UN system) for governing and operating International Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Higher Education(IQAAHE) has the potential to systematise the relation between higher education, national and regional agencies for QAAHEand national, regional and international economies. The structure of the analysis will utilise a range complementaryperspectives on QAAHE, examined through this case study designed to illuminate the development of current patterns forQAAHE in Egypt. As a result, I will be assessing the nature and evidence of how QAAHE generally and in the Departmentof Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly context currently operates, with aview to investigate its realisation whether this context accept international QAAHE through an institutional body such as aUNOIQAAHE. This analysis will be qualitative and have up to eight dimensions. Analytical description of each levelfollows.50

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010METHODOLOGYThe main intellectual methodology underpinning this research is documentary analysis accompanied by four depth semistructured face to face interviews and face to face survey across fifty one experts from higher education sector in Egypt. Thisresearch seeks to establish and assess whether there is a need for framing the map way of QAAHE generally and in theDepartment of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly towards a new era ofinternational development, operating via establishing a UNOIQAAHE as a multidimensional international organisationwithin the systematic structure of the UN system for governing and operating IQAAHE. In addition to the research interviewsand survey in Egypt, the methodological device framing this research includes systems analysis, policy analysis anddocumentary analysis. A brief description of each follows.System is a collection of subsystems that are interrelated and interdependent, working together to accomplish predeterminedgoals and objectives (Kendall and Kendall, 2002: 901). Systems analysis is the process of gathering information about currentsystem, which may or may not be computerised, identifying its strengths and problems and analysing them to produce aconcept for a refined system (Whitten et al, 1989: 253). Its main strength is the goal of the analysis phase, directed tounderstand requirements for a refined system and developing a system concept that addresses this or decides that a newsystem is not needed. This is achieved by following a basic process of analysis divided into three steps: understanding thesystem, identifying improvements and developing design for the To-Be system (Dennis et al, 2002: 94). It is an appropriatemethodology for this research in that it analyses and tests current systems and practices in the development of QAAHE in theDepartment of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt, indicating how they behave andoffering to potential design an accepted system for a future development of QAAHE generally and in the Department ofSocial Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly. Within different dimensions, Ijustify in brief how I use this approach through particular methodological considerations.Policy analysis is the process of assessing and deciding across alternatives based on their usefulness in satisfying one or moregoals or values through following some stages including: problem formulation; selection of criteria; comparison ofalternatives and selection of the policy; consideration of political and organisational constraints; and implementation andevaluation of the programme (Munger, 2000). ). Its main strengths includes: knowing how to gather, organise andcommunicate information in situations where deadlines are strict and access to relevant people is limited; developingstrategies for quickly understanding the nature of policy problems and the range of possible solutions; identifying the likelycosts and benefits of alternative solutions and communicate these assessments to the related organisations; predicting betterand evaluating more confidently the consequences of alternative policies; and understanding better the political andorganisational behaviour in order to predict, and perhaps influence, the feasibility of adoption and successful implantation ofpolicies (Hogwood and Gunn, 1984). It is an appropriate method for this research in order not to replace but to supplementpolitical advocacy and to raise the level of argument among contending interests. The end result, hopefully, would be adebate on how the future development of QAAHE generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of SocialWork in Helwan University in Egypt particularly should be constructed in order to assist in addressing and achieving theglobal concerns.Documentary analysis is the careful examination of documents and their content in order to draw conclusions about the socialcircumstances in which the documents are produced and read (Bloor and Wood, 2006: 57-58). Its main techniques include:content analysis in order to describe the characteristics of documents; interpretative analysis in order to explore meaningwithin content; and critical analysis in order to focus on the relationship between documents and aspects of social structures(Ibid). It is an appropriate method for this research in order to examine current theories, policies, practices and settingsjustifying the adequacy of envisioning a future development of QAAHE generally and in the Department of Social GroupWork, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly for addressing and achieving local and globalneeds.DISCUSSIONThe application of internationalising QAAHE generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of SocialWork in Helwan University in Egypt particularly requires further enhancement, and a need to assess the process of createestablishing a UNOIQAAHE within the systematic structure of the United Nations system across case studies. The case studyof this research is applied on the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt.This case study requires a discussion analysis across different levels of development. Current operations in the developmentof QAAHE in Egypt generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University inEgypt witnessed different types of development. The main intellectual frame that underpins investigating current operations51

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010in the development of QAAHE in Egypt generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work inHelwan University in Egypt particularly is the research survey across 51 key experts and four depth semi structured face toface interviews with key experts from the Egyptian higher education sector. The levels of development are the knowledgebasedoutlook and view of individual staff towards investigating whether a UNOIQAAHE has the potential to systematise therelation between higher education, national and regional agencies for QAAHE and national, regional and internationaleconomies. The structure of the analysis will utilise a range complementary perspectives on QAAHE, examined through thiscase study designed to illuminate the development of current patterns for QAAHE in the Department of Social Group Work,Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt. As a result, I will be assessing the nature and evidence of howQAAHE in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt context currentlyoperates, with a view to investigate its realisation whether this context accept international QAAHE through an institutionalbody such as a UNOIQAAHE. This analysis will be qualitative and have up to eight dimensions starting with the individuallevel and ending with the international level. Analytical description of each level follows.Individual LevelHigher education reform strategy asserts the significance of professional and human development. Through Faculty-Leadership Development Project (FLDP), academic staffs attend workshops and take part in training sessions. “theprofessional development for academic staff is done through specialised programmes in the faculty…..the professionaldevelopment includes teaching and learning, research, management, community service and effective teaching viaprogrammes in professional development…..each academic staff has to be existed four days per week and offering help andassistance for students in terms of academic preparation”, expert M said. Through a research face to face survey over 51 keyexperts and four depth semi structured interviews from higher education sector and the National Authority for QualityAssurance and Accreditation in Education (NAQAAE), it has been indicated that:- The broader landscape of academic staff is divided into five categories including demonstrators, assistant lecturers,lecturers, assistant professors, and professors. The research survey indicated that the first two categories of thisclassification did not share in the processes of assuring and accrediting the quality of higher education. On thecontrary, the last three categories participated routinely and not effectively due to the connection between increasingthe salaries and the positive participation. “The Ministry of Higher Education started connecting the increase ofsalaries with the quality of performance for enhancing the learning process”, expert M added. One of the researchrespondents opposed the project entirely commenting that “it is not value for money……the government wants toattract the attention of the public eye that higher education is on the right track although they are not……themanagement of the project is not from faculties of education”, expert S said. 54 out of 55 asserted that QAAHE is aneffective mechanism in enhancing higher education, and that after obtaining national accreditation, there will be aneed for higher education institutions to obtaining the international accreditation. The staffs who are working withinthe project of QAAHE are more enthusiastic for succeeding the project and provided rich information more thanthose who are not working with it, and assured that they became more familiar with the main themes of QAAHE.This generates the need to expand participation and encourage effective cooperation among the academic staff onhow they can cooperate with the project of QAAHE. However, there are problems with the current situation relatedto the systematic structure of the system and the lack of experts. “The problems with the current operations are thatthe system of higher education in Egypt depends on faculties and not on departments…..you will need to havecapacity building because you are always in need for experts”, Expert S said.The administrative and working staffs in higher education are not included in the targeted group of professional development.This indicates a weakness point from one hand and a comparable point from the other hand. Illuminating the administrativeand the working staff with the requirements of QAAHE assists advancing the responses to the targeted requirements. Thecontexts of research case study show the absence of participation from the working staffs in the process of QAAHE. Thisdemonstrates the need for further development directed to address this point. Engaging the working staff in this process mightencourage them to behave in a way that go in parallel with its success, and familiarise them of the need for furtherimprovement. “Quality is the response to the needs of the market and its requirements”, expert I added.All the research respondents assured the need for internationalising QAAHE, and agreed on the desirability and feasibility ofestablishing a UNOIQAAHE within the systematic structure of the UN system as a multidimensional internationalorganisation for governing and operating IQAAHE. The vast majority 49 out of 55 asserted the need for selecting expertsfrom across the global for managing the suggested UNOIQAAHE based on qualitative factors including abilities andexpertise and not in quantitative factors like representations and numbers.Basic Unit LevelThe systematic structure of QAAHE starts from the Quality Assurance Unit (QAU) in every institution passing by the QualityAssurance Centre (QAC) in each university. “There is a quality assurance unit in each faculty…..this unit works with all52

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010departments and all the files required for accreditation are in the unit”, expert S said. “Quality assurance units followtechnically the quality assurance centre but administratively follow the deans of faculties…..quality assurance units aremeant by performing all procedures and requirements related to preparing faculties for obtaining accreditation from thenational authority…..quality assurance centre is the main element in preparing faculties within the university for obtainingaccreditation”, expert A said. While the systematic structure of QAU in Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University inEgypt consists of faculty dean, vice-dean, director of QAU, student representative union of the faculty and representativesfrom departments, the systematic structure of the QAC in Helwan University consists of chancellor, vice-chancellor forteaching and learning, vice-chancellor for research, vice-chancellor for community service, director of QAC, two experts inquality, student representative union of the university, the head of businessmen society in Helwan Governorate, the head ofStaffs’ club and one of the graduates. QAC in Helwan University deals with the Ministry of Higher Education. “The qualityassurance centre is a recognised structure inside the university, the content of its structure is quality assurance units”, expertI added. The most important role of the centre is to assist faculties in Helwan University for obtaining accreditation from theNAQAAE. “The main role of these centres and units is to enhance preparing and assisting higher education institutions forobtaining accreditation from the National Authority for Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Education which wasestablished in 2006…..quality assurance centre in Helwan University deals with the Ministry of Higher Education”, expert Iadded.Through an opportunistic face to face survey with five members of the QAU, it has been indicated that the main aims of QAUare: establishing an internal system for quality; assist preparing the faculty for meeting the accreditation requirements;improving the techniques of academic management via increasing its ability for continuous enhancement; enhancingprogrammes, teaching and learning plans for meeting accreditation requirements; advancing students’ roles in the teachingand learning process for providing graduates with competitive abilities in the labour market; spreading the culture of qualityamong staffs; forming the vision, mission and objectives of the faculty; establishing an enhanced data base for the faculty;training selected staff for operating as trainers in the quality field; and preparing the annual report and self study. The surveyindicated that the main activities of the QAU include: conducting workshops for staff, students and beneficiaries forfamiliarising them with quality requirements; preparing a book in quality and accreditation in higher education; including thestudent’s guide information about quality and distributing it for students of the first academic year for free; includingstudents’ assignments some work about quality, faculty vision, mission and aims; training about 30 per cent of academic stafffor learning skills and knowledge about quality; preparing course and programme specifications in 16 specialisation; andpreparing the annual report on self-study. The face to face survey with five members from the QAC and one semi structuredinterview with a key expert in QAAHE illuminate that the main aims of QAC include: raising the national trust in thegraduates of faculties and institutions; supporting infrastructures of faculties for conducting their self-study; supporting theprocess of QAAHE within the university; support building abilities in the field of QAAHE; and operate applying theacademic standards related to faculties inside the university.The result of these surveys illuminate that there should be a focus on the international dimension within the aims andactivities of QAU and QAC. Another kind of cooperation is required with the international labour market, since the processof preparing the graduates is for labour market in general and not only specifically for the local sectors. It would beapplicable is there was some kind of twining between QAU and QAC with similar structures in other universities both locallyand globally. QAC is a recognised structure inside the university and any decision taken by this centre is to be obligated andmust be taken into account. The content of its structure is about QAUs which follow the centre technically but follow thefaculties administratively. There are periodical meetings for the centre and its executive committee is formed from thedirectors of QAUs. On the ministerial scale, there are periodical meetings for QACs. These are legitimate structures forassuring the quality of higher education in Egypt. However, there is strategy to indicate how these structures are evaluated.QAU deals with the QAC and the most important role of the unit is to assist Faculty of Faculty of Social Work in HelwanUniversity in Egypt for obtaining accreditation from the NAQAAE. Quality assurance units follow technically the qualityassurance centre but administratively follow the deans of the faculties.QAUs are affiliated directly to the dean of the faculty. There is a QAU in each faculty. This unit works with all departmentsand all the files required for accreditation are in this unit. The department has to submit to the unit several things like coursespecifications, programme specifications, plan for development, evaluation system, assessment, student assessment, students’opinion in the professors, the research that is done by the department, the community service that is done by the department.They give all these things to the unit and the unit prepare them in files including student support, admissions and facilities.Programme LevelA face to face survey with five academic staff from the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in HelwanUniversity in Egypt revealed that the main aims of academic programme within the department is to: reach a continuous53

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010movement of self institutional development; include structured quality institutionally and academically; include highlycompetitive abilities lead to accreditation; attain the effectiveness and continuity of quality assurance projects; fulfil therequirements of applying quality systems in all courses and reports; adopt a system of academic standards and support itsapplication; prepare the faculty for obtaining accreditation; raising the efficiency of laboratories and research centres. It isindicated that the aims of the academic programmes asserted the need for the continuous enhancement and institutionalability. However, there should be a focus on: human development; identifying priorities; asserting the need for enhancingassessment systems; community development; engaging with quality and subjects’ experts; strategic development; andcooperation with similar programmes in similar institutions both locally and globally.QAUs are meant by performing all procedures and requirements related to preparing the programme for accreditation fromthe NAQAAE. Through self study, and academic criteria and field visits the unit assists programme in obtainingaccreditation. “The main focus is on teaching and learning…..because the concentration of accreditation is on graduates, thefocus is on teaching and learning”, expert S said. When the programme is ready for accreditation, faculty addresses theuniversity and the university consult the QAC which states and examines the programme’s application. The university thenaddresses the ministry of higher education and the ministry addresses the NAQAAE which began to operate its ownprocedures and requirements. QAU is the main element in preparing the programme within the faculty for obtainingaccreditation. The faculty may sometimes ask for guidance from other institutions particularly in areas of lack. “You need totrain faculty on how they can run programme or course specifications to have a training programme for externalevaluators”, expert S added. So for academic programmes, the first step is programme specifications, then coursespecifications, then teaching methods, then theoretical and practical teaching methods, and then indicating and identifyingwhether the programme did what is required or not according to the predetermined criteria. In the light of these steps, thenecessity whether or not there is a need for further enhancement is indicated. What is being done for programmes is done alsowith courses. “According to specific criteria, the process of assuring and accrediting the quality of academic programmes isgoverned…..after establishing the NAQAAE, there are some criteria that are to be achieved and against which the quality ofprogrammes is measured…..we start with academic standards, then academic programmes, then course specifications andteaching this course and writing a report about it…..this is the quality system within academic programme”, expert A said.Departmental LevelAccording to specific criteria, the process of assuring and accrediting the quality within departments is governed. Beforeestablishing the NAQAAE, the operation was performed according to comparison with other similar departments. But afterestablishing the NAQAAE there are some criteria that are to be achieved and against which the quality of departments ismeasured. “Quality assurance centre gives these criteria to departments for making course specifications for achieving thestated benchmarks”, expert A said. Through a discussion between academic staff and students, the process of identifyingwhat is being taught and how it is taught is indicated. This is to identify the teaching methods, exams, facilities andidentifying whether academic staff performed their roles properly, and whether exams are to measure the expected outcomes.After the end of the academic year, a report for the department is to be done. By doing this, the start is with the academicstandards, academic programmes, then course specifications and teaching this course and writing a report about it. Then, thedepartment accumulate all courses in one report to see whether specifications have been achieved or not. After this step, it isto identify the gaps between what is planned before and what has been done and stating the reasons of the existed gaps. “Thedepartment has to submit to the unit several things like course specification, programme specification, plan for development,the research that is done by the department and the community service that is done by the department”, expert S added. Thisis the quality assurance system within the department.Within the department, there are course and programme specifications. In each of them there are requirements for teaching,aims, contents, exams, and educational plan. If it is happened that the person who teaches subject or course travelled oranything else, there is a continuous course and academic content published on university website. This also includes theteaching methods. “Within the departments, there are course and programme specifications….and this is one of the mainmechanisms for assuring quality of courses and programmes in the department”, expert M said. It is to include also theknowledge and skills that the students should gain after their graduation. After finishing the process of teaching specificcourse or programme, the teacher comes to identify what has been done successfully and expressing his suggestions forimprovement in the next academic year. At the end of every term, students assess what they studied in a form ofquestionnaire. It is a main condition for publishing his result to end writing this form which reaches the teacher of the coursevia the department. According to the reaching results of students’ assessment, the teacher modifies his course and plan forenhancing the course. Every academic staff has his own page on the university web site and he should identify what he isdoing and what are his future plans in terms of teaching and learning, research and community service. Through this page heshould make clear what he intends to do in the next academic year. However, there should be space for communication withsimilar departments in both local and global boundaries.54

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Institutional LevelThe same idea is with enhancing the institutional abilities of the faculty. Every dimension has it own criteria and it ismeasured according to these criteria. In all of these, the institution must have its own mission, vision and aims. “In thecurrent academic year, there is a plan to change curricula into electronic ones in order to facilitate reaching it to studentsvia the university website”, expert M said. Also, in the current academic year a workshop has been conducted for specifyingthe form of the exam paper in terms of content and outline. “The laboratories and libraries in the faculty reached a goodlevel of advancement…..the faculty has a strategic plan which conforms to the national criteria for education”, expert Madded. The professional development for academic staff is done through specialised programmes in the faculty. Theprofessional development includes teaching and learning, research, management, community service and effective teachingvia programmes in professional development. The Ministry of Higher Education started connecting the increase of salarieswith the quality of performance for enhancing the learning process in the faculty. Each academic staff has to be found fourdays per week and offering help and assistance for students in terms of academic preparation and advice.The faculty has a strategic plan which conforms to the national criteria for education. “We are now proceeding withinstitutional accreditation and programme accreditation”, expert S said. It has a plan for enhancing it. The faculty started toenhance teaching rooms into electronic rooms for assisting academic staff to deal with the mass number of students.However, “the faculty may ask for guidance from other institutions particularly in areas of lack”, expert A said.For the faculty accreditation, QAU is meant by performing all procedures and requirements related to preparing the facultyfor accreditation from the NAQAAE. “All governmental universities started establishing QAC inside universities andestablishing QAUs inside faculties…..quality in education is represented in institutional capacity and educationaleffectiveness”, expert I said. Through self study, and academic criteria and field visits, the unit assists the faculty in obtainingaccreditation. When the faculty is ready for accreditation, the faculty addresses the university and the university consult theQAC which states and examines the faculty’s application. The university then addresses the Ministry of Higher Educationand the ministry addresses the NAQAAE which began to operate its own procedures and requirements of accreditation.National LevelQuality in Egypt has been founded since 1904 as a practice and not as a concept. It became existed in the values of educationin the 1980s. After the Second World War and Egypt has obtained partial independence, there were aims to establish anational university in Egypt. During this time, princess Farida donated by her jewelleries and this assisted establishing thisuniversity which became later known as Cairo University. After this time and due to a financial crisis the university becamenot able to finance itself. It applied then to the government in order to become a governmental university. The government ofthis time formed a committee for evaluating the university (as a form of accreditation in practice and not in concept) whichbecame the first governmental university in Egypt. Such current huge numbers of students existed now were not existedbefore the 1980s. QAAHE as a practice was existed in the Egyptian higher education before establishing the NAQAAE, butdue to the increase in admissions and the requirements of enhancement, it requires establishing this authority. “Beforeestablishing the National Authority for Quality Assurance and Accreditation in Education, the operations of teachingacademic programmes were performed according to comparison with other similar institutions in different countries”, expertA said.QAAHE started in Egypt in 2000 as one of the main projects of HEEP. This project depended on experts in QAAHE fromQuality Assurance Agency (QAA) in the UK. This project started operating its processes across institutional level, universitylevel, and the national level. “They began establishing academic references and strategic plan across the governmentaluniversities”, expert I said. All governmental universities started establishing QACs inside universities and establishingQAUs inside faculties. The main role of these centres and units is to enhance preparing and assisting higher educationinstitutions for obtaining accreditation from the NAQAAE which was established in 2006. “On the ministerial scale, thereare periodical meetings for QACs…..these are legitimate structures for assuring the quality of higher education in Egypt”,expert I said. They began establishing its own law for accrediting higher education, pre-higher education and Al-AzharEducation. “This committee was responsible for putting the parameter for quality assurance and accreditation in highereducation, and to work to establish a new law to initiate a national agency in Egypt”, expert S said. Every educational sectorhas its own policies, orientations and programmes. This is the broad landscape of QAAHE in Egypt. The NAQAAE has itsown vision, mission, aims and tasks for assuring and accrediting the quality of higher education.The main focus of QAAHE in Egypt is on teaching and learning. Because the nature of QAAHE in Egypt is based onstudents the matter which means that it is focused on teaching and learning. There are a lot of weights. The biggest one isdirected to teaching and learning and not to research. However, there is still a weight for research. For example, how manyresearch papers are produced by staff and where were they published? Is there a strategic plan for research or no? What kindof research is done? Is there enough funding? Research should be important as teaching and learning because it is responsibleabout producing new knowledge. Because the concentration of accreditation is on graduates, the focus is on teaching and55

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010learning, but there are still criteria for accrediting the institutions’ research. “This is on of the Egyptian problems particularlyin a system that has a lot of students, but with the national Authority for quality assurance and accreditation in highereducation, the situation is different…..we are now speaking about course specification, programme specifications and thedifferent skills required to be gained by graduates like transferable skills, intellectual skills and there is a new terminologythat has been introduced in teaching and learning like e-learning, e-courses, e-library”, expert S said. There is a lot which isgoing on. “The main aim of the NAQAAE is to conform to the national guidelines, and there is a need forinternationalisation…..but with an international organisation, faculties seek to establish criteria that are in the hand ofcountries, particularly developing ones”, expert S added. But the problems with the current operations are that the system ofhigher education in Egypt depends on faculties and not on departments. In Egypt, offering qualified graduates is one of theparameters for obtaining accreditation. Although QAAHE is on the road, a lot still required. The system of QAAHE has beenestablished in cooperation with experience of other countries generally and the UK particularly. This is through selectingcriteria that can go with the Egyptian system of higher education and now the quality assurance authority has a lot of work.The NAQAAE has joint programmes that work together with other national agencies in some different countries, particularlyin the Arab region.Regional LevelEgypt belongs to the Arab region. “The Egyptian quality assurance authority has joint programmes to work together withother national agencies in some different countries”, expert S said. “Quality assurance systems are not static but they aredynamic and capable for change according to circumstances”, expert I said. Like other regions, the Arab region started itown network in 2007 known as the Arab Network for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (ANQAHE). The ANQAHEhas been established in June, 2007 as a non-profit nongovernmental organization. Egypt is a member of this network. Thepurpose to establish the ANQAHE is to create a mechanism between the Arab countries in order to: exchange informationabout quality assurance; construct new quality assurance agencies or organizations; develop standards to establish newquality assurance agencies or support the already present one; disseminate good practice in quality assurance; strengthenliaison between quality assurance bodies in the different countries. The idea of establishing an Arab network was conceivedin July 2004 at a conference in Cairo, Egypt. Many higher education expertises from Arab countries were invited to addressissues of quality assurance in their respective countries. A round table discussion on how quality assurance bodies in the ArabStates might work together took place. The brain storming produced three possible scenarios: The first was to create anetwork; the second to start a non-governmental organisation for QAAHE; and the third was to develop a commission forquality assurance and accreditation for Arab higher education institutions. A final consensus to establish an ANQAHE wasagreed upon in Abu Dhabi in 2005. The president of International Network for Quality Assurance Agencies in HigherEducation (INQAAHE) was invited to this meeting to support the initiation of the network. The Outcomes of this meetingwas to develop the first draft of constitution. A third meeting in Cairo, 2006 was organized to agree on the draft constitution,and on the launching the network. Finally the ANQAHE has been launched in Jordan in June, 2007. The Network is workingin association of the INQAAHE and in connection with the Association of Arab Universities.The mission of the ANQAHE is to ensure and strengthen QAAHE in the Arab region and to enhance the cooperation betweensimilar quality assurance bodies or organizations in Arab region and with other regional and international quality assuranceorganizations. The main aims of the ANQAHE are to: support and enhance quality assurance organizations in the Arabregion; develop the human resources and establish a mechanism of cooperation in the field of quality assurance in highereducation in the Arab region; sustain regional and international cooperation in quality assurance in higher education.International LevelThe four key experts were asked about the desirability and feasibility of establishing a UNOIQAAHE. Expert S said that “westarted working with a lot of international organisations to find a system that can enhance higher education in Egypt….Ithink UNESCO is working at this point and they have a lot of work and projects…..an international organisation for qualityassurance and accreditation is acceptable now…..an agency for international quality assurance and accreditation in highereducation is expected to establish its own criteria and entity”. The answer of expert I was that “this is acceptable, but fordealing with the international organisation there is a need for international coordination and all countries are in need toshare this…..I do not mind the idea of establishing a United Nations Organisation for International Quality Assurance andAccreditation in Higher Education……I am supporting the idea for administering and operating quality assurance andaccreditation in higher education across the globe…..there is still a general similarity between all countries…..I see that it isbetter in the early stages to be an agency followed to the UNESCO and when its success is proven, then it can be anorganisation…..the international impression is stronger than the national impression”. Expert A added “there is nointernational accreditation until now…..all types of accreditation are local via national agencies for quality assurance andaccreditation in higher education or via other agencies in other countries…..what is existed now is a network for qualityassurance agencies in higher education represented in the INQAAHE…..there is a common interest and common languagewhich facilitate adopting a specified group of global criteria”. “I thank you for this idea…..I think this is accepted idea…..I56

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010agree with you…..it is better for the suggested organisation to be followed to the United Nations System rather than to befollowed to any other organisation”, expert M said.However, there some difficulties in that education in every country has it own culture and social circumstances. So what isaccepted in certain country might not be accepted in another country. But there is still a general similarity between allcountries. The international accreditation in scientific sciences may precede the international accreditation in social sciences.This is because social sciences are connected to the cultural limitations of every society. This will require the need toestablish international standards that agree with the national needs and ambitions. Natural sciences have no home, but socialsciences have homes. Every country has its own higher education system. The facilities are different. The finance is different.The number of students is different, but still there are a number of criteria that can be used and applied everywhere. Aninternational organisation for QAAHE is acceptable now. There is the INQAAHE, and there is a difference between anetwork and an organisation. An organisation for IQAAHE is expected to establish its own criteria and entity.IMPLICATIONSThe implications of internationalising QAAHE generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of SocialWork in Helwan University in Egypt particularly have positive impacts on the wider academic sector. There are policiestheorising how these implications could be turned into practice. In a number of dimensions, the policy and practice of theseimplications follow.PolicyThe agencies for QAAHE must proceed with specific procedures in order to conduct operation for QAAHE generally and inthe Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly. The followingprocesses illustrate this operation.Site visitSite visit process requires collecting documents by the team of external review on arrival at a HEI. Some of these documentsare: the programme validation; programme handbook; student hand books; a sample of learner support material; staff-studentinteraction records; student assessment criteria and related guide for students; representative samples of students’ assessedwork; sample of programmes; internal reviews of assessed work; examination board proceedings; reports of externalassessors; summaries of student feedback; outcomes of consultations; surveys and other engagements with students; data ofadmission and progression including employment; data of staff including sample publications; examples of outputs fromcommunity involvement; staff development programmes and reports; and professional, statutory and regulatory reports frommeetings with teaching staff and students. Other certain requirements include the need for: scrutinising the sample ofstudents’ assessed work, questions or assignments, marking scheme, marks awarded, and written comments includingfeedback to students; observing a sample of classes; ensuring that the enquiries address the accreditation criteria; ensuringthat there are mechanisms for maintaining and enhancing quality of education offered by institutions; convening the reviewteam regularly (at least once per day) in order to check progress and identify further enquiries; ensuring that each peerreviewer prepare his/her related part of the review for the accreditation process and that the review chair coordinate a reportin order to share information with the team and prepare the first draft of the report.Site visit ends with a feedback meeting chaired by review chair and attended by the head of the institution or his/herrepresentative and other related stakeholders including students. The agenda of this meeting is to include: statements oncentrality of the responsibility of institutions for operating quality assurance and development of systems that include qualityspecifications and systematic reviews and reports; comments on academic standards in educational programmes; quality oflearning opportunities, research and other scholarly activities; community involvement; and how well quality managementand enhancement is to take a root at the institutions. In the site visit, the chair should recognise strengths, weaknesses,opportunities, threats and any other issues identified during the review, with a view to announce any judgements made on anyoperation or step and include the timetable in the written report. Although there may be no discussions on judgements, mainreported issues may be clarified. It is commendable to include in institutional panel student representatives, representativesfrom labour market and significant proportion of panel members from outside the country.57

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010JudgmentBased on criteria for accreditation together with QAAHE processes, reviewers recommend to agencies for QAAHE whether:the applied institution is to be accredited on the condition that satisfies the requirements of the agency based on self-studyreports, strategic review report, supporting documentation, and the additional evidence derived from the site visit (in this caseand after being listed, applied institution must satisfactorily meet the agency’s requirements within a given period, afterwhich accreditation is to be definitive for certain amount of time); or whether there is a need for the institution to makefurther improvements (accompanied by a clear set of recommendations to the institution on what it needs to address todemonstrate that it meets criteria) to meet the criteria set by the related agency. However and in some cases, the agencies forQAAHE may deny providing the accreditation to the applied institution due to the poor performance lower than the minimumlevel.ReportWithin agencies for QAAHE, the external review team is to produce accreditation report and submit it (after any necessaryeditorial revisions) to the relevant agency in order to publish the report and include the institution in the list of its accreditedinstitutions.EnhancementFor guaranteeing sustainable development, the accredited institution is expected to conduct arrangements for furtherimprovements so as to continue to improve its action plans for further development. The agency arranges for further reviewsof institutions that failed to receive accreditation and continue to seek it.Re-accreditationIn this process, the agencies for QAAHE invite the accredited institutions to prepare for re-accreditation at an average intervalof five years.DevelopmentAs an organisation that is constantly learning, the agencies for QAAHE are to engage in an operation for monitoringassessment and enhancement of its QAAHE process. The agency is to be alerted to opportunities for improving upon its ownoperations and endeavour to retain its integrity and credibility. (Sanyal, 2007: Pp. 77-78 and Beccari and Rauret, 2008: Pp.21-23)PRACTICEA general starting point in attaining quality is to clearly define the aims and goals of institutes and faculties by using differentmeasurements, assessments and indicators for monitoring how well the goals and aims are actually reached as a generalaspect of quality management reviewing regularly the clarity, completeness, interrelatedness, consensus and achievement ofits stated purposes at both institutional and programme level (Kekale, 2000). However, the current case of quality regimes is aresult of states’ action as a straightforward manifestation of the regulatory states aimed at providing new possibilities onunderstanding and advancing the nature and functions of higher education rather than making judgements against definedcriteria (Filippakou and Tapper, 2008).The main practical framework underpinning the process of operating QAAHE generally and in the Department of SocialGroup Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt particularly is to advance implying the methods ofQAAHE towards attaining its theory in the actual context. Through assuring and accrediting the quality of HEIs, programmesor/and courses, QAAHE holds the operation in order to achieve such practice. Certain procedures and operational dimensionsare required in the attainment of this practice. Illustration of these procedures and dimensions follows.Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in EgyptAssuring and accrediting the quality of Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt requires integrating actionplans covering all components, prioritising them, identifying responsible agencies, providing time frame for execution,setting up indicators for monitoring and identifying resource needs, origin of resources and expected outcomes of each58

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010institutional activity. Institutions are expected to be generally regarded among academic community and other stakeholders aswell-founded, cohesive, self-critical and worthy organisations safeguarding their vision, mission, aims, functions, academicstandards and social commitment the range of stakeholder interests.Agencies of QAAHE may require a precondition that Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt undergo aneligibility phase. Upon successful completion of this phase, they are eligible for accreditation. Some of these generaleligibility criteria for institution applying for QAAHE are that: established Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University inEgypt should already be offering the educational programmes to be accredited, and new institutions should be recognised bythe relevant authorities and should already have been offering educational programmes for a specific period; institutionsshould be able to demonstrate that they have considered all available strategic options for academic development and thatthey are committed to continuing improvement in their academic activities; and institutions should be able to demonstrate thatthey meet the requirements of quality audit (as system for internal quality review and for reporting academic activities) inorder to assist in preparing the self-evaluation study and communication with the agency.Assuring and accrediting the quality of Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt require attaining certainprocedures. Illustration of these procedures follows.Self-studyAgencies of QAAHE requires from Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt aiming at assuring and accreditingtheir quality to conduct a self-study evaluating several dimensions. Illustration of these dimensions follows.Mission: This procedure requires identifying its related general concepts, mission statement, definition of programmes, aims,Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs), dissemination of the mission statement, and any updates of the mission.Governance: This dimension needs illustrating its related general precepts, organisational structure, academic duties andresponsibilities, method for recruiting academic leaders; effectiveness of policies, systems and practices and their adequacy inachieving ILOs, quality improvement and dealing with student and staff problems; responsiveness to changing priorities andemerging needs including methods used to disseminate the vision for development, availability of priority identificationsystem to respond to change and review policies, mechanism used by top managers to cope with and respond to changes andmanage resistance to change; contribution of any recent quality improvement/enhancement activities aimed at achieving themission of the institution.Staff: This component requires illuminating its general precepts, future needs of staff and their professional development;statistics covering staff numbers by type, grade and qualification, suitability of staff profile, staff development programmewith indicating its adequacy and corrective measures.Programmes: This element requires indicating its related general precepts, rules and regulations governing educationalprogrammes, academic standards and quality of learning opportunities, which Teaching and Learning Strategies (TLSs) areadopted along with their adequacy in achieving ILOs; overall statistics for the institution including the available number ofeducational programmes, number of students registering in each programme, admission indicators in each programme,number of graduate in current academic year and percentage of graduates in each year with a view to include correctivemeasures for deficiencies in statistics, educational programme framework providing the number of credit hours or courses perprogramme, and percentage of courses providing the academic structure of programmes developed and based on programmereports, with a view to mention whether any programme exists for outstanding students along with details of admissionrequirements and contents of, and demand for such programmes.Standards: This dimension needs clarifying academic standards compared with references and based on programme reportsidentifying good practices (for application in other similar programmes), corrective measures in case of failing to achieveexpected standards, student assessment for examining whether there are different methods of assessment, checking whetherthe language used in assessment is the same as the medium of instruction, verifying whether students are informed of thegrading criteria for assessment, checking whether the grading system is appropriate, examining whether students are givenfeedback to their assessment, checking whether the institution has policies and procedures for appointing examining boardsand how to obtain external examiners, comments on the appropriateness of assessment methods used with references to theILOs and external references/benchmarks, student achievement with reference to employment opportunities, comment onstudents’ achievement in regard to the number of passing graduates, which programmes the percentage of students graduatingis high indicating reasons for this and any elements of good practice that can be replicated, which programmes percentage ofstudents graduating is low clarifying reasons for this and the corrective measures for recovery, institution’s vision forgraduates’ employment possibilities, availability of jobs, appropriateness of academic qualifications for employment,emerging needs for specific qualifications in the labour market, oversupply of graduates, remedial measures (indicatingadjustment mechanisms for TLSs) designed to make a better much between education and employment, external assessment,59

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010student performance, achieved academic standards, opinions of external assessors, representatives of stakeholders, employers,industry and other related beneficiaries.Learning: This dimension requires examining its related general precepts for institutions to ensure that facilities and resourcesare adequate to achieve the ILOs, student support programmes including details of academic and pastoral supportprogrammes, special provisions for outstanding and challenged students and a handbook providing details of all academic andnon-academic support services available to students, learning resources with reference to facilities and infrastructure and theiradequacy to academic and non-academic staff, student feedback on courses indicating the availability of the mechanism,teaching staff response, compliance of institution with the assessment system and the use of assessment in academicdevelopment.Management: This component entails checking its related general precepts, institution’s vision for quality enhancementindicating the strategy, followed mechanism, procedures, means to monitors its effectiveness and mechanisms fordisseminating and implementing policies, extent to which institution’s policies and regulations have been implemented,extent to which stakeholders have been engaged to gain the community’s trust in the academic programmes with reference toinstitution’s response to stakeholders’ views, extent to which the internal review system for quality assurance has beeneffective, impact of review reports (peer review, external assessor, student reviews and other assessment reports) on overallstudent performance; action plan for improving the quality of education including specific actions, time framework,responsible persons, resource needs and the origins of resources.Research: This dimension needs outlining its related general precepts, research plans indicating their bases and how theymeet institutional and national goals and the mechanisms for reviewing plans, participation of teaching staff in researchclarifying the percentage of research-active teaching staff by department how this matches research plans and researchcapacity building of staff, awards offered by the institution, sources and amount of research funding indicating the share ofthe total budget, share of different sources, research cost sharing between stakeholders, and the role of private sector, researchoutput, and an action plan for the research plan including actions, timeframe for execution, responsibility, resource needs, andthe origin of resources.Community: this factor requires illustrating its related general precepts, contribution of the institution to the community,society and environmental affairs with reference to indicate the number of units for community service in the institution,different types of activities for community service (training programmes, workshops, conferences, technical services and soon), mechanisms for assessing the impact of community services, action plan for community development with a list ofactions including responsible agencies, time frame, resource needs, origin of resources and expected outcomes. (Beccari andRauret, 2008: Pp. 74-76 and Didriksson and Herrera, 2007: Pp. xliii-xlv)Strategic reviewThe applicant Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt for assuring and accrediting its quality must provide anoverall strategic review covers its policy and practice as a complement of self-study part required by agencies for QAAHE.The process of preparing strategic review should include several elements. Illustration of these elements follows.Objectives: The review of this element must refer how the institution assesses changing needs and priorities, identifiesemerging priorities, articulates strategic goals, secures means to achieve these goals and commits teaching staff andassociated organisations to a realistic plan.Preparation: Undertaking the review of this element requires carrying out preparatory tasks such as designating the person incharge, preparing a timetable paralleled with the related activities, defining review scope, preparing a review team includingan external reviewer, creating capacity involving related stakeholders, and recording key steps in review exercise for futureuse.Evidence: In this element, the institutional strategic review is based on evidence gleaned from the institution reports withreference to cover full critical account, SWOT analysis enabling the strategic review to be taken of performance andeffectiveness of systems and processes taking place, the direction the institution needs to follow in the foreseeable future, andbenchmarks from comparable institutions and professional organisations that publish standards and good practicesconstituting additional source of evidence.Content: This element requires indicating the text to which the institutional strategic review should cover specific fields.Illustration of these fields follows.60

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010- The institution’s mission, its relevance and how it was adapted.- Academic programmes, their adequacy and an action plan for them.- Research and scholarly activities, their adequacy and an action plan for them.- Community involvement and an action plan for that.- Quality assurance systems, their adequacy and an action plan for them.- Governance and leadership with reference to indicate the ability of governing bodies, leaders and managers toarrange existing academic activities and respond to development and change, capacity of systems and academicleaders to encourage proactive approaches engaging stakeholders to be conducive to the full achievement of themission and its future role creating means to develop these approaches, identifications of any aspects that can beimproved to optimise the strategic position of the institution covering processes by which the institution is able toidentify priorities based on sound interpretation of facts and able to make plans happen, and an action plan forimproving governance and leadership.- Overall action plan with reference to structure this element in a way that includes introduction, summary of keystrengths, issues that need to be addressed, external factors that need to be taken into account, priorities at each levelof the activities covering all expressed components in realistic terms of timing, required resources, origin ofresources, responsible agencies, key monitoring indicators, and expected outcomes.- Appendices summarising quality reports.- Bibliography of any other sources used. (ibid., pp. 76-77)Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in EgyptAssuring and accrediting quality of the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University inEgypt entails that agencies of QAAHE requires from Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt to guarantee thatall its departments have internal mechanisms for conducting a periodic review of their programmes and publish a report onthis review in order to ensure and enhance quality in keeping with its mission and based on acceptable academic standards.The specifications for assuring and accrediting the quality of the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Workin Helwan University in Egypt require basic information for providing all programme details including the name of theprogramme coordinator and external assessors and the date the programme was approved by the pertinent authority(UNESCO: 1992, pp.11-12).To assure and accredit the quality of the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University inEgypt, certain types of information required to be attained. Illustration of these types follows.Basic Information: Structuring the basic information of the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work inHelwan University in Egypt for assuring and accrediting its quality requires including certain elements. Some of theseelements include: aims of the department including its ILOs; academic standards that are to be achieved by graduates uponcompletion of programme based on external references/benchmarks and TLSs; programme structure, content, minimumduration required for completion in accordance with teaching staff bylaws, ILOs and TLSs; programme admissionrequirements providing the criteria and rules for admission and the level at which the programme starts; regulationsconcerning academic progression, completion of programmes and inter-programmes/teaching, staff mobility; and programmeassessment detailing assessment mechanisms and involvement of stakeholders and external assessors. (Sanyal: 2007, pp. 73-74)Statistical Information: Statistical information about the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work inHelwan University in Egypt for quality assurance and accreditation requires: number of students starting its academicprogramme programme, with a view to consider that if programme is a specialisation starting in a later year, number ofstudents in that year must be provided; results of student assessment, including percentage of students passing and failing ineach year/level/semester and a percentage of those starting and distribution of students passing by marks or scores. (Harrisand Sauri: 2008, p. 19)Professional Information: Professional information of the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work inHelwan University in Egypt deals with the extent to which the programme specifications of the department have beenachieved, and how the quality of programme can be assured and accredited. Professional information of the Department ofSocial Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt for quality assurance and accreditation requires:academic standards for achieving the ILOs, relevance of the subject matter, assessment methods and student achievement;quality of learning opportunities including a comparison of: the executed TLSs and planned; the actual available support tostudents in addition to the planned one; and the available learning resources planned along with suggestions for correctivemeasures for deficiencies and further development; quality management including comments on: the existence of periodicquality assessment of the programme; the system management effectiveness in meeting ILOs and the steps taken to correct61

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010them including the identification of good practice; the extent to which teaching staff bylaws and institutional regulations areobserved by the responsible staff members; the involved method of external assessors; a summary of stakeholders’assessment and response of teaching staff/administrators to external assessors’ reports and stakeholders’ assessments;proposals for programme development including programme structure, course, staff development based on course andprogramme specifications, academic standards, benchmarks, external assessors and stakeholders assessment; and proposal foran action plan incorporating all corrective actions based on programme analysis, time framework for its implementation,responsible individuals and needed resources. (Sanyal: 2007, pp. 73-74)CoursesAssuring and accrediting the quality of courses in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in HelwanUniversity in Egypt requires from QAAHE agency to advise Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt toprepare for course quality assurance specifications. Some of these specifications are course quality assurance report, courseassessment system and authorisation from the relevant authority to carry out the course with the prescribed specifications.Course quality report requires covering specific types of information. Illustration of these types follows.Basic Information: Course quality specifications include basic information detailing course description in accordance withteaching staff bylaws.Statistical Information: Course statistical information for quality assurance and accreditation includes: student numbersstarting course; student assessment results including percentages of students passing and failing; and description of studentspassing by marks or scores.Professional Information: Course professional information for quality assurance and accreditation includes: aims of thecourse identifying ILOs which focus essentially on entrepreneurship skills; TLS including self learning; course content withthe number of contact hours allocated for instruction for each topic through each learning method in accordance with teachingstaff bylaws; assessment of students that matches ILOs and assessment methods; list of learning materials including lecturenotes, textbooks and references given in a standard format; facilities required for teaching/learning the course includingphysical facilities and infrastructure; course topics actually covered and the number of hours actually taught as compared withthe specifications, and an explanation of any discrepancies; adopting the TLSs with comments regarding the rationale forchoosing them and a discussion of any discrepancies; students’ assessment of the methods using rules, criteria and anassessment of the effectiveness of the overall assessment in measuring the achievement of ILOs which will probably involveexternal assessors; facilities and teaching materials and their suitability; administration constraints in following the TLSs toachieve the ILOs; results of course assessment by students and the response of instructors to any criticism together withproposals for improvement; external assessors’ comments and instructor responses together with proposals for improvementif necessary; and course quality enhancement proposals with an action plan including the schedule and material and humanresources. (ibid, pp. 72-73)FUTURE DEVELOPMENTAlthough higher Education system in Egypt is of wide capacity including human and material resources, the current pictureindicates the need for further and future development focusing on qualitative factors in the first instance. Higher educationsystem can be divided into three main categories which include: generating human resources via technical colleges requiredfor economic labour development; generating research via faculties of scientific and natural sciences required for scientificdevelopment and generating knowledge via faculties of humanities and social sciences required for social and culturaldevelopment. A brief illustration covering different dimensions of future development follows.- Establishing faculties of quality with departments specifically dedicated to generate human resources specialised andresponsible for creating, enhancing and empowering quality in all educational, economic, social and work sectorsacross the country, with a view to enable these faculties to provide B.A., M.A., Ph.D. in quality so as to createscience of quality in all fields of knowledge.- Establishing ‘Head of Egypt’ in order to collaborate with national government across the country on how interestsand motivations for creating national future development creation operation generally and a highly internationalquality higher education particularly could intersect with, and driven by a powerful national construction of valuesand techniques operating via the proposed ‘Head of Egypt’ as an appropriate initiative and a mechanism throughwhich a national dialogue is to be conducted in order to discuss in parallel and address more systematically nationalambitions, priorities and needs. Such dialogue requires combining and bringing together the greatest geniuses,experts, professors and leaders across the country of Egypt in order to identify and elaborate the pressing nationalneeds theorising, planning, systemising, operating and executing national policies for an ordered, powerful, peacefuland productive society. This head is to create and generate web of ideas, networks of influence, policy frameworks62

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010and practices, financial arrangements and organizational structures, a system of national power relations that exerts,determines and influences on how higher education system should be constructed for a national future developmentcreation operation.- Creating and operating a new philosophy of higher education aimed at providing consultancy (via Head of Egypt) tothe Egyptian Government guiding them firmly on how to be on track towards a more prosperous, sustainable andequitable future via: making from higher education a national public good; ensuring that the fundamental duty ofhigher education is life development in general; providing a highly international quality higher education for all onthe basis of merit without discrimination; enabling higher education continuously to meet the needs of nationallabour market and citizens across the country; orientating higher education not only to be reactive and evolve upon,but also to be proactive and to create general development changes that interest Egyptian people; providing EgyptianGovernment with the key of their national future development creation operation via creating a vision ensuring thatEgypt has the education publishing the national awareness, the determination succeeding the operation, themotivation achieving the hope, the courage eradicating the fear, the guarantee booking the place, the key opening thefuture, the leadership guiding the people, the methodology theorising the planning, the mechanism executing theoperation, the bridge connecting the future, the vehicle carrying the people for crossing to a prosperous future wherea quality society Egypt believe in, dream of and in need to is expected to be created.- Directing and operating higher education system to teach, learn and research in away setting an obligation uponevery citizen lives in Egypt preparing him and requiring from him to be honest with, and loyal to his country beforehimself in envisioning the targeted future, realising the gap, drawing the map, identifying the aim, studying thechallenge, planning the role, accepting the duty, systemising the work, starting the task, performing the share andexecuting the operation of carrying Egypt intellectually and physically to a prosperous future, with a view to govern,manage and lead this operation considering the inevitability of systemisation and harmonisation between eachother’s share.- Entitling all HEIs in Egypt to be members of all related journals across the globe while accommodating the up todate knowledge production within their libraries in a way enabling students, academic staff and the public to read inorder to know, create and innovate new knowledge required for a national future development creation operation inEgypt.- Dedicating 1 per cent deducted of salaries across the workforce in order to assist in financing the requirements ofenhancing the higher education system in Egypt.- Directing and operating the processes of teaching and learning, research and community service within highereducation system to serve fundamentally achieving the Egyptian national needs, priorities and ambitions.CONCLUSIONThe main intellectual contribution underpinning this research and its realisation is to draw the map way of transferringQAAHE generally and in the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egyptparticularly from national or/and regional level to a new era of international development. Attaining this transformation is tohave implications of positive impacts on nations generally and on Egypt particularly via entitling them to provide a highlyinternational quality higher education for their generations educating, preparing and equipping them with the requiredknowledge and skills in order to participate positively in their national future development and knowledge creationoperations. Participating and assisting nations in providing them with such generations advance developing theoretical andpractical means that guide and put them firmly on how to be on the right track towards a more prosperous future. To attainthis transformation, the research comes with a conclusion that creating IQAAHE operating via establishing a UNOIQAAHEas an international and multidimensional organisation achieve adequately this new era of international development. Thissuggested international system is to compare, classify, rank, assure and accredit quality of HEIs generally and the Departmentof Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt internationally and in addition to, and not analternative of national or/and regional agencies of QAAHE. A part from its responsibilities, IQAAHE operating via aUNOIQAAHE is to create and supervise an international dialogue combining and bringing together genius experts, leadersand professors from HEIs around the world in order to: identify and elaborate the international policies and practices of HEIs;frame the roles and responsibilities of HEIs generally and the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work inHelwan University in Egypt toward their international environment and humanity as well as the ways through which thesecan be done more effectively; discuss how this internationally proposed structure of a UNOIQAAHE can guide and assistHEIs generally and the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt, agenciesof QAAHE and national governments; and investigate the best way to address and examine the engagement of HEIsgenerally and the Department of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt with crossculturalawareness, cooperation and understanding. Advance creating this dialogue is to discuss how HEIs generally and theDepartment of Social Group Work, Faculty of Social Work in Helwan University in Egypt should meet in parallel, andaddress more systematically the most pressing needs and challenges in the current time.63

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010REFERENCESBerman, Paul Schiff (2002), The Globalisation of Jurisdiction, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 151, No. 2, Pp.311-345Bloor, Michael and Wood, Fiona (2006), Keywords in Qualitative Research: A vocabulary of research concepts, London:Sage Publications Ltd.Cabrera, Luis (2005), The Cosmopolitan Imperative: Global Justice through Accountable Integration, The Journal of Ethics,Vol. 9, No. 1/2 , Current Debates in Global Justice, Pp. 171-199Cooley, Alexander (2003), Thinking Rationally about Hierarchy and Global Governance, Review of International PoliticalEconomy, Vol. 10, No. 4, Pp. 672-684Dennis, Alan; Wixom, Barbara Haley and Tegarden, David (2002), Systems Analysis and Design: An object-orientedapproach with UML, USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.Harvey, Lee and Stensaker, Bjorn (2008), Quality Culture: Understandings, Boundaries and Linkages, European Journal ofEducation, Vol. 43, No. 4, Pp. 427-442Hogwood, Brain W. and Gunn, Lewis A. (1984), Policy Analysis for the Real World, New York: Oxford University PressInc.Kendall, Kenneth, E. and Kendall, Julie, E. (2002), Systems Analysis and Design, Fifth Edition, USA: Prentice Hall.Lele, Uma and Gerrard, Christopher (2003), Global Public Goods, Global Programmes, and Global Policies: Some InitialFindings from a World Bank Evaluation, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 85, No. 3, Pp. 686-691Munger, Michael (2000), Analyzing Policy: Choices, Conflicts and Practices, USA, Norton Company Inc.QAAP a, (2004), Newsletter, Quality Assurance and Accreditation Project (QAAP), No. 1, January 2004, Ministry of HigherEducation, EgyptQAAP b, (2004), The Quality Assurance and Accreditation Handbook for Higher Education in Egypt, Quality Assurance andAccreditation Project (QAAP), Higher Education Enhancement Project (HEEP), Projects Management Unit (PMU),Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), Arab Republic of Egypt (ARE).Roth, Kenneth (2001), The Case for Universal Jurisdiction, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 80, No. 5, Pp. 150-154Stella, Antony and Gnanam, A. (2004), Quality Assurance in Distance Education: The Challenges to be Addressed, HigherEducation, Vol. 47, No. 2, Pp. 143-160Whitten, Jeffrey L.; Bentley, Lonnie D. and Barlow, Victor M. (1989), Systems Analysis and Design Methods, SecondEdition, USA: Richard, D., Irwin Inc.www.naqaae.orgwww.qaap.net64

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationThe Perceived Corporate Image of Private Secondary Schools By Students’ andParents’ Views *Soner POLAT*, Elif Abat** and Songül Tezyürek***Kocaeli University Faculty of Education**Kocaeli University Institute of Social Sciencese-mail address for correspondence: spolat@kocaeli.edu.tr_____________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : The purpose of this research is to determine the corporate image of secondary schools inKocaeli according to students’ and parents’ opinions. The population of the research is the privatesecondary schools in Kocaeli. Of the thirteen private secondary schools, nine of them accepted toparticipate in the study. The formation of an overall image requires quite a long time; therefore thestudents of the final grade and their parents amounting to a number of 800 participants were chosen asthe sample of the study. The data was collected by a scale developed by the researchers using the existingscales by Kazoleas, Kim and Moffitt (2001). The findings suggest that, of the different types of image,namely the academic quality image, social image, infrastructure and facility image, physical appearanceimage and programme image, the most positively perceived one was the academic quality image.Appearance image, social image, infrastructure and facility image and programme image followed. Otherfindings suggest that students’ and parents’ perceptions concerning the school image were different, inthat parents had more positive image perceptions than students. Different types of image perceptionsdiffered in terms of gender among students and parents.Keywords: Organizational image, secondary education, private education_____________________________________________________________________________________PROBLEM STATEMENTFor organizations, the term image has been a subject of interest because of its outcomes and its greateffect. While in literature, there has been a plenty of research on corporate image both in theory andpractice over the last 20 years, related research on corporate image is restricted to a few theoretical andpractical studies in Turkey.Dichter (1985) defines image as positive or negative thoughts about an object or an entity formed in acertain amount of time with the effects of internal and external factors (Cited in: Gemlik & Sığrı, 2007 ).Dutton and Dukerich (1991), defined image as the way organization members believe others see theorganization, to gauge how outsiders are judging them. Corporate image is the mental picture of anorganization held by its audiences regarding this organization. The mental picture formed in one‟s mindabout an organization upon hearing its name or seeing its logo is about this organization‟s corporateimage (Gray & Balmer, 1998). According to Hatch and Schultz (2002), image is how organization* This paper was presented in the I. International Congress of Educational Research between 1-3 May inÇanakkale - Turkey65

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010members or others see the organization or the general impression an organization forms in people‟sminds.Kazoleas, Kim and Moffit (2001) state that there are multiple changing images within each individual andthese images are affected by certain factors. The formation of corporate image is defined as acomprehensive and multi-stakeholder process (Gray & Balmer, 1998) and factors such as communicationsources, terminology, branding, logos and emblems, relations with media and customers, buildingarchitecture are effective in image formation. Besides, the relations with customers and the actions andstatements of top managers simultaneously affect organizational identity and image (Hatch & Schultz,1997).An organization‟s image is affected by this organization‟s accoutrements, attitudes and communicationstyle. An organization‟s future image is shaped by the communication between management, employeesand external audiences (Amon, 2004). Strong communicative facors such as the brand name, logo,advertisement and public relations can help create a good and strong image (Gray & Balmer, 1998).It has been observed that the organizations which are capable of attracting the talented to the organization,developing and keeping them have positive images. Additionally, variables such as social andenvironmental responsibility, financial credibility, innovativeness, marketing, communication,management, product and service quality are efective in image formation (Lemmink, Schuijf &Streukens, 2003).When education institutions are concerned, the experiences in application period, advertising, public andsocial relations, recruitment activities are highly effective in creating both a first impression and imageand this perception affects the decision-making process on which school to apply (Collins & Stevens,2001). Another factors that determine the image of education institutions are name awareness, academicproperties, sports and social facilities, physical environment (Arpan, Arthur & Zivnuska, 2003), personaland organizational environment, demographic features, environmental features, admission criteria, sportsfacilities, campus size, academic programmes, library facilities (Kazoleas, Kim & Moffit, 2001),academic staff and relations with students, stories about the school (Paden & Stell, 2006).In their study, Arpan, Arthur and Zivnuska (2003) researched the criteria used in image assessment andhow perceived image differs between different groups and they found that factors such as nameawareness, academic properties, sports and social facilities, physical environment are important forstudents when forming an image.Some researchers (Hatch & Schultz, 2002; Dutton, Dukerich & Harquail, 1994), consider corporate imageto have two dimensions. External image reflects how people outside the organization perceives theorganization. Internal image, on the other hand, reflects how organization members see the organization.External image is composed of impressions of, for example, suppliers. However, organization membersbelong to the external group at the same time, because they are also consumers of the products andoutcomes produced by the organization and they follow the news about the organization on the media.Corporate image has a united form. The interaction of organization members and external factors and theimpressions of other groups are effective in image formation (Hatch & Schultz, 2002).The factors that constitute external image are customer satisfaction, product quality, concrete image,advertising, sponsorship, relations with media, social responsibility. Customer satisfaction is aboutmeeting the demands and expectations of the consumers. When the demands of the consumers are met, apositive image about the organization is formed and the organization gains a competitive advantage. Theproduct quality, namely its features, its correspondence to standarts and its credibility are effective in theformation of an organization‟s external image. When consumer expectations about the product are met, asense of social responsibility is improved and the organizational continuity is maintaned. External imageis formed by sponsorship and media relations. Besides, caring about social demands from theorganization and carrying out social responsibilities are effective in creating a positive external image(Bolat, 2006).An organization‟s image can be positive, negative or neutral, varying in effect. A negative experiencewith a product or a bad advertisement about the organization can change the previously formed goodimage and create a negative image (Taslak & Akın, 2005 ). Oganizations strive for creating a positiveimage among its target audience (Gray & Balmer, 1998). Organizations may have an illusion that theyhave a positive image, however, organizations need to evaluate their image frequently. Because, corporateimage is essential for an organization‟s permanence (Peltekoğlu, 2004).66

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Image, whether it is taken as internal or external, is an important concept that has crucial outcomes fororganizations. First of all, for organizations to know what kind of image they have can be regarded as afeedback for its activities. Thanks to these feedbacks, the organization knows how it is perceived andprevents blindness (Gray & Balmer, 1998). Research on organizational image revealed that image affectshow people perceives the organization and their motivation. In the long term, these perceptions andmotivation affects organizational behavior (Dutton & Dukerich, 1991).The organizations with good images are known as prestigious, reliable, cooperative, promising andfinancially consistent. Moreover, these organizations survive in times of economic crisis with the leastloss. A good image is distinctive, therefore cannot be imitated easily (Cited in. Taşkın & Sönmez, 2005).O‟Neill and Gaither (2007), Dukerich, Golden and Shortell (2002) found that the employees with a morepositive image are likely to identify themselves with the organization more and there is a positive andsignificant relationship between organizational identification and cooperative behavior. Besides, theemployees with a higher perceived image are less likely to have turnover intentions.The importance of image perception comes from its power to influence both the performance oforganization employees and behaviors and attitudes of external stakeholders. The research on imagestates that the first impression that organizations make on consumers is highly effective in creating theimage perception and it is decisive in intentions to apply (Collins & Stevens, 2001). A positive imageperception positively effects students‟ loyalty and satisfaction level (Nguyen & LeBlanc, 2001; Palacio,Meneses & Perez: 2002).Organizational image is important for both internal and external stakeholders. Nevertheless, relatedresearch in Turkey is limited to a few studies which researched how some organizations are perceived andthe factors that determine this perception (Atalık, 2005; Erdoğan, Develioğlu, Gönüllüoğlu & Özkaya,2006; Gemlik & Sığrı, 2007; Taslak & Akın, 2005). Image research in our country focuses on noneducationalinstitutions. This research, therefore, is important with its focus on schools.In our country, public education is mainly provided by the state. However, the number of private schoolsare increasing rapidly. In this fiercely competitive environment, it is essential for private schools to meetthe demands of students and parents and maintain the quality. For this reason, image assessment providesimportant information for guiding organizational strategies (Köktürk, Yalçın & Çobanoğlu: 2008).The purpose of this research is to determine the perceived corporate image of private secondary schoolsby students‟ and parent‟ opinionsMETHODResearch DesignThis is a descriptive research for it measures the image perceptions of the participants at a single time.Population and SampleThe population of the research is private secondary schools in Kocaeli. There are thirteen privatesecondary schols in Kocaeli four of which refused to participate in the study. The formation of an overallimage requires quite a long time; therefore the deliberate sampling technique was used. 400 final gradestudents and their parents amounting to a number of 800 participants were the sample of the study.Data GatheringThe data gathering instrument was developed by researchers using the existing scale developed byKazoleas, Kim and Moffitt (2001) for higher education institutions. The items in the Likert type scalewere numbered as (1) Totally disagree, (2) Partially disagree, (3) Agree, (4) Partially agree, (5) Totallyagree67

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010The factor analysis prodeuced five image dimensions: the quality image, social image, infrastructureimage, appearance image and academic image. The Cronbach‟s Alpha value of the scale was .92 (Table1).The Analysis and Interpretation of The DataIn order to determine the image level of the schools, a mean analysis was carried out. When interpretingmeans, the intervals were taken as 1.00-1.79 “very low”, 1.80-2.59 “low”, 2.60-3.39 “medium”, 3.40-4.19 “high”, 4.20-5.00 “very high”. Other analyses were t-tests to find out if the perceived image differedsignificantly according to being a student or a parent, or gender and an ANOVA analysis to find out ifimage differed according to schools.FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATIONGenerally, among students and parents, the perceived image of private secondary schools was medium( x =3.11).The most positively perceived image dimension was the quality image ( x = 3.58), which is followed byappearance image ( x = 3.12), social image ( x = 3.03), infrastructure and facility image ( x = 2.86), andprogramme image ( x = 2.71). While the quality image was perceived high, social image, infrastructureimage and programme image were perceived medium. Apparently, none of the image dimensions wasperceived very high.T-test results indicated that there is a significantly meaningful difference between students and parents interms of perceived image (Table 2). Perceived image of schools among parents is higher than students,which may be explained by the fact that students are more affected by their school when compared totheir parents and they spend more time at school than their parents. Another factor which explain thisdifference may be the level of expectations in that parents‟ expectations may be less than students.Table 1:The Factor Analysis of the Image Scale, Alpha Reliabilty Values, Means and Standart DeviationValues of the Items and the Image DimensionsItemsMy school has good academic programmes with qualified graduates 3.62 1.09 .762My school prepares students for university and work life 3.51 1.10 .736My school has the responsibility to serve quality service to public 3.69 1.01 .717The teachers in my school are focused on giving quality education 3.93 1.03 .715My school is a qualified school 3.63 1.08 .707The administratives and teachers in my school are experts in their 3.68 0.99 .629fields.My school‟s administration behaves acording to the regulations. 3.65 1.08 .617My school is able to meet all the needs of the students properly. 3.27 1.16 .590My school is known for its teachers famous for their fields. 3.25 1.10 .569The administratives in my school are good at managing my school‟s 3.53 1.03 .443financial resources.Quality image (α=.90) 3.58 0.78xSDFactorsI II III IV V68

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010The appearance of our school is good. 3.30 1.16 .776My school‟s campus is bigger and more useful than other high 2.96 1.38 .772school‟s.My school facilities are modern 3.12 1.25 .769Appearance image (α=.79) 3.12 1.07My school is known for its „party‟ image. 2.64 1.24 .647My school has good sports teams. 2.64 1.25 .637My school is equal to different political views and ideologies and let 3.24 1.19 .631them exist.My school is known for its democratic attitude. 3.16 1.24 .621My school has an entertainment tradition 2.97 1.28 .619My school has a unique „school spirit‟. 3.42 1.21 .599My school is politically and socially active. 3.15 1.14 .590Social image (α=.81) 3.03 0.83My school‟s infrastructure of technological devices, labs, computers 3.08 1.27 .688and internet access are adequateThe library, music, theatre facilities of my school is pretty good 2.67 1.21 .662My school has adequate sports facilities 2.54 1.40 .645My school is a good substitue for the city life as it offers good clubs, 2.36 1.20 .545cafes, etc.My school offers good housing and accommodation service 3.39 1.12 .534My school offers good alimentary service 3.13 1.19 .383Infrastructure image (α=.75) 2.86 0.83My school is known for its success in equally weighted department 3.08 0.94 .695My school is known for its success in science 3.06 1.01 .639My school is known for its success in sports 2.62 1.15 .623My school is known for its success in fine arts 2.32 1.10 .568My school is known for its success in verbal department 2.49 0.99 .493Programme image (α=.63) 2.71 0.66General image (α=.92) 3.11 0.6169

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 2: Means and T-Test Results Concerning the Parent and Student Differences in Terms of CorporateImage and Image DimensionsImage dimension N x SD t pQuality image Student 255 3.46 0.76 -3.65 .00Parent 209 3.72 0.78Programme image Student 255 2.64 0.65 -2.77 .00Parent 209 2.81 0.67Infrastructure image Student 255 2.69 0.77 -4.99 .00Parent 209 3.07 0.85Appearance image Student 255 3.04 1.08 -1.80 .07Parent 209 3.22 1.04Social image Student 255 2.88 0.81 -4.46 .00Parent 209 3.22 0.82General image Student 255 2.99 0.58 -4.90 .00Parent 209 3.26 0.62As with general image, there are significant differences between students and parents in terms of otherimage dimensions. Except social image, with other dimensions, namely quality, infrastructure andprogramme image, the perceptions of students are lower than parents. The perceived social image amongparents is higher than students. This can be explained by the difference of expectations. No significantdifference was found between students and parents in terms of appearance image.Table 3: T-Test Results Concerning Perceived Corporate Image Levels By Student GenderImage dimension Gender N x SD t pQuality image Female 148 3.44 0.72 -.423 .67Male 105 3.48 0.82Programme image Female 148 2.56 0.61 -2.053 .04Male 105 2.73 0.70Infrastructure image Female 148 2.67 0.67 -.305 .76Male 105 2.70 0.90Appearance image Female 148 2.86 1.03 -3.165 .00Male 105 3.28 1.10Social image Female 148 2.87 0.80 -.121 .90Male 105 2.88 0.82General image Female 148 2.95 0.51 -1.045 .30Male 105 3.03 0.66As seen in table 3, gender didn‟t cause any difference in general image. However, with programme andappearence image, gender causes significant differences. In both dimensions, the perceived image amongmale students is higher than female students. Female students like the general appearance of the schools70

QUALITYEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010more than male students. The results concerning programme image is similar. Female students don‟t thinkthat their schools are prominent with a particular programme.Parents‟ gender also causes difference in image perception. As for the perceived general image of theschools, male parents perception is lower than female parents. Gender causes significant difference onlyin quality, infrastructure and social image perceptions. When compared to males, female parents find thequality, infrastructure and social image of the schools better. Wih programme and appearance image, thethoughts of male and female parents are similar.Table 4: T-Test Results Concerning The Perceived Corporate Image Level By Parents‟ GenderImage dimension Gender N x SD t pQuality image Female 76 3.88 0.75 2.558 .01Male 124 3.60 0.77Programme image Female 76 2.91 0.70 1.895 .06Male 124 2.73 0.63Infrastructure image Female 76 3.22 0.81 2.194 .03Male 124 2.95 0.85Appearance image Female 76 3.25 1.14 .275 .78Male 124 3.20 0.99Social image Female 76 3.44 0.81 3.246 .00Male 124 3.06 0.80General image Female 76 3.40 0.60 2.811 .01Male 124 3.15 0.62An ANOVA analysis was carried out to see if perceived image differed according to different schools andthe results yielded that both general school image and image dimensions differ significantly according toschools (Table 5).Table 5: ANOVA Results Concerning The Perceived Corporate Image Levels By SchoolsSchools N x SD Source ofvarianceSum ofSquaresDFMeanSquaresA 32 3.05 0.85 Between groups 20.19 8.00 2.52 4.44 0.00B 29 3.77 0.87 Within groups 258.62 455.00 0.57C 26 3.39 0.64 Total 278.81 463.00D 110 3.73 0.79E 68 3.80 0.69F 73 3.38 0.66G 37 3.56 0.76H 57 3.63 0.81I 32 3.46 0.74Fp71

SOCIALAPPEARANCECEINFRASTRUCTUREPROGRAMMEEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Total 464 3.58 0.78A 32 2.26 0.54 Between groups 11.58 8.00 1.45 3.43 0.00B 29 2.75 0.76 Within groups 192.29 455.00 0.42C 26 2.50 0.48 Total 203.87 463.00D 110 2.67 0.56E 68 2.83 0.51F 73 2.69 0.57G 37 2.87 0.88H 57 2.86 0.87I 32 2.84 0.72Total 464 2.71 0.66A 32 2.75 0.68 Between groups 26.37 8.00 3.30 5.16 0.00B 29 3.48 0.90 Within groups 290.71 455.00 0.64C 26 2.62 0.68 Total 317.08 463.00D 110 2.95 0.76E 68 3.04 0.81F 73 2.55 0.62G 37 2.64 0.79H 57 2.95 1.05I 32 2.71 0.87Total 464 2.86 0.83A 32 3.80 1.02 Between groups 142.43 8.00 17.80 21.13 0.00B 29 4.01 0.97 Within groups 383.35 455.00 0.84C 26 2.71 0.93 Total 525.78 463.00D 110 2.80 0.93E 68 3.93 0.76F 73 2.78 0.82G 37 2.20 1.01H 57 3.32 1.01I 32 2.90 0.95Total 464 3.12 1.07A 32 2.39 0.90 Between groups 23.17 8.00 2.90 4.41 0.00B 29 3.07 0.68 Within groups 298.84 455.00 0.66C 26 3.26 0.71 Total 322.00 463.00D 110 3.15 0.75E 68 3.08 0.82F 73 3.05 0.7772

GENERAL IMAGEEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010G 37 3.03 0.70H 57 3.20 1.11I 32 2.62 0.64Total 464 3.03 0.83A 32 2.81 0.56 Between groups 11.58 8.00 1.45 4.09 0.00B 29 3.38 0.68 Within groups 160.99 455.00 0.35C 26 2.99 0.52 Total 172.58 463.00D 110 3.15 0.58E 68 3.31 0.55F 73 2.96 0.49G 37 3.01 0.60H 57 3.21 0.79I 32 2.94 0.57Total 464 3.11 0.61As we are not able to specify school names here, it is not necessary to mention which school is better inwhich dimension and which school‟s image is perceived differently. However, we have to mention thatboth general image and image dimensions differ significantly between schools.While collecting data for the study, the school admininstratives were assured that schools name wouldremain confidential. Because of this ethical concern, a great deal of results have to be concealed. If wewere able to mention school names openly, the participating schools would find a chance for benchmarking, see their stranghts and weaknesses, try to improve and maintain their image. As for students andparents, they would benefit from the results when deciding on which school to apply.The research results yielded that, as a whole, none of the participating schools is superior to others in allimage dimensions (Table5). For instance, a school with a good academic quality image, may be lacking inappearance; or a school with a low social image may be better in another image dimension.DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSDiscussionThis research showed that the corporate image of schools is measurable. The results yielded that theperceived corporate image of participating schools is medium among students and parents. Of the imagedimensions, quality image was perceived “high”; while programme, infrastructure, social and appearanceimages were perceived “medium”.Additionally, parents‟ perceived image of schools was higher than students, which indicates that students‟expectations for their schools are more than their parents. Gender caused a significant difference inperceived image between students and parents. While female students‟ perceived image of schools waslower, the case was just the opposite for parents. Female parents‟ perceived image was higher than maleparents.Another important finding of the study is that the general image of the participating schools differ fromschool to school. Additionally, with different image dimensions, there are significant differences betweenschools. While some schools are better than the others in some image dimensions, they are left behind in73

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010other dimensions. None of the participating schools are strong or weak in all of the five imagedimensions. This findings may shed light to school administratives, students and parents.RecommendationsThis researched showed school administratives that school image is measurable. For this reason, schooladministratives, universities and private school associations should try measuring their school‟s imageand share the outcomes with the public.Organizations with high images have social attractiveness. Moreover, organizational image is manageableand improvable. Schools should measure their image and they should maintain the good features whileimproving lacking parts.In general, the participating schools seem good in quality image, but they need to improve themselves inother image dimensions, namely the infrastructure, social, appearance image. In order to achieve this,schools need to specialize in one field instead of all fields, pay attention to the location of the campus andesthetic, prioritise the infrastructure and social needs of their students.The following can be proposed to improve the general image of schools:Physical infrastructure of schools can be improved.The service quality (education, accommodation, etc.) should be improved.Concrete image elements (logos, emblems, uniforms, etc.) should be used effectively.Advertising, public relations, publicity should be improved.Sponsorship could be improved.School-media relations could be improved.Schools should participate more in social responsibility projects.Libraries, sports facilities and social facilities could be improved.The quality of staff should be improvedThe reputation of the academic programmes could be improvedDistinguished teachers could be employed in order to attract more studentsSchool‟s infrastructure, academic staff and programmes should be updated continuallyto keep up with changing conditions The corporate image of schools should be measured and evaluated continually; goodimage dimensions should be maintained and lacking dimensions should be improved.REFERENCESAmon, F. S. (2004). Organizational change communication, identity, image, and culture: The Case OfCare International. A thesis presented to the graduate school of the university of Florida inpartıial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts in mass communication.University Of Florida.Arpan, L. M., Arthur A. & Zivnuska, S. (2003). A cognitive approach to understanding university image.Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 8 (2), 97-113.Atalık, Ö. (2005). Havayolu işletmeleri örneğinde işletme imajının havayolu işletmesi tercihlerine vemüşteri bağlılığına olan etkisinin belirlenmesine yönelik bir araştırma [A research on the effect74

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010of corporate image on the preferences of airline companies and consumer commitment].Retrieved March 5 2009 from http://www.akademikbakis.org/pdfs/7/Anadolu.pdfBolat, O. İ. ( 2006 ). Konaklama işletmelerinde kurumsal imaj oluşturma süreci [The process of creating acorporate image in hospitality enterprises]. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler EnstitüsüDergisi, 9 (15), 107-126.Collins C. J. & Stevens C. K., (2001). Initial organizational images and recruitment: A within-subjectsinvestigation of the factors affecting job Choices. Corporate Communications: An InternationalJournal, 6 (4), 205-216.Dukerich, J. M., B. R. Golden & S. M. Shortell (2002). Beauty is in the eye of the beholder: The impactof organisational identification, identity and image on the cooperative behaviors of physicians,Administrative Science Quarterly, 47, 507–533.Dutton, J. & Dukerich, J. (1991), Keeping an eye on the mirror: Image and identity in organizationaladaptation, Academy of Management Review, 34, 517-54.Dutton, J.E., Dukerich, J.M. & Harquail, C.V. (1994), “Organization images and member identification”,Administrative Science Quarterly, 39, 239-63.Erdoğan, B. Z., Develioğlu, K., Gönüllüoğlu, S. & Özkaya, H. (2006). Kurumsal imajın şirketin farklıpaydaşları tarafından algılanışı üzerine bir araştırma. [A study on perceived corporate image bydifferent stakeholders of companies]. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 15, 55-76.Gemlik, N., & Sığrı, Ü. (2007). Kurum imajının analizi ve bir belediye üzerindeki uygulamanındeğerlendirilmesi [The analysis of corparate image and evaluation of an implication in amunicipality]. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 6 (11), 267-282.Gray, E.R, & Balmer, J.M.T (1998), Managing corporate image and corporate reputation. Long RangePlanning, 31 (5), 685-92.Hatch, M. J., & Schultz, M. ( 2002 ). The dynamics of organizational identity. Human Relations, 55 (8),989-1018.Hatch, M. J., & Schultz, M. (1997). Relations between organizational culture, identity and image.European Journal of Marketing, 31, 356-365.Kazoleas, D., Kim, Y., & Moffit, M. A. (2001). Institutional image: A case study. CorporateCommunications: An International Journal, 6 (4), 205-216.Köktürk S., Mehtap, Y., & Çobanoğlu, E. (2008) Kurum imajı oluşumu ve ölçümü. [The corporate imageformation and measurement]. Beta Basım Medya, İstanbul.Lemmink, J., Schuijf A., & Streukens S. (2003). The role of corporate image and company employmentimage in explaining application intentions. Journal of Economic Psychology, 24, 1–15.Nguyen, N., & LeBlanc, G. (2001). Image and reputation of higher education institutions in students‟retention decisions. The International Journal of Education Management, 15 (6/7), 303-311.O‟Neill J.L., & Gaither C.A. (2007). Investigating the relationship between the practice of pharmaceuticalcare, construed external image, organizational identification and job turnover intention ofcommunity pharmacists. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 3, 438-463.Paden, N. & Stell, R. (2006). Branding options for distance learning programs: Managing the effect onuniversity image. International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning. 3 (8), 45-54.Palacio, A. B., Meneses, G. D., & Perez, P. J. P. (2002).The configuration of the university ımage and itsrelationship with the satisfaction of students. Journal of Educational Administration, 40 (5), 486-505.Peltekoğlu, B.F. (2004), Halkla ilişkiler nedir? [What is public relations? ]. Beta Yayınları. No:1126,İstanbul.75

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Taslak, S., & Akın, M. (2005). Örgüt imajı üzerinde etkili olan faktörlere yönelik bir araştırma: Yozgat İliEmniyet Müdürlüğü örneği [A research on the influential factors on corporate image: The caseof Yozgat Police Department]. E.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 19 (2), 263-294.Taşkın, E. & Sönmez, S. (2005). Kurumsal imaj oluşturmada halkla ilişkilerin rolü ve bir alan araştırması[The role of public relations on creating corporate image and a field research]. Akademik BakışUluslararası Hakemli Sosyal Bilimler E-Dergisi, 7. Accessed on March 12 2009http://www.akademikbakis.org/pdfs/7/ercanta_k_n__semih.pdf76

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationTHE EFFECT OF COMPUTER ASSISTED CAREER GROUP GUIDANCE ONTHE SELF- EFFICACY LEVELS OF CAREER DECISION MAKING INSTUDENTSHasan BOZGEYĠKLĠ * , Hüseyin DOĞAN ***Erciyes University Faculty of Education** Gazi University Faculty of Educatione-mail address for correspondence: dogan99@gmail.comAbstract: In this study the effect of computer assisted career group guidance to levels of self-efficacy of 8thgrade elementary school students was examined. Research is an experimental study which is based onexperiment and control group pre-test and, post-test model. Computer assisted career guidance was madewith experiment group students for 5 weeks in two sessions. In total 10 sessions of career group guidancewere made. While computer assisted career group guidance was applied to experiment group, some debateswhich were chosen from general guidance programme were made with control group students. In the pre-testand post-test phases, levels of career decision making and self-efficacy of experiment and control groupstudents were measured according to Career Decision Making and Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (CDMSEQ).After experimental procedure independent sample t-test was used in order to determine the significantdifference between CDMSEQ pre-test and post-test scores of experiment and control groups. After theanalysis there is a significant difference between pre-test and post-test average scores of the experiment andcontrol groups per three factors. Findings indicated that the computer assisted career group guidance in theresearch is effective in increasing levels of career decision making and self-efficacy of 8th grade elementaryschool students.Keywords: Computer Assisted Career Guidance, Career Decision Making, Self-efficacy, Career DecisionMaking Self-EfficacyINTRODUCTIONAccording to social learning theory, people do not organize their lives via phenomenons which developpassively out of their self-control but they build it by doing on their own initiatives. The belief of selfefficacy acts as a mediator between setting goals and organizing the required activities to reach them.Perceived self efficacy was recommended by Bandura (1977, 1986, 1997) who is one of the social learningtheorists and it is believed to be one of the basic terms which effects behavior. According to Bandura,perceived self efficacy is the resultant of one’s capacity, achievements, motivations and other elementsforming self conceptions. Self efficacy plays a crucial role in determining the beginning of a behaviorinitiative or the continuation of an ongoing behavior. The achievements of people do not only depend on theircompetence but also the perception and comment of those abilities (Bandura, 1986). By using the expectationof self efficacy, it is possible to explain that: people who have the same level of competence can displaydifferent achievements (Lent, Brown and Hackett, 2002). Particularly, displaying the necessary performancein challenging situations require one to have competence to a certain degree and self efficacy which is relatedto that specific competence.In the last 20 years, researches (Hackett ve Betz, 1989; Lent, Brown ve Larkin, 1984; O’Brien, Martinez-Pons ve Kopala, 1999) related to self efficacy have indicated that self efficacy is influential on the desiredfield of study and career decision making of students. Particularly, researches made in relation to self efficacyof career decision making, behavior of occupational research (Blustein, 1989), research of occupation and77

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010occupational liabilities (Sullivan and Mahalik, 2000), gender differences (Bergeron and Romano, 1994;Blustein,1989, Taylor ve Betz, 1983; Taylor ve Pompa, 1990), choice of profession (Lent, Brown ve Larkin, 1984;Post-Kammer and Smith, 1986; Taylor ve Betz, 1983), occupational instability (Betz, Klein and Taylor,1996), occupational maturity (Anderson and Brown, 1997; Luzzo, 1995), styles of career decision making(Niles, Erford, Hunt and Watts., 1997), occupational compatibility (Luzzo and Ward, 1995) and occupationalidentity (Betz, Klein and Taylor, 1996; Robbins, 1985) have indicated that self efficacy plays a crucial role inthe process of career decision making.To enhance the self efficacy of career decision making in students, experimental researches (Baldwin, 1998;Betz ve Schifano, 2000; Turner and Lapan, 2005, Bozgeyikli, 2005) have been carried out in Turkey andabroad. In these researches, it is proved that individual and group guidance are effective in increasing the selfefficacy of career decision making on individuals. However, Brown and Lent (2005) have expressed thattraditional group guidance activities are not sufficient in itself in increasing the low level of self efficacy.Especially, if recent researches are examined carefully, it is seen that Computer Assisted Career GuidanceSystems are used more than group guidance.Being the world’s most comprehensive Computer Assisted Career Guidance Systems “SIGI PLUS,DISCOVER, CHOCIES, Career Information System CIS” provide information about different occupations.They also provide specific measurements which are used for measuring required personal characteristics,skills, interests and values for educational, occupational choices and preferences. In Turkey, the firstComputer Assisted Career Guidance programme was developed by Kuzgun and Sozalan (1995) in order tohelp high school students to choose their areas in the university. However, since YÖK (The Council ofHigher Education) has rearranged the university entrance system in 1998, this tool is no longer valid.It has been expressed with so many studies (Fukuyama, Probert, Neimeyer, Nevill and Metzler, 1988; Garisand Bowlsbey, 1992; Garis and Niles, 1990; Gati, Saka and Krausz, 2001; Gati, 1994; Gati and Fassa, 1997;Glaize and Myrick, 1984; Luzzo and Pierce, 1996; Marin and Splete, 1991; Oliver and Spokane, 1988;Whiston, Sexton and Lasoff, 1998) that, since 1960s Computer Assisted Career Guidance has revealed veryeffective and efficient results in the field of career development. Especially, in experimental researches(Fukuyama and others, 1988; Oliver and Spokane, 1988; Pinder and Fitzgerald, 1984; Whiston, Sexton, andLasoff, 1998;) whose subject areas are about its effect on self efficacy of career decision making haveindicated that it increases the behavior of career research and self efficacy of career decision making. Asmost of the resaerchers (Brown and Krane, 2000; Garis and Niles, 1990; Glaize ve Myrick, 1984; Johnston,Buescher ve Heppner, 1998; Kapes, Borman and Fraizer 1989; Marin and Splete, 1991;Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey, 2005; Taber and Luzzo, 1999; Watts, 1993) have expressed, the effect of Computer AssistedGuidance Systems is only revealed when it is used with other career interventions and psychologicalconsultation techniques. When the litareture about the effectiveness and use of Computer Assisted GuidanceSystems was reviewed (Hughes and Karp, 2004; Sampson, Rudd, and Reardon, 1998), it is seen that limitednumber of researches have been conducted on career planning and career preferences of post-primary andprimary education. Gati (1994) particularly expressed that Computer Assisted Career Guidance Systems isneed to be applied in primary school period and he also indicated the necessity of using valid tools in parallelto developing technology. On the other hand, there has not been conducted any research on the effectivenessof Computer Assisted Career Guidance Systems in Turkey. Depending on this deficiency, how to increasethe level of primary school students’ self efficacy in career decision making and the effect of ComputerAssisted Career Guidance practices on increasing the level of career decision making have been perceived asa subject worth of study and they also have been the subject of this study.The purpose of this study is to examine whether Computer Assisted Career Guidance program applied to 8thgrade elemantary school students is effective on the level of their self efficacy in career decision making ornot. In accordance with the general aim of the study following hypothesis have been tested:1.Computer Assisted Career Guidance increases the level of self efficacy of 8th grade elemantary students intheir career decision making.1.1. The difference between the accurate assessment of individual and occupational features pre-test andpost-test scores of subjects who participated computer assisted career group guidance is higher than thecontrol group.1.2. The difference between efficacy of gathering information about occpuation pre-test and pro-test ofsubjects participating Computer Assisted Career Guidance is higher than the difference scores of subjects incontrol group.78

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 20101.3. The difference between efficacy of making realist plans pre-test and pro-test of subjects participatingComputer Assisted Career Guidance is higher than the difference scores of subjects in control group.Pattern of StudyMETHODIn this research, the effect of Computer Assisted Career Guidance on 8th grade elemantary students’selfefficacy of career decision making was researched and it is also an experimental study which basis on“control group pre-test-pro-test model”. Independent variable of this study is Computer Assisted CareerGuidance which is applied to 8th grade elemantary school students. Dependent variable is the students’ levelof self efficacy in their career decision making. During the research ,with 2 sexigesemal minutes of sessionsper week, 5 weeks and 10 sessions of Computer Assisted Career Guidance was made with experiment group.During the same time period, control group have studied topics which are selected from school’s guidanceprogram and unrelated to dependent variables. In control group researcher has been active in level ofinitiating and managing the discussion.Subjects of StudyResearch was applied on 8th grade students (13-14 ages) who study at YaĢar Doğu Ġlköğretim Okulu whereis in Karatay district of Konya province. As pre-test, 215 8th grade students have been applied CareerDecision Making and Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (CDMSEQ), which is data collection tool for the research.Following this pre-test, subjects have been selected among those 215 students. As a result of Career DecisionMaking and Self-Efficacy Questionnaire, students who got the lowest grade have been chosen. In otherwords, 60 students who have low levels of self efficacy in career decision making have been selected assubjects of the study. Students were divided into two groups each have 30 students (14 female, 16 male).First group was selected as control group and the second one as experiment group. To determine whetherthere is a significant distinction between the points of experiment and control group or not; CDMSEQ pretestpoints of both groups have been analyzed with indepence t-test. Statistical analysis of these values aregiven in Table 1.Table 1. Arithmethic mean, standard deviation and t values according to CDMSEQ pre-test points ofstudents forming Experiment and Control groupsCDMESQ- 1.DimensionCDMESQ- 2.DimensionCDMESQ- 3.DimensionGroups nXStd.DeviationExperimental 30 25,06 2,81Control 30 25,66 2,27Experimental 30 20,63 1,80Control 30 20,06 1,81Experimental 30 19,86 2,14Control 30 19,80 2,81t p,907 ,3681,210 ,231,136 ,892As seen on Table 1 corresponding their CDMSEQ results, arithmethic means of both groups do not show anysignificant difference in all three dimensions of the scale. These calculated values indicate that experimentaland control groups have similar CDMSEQ pre-test scores.Data Collection ToolScale for Self Efficacy of Career Decision Making (CDMSES)In this study, in determining the self efficacy of career decision making of students, Scale for Self Efficacy ofCareer Decision Making (CDMSES), which was developed by Bozgeyikli (2004) for elementary levelstudents, was used. In this scale, self efficacy of career decision making is measured with “accurateassessment of Individual and Professional Features” ( 11 questions), “Collection of Career Information” (8questions), totally 27 questions in three dimensions. This scale , which can be applied indvidually or in79

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010groups, is a Likert type scale. High scores derived from the scale display high level of self efficacy indecision making and low scores mean low level of self efficacy in decision making.The internal consistency coefficients of the scale are; “accurate assessment of Personal and OccupationalFeatures” subscale: .98, “Collection of Career Information” subscale: .87, “Making realistic plans”subscale:.81 and total internal consistency coefficients of CDMSEQ are: .92. The results of the test-retest method inwhich score stability is tested are: “accurate assessment of Personal and Occupational Features”: 79,“Collection of Career Information”:.72, “Making realist plans”: .68 and all CDMSEQ: .78.Construct validiyof the scale: First factor (“accurate assessment of Personal and Occupational Features” : 11 questions), 30.91of total variance, second factor (“Collection of Career Information” : 8 questions) 5.64 and third factor(“Making realist plans” : 8 questions) 4.99.Total-item correlations in the whole scale are disributed as: .45 and .64, “accurate assessment of Personal andOccupational Features” : .54 and .74, “Collection of career information” : .45and .66, “Making realist plans”: .44 and .57InterventionThis study tested the “Computer Assisted Career Group Guidance Program” with the 8th grade elemantarystudents’ self efficacy of career decision making levels in which Scale for Self Efficacy of Career DecisionMaking (CDMSES) is used. By using this scale, occupational attitudes and behaviors related to dimensions(Accurate Assessment of Personal and Occupational Features, Collection of Career Information, MakingRealist Plans) of self efficacy in career decision making are aimed to be gained.Computer Assisted Career Guidance Program is generally carried out in three stages.In the first stage, a slide show has been presented about the meaning of interest, skill and personality traits;occupational development assignments and factors effecting occupational development process; postelementaryeducation options, higher education institutions and occupational fields. At the end of thepresentation, a group activity has been organized about what students’interests and skills are and theircommitted and uncommitted actions.In the second stage of Computer Assisted Career Guidance, BĠLDEMER (secodary education) program hasbeen put into practice. This program was developed by Kuzgun, Bozgeyikli and Timur (Kuzgun andBozgeyikli, 2008) for use in directing secondary school students to appropriate higher education institutions.Initially, students have been asked to rank their 5 desired educational options. Then, a presentation has beenheld on how to use BĠLDEMER (secondary education) and its purpose. Later, a sample application has beendone and students are provided with practical knowledge. And then by making every participant startBĠLDEMER (secondary education) program on their computer, they are asked to acquire a result list.Following this stage, subjects were asked to draw a comparison between the preceding list, which had beenprepared before program, and the one prepared via BĠLDEMER (secondary education). A sample applicationwas done with one of the participants who had the same results in both of his/her lists. This allowed otherstudents to see how questions were answered and it was also tried to increase the awareness of participantsabout what skills and interests were associated with educational options.Later on, with a similar practice, a group discussion was made on the lists of a participant whoseBĠLDEMER (secondary education) and self prepared lists were incompatible. During the discussion thereasons behind incompatibility were discussed. At the end of the discussion, by asking participant to refillthe BĠLDEMER (secondary education) question form according to his/her interest and skills, a more realisticlist was provided. Then in relation to their field of occupation and educational options on the list ofBĠLDEMER (secondary education) program, participants were provided to experience the activity ofresearching occupational and educational institutions.In the last stage of Computer Assisted Career Group Guidance, participants were asked to join career and jobweb sites like (www.iskur.org.tr ; www.yenibiris.com.tr etc.). Participants’ awareness about what type ofjobs and job areas have emerged and what kind of educational options, work experience and occupationalskills are required for these occupations and works have been raised by being registered to a career site. Thishelped participants in making future plans which are convenient to the personal traits, skils and interests.80

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Analysis of DataTo reveal whether Computer Asissted Career Guidance Program have been effective on participants’ selfefficacy of career decision making, the significance of the difference between the avarage scores, which isbelong to difference scores of pre-test and post-test scores, have been tested with t test for unrelated groups(X2-X1)-(X4-X3) (Büyüköztürk, 2001; Kaptan, 1998; Karasar, 1995). Therefore, difference scores primarilyhave been found by subtracting pre-test scores from post-test scores. Then difference between the avaragescores related to difference scores of experiment and control groups have been tested with t test for unrelatedgroups.RESULTSIn this section, analysis, which have been done to test hypothesis of the research, are presented. To reveal thedifference between pre-test and post-test difference scores of participating and nonparticipating subjects’CDMSEQ- Accurate Assessment of Personal and Occupational Features, CDMSEQ- Collection of CareerInformation and CDMSEQ- Making Realistic Plans; t test has been used for unrelated groups. Findingsrelated to this analysis have been given respectively in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4.Table 2. T test results related to difference of CDMSEQ Accurate Assessment of Occupational and personalfeatures dimension’s difference scores*p

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 4. T test results related to difference of CDMSEQ Making Realist Plans dimension’s difference scores*p

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010education) have been used in this research to enhance the self efficacy in career in decision making but alsoexpansion of educational options, targeting a specific career, identifying career barriers to be succesful,analysis of those barriers, group guidances on providing family and social support have also been included.The most important difference of this study’s results is helping individuals depending on evaluations whichbase on the real performance of individual, individuals’ evaluating themselves from a more realistic point ofview and motivating them to make more realistic career research. The students’, who have participatedcomputer assisted career group guidance, development of realistic self conception, encouragement ofgathering information especially from internet, development of independent and rational decision makingmechanism are important criteria for occupational maturity. Therefore, supporting students to participate theactivites given above not only enhance their self efficacy in career decision making but also effect theiroccupational maturity in the first hand. Occupational maturity and occupational efficacy are terms handled intwo different theories however they are similar in many ways. To be able to make a plausible career choice,one should complete the occupational development tasks of that period and i.e. s/he should reach theoccupational maturity of that period. However in the realization process of occupational development tasks,individual’s self efficacy related to that development task plays a crucial role. Namely, students who are atthe end of elementary period are expected to have development tasks like knowing their personal traits, skills,interest and etc. and drawing comparisons between those features and their desired school or occupation.However for individuals to fulfill this task alone is not enough (Bozgeyikli, 2005). Even knowing therequirements of an occupation and his/her features, and individual may avoid from focusing on it. The reasonbehind this behavior is that individual cannot trust fully himself/herself. For instance: An individual saying “Ican be succesful, if I go to this school or choose that job.” Ġndicates that s/he has reached occupationalmaturity. However if individual has a low level of self efficacy, s/he does not act in expected way because ofvarious reasons (economic conditions, difficulty of entry requirements, etc.). The individuals who havehigher level of self efficacy concentrate on that specific behavior and even if their possibility of admission isvery low, they insist on it. In this research, the importance of striving hopefully to reach a desiredphenomenon and its necessity have been expressed and it has been achieved in some extent.REFERENCEAnderson. S. ve Brown, C. (1997). Self-efficacy as a determinant of career maturity in urban and rural highschool seniors. Journal of Career Assessment. 5. 305- 315.Baldwin, N. (1998). The effect of a Career Development Course on the career self efficacy and vocationalidentity of community College Students, YayınlanmamıĢ doktora tezi, The George WashingtonUniversity.Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychological Review.84, 19 1-215.Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundation of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Bandura, A., (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York:Freeman.Bergeron, L. M. ve Romano, J. L. (1994). The relationships among CDMSE, educational indecision,vocational indecision, and gender. Journal of College Student Development, 35, 19-24.Betz, N. E., Klein, K. ve Taylor, K. (1996). Evaluation of a short form of the CDMSE Scale. Journal ofCareer Assessment. 4, 47-57.Betz; N. E. ve Schifano, S.R. (2000). Evaluation Of An Intervention To Increase Realistic Self-Efficacy AndInterests in College Women. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 56, 35-52.Blustein, D. L. (1989). The role of goal instability and career self-efficacy in the career exploration process.Journal of Vocational Behavior. 35, 194-203.Bozgeyikli, H. (2004). Meslek Kararı Verme Yetkinlik Ölçeğinin GeliĢtirilmesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi SosyalBilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 11, 221-23483

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Bozgeyikli, H. (2005). Mesleki grup rehberliğinin ilköğretim 8. Sınıf öğrencilerinin meslek kararı vermedekendilerini yetkin görme düzeylerine etkisi. YayınlanmamıĢ Doktora Tezi, Konya, S.Ü. SosyalBilimler Enstitüsü.Brown, D. ve Lent, W. (2005). Career develompment and, career counseling, and career development (10thed.). Canada: John Wiley & Sons.Brown, S. D. ve Krane, N. E. (2000). Four (or five) sessions and a cloud of dust: Old assumptions and newobservations about career counseling. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counselingpsychology (pp. 740-766). New York: John Wiley.Büyüköztürk, ġ., (2001). Deneysel Desneler-Ön-test-Son-test kontrol gruplu desen ve veri analizi. Ankara:PegemA yayınları.Fukuyama, M. A., Probert, B. S., Neimeyer, G. J., Nevill, D. D. ve Metzler, A. E. (1988). Effects ofDISCOVER on the career self-efficacy and decision making of undergraduates. CareerDevelopment Quarterly, 37, 56-62.Garis, J. ve Bowlsbey, J. H. (1984). DISCOVER and the counselor: their effects upon college student careerplanning progress. (ACT Research Report No. 85). Iowa City, IA: ACT Publications.Garis, J. W. ve Niles, S. G. (1990). The separate and combined effects of SIGI and DISCOVER and a careerplanning course for undecided university students. Career Development Quarterly, 38, 261-274.Gati, I. (1994). Computer-assisted career counseling: Dilemmas, problems, and possible solutions. Journal ofCounseling and Development, 73, 51-56Gati, I. ve Fassa, N. (1997). Evaluating computer-assisted career guidance systems: The role of careercounselors. Career Planning and Adult Development Journal, 13, 63-75.Gati, I., Saka, N. ve Krausz, M. (2001). "Should I use a computer-assisted career guidance system?" Itdepends on where your career decision-making difficulties lie. British Journal of Guidance andCounseling, 29, 301-321.Glaize, D. L. ve Myrick, R. D. (1984). Interpersonal groups or computers? A study of career maturity andcareer decidedness. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 32, 168-176.Hackett, G., ve Betz, N. E. (1989). An exploration of the mathematics self- efficacy/mathematicsperformance correspondence. Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 20, 261-273.Harris-Bowlsbey, J. ve Sampson, J. P., Jr. (2001). Computer-assisted career planning systems: Dreams andrealities. Career Development Quarterly, 49, 250-260.Hughes, K. L. ve Karp, M. M. (2004). School-based career development: A synthesis of the literature. NewYork: Columbia University, Teachers College, Institute on Education and the Economy.Johnston, J. A., Buescher, K. L. ve Heppner, M. J. (1988). Computerized career information and guidancesystems: Caveat emptor. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 39-41.Kapes, J. T., Borman, C. A. ve Frazier, N. (1989). An evaluation of the SIGI and DISCOVERmicrocomputer-based career guidance systems. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling andDevelopment, 22, 126-136.Kaptan, S. (1998). Bilimsel araĢtırma ve istatistik teknikleri. Ankara: TekıĢık Web Ofset Tesisleri.Karasar, N. (1995). Bilimsel araĢtırma yöntemi. (7. Basım) Ankara: 3A AraĢtırma Eğitim DanıĢmanlık.Kuzgun, Y. ve Bozgeyikli, H. (2008). BĠLDEMER (Ortaöğretim) YayınlanmamıĢ araĢtırma raporu.84

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Kuzgun, Y. ve Sözalan, S. (1995). Bildemer, Bilgisayar Destekli Meslek Rehberliği ProgramınınGeliĢtirilmesi. II. Ulusal Psikolojik DanıĢma ve Rehberlik Kongresi Bilimsel ÇalıĢmaları Ankara:PDR Derneği YayınlarıLent, R. W., Brown, S. D. ve Larkin, K. C. (1984). Relations of self-efficacy expectations to academicachievement and persistence. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 31, 356-362.Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (2002). Social cognitive career theory. In D. Brown (Ed.), Careerchoice and development (pp. 255-311). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Luzzo, D. A. (1995). The relative contributions of self-efficacy and locus of control to the prediction ofcareer maturity. Journal of College Students Development. 36 (1), 61-66.Luzzo, D. A. ve Pierce, G. (1996). Effects of DISCOVER on the career maturity of middle school students.Career Development Quarterly, 45, 170-172.Luzzo, D. A. ve Ward, B. E. (1995). The relative contributions of self-efficacy and locus of control to theprediction of vocational congruence. Journal of Career Development. 21, 307-317.Marin, P. ve Splete, H. (1991). A comparison of the effect of two computer-based counseling inventions onthe career decidedness of adults. The Career Development Quarterly, 39 (4), 360-71.Niles, S, G., Erford, B. T., Hunt, B. ve Watts, R. H. Jr. (1997). Decision-making styles and careerdevelopment in college students. Journal of College Student Development. 38 (5), 479-488.Niles, S. G. ve Harris-Bowlsbey, J. (2005). Career development interventions in the 21st century. UpperSaddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.O’Brien, V., Martinez-Pons, M. ve Kopala, M. (1999). Mathematics Self-efficacy, ethnic identity, gender,and career interests related to mathematics and science. Journal of Educational Research, 92 (4),231-236.Oliver, L. W. ve Spokane, A. R. (1988). Career-intervention outcome: What contributes to client gain?Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 447-462.Pinder, F. A. ve Fitzgerald, P. W. (1984). The effectiveness of a computerized guidance system in promotingcareer decision-making. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 24, 123-131.Post-Kammer, P. ve Smith, P. L. (1986). Sex differences in math and science career self-efficacy amongdisadvantage students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 89-101.Robbins, S. B. (1985). Validity estimates for the CDMSE scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counselingand development. 18, 64-74.Sampson, J. P., Jr., Rudd, E. ve Reardon, R. (1998). Computer-assisted career guidance: Research andevaluation bibliography. Tallahassee: Florida State University, Center for the Study of Technologyin Counseling and Career Development.Sullivan, K. R. ve Mahalik, J. K. (2000). Increasing career self-efficacy for women: Evaluating a groupintervention. Journal of Counseling and Development. 78, 54-62.Taber, B. J. ve Luzzo, D. A. (1999). A comprehensive review of research evaluating the effectiveness ofDISCOVER in promoting career development (ACT Research Report Series No. 99.3). Iowa City,IA: American College Testing.Taylor, K. M. ve Betz, N. E. (1983). Applications of self-efficacy theory to the understanding and treatmentof career indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 22, 63-8 1.Taylor, K. ve Popma, J. (1990). An examination of the relationship among CDMSE, career salience, locus ofcontrol, and vocational indecision. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 32, 17-31.85

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Turner, S., L. ve Lapan, R., T. (2005). Evaluation of an intervention to increase non-traditional careerinterests and career-related self-efficacy among middle-school adolescents. Journal of VocationalBehavior, 66, 516-531Watts, A. G. (1993). The politics and economics of computer-aided careers guidance systems. British Journalof Guidance and Counseling, 21, 175-187.Whiston, S. C., Sexton, T. L. ve Lasoff, D. L. (1998). Career-intervention outcomes: A replication andextension of Oliver and Spokane (1988). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 150-165.86

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationAN ANALYSIS OF TEACHERS’ UTILIZATION IN URBAN AND RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS INMID-WESTERN STATES OF NIGERIAVincent .O. IbadinDepartment of Educational Studies and ManagementUniversity of Benin, Benin City, NigeriaE-mail address for correspondence: vindin_me@yahoo.comAbstract: The study was designed to investigate if teachers in urban and rural secondary schools in Mid-WesternStates of Nigeria, were under utilized or over utilized. It also sought to ascertain if urban secondary school teacherswere more utilized than their rural counterparts. To guide the study three research questions were raised. The studysampled 240 teachers (i.e. 120 teachers each from urban and rural schools). They were selected from 48 sampledpublic secondary schools (i.e. 24 schools each from urban and rural areas). The Public Secondary School Teachers’Utilization Questionnaire (PSSTUQ) was used to collect data. The data gathered were analysed using the formularecommended by the guidelines for the implementation of the 9-3-4 Education System. The study revealed that urbansecondary school teachers had an average weekly workload of 16 periods, while their rural counterparts had 26periods. The rural secondary school teachers were not only adequately utilized but they were more utilized than theurban secondary school teachers.Key words: Education, secondary school, teacher._____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe importance of teachers in the education enterprise has been emphasized by philosophers and scholars fromancient times to the present day of science and technology. There is no gain saying the fact that teachers are at thecentre of crisis in the education system of many developing countries, Nigeria inclusive. It is first and foremost aproblem of quality, that is, how best to get large enough quantity of qualified and experienced teachers for the fastexpanding education system. Education is a mass-production and labour intensive enterprise, and as the number ofstudents increases, so does the need for more teachers arise.In Nigeria, the growth of the education system since independence in 1960 has been phenomenal. For example,between 1960 and 1998, primary school enrolment increased from 2,912,619 to 17,942,000 or 516 percent rateincrease. For the same period, secondary school enrolment increased from 55,235 to 6,056,700 or 10,865 percentrate increase; while University enrolment increased from 71,095 to 249,287 or 250.64 percent rate increase between1980 and 1999 (Okobia, 2002).87

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010In 1999, the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) introduced Free, Compulsory and Universal Basic Education(UBE) programme. This laudable programme characterized by smooth transition from primary education tosecondary education further increased primary and secondary school enrolments. For example, table 1 below showsstatistics of primary and secondary school enrolments as at 2005.Table 1: Shows Statistics of Primary and Secondary Education in Nigeria, 2005.(i) Primary School Level(a) Number of Primary Schools = 60,188(b) Number of Pupils Enrolled = 22,267,407(c) Number of Teachers = 591,291(d) Pupils – Teacher Ratio = 38:1(ii)Secondary School Level(a) Number of Secondary Schools = 10,913(b) Number of Students Enrolled = 6,397,581(c) Number of Teachers = 153,154(d) Students – Teacher Ratio = 42.1Sources: (a) Federal Ministry of Education (FME) 2007. Basic and Senior SecondaryEducation Statistics in Nigeria.(b) Federal Ministry of Education (2003), A Handbook of Information on BasicEducation in Nigeria.Table 1 revealed that primary and secondary school enrolments increased to 22,267,407 pupils and 6,397,581students respectively; in 2005. From these enrolment figures, one can conveniently say that enormous resources interms of manpower (teachers and supporting staff), time, fiscal and material resources are utilized at the primary andsecondary school levels of education in Nigeria.At this point in time, it is pertinent to realize that manpower is the most important resource in any organization.Hence perhaps, Harbison (1973:3) asserted that:… human resources – not capital, not income, not material resources – constitute the ultimate basis for the wealth ofnations, capital and natural resources are passive factors of production; human beings are the active agents whoaccumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social, economic and political organizations and carry forwardnational development.Consequently, a teacher plays an indispensable role in the process of teaching and learning. In other words, he is thechange agent that harnesses other resources for production function. In support of this, Nwagwu (1998:182)emphasized that, “the concept of education by itself implies the existence of teaching and learning, hence themention of the word school evokes automatically the picture of teachers and students in an interactive environment.In Nigeria in general and Mid-Western states (i.e. Edo and Delta States) in particular, secondary schools are locatedin both urban and rural centres. Although these states are endowed with abundant natural resources like oil deposits,limestone and forest resources among others; they are however, poorly developed in terms of infrastructuralfacilities like good and lack of social amenities particularly in the rural areas. In support of this, the study conductedby Matthews, Carr and Hudson (2001) on teaching in rural and remote areas in Australia revealed that someconcerns may detract teaching graduates from working in rural locations in Australia. This aptly summarized theprecarious situation in rural areas in Mid-Western states of Nigeria, devoid of basic social amenities. Thisunwholesome situation seems to have degenerated into teachers’ militancy and youths unrest. In the same vein,88

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Ejiogu (1997:35) asked the question: “The Nigerian Teacher More Sinned Against Than Sinning?” He came to theconclusion that Nigerian teachers are still treated like beasts of burden, no matter their qualifications, status, and theeducation level where they operate. At times, he said, they are even treated like villains who are responsible for allthe problems and crises in the education system. In consonance with this, Nwagwu (1998:187) pointed out that,“They are sinned against by government, their employers whether public or private educational institutions, parents,society, and now even their own students who abuse and intimidate them, burn down their offices, cars and houses,or even rape their wives and children.” This aptly summarized the precarious situation secondary school teachers inparticular and teachers in Nigeria in general have found themselves.From the foregoing, one can conveniently say that accusing fingers are pointing to the teachers as the cause of thepersistent poor academic performance of secondary school students. In Mid-Western states, many secondary schoolsin both urban and rural centres have been derecognized by examination bodies, like the Western AfricanExaminations Council (WAEC), and the National Examinations Council (NECO) among others due to examinationmalpractices and abysmal poor academic performance.At this juncture, it is worthy of note that a number of factors have been ascribed to the poor academic performanceof students. For example, some people blamed the parents for failure to inculcate discipline and learning habit intheir children, yet others blamed the government for failure to provide adequate human material and fiscal resources,while others blamed the teachers for failure to teach the necessary knowledge, skills and behaviours to students.Some blamed the students and examination bodies for refusal to learn and for their failure to measure adequately theknowledge, skills and behaviours learned by students respectively.Whatever the factors are, the ultimate quality of education is determined by the teacher, as he transmits the value ofeducation to the student. In line with this, Merton (1957) in a paper titled “The Self Fulfilling Prophecy”, pointedout that, “a teacher’s expectation can and does quite literally affect a student’s academic performance.” Similarly,Aghenta (1998:44) emphasized that, “what the teacher does and how he does it are important in the determination ofquality of education. The teacher is equally important in the determination of quantity of education.” Hence, perhapsthe National Policy on Education (FGN, 2004:39) declared that “… no education system may rise above the qualityof its teachers.”From the foregoing, one can say that teachers as primarily responsible for the persistent poor academic performanceof secondary school students in Mid-Western states of Nigeria. Consequently there are allegations and counteraccusations that teachers are either under utilized or over utilized.The guide lines for the implementation of the 9-3-4 Education System (i.e. 9 years of universal basic education,three years of senior secondary education and fours years of tertiary education) recommended a minimum of 18periods per teacher per week and a maximum of 24 periods per teacher per week. In the same vein, Aghenta(1983:64) emphasized that, “It is true that a few are over worked but when the average is taken we discover thatteachers teach 15 periods out of 36-40 periods a week.” Furthermore, he pointed out that, “some teachers have noother assignment apart from the few classes they teach, but a few others in addition to heavy teaching loads arecharged with games, sports and students personnel administration etc.” Generally, however, our teachers are underutilized.” Similarly, Oyeka (2002) study titled “An analysis of resource management in public Secondary Schools inEdo state” revealed that, “teachers in urban secondary schools had an average weekly workload per teacher of 20periods, while those in rural secondary schools had an average weekly workload of 24 periods.” In consonance withthis, Nwagwu (1998:189) pointed out that, “In many states of the country today, some secondary school teachersteach as many as 30 periods a week, that is an average of 6 periods a day. In short, they teach from the time theyarrive to the time school closes, thus treating them like primary school teachers.”Consequent upon the foregoing, it becomes imperative to ascertain if secondary school teachers in Mid-Westernstates of Nigeria are either under utilized or over utilized, hence perhaps, the persistent poor academic performanceof their students. This study therefore, empirically examined the following research questions.1. What were the average weekly number of periods assigned to teachers in urban secondaryschools?2. What were the average weekly number of periods assigned to teachers in rural secondary schools?3. Were the urban secondary school teachers more utilized than the rural secondary school teachers?89

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010METHODOLOGYThe research design of this study was an ex-post-facto. The population comprised of all the teachers in Public (urbanand rural) secondary schools in Mid-Western states of Nigeria. Sample and Sampling Procedure: Random and stratified random sampling techniques were usedin this study. Random sampling technique was used to select 10 percent of the 42 Local GovernmentAreas in Mid-Western states, therefore giving rise to 4 Local Government Areas. The stratified randomsampling technique was used to select 240 secondary school teachers (i.e. 5 teachers each from 24 urbanschools and 5 teachers each from 24 rural schools). Instrumentation: Data were generated using an instrument titled “Public Secondary SchoolTeachers’ Utilization Questionnaire (PSSTUQ). The instrument was designed by the researcher afterobjective criticisms and suggestions from colleagues who are experts in Measurement and Evaluation. Itwas divided into sections A and B. Section A elicited information on location of school and thedemographic data of the teacher, while section B elicited information on the average number of periodsper week that were assigned to teachers in urban and rural secondary schools in Mid-Western States ofNigeria. Data Collection and Analysis: Some postgraduate students in the researcher’s department, whohad been adequately trained as research assistants were used. They administered and collected thequestionnaires. The data gathered were collated and analysed using the formula recommended in theguidelines for the implementation of the 9-3-4 education system.RESULTSTable 1: Average Weekly Workload of Teachers in Urban and Rural Secondary SchoolsLocation ofSchoolNumber of SampledSecondary Schools2008/2009 School YearNumber of Sampled SecondarySchoolsAverage Weekly Teacher’sWorkloadUrban 24 120 16Rural 24 120 26Total 48 240 21Table 1 revealed that a total of 240 urban and rural secondary school teachers (i.e. 120 urban and 120 rural) weresampled from 48 sampled urban and rural secondary schools (i.e. 24 urban and 24 rural schools).Research Question 1: What were the average weekly number of periods assigned to teachers in urban secondaryschools?Table 1 revealed that in 2008/2009 school year, the 120 sampled teachers from 24 sampled urban secondary schools,had an average weekly workload of 16 periods.90

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Research Question 2: What were the average weekly number of periods assigned to teachers in rural secondaryschools? Table 1 revealed that in 2008/2009 school year, the 120 sampled teachers from 24 sampled rural secondaryschools, had an average weekly workload of 26 periods.Research Question 3: Were the urban secondary school teachers more utilized than their rural secondary schoolteachers?Table 1 revealed that rural secondary school teachers had an average weekly workload of 26 periods, while theirurban secondary school counterparts had an average weekly workload of 16 periods. In other words, the ruralsecondary school teachers were more utilized than the urban secondary school teachers.DISCUSSION OF RESULTSThis study examined whether teachers in either urban and rural secondary schools in Mid-Western states of Nigeriaare under utilized or over utilized. It also sought to ascertain if there were variations in their workload.The results revealed that urban secondary school teachers in 2008/2009 school year, had an average weeklyworkload of 16 periods. This was smaller than the minimum workload of 18 periods recommended by the guidelinesfor the implementation of the Nigerian education system. In other words, the teachers in urban secondary schools in2008/2009 school year were under utilized. In support of this, Aghenta (1983:64) asserted that, “It is true that a feware over worked, but when the average is taken we discover that teachers teach 15 periods out of 36-40 periods aweek.” Contrary to the finding of this study, Oyeka (2002) discovered that urban secondary school teachers had anaverage weekly workload of 20 periods. The difference may be ascribed to the unprecedented expansion that theNigerian secondary school system witnessed, which in turn led to the recruitment of more secondary schoolteachers.As regards rural secondary school teachers, this study revealed that they had an average weekly workload of 26periods in 2008/2009 school year. This workload is slightly higher than the maximum workload of 24 periods perteacher per week recommended on the guidelines for the implementation of the Nigerian secondary school system aswell as the 24 periods discovered by Oyeka (2002) in her study for rural secondary school teachers. The slightincrease in the workload of teachers in rural secondary schools may be ascribed to the excess workloads that wereassigned to the few teachers in rural schools. It is pertinent to realize that rural areas in Nigeria in general and Mid-Western States in particular are devoid of basic social amenities like pipe borne water, electricity and recreationcentres among others. As a result of the unwholesome situation, only few teachers deployed to rural secondaryschools stay. The resultant effect of this is that the few that remained, were perhaps, made to teach other subjectsthat were partly related to their areas of specialization. In consonance with this, Nwagwu (1998:189) pointed outthat, “In many states of the country today, some secondary school teachers teach as many as 30 periods a week, thatis an average of 6 periods a day.” From this, one can say that rural secondary school teachers in Mid-Western statesof Nigeria in 2008/2009 school year, were not only adequately utilized but they were over utilized, unlike theirurban counterparts.CONCLUSIONIn view of the findings of this study, the following conclusions are being made. Teachers in rural secondary schoolsin Mid-Western states of Nigeria were over utilized, while their counterparts in urban secondary schools were underutilized.91

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010RECOMMENDATIONSSince over utilization of teachers does not always give them the chance to do their best work and show theirstrengths, equitable redistribution of teachers due to imbalances between urban and rural secondary schools is ofobvious importance. While under utilization of teachers is an economic waste in the school system, andconsequently calls for optimal utilization of human resource in the production function; through the process ofcompulsory redeployment of teachers from urban schools to rural schools.REFERENCESAghenta, J.A. (1998), “Teacher Recruitment and Retention: Issues and Problems in Teachers and Teaching inNigeria: Issues, Challenges and Prospects N.A. Nwagwu (Ed.), The Nigerian Academy of EducationYearbook, No. 2, 44.Ejiogu, A. (1997), “The Nigerian Teacher More Sinned Against Than Sinning”, in Emergent Issues in NigerianEducation Vol. 2, edited by .A. Ejiogu and K. Ajayi, Lagos: Unilag Consult.FGN (2004), National Policy on Education, Yaba, Lagos: NERDC Press, 39.Harbison, F.H. (1973), Human Resources as the Wealth of Nations, New York: Oxford University Press, 3.Matthew, C., Carr L. and Hudson, M. (2001), Graduate Teachers in Rural and Remote S.A. Schools, A Year Bookof First South Australian Chapter, the Australian College of Education.Merton, R.K. (1957), “The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy.” Social Theory and Social Structure, New York, Free Press.Nwagwu, N.A. (1998), “Teachers’ Militancy, Productivity and Standards in Education Today and in the Future” inProspects N.A. Nwagwu (Ed.) The Nigerian Academy of Education Yearbook No. 2. 182.Okobiah, O.S. (2002), The Educational Imbalance Between the Northern and Southern States of Nigeria: ARedirection of Educational Policies. Inaugural Lecture Series, Delta State University, Abraka, 13th March.Oyeka, C.F. (2002), An Analysis of Resource Management in Public Secondary Schools in Edo State, UnpublishedDoctoral Thesis, University of Benin, Benin City; Nigeria.92

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationTHE INFLUENCE OF AGE, OWNERSHIP AND TYPE OF UNIVERSITY ONRESOURCE SITUATION IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIESAjayi, I.A.* and Abiodun-Oyebanji, O.J.*University Of Ado-Ekiti, NigeriaDepartment Of Educational Foundations And Management, Faculty of Education*E-Mail Address For Correspondence: abiodun.oyebanji@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This study examined the influence of age, ownership and type of university on resource situation inNigerian universities. A descriptive survey design was used in the study. Data were collected from 900 academicstaff using stratified, purposive and simple random sampling techniques. The data were analysed using frequencycounts, percentages, means, standard deviation and t-test statistics. The three hypotheses generated were tested at0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that there was significant difference between the resource situations ofstate and federal universities in favour of federal universities. There was also significant difference between first andthird generation universities in terms of resource situations in favour of first generation universities. However, therewas no significant difference in the resource situations between conventional and specialized universities. It wasrecommended that the proprietors of state and third generation universities should improve the resource situationsin their universities in order to make them compete favourably with federal and first generation universities.Key words: Age, Nigerian Universities, academic staff, ownership______________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe strategic position occupies by university in national development cannot be over emphasized. Universitieswhether privately or publicity owned, specialized or conventional, federal or state operate with the aim of achievingthe objectives of training high-level manpower for the various sectors of the economy and also engaging in teachingand research all aims at ensuring development at every level of human interaction. It is also expected of theuniversity to explore solutions to the country’s problems and assist the larger society to achieve its objectives in theareas of human, social and economic development (Ogbodo and Nwaoku, 2007).However, as important as the role of university in any nation’s development, it seems as if universities in Nigeria arenot living up to expectation in performing these nobles roles due to poor resource situation which appear to beconfronting them. Resources constitute a wide and all embracing concept. Areola (1982), Oni (1995), Levaicic(1995) and Faniran (1997) have all grappled with the task of attempting a definition of resources. They all seem toagree that resources are entities existing within man’s environment that can be applied or used to satisfy humanneeds, wants and sustain human existence.From Adeola (2005) point of view, resources are considered from three perspectives as a means of satisfying somewants or deficiency, as a stock or reserve (fixed or otherwise) from which one can draw its own support, and also asa collective means, possessed by a country as a form of natural endowment to be used for its own support or defence.Oni (1992) and Akomolafe (2005) also opined that resources are those inputs that go into the running and operation93

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010of any enterprise. In the same vein, Adebayo (2000) and Akinwumi (2001) while emphasizing the place of resourcesin educational development submitted that steady provision and condition of resources will largely guarantee aneffective operation of the educational system.According to Olagboye (2004), resources can be classified into physical, material and human resources and alsosocial amenities. The physical resources are office accommodation, lecture rooms, libraries, laboratories, resourcecentres, common room, workshop among others, while material resources comprise current books and journals in thelibrary, stationeries, computers, internet facilities, furniture, laboratory apparatus among others. Human resourcesconsist of staff in the organisation. Social amenities comprise good road networks, portable water, regular and stableelectricity. The condition of these resources according to Olagboye goes a long way in facilitating and stimulatingany educational programme.Resource situation on the other hand basically is the availability and quality of the available resources (Akinfolarin,2007). It can also be described as a condition or the state of affairs of the allotted resources in an institution,especially at a certain time (Julius, 1989). The resource situation entails whether essential educational resources areavailable and also suitable for organisational activities.It has been observed over the years that the factors of age, ownership and type of universities appear to influenceresource situation in Nigerian universities. Age refers to the year of establishment of a particular university. Forinstance, Nigerian universities have been classified into first, second and third generation universities. Firstgeneration universities are universities established in the 40s, and 60s in Nigeria and they are six in number. The sixuniversities constitute Nigeria’s first generation universities. Second generation universities are universitiesestablished in the 70s and third generation universities are the universities established in the 80s, and majority ofthese universities are owned by state government (Okebukola, 1998).Basically age is related to the historical development of any university and the prevailing economic situation in thecountry at the period of establishing these universities. For instance, most of the first and second generationuniversities in Nigeria were established during the oil boom era in Nigeria (Shehu, 2005). The buoyant economypossibly translated to adequate funding with corresponding positive impact on resource situation of theseuniversities. This appears to make these universities better in terms of resource situation than the third generationuniversities that were established in the early 1980s when the economy became moribund and hence, no enough fundto make adequate provisions for the resources needed by these universities (Saint and Harnett, 2003).Yann (2002) further buttressed how university age affects academic staff job performance by opined that most stateuniversities, established in the early 1980s when the economy became moribund were the first in Nigeria todisappear from the research scene as a result of financial constraints, and operating today as second class teachinginstitutions with the exception of one or two. According to him, most of these universities have been cut off frominternational networks, scholars from these universities were forced to seek individually for alternative resources, orto withdraw from all research activities.Ownership is related to the issue of funding and control of the Nigerian University system by their proprietors.Funding appears very crucial for conducive resource situation in the university system. This is premised on theunderstanding that with adequate funding, more facilities can be provided in the university system. In Nigeria, thecurrent practice of political federalism without fiscal federalism, places the federal government at an advantage overthe various states in the federation. This development according to Oke (2001) and Awe (2009) has made therevenue allocation formula to be positively skewed in favour of the federal government, thus creating disparity in thelevel of funding of both federal and state universities in Nigeria. It therefore appears as if universities owned by thefederal government has better resource situation than the ones owned by the state government due to the seeminglyfinancial advantage of federal universities over state universities. It also seems as if specialized universities are betteroff in terms of resource situation than the conventional universities as a result of higher operational cost ofspecialized universities.The shift in attention towards technological advancement in Nigeria witnessed the establishment of specializeduniversities, such as universities of science and technology and universities of agriculture. It is observed thatspecialized universities are more capital intensive than the conventional universities. This may be due to equipmentand facilities that must be on ground before the universities can take off properly. Thus, it is likely that the priorityaccorded specialized universities could facilitate allocation of more resources to it, a development which may likelytranslate or lead to better resource situation. This is therefore to say that type of university may determine thesituation of resources in a given university.Conventional universities on the other hand are traditional universities that offer multidisciplinary courses in arts,social sciences, law, medicine, science among others. These universities are patterned after the British universitiesand most of the third generation universities fall into this category (Awe, 2009). The common feature of specializeduniversities is that they are expensive in nature due to capital expenditure on the equipment for training and research94

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010purpose (Aminu, 1986 and Oke, 2001)It therefore appears that there is disparity between universities in terms ofresource situation as a result of some factors. Against this backdrop, this paper investigated the influence of ageownership and type of universities on resource situation in Nigerian universities.Purpose of the StudyThe purpose of this study was to find out the influence of age, ownership and type of university on resource situationin Nigerian universities. In terms of age, the study investigated whether first and third generation universitiesdiffered in terms of resource situation. On ownership, the study also investigated whether federal and stateuniversities differed in terms of resource situation while on type of universities, the study examined whetherconventional and specialized universities differed in terms of resource situation.HypothesesThe following hypotheses were generated to pilot the study:1. There is no significant difference between federal and state universities in terms of resourcesituation.2. There is no significant difference between first and third generation universities in terms ofresource situation.3. There is no significant difference between conventional and specialized universities in terms ofresource situation.METHODOLOGYThe descriptive research design of the survey type was used in the study. The population of the study consisted of allthe academic staff of the public universities in southwest Nigeria. The sample comprised 900 academic staff,multistage sampling technique was used to select the sample. At first stage, the universities were stratified along thevariables of type and ownership, six universities were randomly selected; this comprised 4 conventional universities(2 state and 2 federal) and 2 specialised universities (1 state and 1 federal). The 4 conventional universities includedin the sample are first generation universities and third generation universities respectively, while the 2 specialiseduniversities are third generation universities. At the second stage, simple random sampling technique was used toselect 150 lecturers from each of the sampled universities.A self designed questionnaire tagged Resource Situation Questionnaire for academic staff (RSQ) was used to obtaininformation from the subject. The data collected were analysed using frequency counts, percentages, means, standarddeviation and t-test. All the hypotheses formulated were tested at 0.05 level of significance.95

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010RESULTSHypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the federal and state universities in terms of resourcesituationTable 1: t-test summary of resource situations of the federal and state universitiesItem N Mean SD df t cal t tabState universities 476 98.11 13.82Federal universities 424 133.45 19.41 898 13.767 1.960P < 0.05Table 1 shows that t-calculated (13.767) is greater than t-table (1.960). Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected.Therefore, there is significant difference in the resource situation of state and federal universities. The mean score inthe federal universities (113.45) is greater than that of state universities which is (98.11). This implies that theresources situation is better in federal universities than state universities.Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between first and third generation universities in terms of resourcesituation.Table 2: t-test Summary of resource situations in first and third generation universitiesItem N Mean SD df t cal t tabFirst Generation universities 299 133.82 20.20Third Generation universities 601 101.12 15.76 898 10.338 1.960P < 0.05Table 2 shows that t-calculated (10.338) is greater than t-table (1.960). Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected.Therefore, there is significant difference between first and third generation universities in terms of resource situation.The mean for first generation universities (113.82) is greater than a mean of (101.12) recorded for third generationuniversities. This means that first generation universities have better resource situation than third generationuniversities.Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the resource situation between conventional and specializeduniversities96

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 3: t-test summary of resource situation in conventional and specialized universitiesItem N Mean SD df t cal t tabConventional universities 607 105.14 19.04Specialized universities 293 105.75 16.86 898 0.471 1.960P < 0.05Table 3 shows that t-calculated (0.471) is less than t-table (1.960). The null hypothesis is not rejected. Therefore,there is no significant difference between conventional universities and specialized universities in terms of resourcesituation.DISCUSSIONThe result of hypothesis 1 showed that there was significant difference in the resource situation of state and federaluniversities. The federal universities had the higher mean score. This means they have better resource situation thanthe state universities. This might not be unconnected with the fact that the federal universities are better funded bythe federal government, unlike the state universities whose fortune are tied to the subvention from state governmentsthat are dependant on statutory allocation from the federal government.This then implies that because federal universities have financial advantage over state universities, they are mostlikely to have better resource situation in terms of availability and quality of physical, material and human resourcesand social amenities. The finding of this study supports Oke (2001) and Awe (2009) on the poor funding of stateuniversities in Nigeria which has invariably cumulated to poor resource situation in many of these universities.The result of hypothesis 2 revealed that there was significant difference between first and third generationuniversities in terms of resource situation. The first generation universities have higher mean score which means theyhave better resource situation than the third generation universities. This might not be unconnected with theprevailing economic situation at the period of establishment of these universities. For instance, first generationuniversities were established during the oil-boom era of 1960s and they were only six in number, so they got thenecessary assistance from the government in terms of federal government provision of essential facilities for them.However, the third generation universities came on board during the period of economic crunch in the country andwith an increasing number of universities to compete for the available funds. The historical origin of first generationuniversities confers instant financial advantage on them and this translates to better resource situation for them.This then implies that because many of the third generation universities were unfortunate to be established when theeconomy is moribund, adequate provision of essential resources for these universities might have been put injeopardy and hence, the reason for poor resource situation which is prevalent in many of the third generationuniversities in Nigeria. This finding corroborates the work of Saint and Harnnet (2003), and Shehu (2005) that manyof the third generation universities were established during economic depression in Nigeria, and hence their ownerscould not make adequate provision for the resource needed by them to operate effectively.The result of hypothesis 3 showed that there was no significant difference in the resource situation betweenconventional universities and specialized universities. This might not be unconnected with the fact that the structureand ownership pattern in both universities are the same. It is equally observed that many specialized universities arerun like conventional universities by their respective owners in terms of resource provision without taking intocognizance or consideration the fact that specialized universities; are capital intensive in nature than conventionaluniversities, by this, a lot of funds is required to be committed to the provision of essential facilities for its operation.The finding of this study implies that all essential facilities or resources to boost academic activities must be onground before effectiveness can be achieved in any university, whether it is specialized or conventional universitybecause no university comes cheap. This finding supports that of Aminu (1986) and Saint (2003) that despite the fact97

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010that specialized universities need a viable or conducive resource situation before it can function effectively, not muchdifference exists between them and conventional universities in terms of provision of conducive resource situation.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSVariables of ownership and age of universities made a difference in resource situation of Nigerian Universities whilethe type of universities did not. It is therefore recommended that the owners or proprietors of state and thirdgeneration universities should look into the existing disparity between first and third generation universities in termsof resource situation and adequately addressed it as an urgent matter or issue so that the state and third generationuniversities can compete favourably with the federal and first generation universities in terms of conducive resourcesituation.This can be done by committing more funds to the provision of physical, material and human resources and evensocial amenities for many of the state and third generation universities. Stakeholders in education such as parents,corporate organizations and individuals can be sensitized to join forces with government to provide some of theseneeded resources on our campuses, since government may not be able to bear the burden of creating a better resourcesituation in Nigerian universities all alone.Also, adequate considerations must be given to both the conventional and specialized universities by their owners interms of improving their resource situation by making adequate provision for physical, material and human resourcesand social amenities in right quantity and quality. This becomes necessary in view of the fact that resource situationsof the two universities are not conducive.REFERENCESAdebayo, F.A. (2002). School climate and students’ academic performance in Ekiti-State secondary schools, Nigeria.Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ado-Ekiti.Adeola, A.A. (2005) Resource provision and utilization, mathematical ability and learning environment.Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.Akinfolarin, F. (2008). Resource utilization in vocational and technical Education in Colleges of Education in SouthWest Nigeria. A Ph.D Thesis University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.Akinwumi, F.S. (2001). Impact of Motivation and supervision on teachers productivity in secondary schools in Oyo-State. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan.Akomolafe, C.F. (2005). A comparatives study of resource situation and teachers job performance in public andprivate secondary schools in Ekiti-State. Journal of Educational Administration and Planning. 5(2): 46-51.Aminu, J. (1986). Quality and stress in Nigerian education, Zaria: Northern Nigerian Publishing Company.Areola, O. (1982). Changing resources system and problem of development planning in Nigeria. Resourcesmanagement and Optimisation: The Manager Magazine. 2(1): 41-71.Awe, A.B. (2009). Quality Assurance in South West Nigerian Universities. A Ph.D Thesis, University of Ado-Ekiti,Nigeria.Faniran, A. (1997). Concern for geography: a case for equal emphasis of geographic tradition in Douglas.98

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Levaicic, R. (1995). Linking resource to learning outcomes. In M. Coleman & L. Anderson (Ed.). Managing financein education. London: Sage Publication.Ogbodo, C.M. & Nwaoku, N.A. (2007). Quality Assurance in Higher Education. Paper presented at the SecondRegional Conference on Reforms and Revitatlization in Higher Eduation, Held at IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria,August 13 – 16.Oke, O. (2001). The birth and development of Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomosho: Science andTechnology Development Foundation.Okebukola, P.A., (1998). Managing higher education in Africa: Lead Paper Presentation at the African RegionalConsultation Preparatory to the World Conference on Higher Education, Dakar, Senegal.Olagboye, A.A. (2004). Introduction to Educational Management in Nigeria. Ibadan: Kemsio EducationalConsultants.Oni, J.O. (1992). Resources and resources utilization as correlate of students academic performance in the secondaryprevocational education in Ogun State; Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan.Oni, J.O. (1995). Educational resources. Abeokuta: Gbemi Sodipo Publishing Company.Saint, W. & Harnett, T.A. (2003). Higher education in Nigeria: A status report, higher education policy, 259-281.Shehu, G. (2005). Challenges in the management of Higher Education in Nigeria: An overview. Festchrift in honourof Prof. Ayo Banjo. University of Ibadan Press.Yann, L. (2002). Extraversion strategy in marginalized institutions. Nigerian academics’ responses to changingpatterns in international research needs and practices. Consortium of Higher Education Researchers Cher.15 th Annual Conference, 5-7 Sept. Vienna, Austria.99

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationTHE AFFECT OF SPORT ACTIVITIES ON PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS(SAMPLE OF BURSA PROVINCE)Mehmet GÖRAL,Dumlupınar University, College of Physical Education & Sports, Deparment of Teaching of Physical Education& Sports , Germiyan Campus, 43020, Kutahya,TurkeyE-mail address for correspondence: mehmetgoral45@gmail.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The aim of this research is explaining the effect of sport on solving problems. 211 women and 389men, in total 600 people, took part in this research. While gathering information, experts’ opinions are takeninto consideration and the questionnaire, prepared after the scanning of literature is completed, is used for thisresearch. Questionnaire is applied to volunteer applicants.During the analysis of the information, the test ofdescriptive statistics, the significance test (T-Test) of the difference between two percentages in independentgroups and one way variance analysis test (Anova) are applied to the applicants. According to research result, itis concluded that taking part in sportive activities have positive effect on problem solving and level of incomeplays an important role on problem solving as well.Keywords: Sport, problem solving.__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONPeople always face to face with problems in various situations and they need to consider some solutions in orderto solve these problems. This is a complex process which requires cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills.Problem solving requires some effort in order to remove the obstacles we encounter from our way (Açıkgöz,2006; Çubukçu, 2004; Baysan, 2005; Ford, 1994; Güzel, 2004; Tay, 2002).Heppner (1982) uses the expression „problem solving‟ in the same meaning as „coping with problems‟ (Heppner,and Petersen, 1982). In real life, personal problem solving is described as directing cognitive and affectiveprocesses like displaying behavioral reactions respectively in order to comply with the internal or externaldesires or appeals (Koray, and Azar, 2008; Balay, 2004; Çelik, 2004; Custer, 1999; Higgins, 1997).On the other hand, problem solving is the systematic process of intervening in undesired situations.Saygılı(2000) describes problem solving as the process of defeating the difficulties encountered while people aretrying to achieving their goal and states the factors which have influence on problem solving as that: individualfactors (intelligence, motivation, foreknowledge-configuration, functional fixedness) and social factors (socioeconomiclevel and child‟s social development, families‟ child care-education methods and their attitudes,physical condition of the school and class size) (Saygılı, 2000).Charles and Lester classify the factors in three groups that affect the problem solving skills as cognitive,affective factors and experience. All the factors such as willingness for problem solving, self-confidence, stressand anxiety, ambiguity, patience and ambition, interest in problem solving skills or problem cases, motivation,being eager to be successful, desire to please their teachers etc. constitute the group of affective factors (Durualp,Arslan, Çayıroğlu, Özkan, and Semerci, 2009; Israel, 2003). After the acceptance of problem solving skill as a101

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010social skill in our society in which everything changes rapidly and gets more complicated, bringing individualswith balanced personality up primarily depends on identifying individuals‟ problems and the support that will begiven to them. Everybody confronts continuously with various problems throughout their lives (Çağlayan, 2008;Güzel, 2004; Çağlayan, Sezen, ve Fidan, 2007). Individuals can maintain a healthy, peaceful and happy life aslong as they solve these problems. In this context, being successful and enjoying life depends on people‟s havingthe skill of solving problems in the most appropriate manner (Çağlayan, Şirin, Çetin, and İnce, 1998; Ellis, andRobert ,1994).Young adulthood can be generally accepted as a period when social activities increase and social environmentexpands. During young adulthood, social skills, communications and social interactions gradually get morecomplex. It begins to resemble the situations that adults encounter. Many problems encountered in this periodmay be encountered for the first time in their lives. Problems such as smoking, consuming alcohol and harmfulsubstance, eating disorder, decrease in self-respect, deterioration in social support systems, decline in academicachievement, and deterioration in social adaptation can begin to be observed. Especially, it is known that theuniversity students‟ having low or high social skills and problem solving skills have a significant impact on theirschool achievement and their success in real life. Because of that, in order to prevent the potential problems thatcan be encountered problem solving skills should be taught to the individuals in addition to basic social skills(Çam, 1995; Mayer, 1992; Üstün, and Bozkurt,2003).Since 1960s, various researches are made to investigate the relationship between personality and sportiveperformance and it is observed that sportsman has different characteristics in comparison to people who are notengage in sports (Çilingir, 2006; Şah, 2005). It is also accepted that people who do sports are more independent,more objective and less apprehensive… etc. than who are not engage in any sports and they have differentcharacteristics (Ellis, and Robert ,1994; Kolb,1984; Koray, and Azar, 2008; Prawat, 2000). It is a fact thatpeople doing sport encounter with more problems (Dee, Nauman, Livesay, and Rice, 2002; Saracoğlu, Serin,andBozkurt, 2001). On the other hand, it is thought that distinct sport branches have different effect on problemsolving skills (Bilge, and Aslan, 1999; Ferah, 2000; Türkçapar, 2009; Jones, Reichard, and Mokhtarı, 2003;Pehlivan, and Konukman, 2004).METHOD211 female and 389 male, in total 600 students from public schools in Bursa, took part in this research. In orderto carry out the aim of this research, two methods are used in gathering data for it. First of all, the scanning ofliterature on this theme is completed, and later on, the questionnaire, which was prepared after experts‟ opinionswere taken, was conducted to the students in order to take their opinion about the sports effect on problemsolving skills.In data analysis process, significance test (T-Test) of two percentages and variance analysis test (Anova) areapplied to the applicants in addition to simple statistical techniques such as frequency and percentagedistribution. During the analysis of the tests, .05 significance level is used for their statistical acceptance.102

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010RESULTSTable 1: Range of Participants‟ Demographic InformationFACTOR Variant F %GenderAgePlace of BirthEducation Level of MothersEducation Level of FathersMonthly incomeAccommodationDoing SportsMale 211 35.2Female 389 64.8Total 600 10014 261 43.515 109 18.216 167 27.817 14 2.318 49 8.2Total 600 100country 42 7village 7 1.2county 281 46.8city 150 25metropolis 120 20Total 600 100Postgraduate - -Graduate 30 5Higher Education 37 6.2Elementary Education 408 68Literate 125 20.8Total 600 100Postgraduate 10 1.7Graduate 18 3Higher Education 123 20.5Elementary Education 373 62.2Literate 76 12.7Total 600 1001500-2500 TL and over 79 13.21000-1499 TL 108 18750-999 TL 210 35500-749 TL 95 15.80-499 TL 108 18Total 600 100Other 25 4.2Flat of relatives 41 6.8Public housing 30 5Own flat 250 41.7Rental flat 254 42.3Total 600 100Yes 300 50No 300 50Total 600 100Considering the demographic information of the participants, it is evident that 64.8% (N=389) of them are“women”,27.8% (N=167) of them are at the age of “16”, 46.8% were born in a “county”, the mothers of 68%(N=408) are the graduates of “elementary education”, the fathers of 62.2% (N=373) are the graduates of“elementary education, average monthly income of 35% (N=210) is about “750-999 TL”, 42.3% (N=254) livein “rental flats”and 50% do sport regularly.103

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 2: T-Test Results of Participants‟ Opinion on Problem Solving Skills in Terms of Doing SportVARIENTS Factor N S T pI keep my composure when I encounter a Yes 300 2.81 1.26problem.No 300 3.24 1.12-4.388 .000I Give immediate responses.Yes 300 2.69 1.42No 300 2.34 1.053.472 .001Behave reasonably when I encounter a propblem.Yes 300 3.33 1.42No 300 3.95 .99-6.158 .000I like struggling against complex situations.Yes 300 2.73 1.17No 300 3.23 1.39-4.743 .000I‟m compatible in groups works.Yes 300 3.98 1.10No 300 4.12 .98-1.727 .085I put the reasons of a problem in a logical order.Yes 300 3.65 1.40No 300 3.67 1.20-.188 .851I enjoy solving unprecedented problems.Yes 300 2.58 1.32No 300 3.09 1.32-4.678 .000I am not afraid of unprecedented problems.Yes 300 2.94 1.43No 300 3.01 1.37-.612 .540External factors do not have an affect on my Yes 300 2.66 1.35motivation in the presence of problems. No 300 2.87 1.14-1.989 .047I help my friends to solve their problems.Yes 300 3.88 1.44.154-1.429No 300 4.03 1.05My friends say that I can find practical solutions Yes 300 3.02 1.21.169-1.379to the problems.No 300 3.15 1.16I do not panic in extraordinary cases, I create a Yes 300 2.96 1.18.186-1.324solution.No 300 3.11 1.51I approach the problem in different ways when I Yes 300 3.68 1.22.001-3.338enconter a problem.No 300 4.03 1.37I enjoy the positive atmosphere when I solve the Yes 300 3.84 1.25.837.206problem.No 300 3.82 1.12Positive reactions I get solving a problem Yes 300 4.04 1.24.000-3.659motivate me.No 300 4.39 1.15My friends ask my help to solve a problem.Yes 300 3.60 1.36.004-2.864No 300 3.90 1.18Looking into the participants‟ opinion on the problem solving effect of sport in terms of participation rate insport activities, no meaninful difference is found between their opinion and participation rate for some entriessuch as; “I‟m compatible in groups works.” t(600)=.08; p>0.05, “I put the reasons of a problem in a logicalorder.” t(600)=.85; p>0.05, “I am not afraid of unprecedented problems.” t(600)=.54; p>0.05, “I help myfriends to solve their problems.” t(600)=.15; p>0.05, “My friends say that I can find practical solutions to theproblems. “t(600)=.16; p>0.05, “I do not panic in extraordinary cases, I create a solution” t(600)=.18; p>0.05,“I enjoy the positive atmosphere when I solve the problem..” t(600)=.83; p>0.05. On the other hand, othervariants meaningfully change according to their participation rate in sport activities.104

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Tablo 3: ANOVA Results of Participants‟ Opinion on Problem Solving Skills and Their Answers ConsideringIncome LevelVARIANCEI keep my composure when Iencounter a problem.I give immediate responses.I behave reasonably when Iencounter a problem.I like struggling against complexsituations.I am compatible in groupworks..I put the reasons of a problem ina logical order.I enjoy solving unprecedentedproblems.ORDER INCOMELEVEL1 1500-2500TL79 3.09 1.462 1000-1499 108 3.46 1.20TL3 750-999 TL 210 2.57 .884 500-749 TL 95 3.36 1.185 0-499 TL 108 3.14 1.32Total 600 3.03 1.211 1500-2500 79 2.24 1.47TL2 1000-1499 108 2.44 .81TL3 750-999 TL 210 2.44 1.184 500-749 TL 95 1.93 .985 0-499 TL 108 3.47 1.33Total 600 2.52 1.261 1500-2500 79 4.39 1.01TL2 1000-1499 108 4.01 .94TL3 750-999 TL 210 3.50 1.064 500-749 TL 95 3.93 1.495 0-499 TL 108 2.73 1.29Total 600 3.84 1.261 1500-2500 79 3.81 1.18TL2 1000-1499 108 3.21 1.28TL3 750-999 TL 210 2.96 1.204 500-749 TL 95 2.42 1.215 0-499 TL 108 2.66 1.35Total 600 2.98 1.311 1500-2500TL79 3.87 1.002 1000-1499 108 4.64 .60TL3 750-999 TL 210 4.04 1.054 500-749 TL 95 4.22 .885 0-499 TL 108 3.45 1.19Total 600 4.05 1.041 1500-2500TL79 4.39 1.012 1000-1499 108 3.61 .88TL3 750-999 TL 210 3.55 1.264 500-749 TL 95 3.95 1.505 0-499 TL 108 3.14 1.44Total 600 3.66 1.301 1500-2500TL79 3.66 .482 1000-1499 108 2.95 1.29TL3 750-999 TL 210 2.85 1.17NS F p14.172 .00025.727 .00026.991 .00016.387 .00021.189 .00013.215 .00014.251 .000105

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010I am not afraid of unprecedentedproblems.External factors do not have anaffect on my motivation in thepresence of problems.4 500-749 TL 95 2.62 1.635 0-499 TL 108 2.27 1.54Total 600 2.84 1.341 1500-2500TL79 3.84 1.082 1000-1499 108 3.01 1.26TL3 750-999 TL 210 2.66 1.444 500-749 TL 95 3.05 1.455 0-499 TL 108 2.85 1.37Total 600 2.98 1.401 1500-2500TL79 3.15 1.252 1000-1499 108 2.59 .99TL3 750-999 TL 210 2.61 1.184 500-749 TL 95 2.29 .715 0-499 TL 108 3.36 1.66Total 600 2.77 1.2511.098 .00013.721 .000106

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 4: ANOVA Results of Participants‟ Opinion on Problem Solving Skills and Their Answers ConsideringIncome Level (Continued)VARIANCEI help my friends to solve theirproblems.ORDER INCOMELEVEL1 1500-2500 TL 79 3.92 1.382 1000-1499 TL 108 4.51 .723 750-999 TL 210 3.82 1.114 500-749 TL 95 4.06 1.045 0-499 TL 108 3.58 1.76Total 600 3.95 1.26NS F p8.831 .000My friends say that I can findpractical solutions to theproblems.1 1500-2500 TL 79 3.46 1.172 1000-1499 TL 108 3.28 1.153 750-999 TL 210 3.08 1.104 500-749 TL 95 2.52 1.255 0-499 TL 108 3.13 1.16Total 600 3.08 1.198.574.000I do not panic in extraordinarycases, I create solutionsI approach the problem indifferent ways when I encountera problem.I enjoy the positive atmospherewhen I solve the problem.Positive reactions I get solving aproblem motivate me.My friends ask my help to solvea problem.1 1500-2500 TL 79 3.08 1.422 1000-1499 TL 108 3.31 1.203 750-999 TL 210 2.92 1.294 500-749 TL 95 3.04 1.495 0-499 TL 108 3.05 1.46Total 600 3.04 1.361 1500-2500 TL 79 3.91 1.302 1000-1499 TL 108 3.84 1.453 750-999 TL 210 3.85 1.264 500-749 TL 95 4.23 .895 0-499 TL 108 3.52 1.48Total 600 3.86 1.311 1500-2500 TL 79 3.54 1.212 1000-1499 TL 108 4.04 1.083 750-999 TL 210 3.82 1.224 500-749 TL 95 3.72 1.165 0-499 TL 108 3.94 1.19Total 600 3.83 1.191 1500-2500 TL 79 4.35 1.032 1000-1499 TL 108 3.87 1.373 750-999 TL 210 4.28 1.184 500-749 TL 95 4.37 1.085 0-499 TL 108 4.19 1.26Total 600 4.22 1.211 1500-2500 TL 79 3.48 1.332 1000-1499 TL 108 3.63 1.263 750-999 TL 210 3.95 1.274 500-749 TL 95 3.63 1.215 0-499 TL 108 3.79 1.28Total 600 3.75 1.28.836 .5033.873 .0042.424 .0473.059 .0162.694 .030Regarding the participants‟ opinion on the problem solving effect of sport in terms of anova results of the levelof income, no meaninful difference is found only for one entry, which is “I do not panic in extraordinary cases, Icreate solutions” [F(4-595 ) = ,503 ; p>0,05]. For the other entries, however, meaninful differences are confirmedwith respect to their opinion and the level of income.107

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010DISCUSSION AND SUGGESTIONSOf all 600 High School students who participated in this research which aims to search the effect of theparticipation rate of high school students in sport activities on problem solving strategies, 64.8% of them arewomen, 43.5% are at the age of 14, 46.8% were born in county, ”, the mothers of 68% are the graduates of“elementary education”, the fathers of 62.2% are the graduates of “elementary education”, average monthlyincome of 35% is about “750-999 TL”, 42.3% live in “rental flats”and 50% do sport regularly.Meaningful variances are found out after the statistical analysis of the problem solving skills of high schoolstudents who participate in sport activities and who do not. It can be claimed that such variances which come tolight looking into the rate of participation result from the participants of the sport activities. In accordance withthe findings of this research, Şah (2005) retained a meaninful varience considering the problem solving skills ofdisabled people who do sport regularly and who do not, and claimed that such a variance stems from the disabledwho regularly do sport which means that doing sport probably plays a crucial role in improving the problemsolving skills of disabled (Şah, 2005).Another finding of this research highlights that the level of income can be a significant factor on problem solvingskills of the students which emphasizes that problem solving skills of the students with a higher level of incomecan be more efficient. According to Çağlayan, Taşğın, and Yıldız‟s article (2008) on the problem solving skillsof high school students, it is also apparent that the students with a high level of income do not act immediately,but consider the different factors compiling the necessary information beforehand contrary to the students withlower level of income (Çağlayan, Taşğın, and Yıldız, 2008). In addition, the former do not begin to suspect iftheir first solution to the problem is useless, but try to find alternative ways to solve the problem, and theyanalyse the process at the end in order to find what serves their purpose and in which ways (Hasırcı, and Bulut,2006; Heppner, P. P. and Krauskopf, C. J. ,1987; Yıldırım,and Çirkinoğlu,2005; ). The results of Çağlayan,Taşğın, and Yıldız‟s article are in parallel to the findings of this research. Morever, it is claimed in İsrael (2003)and Terzi (2000) ‟s research that the students of different groups of the top socio-economic class considerthemselves as more efficient in problem solving strategies, as well (Israel, 2003; Terzi, 2000; Altun.and Arslan.2006; Zaroiıadou, and Tsaparlis, 2000).In conclusion, it can be claimed that participating sport activities and having a high level of income are importantfactors that effect the problem solving skills of the high school students.REFERENCESAçıkgöz, Ö. (2006). Öğrenme stilleri ile ilgili elektronik ortamda yayımlanan çalışmaların incelenmesi,Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü.Altun, M. and Arslan. Ç. (2006). İlköğretim öğrencilerinin problem çözme stratejilerini öğrenmeleri üzerine birçalışma, Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi XIX , 1, 21.Balay, R. (2004). Küreselleşme, bilgi toplumu ve eğitim, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi,37 (2), 61-82.Baysan, S. (2005). Öğrenme Stilleri (Kanalları) Kullanılarak Coğrafya Öğretimi Üzerine Bir Model Önerisi:ADÜ Eğitim Fakültesi Sınıf Öğretmenliği Öğrencileri Örneği, XIV. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi,Denizli: Pamukkale Üniversitesi.Bilge, J.and Aslan,A.(1999)Akılcı olmayan düşünce düzeyleri farklı üniversite öğrencilerinin problem çözmebecerilerini değerlendirmeleri. Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi. Sayı 13, pp. 18.Custer, R. L. (1999). Design and Problem Solving in Technology Education, NASSP Bulletin, Vol. 83(608), 24–33.Çağlayan, H. Şirin, E., F. Çetin, Ç. and İnce, A. (1998). Spor yapan ve yapmayan lise öğrencilerinin problemçözme becerilerinin incelenmesi. XVI. Ulusal Eğitim Bilimleri Kongresi, Konya.Çağlayan, S., H., Taşğın, Ö. and Yıldız, Ö. (2008). Spor yapan lise öğrencilerinin problem çözme becerilerininçeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi. Niğde Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor YüksekokuluDergisi, Cilt 2, Sayı 1.108

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European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Repositioning Nigerian Youths for Economic Empowerment through EntrepreneurshipEducationJane Itohan OviaweDepartment of Vocational and Technical EducationAmbrose Alli University, Ekpoma,Edo State, Nigeriae-mail address for correspondence: janeoviawe@yahoo.com___________________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This paper examined the role of entrepreneurship education in Nigeria. Some variables were identified aspossible obstacles to entrepreneurship education, they include among others: poor knowledge-based economy and poorenterprising culture. Also discussed were ways of avoiding the obstacles and how the teaching of creativity and problemsolvingskills can reposition Nigerian youths in Nigeria.Key words: Entrepreneurship education, economic empowerment.___________________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONNigeria like most developing nations of the world is faced with myriad of problems and harse realities which includepoverty, unemployment, conflicts and diseases. These situations pose great challenges to the very existence of individualsin most developing nations thereby calling for the training of educated man and women who can function effectively in thesociety in which they live in. available information by National Universities Commission (NUC) (2004) reiterate themassive unemployment of Nigerian universities graduates in the country. This problem is said to be traceable to thedisequilibrium between labour market requirements and lack of essential employable skills by the graduates (Diejonah andOrimolade, 1991; Dabalen, Oni and Adekola, 2000). This obvious critical skill gaps inhibits the development of youths andthe entire development of the nation.More than half of the Nigerian populations are under the age of 30 according to the National Population Commission(2001). Therefore it can be asserted that the economy of Nigeria is a youth economy. Expectedly, today‟s youth willbecome in a short decade tomorrow‟s parents, leaders, labour force and armies. However, the Nigerian youths are said to beconfronted with poverty, unemployment, urbanization, lack of capacity and skills needed to move the economy forward.Poverty which is a force for HIV/AIDS is very common. This is because the youth faces unemployment and lack ofnecessary productive skills to keep body and soul together. This reality leaves them without any meaningful means ofsustainable livelihood. To make ends meet, they simply indulge in prostitution (both male and female).113

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010The youthful period which is a very critical one that has been noted as an essential time for training in entrepreneurship,provides a positive distractive alternative from the self-destructive and aggressive behaviours that are frequently associatedwith adolescents and growing up (Woolflk, 1998). In a study of American adolescents in 1998, it was reported that a goodnumber of the youths had little information about life and life expectations. If this is true youths in a developed nation; whatcan be said of Nigerian youths? This critical age however is the right time to teach them the concept of entrepreneurship tohelp them learn wealth creation. The question then is what is entrepreneurship?Entrepreneurship has been defined by various professions to mean many things since the middle age (Igbo, 2006). Theentrepreneur has been seen as an actor, innovator or a developer of technology. However, the summary of whatentrepreneurship means will reflect the individual‟s definer‟s point of view is.Entrepreneurship is the willingness and ability of an individual to seek out investment opportunities, establish and run anenterprise successfully (Inegbehebor, 1987). The entrepreneur is essentially a person who owns or controls a businessthrough which income is gained. National Directorate of Employment (NDE) (1989) in Onyebueke and Ochonogo (2002)defined entrepreneurship as the art which involves recognizing a business opportunity, mobilizing resources and persistingto exploit that opportunity. According to Gana (2001), entrepreneurship is the ability to seek investment opportunities andestablish an enterprise based on identified opportunities. The entrepreneur takes risks, is focused and energized by an innerdrive. The ability to develop a new venture or apply a new approach to an old business is sole idea of entrepreneurship(Steinfioff and Durges, 1993). In other words, the individual gives the market place a product or service by using resourcesin a new way. Esomonu (1998) defined entrepreneurship as the effective manipulation of human intelligence asdemonstrated in a creative performance. This singular risk taking act leads an individual to create something of value frompractically nothing.According to Anayakoha (2006), the entrepreneur is one who chooses or assumes risks, identifies business opportunity,gathers resources, initiates actions and establishes an organization or enterprise to meet such demand or market opportunity.From this definition, the entrepreneur is seen as an independent, self-sufficient individual who is willing to sink or swimwith his/her idea. It can thus be asserted that an entrepreneur is a person who in the bid to survive makes profit and ownshis/her own business. He/she effectively utilizes his/her abilities and potentials confidently. He/she takes risks, is focusedand is energized by an inner drive. He/she equally seeks and exploits employment opportunities, applies creativityaggressively, takes initiative as he/she seeks market opportunities. The entrepreneurs further awakens his/her ability tomaximize his/her potentials through the discovery of new and existing business ideas as he/she uses proven principles inmanaging small and medium scale businesses until they grow. He/she also creates the platform for the exchange of ideasand training in skill acquisitions. Through the process involved in entrepreneurship, success habits are imparted as theperson develops entrepreneurial integrity. Entrepreneurship skills are equally learnt in the process. The question thus iswhat are the possible challenges that will arise in getting Nigerian youths empowered to acquire skills and ideas for thesake of creating employment for themselves and others? To what extent can Nigeria face the critical challenge for thedevelopment of small, medium and large scale businesses that will later metamorphose into national development amongNigerian youths? In answering these questions this paper examines the following: the role of entrepreneurship education innational development; constraints that could hinder entrepreneurship in Nigeria; and strategies for promoting effectiveentrepreneurship education in Nigeria. Also x-rayed are creativity, problem-solving and entrepreneurship; and strategies forpromoting entrepreneurship among Nigerian youths.The Role of Entrepreneurship in National DevelopmentEntrepreneurship is not just skill acquisition for acquisition sake. It is an acquisition of skills and ideas for the sake ofcreating employment for one‟s-self and also for others. It also includes the development based on creativity.Entrepreneurship leads to the development of small, medium and sometimes large scale businesses based on creativity andinnovation. The success of these businesses in turn helps in developing the nation. It also reduces poverty rate with visibleincrement of employment rate among the youths. However, entrepreneurship requires training. Practically thenentrepreneurship does the following: Provides practical applications foe students. Training in entrepreneurship has been used by nations like Germany to set upunique engineering-oriented business programmes in the university where their potential engineers are encouraged to seekout ideas and subsequently develop the promising ones from invention phase to commercialization. Similarly,entrepreneurship programmes developed in some universities have graduated into business schools. For example, a nationlike Norway has used entrepreneurship to inculcate innovation spirit, deliberately targeted at the youths. These examplesare in line with the assertion of Dana (1992) which states that “entrepreneurship education will enable potential114

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010entrepreneurs and create avenues for people to: manage innovations; manage entrepreneurial process; and develop theirpotentials as managers of creativity in given fields. Job creation and crime reduction. Entrepreneurial programmes if properly planned and executed will ensure that the issueof self-employment and job creation will increase. Also, menaces usually visible due to youth unemployment andrestiveness will be highly reduced. This reality is one of the greatest challenge facing leaders of Nigerians.Nigerian education is presently at a crossroad as far as producing individuals who will work to deserve and justify theirpay, work independently, globally and bring creativity into their work place. The current mismatch between what Nigerianeconomy needs and what Nigerian youths are made to study in schools is becoming very appalling.the result of a three week large scale, rapid national survey in 2004 jointly sponsored by NUC and Education Trust Fund(ETF) to determine the needs of the labour market that Nigerian university graduates are failing to meet revealed that of100 individuals and 20 organizations visited, 44 per cent rated Nigerian science graduates as average in competence, 56 percent rated them as average in innovation, 50 per cent rated them average in rational judgment, 63 per cent as average inleadership skills, 44 per vent as average in creativity. On needed skills like literacy, oral communication, informationtechnology, entrepreneurial, analytical, problem-solving, and decision-making 60 per cent rated them as poor. This data canbe said to explain why there has been very obvious increase in unemployment rate. One of the reasons given was that thesegraduates were simply unemployable.Constraint of Entrepreneurship Education in NigeriaThere are several factors that hinder entrepreneurship education in Nigeria. they include:1. poor knowledge based economy and low spirit of competition2. poor enterprising culture3. lack of entrepreneurship teachers, materials and equipment.4. unavailability of fund5. non-inclusion of entrepreneurship programme in the school curricula6. poor societal attitude to Technical and Vocational Education development7. inadequate facilities and equipment for teaching and learning8. insensitivity of government to enterprise creation and expansion strategy9. poor plan and execution of processes of action10. Isolated pr pockets of ineffective programmes and management incompetencies (Oviawe and Ekhovbiye,2008).Strategies for Tackling these ConstraintsThe world of business is fast moving and perfectionist-oriented. The masses are sharp and quick to judge, hence anentrepreneur must be calculating and deliberate. The market place where the entrepreneur operates has little tolerance formiscalculations, lack of commitment or incompetence. The for-going make the education of a youth who is a would-beentrepreneur an essential ingredient for success.Entrepreneurship education is a carefully planned process that eventuates into the acquisition of entrepreneurialcompetencies. The education is a set of very valuable skills needed by the entrepreneur to avoid future trial and errors(Osuala, 2004). By implications, the stage learning is the stage to make most of the mistakes and learn from them.Entrepreneurship education equips the learner with skills on decision making, acquisition of new ideas, methods of raisingand maintaining conversations and establishing business relationships. Through entrepreneurship education, qualitativeability that facilitates computation and record keeping are further learnt. It starts with developing programmes inentrepreneurship centres where people are trained to develop and acquire skills. The youths should equally be givenopportunities to gain experiences as they are linked with mentors, get access to information and are given opportunity for115

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010growth. This implies that they are provided with information, knowledge, skills, and attitudes that would enable themperform well as business men and women. They will turnout to be business men and women who have developed businesscapacities and are learning to make money. These competences will in turn help them deploy their zeal for nation buildingin a very efficient manner. Anything short of these realities will be handling Nigerian problems of repositioning the youthswith kid gloves.Strategies for Promoting Creativity, Problem-Solving and Entrepreneurship among Nigerian YouthsThe world of business is facing increasing pressure on a variety of ways. They are faced with the challenges to release newproducts,find market, while distributing and servicing their customers efficiently. These challenges have equally promptedthe need for them to examine how they function. The bureaucratic approach to business currently employed by thedeveloping world have been found not to be effective, instead creative ways of responding that will move the entrepreneurstowards the idea age that has characterized the world of business is the in-thing. This challenge therefore of utilizing ideashas made many companies to turn to creativity training.Creativity is defined as the ability to develop ideas that are unique, useful and worthy of elaboration. It involves the use ofideas (working on ideas) until something comes out of it. Creativity is the ability to solve problems, fashion products, anddefine new questions in a particular cultural setting. This implies that what is considered creative in one setting may be aregular occurrence in another. The key word to creativity therefore is insight which emphasizes the might or ability to see anew thing (Woolfolk, 1998). The question then is, will people with insight automatically become creative? The answer isthat the possession of creative ability ensures that an individual might exhibit creative behaviour to a noteworthy degree.However, the individual‟s motivation, temperamental traits and willingness to learn will also count. It also includes the urgeto engage in new things, tendency to favour or not to favour objects, self-confidence and willingness to take risks. These areall contributing factors that determines who will exhibit creativity (Onu, 2006).Training in creativity can help the individual view problems from different perspective. It is also useful in generatingunique solution (Vangundy, 1992). The need for training in creativity can be explained based on recent technologicaladvances, short production cycles, global trade possibilities and fluctuating labour force. The link between creativity andproblem-solving skills are therefore strong. Creativity will ensure that the individual is involved in initiating new projects,create opportunities while solving problems. Knowledge of creativity will also ensure that the individual learns to producepractical solutions to newly defined initiatives. These and other things are what creative problem-solving in the realm ofcreativity encourage.In getting creative people to work together, heterogeneous mix of preferred creative process style out perform teams withhomogeneous mix in innovative work (Vangundy, 1992). This means that in entrepreneurship, getting people who areimplementers, generators, optimizers and conceptualizers work with like minds will give a better result than mixing allforms of creative individuals in a group. This obvious mix-match of creativity traits may be contributory to the obviousfailures witnessed by many establishments in Nigeria.In a creative and competitive world of entrepreneurship, the drive is to deliver creative and innovative wares. Theseinnovations that add values to human welfare, results in a better resource utilization. The creative process, a complicatedprocess, involves the ability to generalize, evaluate, design, trouble shoot, make decisions, create, modify, simplify,synthesize, hypothesize, learn new skills and memorize while utilizing various forms of higher order cognitive processes.The individual‟s ability to solve problems creatively therefore is dependent on his/her ability to utilize knowledge requiredto solve specific problems (Onu, 2006). These abilities can be classified by the type of problems to be solved and thestrategies (that must be structured) to be utilized in solving the problems.Problem-solving cannot be divulged fro creativity. The process of thinking, finding fact, seeking ideas and solution areprocesses involved in creativity. In creative problem-solving, ideas are generated; solutions found and evaluated so as toselect best ideas. The sum total must be for the purposes of doing business.Linking entrepreneurship with creative problem-solving therefore make the entrepreneur a „system thinker‟, one whointuits, an inventor, with an entrepreneurial mindset (Eno-Obong, 2006). The entrepreneurial mindset sees needs, problemsand challenges as opportunities. He/she comes up with innovative ways to deal with the challenges, utilizes andconsolidates opportunities. He/she is equally an optimist, a strategist, one who is confident and hardworking. He/she isnever afraid of failure.116

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Ways of Promoting Entrepreneurship among Nigerian YouthsNigerian youths tackle daily series of problems – poverty, unemployment, conflicts and diseases is not an easy task. Theseproblems therefore will demand that the youths be empowered with creative problem-solving skills. The training ofeducated individuals who can function effectively in the society for the betterment of self and the society will requirespecial attention as the system will be deliberately set to concern itself with the development of sound human capitalrequired for national development (Ocho, 2005). Practically speaking therefore, he/she must do the following:1. ensure that schools deliberately provide sector specific skills needed for the development of humancapital, use professional and entrepreneurs as instructors and mentors.2. teach entrepreneurship and creativity at an early age.3. organize for curricular integration of education, entrepreneurship and community development4. plan programme to transform Nigerians.Finally, in Nigerian repositioning youths for the eradication of unemployment, there would be need to transform them intoconfident, aggressive and purposeful individuals. The ideal profile for emerging professionals (products of our ivorytowers) with respect to entrepreneurial education, this would include a strong scientific, technical and factual base withgood background information and research skills. The individuals who opt for non-degree training in skill acquisition withentrepreneurial background are also not left out. All must have a high level of creativity and innovation and the ability tothink about the future and relate these ideas to his/her business. The “dream-youths” should have strong skills in businessplanning, finance and accounting, as well as ability to create new and innovative marketing plans that utilize moderncommunication technology. Desired attitudes for Nigeria would-be entrepreneurs include a respect for democraticprinciples and the legal processes of our nation and the highest level of integrity and ethics.The Nigerian youth therefore need to learn that life is partnership in which the individual strives to fulfill himself/herselfwith the active support of others. that is, he/she needs to realize the fact that he/she needs to develop his/her potentials andto contribute his/her talents to the common good of all (Etuk, 2000). With the spirit of collaborating, inter-existence and thedesire for collective survival of all, there will be a steady growth of development, mutual support and networking.CONCLUSIONThe importance of teaching young people the difference between vision, mission and principles of getting things done havebeen emphasized. This paper has emphasized the need to get Nigerian youths trained on various skills including:entrepreneurship skills, managerial experience, record keeping, creativity and innovation. Getting trained also in such areaslike generating and operating statements, balance sheets are also seen as essential. The youth through training are said tolearn to develop inner qualities for self and organizational improvement. They also learn the need to develop commonsense, creativity and wisdom. They learn from compiling and working for the collective good of the team with which theyrelate. They use the creative process to converse for organizational priorities and personal development as they learn todialogue, deliberate and discern future business opportunities.Finally, the young entrepreneurs must learn to overcome innovative barriers. Entrepreneurship flourishes best when theclimate is conducive. In fact, creative thing is fostered when peace is in place. However, things may never always workoutas planned, hence the need for psychological, sociological, economical and technological training to prepare the youngentrepreneurs for the rainy day.Through well planned and executed entrepreneurship education therefore, the Nigerian youths will learn to be happy andfulfilled persons. They will be productive and committed as employees or employers of labour. They will allow their117

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010unique abilities to be used for the development of the national and global goals rather than abandon their country forgreener pastures.Entrepreneurship will teach the youths essence of business, which is finding a human need and filling it. A healthy societythen can be created as the entrepreneurs go to work. The individual Nigerian youth will then learn to have status that arelegitimate and are functional. This is the secret of learning to float while al boats capsize.REFERENCESAnyakoha, E.U. (2006). Practical tips for economic empowerment and survival. Nsukka: AP Express.DiaBelen, A., Oni, B., & Adekola, A. (2000). Labour market prospects for university graduates in Nigeria. WashingtonD.C.: World Bank.Diejomal, U., & Orimolade, W. (1991). Unemployment in Nigeria: Economic analysis of scope, trends and policy issues.Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Sciences 13 (2), 127 – 132.Eno-Obong, H. (2006). Challenges of entrepreneurship in home economics and enhancement strategies. Journal of HomeEconomics Research (7), 69 -75.Etuk, E. (2000). Great insights on home creativity. US: Morris Publishers.Igbo, C.A. (2006). Developing entrepreneurshipthrough entrepreneurship education. Journal of Home Economics Research (7), 50 -54.National University Commission (2004). Labour market expectations of Nigerian graduates. Abuja: Education Trust Fund(ETF)Ocho, L. (2005). National development and curriculum issues. In Oriafo, S.O., Edozie, B.S., & Eze, D.Contemporary Education. Benin City: DaSylva Fluence. 23 – 30.Onu, V.C. (2006). Practical tips to successful entrepreneurship. Journal of Home Economics Research (7), 12 – 19.(eds.).Osuala, E.C. (2004). Principles and practice of small business management in Nigeria: A didactic approach. Nsukka:Fulladu Publishers.Steinhoff, D., & Burgers, J. (1993). Small business management fundamentals. New York: McGraw Hill International.Vangundy, B. (1992). Idea power: Techniques and resources to unleash your creativity in your organization. New York:Amacom.Woolfolk, A. (1998). Educational Psychology. 7 th edition. New York: Allynt Baan.118

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010FROM EMPOWERMENT TO TRANSFORMATION: A CAPACITY BUILDING MODELFOR ACADEMICS IN DISTANCE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN AFRICADele Braimoh*, Osiki, J.O.** and Mpine Makoe**University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.**Faculty of Humanities, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho, Southern Africa.Email address for correspondence: jonathanosiki@yahoo.co.uk____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Applying the benefits of the multi-dimensionality of empowerment, using transformative paradigms toboost capacity building, within academics in Distance Higher Education (DHE), is a vital part of the re-focusingof research perspectives in African Tertiary Institutions (ATIs). How and when the transformative package isutilized for a sustainable research dividend, among the stakeholders in DHE, and within acceptable norms, callsfor regular investigation. The study, therefore, using the transformative paradigms, examined how mentees andmentors’ relationship, curtails possible academic frustration, indolence, career stagnation, spiral of academicvictimization and other challenges, through a symbiotism of interconnectivity employed to facilitate adequateskills acquisition. The acquisition of relevant skills was therefore, instrumental to appropriate researchbreakthrough, personal development (i.e. increased self-awareness, openness, positive self-image,interdependence, etc) and overall community impact, national and or the African sub-regional advancement,growth and development.Keywords: Empowerment; Transformation; Capacity Building Model; Academics;Distance Higher Education; Africa__________________________________________________________________________________________BACKGROUNDA very fundamental product of education, generally, and in particular, higher education, is the development,facilitation and acquisition of lifelong skills for useful living. Lifelong skills that are regularly developed andvalidated retain their marginal utility and strengths when they can be annexed and directly applied as solution-drivenmechanism in bringing hope to global challenges, viz, socially, economically, politically and academically. Skills inlifelong Education (LE) are therefore reliable and positive-oriented weapon of change that is needed, especially, forthe re-engineering of erstwhile oddity in learning. Such re-engineering, revalidation and re-appraisals are required inbehavioural adaptability, instrumental for expected changes, both in academics and professional perspectives.Effectively pursuing these goals, as it were, presupposes that the major stakeholders in higher education (HE), asexemplified by programme facilitators (PF) and learners in distance higher education (LDHE) are directly goadedfor programme re-validation, and the re-orientation, for the resurgence of new curricular design, professionalbehaviour, skills development and acquisition which are necessary for quality education as well as sustainabledevelopment. Being nurtured, prepared and goaded for sustainable results, especially in this twenty-first century, isfunctionally epitomized in institutional-employee collective empowerment.The studies on empowerment generally, have had several imports in every segment of human life, including health,socio-economic, politics, and education. For instance, while Adetoun (2005) study implicated the importance ofempowerment in “Gender and HIV/AIDS in Nigeria, to curtail power-imbalances in discriminatory practices againstthe women folks, that of Osiki (2007a) was directed in the re-validation of preconceived African traditions forimproving household economies (i.e. income-generating activities). Further implication includes Osiki (2007b)where various behavioural techniques were utilized in demystifying research difficulties and challenges of distancelearners (DLs). In Osiki (2007b) for instance, when the Research Status Inventory (ReSI) was utilized in identifyingthe research difficulties of the Distance Learners (DLS), the findings, among others, indicated that over 95.64% ofthe DLS have not had previous research orientation, and would be happier if research methodology courses and, or119

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010dissertation were not made part of the University programme. Similarly, it further showed that while only 16.1% ofthe participants liked research activities, another 78.4% detested especially the applied form of academic researchthat implicates the use of statistical analyses. Using the benefits of the Multi-behaviour psychological techniques,both in correcting emotional distortions of the DLS, with the concomitant upsurge in the participants‟ interest inresearch, Osiki (2007b), has therefore facilitated the concept of empowerment in HE.Recent events at the National university of Lesotho (NUL), Southern Africa, where research training workshop washeld (NUL Bulletin, 2008), had the title for the programme read as “Demystifying the Ph.D” posted for all heracademic staff members and postgraduate students. The NUL, as one typical University in Southern Africa, amongother few, has postgraduate students‟ enrolment of less than 15(although the emphasis here is on the Doctorateprogrammes) with the Faculty of Humanities having over 70% of the number. Among the sub-themes that attractedselected speakers from some African Countries are (a) „choosing your topic and supervisor‟ (b) „writing your thesisproposal‟; (c) „the architecture of a thesis‟; (d) „what examiners look for in a good thesis‟; (e) proposal writingexercise‟. What the NUL‟s experience portend in the aforementioned however, was to epitomise the dearth ofscholarly work (i.e. researches) especially in higher education in the African sub-region, while, also implicating theopen distance learning (ODL), in the twenty first century. The fallout of such events, also, without equivocation,points that: (i) embarking on research activity is not a child‟s play; (ii) emotions are involved in any reasonable andwell conceived research; (iii) research and continue research endeavour as well as the regular validation of researchoutcomes is continuous; (iv) results-oriented research and or investigation involves one kind of training or another;(f) experience in research can only be gleaned by getting involved in research activities.EMPOWERMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION (HE)Fundamental in this multi-etiological concept, is the notion of the very difficult circumstance of adequate definition.Empowerment is a process that challenges the assumptions about the way things are and can be (Page and Czuba,1999). The central contention in this definition is „power‟ and the product of power which is held in relation to thepeople and or other things. In their postulations, Page and Czuba contended that empowerment depends on; (a) thenotion that power can change; and where it does not happen, then there is no empowerment. (b) Secondly, thatempowerment also depends on the idea that power can expand (i.e. power got at the expense of others-„the zero-sumtheory‟). In the first contention, and which underpins Max Weber twentieth century maxims, ‘power is related toour ability to make others do what we want, regardless of their wishes or interest‟. It means by inference, that powerdoes not exist in isolation nor is it inherent in individuals; and since it is created in relationships, power and powerrelationships can change. The zero-sum conception of power according to Page and Czuba (1999) and which depictstheir second notion was based on the premise that „power will remain in the hands of the powerful unless they give itup‟.Although Page and Czuba‟s (1999) conception of empowerment merely focused on the socio-political dimension,other studies (Commonwealth of Nations, 2007; Chamberlin, 2008) provide additional dimension. Strictlydiscussing on „Commonwealth Youth Programme‟ (CYP), the Commonwealth of Nations in their signed plan ofAction for Youth Empowerment (2007-2015), conceptualise the term when it said „Young people are empoweredwhen they acknowledge that they have or can create choices in life, are aware of the implications of those choices,make an informed decision freely, take action based on that decision and accept responsibility for the consequencesof those actions’. Critical feature in the definition epitomizes the central theme of „accountability‟ and that, until theindividual accepts responsibility and can be accountable; the notion of their empowerment may be a nullity. Inconsequence therefore, until such a time and age, the individual can only be regarded as a mere „child‟. Thus, youthempowerment is an attitudinal, structural and cultural process whereby young people gain the ability, authority andagency to make decisions and implement change in their own lives and the lives of other people, including youthand adults (Vavrus and Fletcher, 2006). Providing the necessary experiences to empower the youth is oftenaddressed as the gateway to intergenerational equity, civic engagement and democracy building with multifariousactivities directly focused on youth-led media, youth rights, youth council, youth activism and youth involvement incommunity decision-making (Fletcher, 2005; Sazama and Young, 2006) as well as other methods, geared towardstheir mainstreaming.In Mohawk Valley Community College (MVCC) (2008) and as readily as the case may be, with most Institutions ofHigher Education (IHE), but with particular reference to some institutions in Africa, students are assisted throughprofessionals and peer tutors, in deficient and weak areas of their academic responsibilities including reading,writing, mathematics, chemistry and biology. Professionals and peer tutors, using the MVCC as a referent point,provide supplemental instruction to ameliorate learners‟ challenges as well as the emotional conditions predicatingpoor academic performance. As a rider to what the MVCC might have been known for, Osiki (2006), examining120

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010how the girl-child could be empowered economically, conceived empowerment to include the „varied strategiesemployed in the different form of skills acquisition, awareness creation/generation, knowledge-generation andcreatively-tested ideas designed to instigate independent, meaningful and useful living both of individual and thefamily which he said, was the basis for adequate home management and family happiness‟. Conceivingempowerment as osiki (2006) has provided, though with emphasis on family economics, the term „empowerment‟is, without doubt, amorphous, ranging through every segment of academic disciplines and human endeavours. Everyhuman being needs to be empowered to maximize their potentials, socio-politically, economically, mentally andhealthful living, emotionally and psychologically; while, mitigating human sufferings and frustration. Fundamentalamong its benefits is that, it promotes personal independence, creates individual and collective awareness with asymbiotism of shared opportunity for knowledge germane, for personal and institutional growth and development.According to the World Bank (2008), empowerment is the process of increasing the capacity of individuals orgroups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired outcomes and desires. But then, the outcomesand desires being envisioned, should however, be capable of transforming our individual and collective poverty and,or squalor (i.e. economic and, or knowledge) inclination to actual innovations by every standards. When individualsare empowered, particularly positively, they are able to initiate and propel the opportunity to exercise personaldiscretion and or choice that contributes to individual‟s growth and personal wellbeing in the workplace.Empowerment as summarised in Page and Czuba (1999) leads the individual with the following options: (a)decision-making power on their own; (b) access to information and resources for making proper decision; (c) arange of options from which to make informed choices; (d) ability to exercise assertiveness in collective decisionmaking;(e) positive thinking on the ability to make changes; (f) ability to learn skills for improving one‟s personalor group power; (g) ability to change others‟ perceptions by democratic means; (h) involving the growth process andchanges that is never ending and self-initiated; and (i) increasing one‟s positive self-image and overcoming stigmaAn important dimension, and as inferred from Page and Czuba‟s (1999) study, is that learning is an unending,abstract and invisible process that permeates everyone‟s life, whether young or old, rich or poor, educated orilliterate where the individuals are influenced and within the cyclic order, also influences others meaningfully. Sometimes, employees (i.e. whether in the civil service or academics, especially HE) and, or learners often engage inlearning encounter, sometimes deliberately or inadvertently (i.e. direct consequence of creativity), in order to learnnew things or to unlearn old and unprofitable ideas (i.e. consequence of empowerment) with the implication on howwe live and should be living. Real and apparent learning is an embodiment of education that transcends the fourwallsof the classroom, and can be categorized as a lifelong phenomenon that is results-oriented and overallacademic breakthrough and professional maturity. This is the essence of learning, being the consequence ofempowerment, which functions as a process, adds to or updates the reservoir of individual‟s knowledge and or groupexisting knowledge base, which of course, is expected to lead to some form of behavioural modification on the partof the educatee as well as collective commitments that simultaneously, instigates performance efficiency and theorientation of world-view which, consequently, improve positively.CHALLENGES IN TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY HIGHER EDUCATION (HE)Prominent and common workplace practice, and which equally epitomises that of the Higher Education, Worldwide,is the exercise of „pseudo-empowerment‟. Pseudo-empowerment summarises the inclination of managementactivities geared toward a direct attempt to change the attitudes of workers, colleagues and, or learners to enablethem to work harder through conformity rather than providing enabling environment for independent, creative anddemocratic and well reasoned ideas which is the function of real and ultimate ‘power’. In Wilkinson (2004), theterm „attitudinal shaping‟ was used to characterise some of the antecedent weaknesses inherent in institutionalpseudo-empowerment. In some of the African HE for instance, learners and, or younger colleagues are supposed tobe conditioned (otherwise, mentored) in a most productive and elegant manner, particularly typifying academicculture of excellence in research, teaching and community services. Paradoxically however, the rapidly changinglandscape of higher education in Africa has led to the unimaginable apathy, so to say, on the part of many senioracademics and the management staff of several African Universities, to embark on the process of meaningfulprofessional initiation of the new entrants into the culture of teaching, research, scholarship and publishing.Adjudged from this perspective, the psycho-social stability and or emotional preparedness often desired in thequality of performance of the junior and the inexperienced newly recruited lecturers (and sometimes, the learners),who inevitably engage in the process of trial and error, in order to find their feet in academia, with regard to what todo, how to do it, when to do it, and the extent to which what is expected, get marred and unfortunately confusedfrom the onset.121

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Mentoring, typified as part of any institutional responsibilities, is the informal educational and or organisationalprocess which promotes personal and intellectual (otherwise, management) growth, including professionaldevelopment through empowerment and confidence building for the achievement of academic, professional,workplace and other organisational competence. In applying the general concept of personnel mentoring, whichamong others, includes coaching, training, discussion, counselling and or supervision of the less experiencedscholars in academia and, or personnels (and students inclusive), it is the basis for the development of a virile,nurtured and well groomed academic of all time, for all day. Traditionally therefore, mentoring is described as theactivities conducted by a person (the mentor) for another person (the mentee) in order to help that other person to doa job more effectively and/or to progress in his/her career. Mentoring, with defined specific goal, does not promotegullibility in the mentee; rather, it equips the mentee with independent skills needed for sustainable growth andpersonal development. The mentor, in HE and or any organisation, would probably, therefore, be someone who had"been there, done that" before (http://www.managementhelp.org/guiding/mentrng/mentrng.htm) and knows „what‟ „when‟ and „how‟, the expected competences that are arranged to facilitateskill acquisition, but without exploitation.In higher education however, though the mentor-mentee relationship was expected to exemplify that of symbiotism,especially when empowered, however, the scenario, today, is the flouting of known ethical and, or workplacestandards (academic and or professional). Foremost in this direction, is the outcome of the regularly and overdebatedchallenge of plagiarism. Plagiarism in the twenty-first century HE, though an aged-long phenomenon, is aconstant threat in the operationalisation of either employee (with emphasis to the academics) and learners‟empowerment (otherwise mentorship), that has continued to erode the fundamentals in education. Plagiarizing theworks of other people (colleagues and students‟ theses/dissertation/projects), and, or the re-editing and scanning ofrelated materials of others, for personal advantage, without due acknowledgement, especially in the virtual learningprogramme as well as in the conventional system, has a lot of ethical implications (Braimoh and Osiki, 2008). It canlead to summary dismissal from work or studies or it could even attract demotion, a failure in course grade for apaper, and sometimes, expulsion from the programme. It erodes known academic confidence, and equally,potentially affects institutional image negatively. Using the information from Academics (Distance EducationStudent Handbook, 2008), different perspectives on plagiarism were summarized and they include, among others,the following:(a) copying and pasting text from on-line media, such as encyclopaedias;(b) copying and pasting text from any web site;(c) transcribing text from any printed material, such as books, magazines, encyclopaedias ornewspapers;(d) simply modifying text from any of the above sources or replacing a few selected words usinga Thesaurus;(e) using photographs, video or audio without permission or acknowledgment;(f) using another student's work and claiming it as your own, even with permission (known ascollusion);(g) the acquisition of work from commercial sources;(h) translation from one language to another is not using your own words which fall under theguidelines for quotations, summaries and paraphrasing.Although plagiarism is almost an intractable embarrassment the world over, its continued menace is a regularconcern in HE and educational institutions generally, but, with a lot of worries in open and distance learning (ODL)globally. While academic cheating cannot be limited to time, space and, or environment (otherwise, type ofprogramme), the sustenance of the ODL programmes via the machinery of especially technology, almost often,smears the purpose of education, academic credibility and professional excellence; while acknowledged academicshrewdness of programme facilitators (PFs) vis-à-vis those in tutelage, have gotten rather, asymptotic since the gapbetween theory and practice, is not merely sluggish, but wider; with very obvious and concomitant increase inschool dropout and antecedent unemployment.LEARNING, EMPOWERMENT AND MORALITYOne very uncommon research irritation, is the question bothering on the „morality of learning‟ and, or simply put,does empowerment have its limitations? Or when academics are empowered, does its after-effects also lead tomorality question in the workplace and or HE? Learning however, occurs in most of people‟s lives because it isfundamentally situated in activity, context and culture (Packer & Goicoechea 2000). Because learning includesgoals, purposes, intentions, choice and decision-making (Rogers & Freiberg, 1994), it is an integral part ofgenerative social practice in the lived world. It involves enculturation that is - picking up the behaviour, values and122

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010norms of a social group, and adopting its belief systems to become a member of a culture (Lave, 1996). Jarvis(1995:20) defines learning as “any process of receiving and assessing any aspect, or aspects of culture. It transformsexperience into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, etc.” In learning, a person is an acting being engagedin an activity in the world (Lave & Wenger, 1991).Formal education have exercised considerable influence over people‟s understanding of learning, however, severalstudies have shown that most learning occurs informally (Lave & Wenger, 1991, Rogers & Freiberg, 1994).Learning, wherever it occurs, is an aspect of changing participation in changing practices (Lave, 1996). Socialinteraction is a critical component of situated learning – learners become involved in an activity which is situated inparticular context and culture (Lave & Wenger, 1991). They refer to this social interaction as people involved incommunities of practice which embodies certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired. In developing the situatedlearning theory, Lave and Wenger (1991) observed how professional tailors, for instance, facilitate learning to theirapprentices. They therefore, concluded that the work practice, rather than the master-apprentice relationship, is theone that provide the most important learning opportunities which, of course, typified skills provision in fashion anddesign.In Lave and Wenger‟s (1991) theory, learning is not seen as the acquisition of knowledge; they viewed it as aprocess of social participation. “The meaning of learning is configured through the process of an individualbecoming a full participant in a socio-cultural practice” (Lave & Wenger, 1991, 29). Mezirow transformation theoryargues that learning should be understood as the process of changing our frames of reference or mind sets togenerate a new or revised interpretation of our beliefs and experience as a guide to future action (Mezirow, 2000).“The justification of what we know and believe, our values and our feelings, depends on the context of biographical,historical and cultural frames, in which they are embedded” (Mezirow, 2000, 3).This process involves a constant interaction between an individual and his or her experiences and environment(Kolb, 1984). For learning to occur, according to Kolb‟s experiential theory, there must be a direct relationship andconnection between the person who learns and the person who teaches (i.e. the mentor-mentee relationship). Suchconnection happens through the link between prior experiences and new knowledge leading to higher level oflearning (Ndoye, 2003). Adults adapt to their professional and social environment by reflecting and acting upon arich body of experiences. The transformation that happens when learning occurs, emanates from a support systemof family, friends and support groups; but more importantly, within ODL in particular, the set goals and orobjectives directing empowerment.Empowering the academics and or learners, in especially the ODL, has the single advantage for boosting academicconfidence, standards and professional behaviour. Empowerment, through mentor-mentee relationship, can besymbiotic, as both learn and enrich the other with crucial skills for personal and collective growth with the potentialto take on independent tasks and stand by their decision. But, the aspect of academics‟ re-editing of others‟publications, plagiarism, academic indolence, pilferage, and mutilation of library collections and or books/journalarticles, however raises the morality question. Although, learning can be contagious and effectively productive forits impact in inducing positive and meaningful changes, the issue of morality and professional standards have beendiscussed (Fieser, 2007, Braimoh and Osiki, 2008) in especially the sub-themes of „normative ethics’. Thenormative ethics buttresses the dimension of moral standards that regulate „right and wrong conduct‟.According to Braimoh and Osiki (2008), in academia, for instance, learners are prompted through effectiveparticipatory learner-teacher activities (otherwise, that of the teacher-teacher), to initiate and develop the capacityfor independent and collaborative efforts to academic success rather than engaging in cheating to pass examination,and, or submit articles for publication as the case may be, which is punishable. The normative ethics usuallyoperates, therefore, within the “Golden Rule” which establishes the single and, or set of principle (principles) againstwhich, all human actions are evaluated and judged. The assumption bothering the normative ethics gets empoweredby its sub-theories of (i) virtue theories (ii) duty theories and or deontological or the non-consequentialist theories(i.e. right theory, categorical imperative and prima facie versus actual duty); and (iii) the consequentialist theoriessummarized in ethical egoism, ethical altruism and utilitarianism. In ethical egoism, actions are considered to bemorally right if the consequences of the actions are more favourable than unfavourable only to the agent performingthe action. In ethical altruism, actions are considered to be morally right if the consequences of the actions are morefavourable than unfavourable to everyone except the agent. Actions are however morally right if the consequencesof the actions are more favourable than unfavourable to everyone (utilitarianism). Following the aforementionedanalogy, is the additional emphasis that epitomized Fieser (2007) categorization of „ethical theory’ in his appliedethics which consists of the analysis of specific and controversial moral issues such as abortion, euthanasia,pilfering, examination malpractices, sexual abuse, and results falsification. Understanding the interconnectivity ofthe relatedness of the sub-themes and their respective underpinnings in education has potential for mitigating abuses123

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010in workplace professional behaviour as well as academic fraud. It harnesses the opportunity for improved andsustainable individual and collective tasks commitments (Braimoh and Osiki, 2008) with enhanced propensity forself-confidence, professional growth and academic credibility.RESEARCH BREAKTHROUGH AND TRANSFORMATION IN HIGHER EDUCATIONIn the tripod related responsibility of the average academic, designing and conducting research as well as the relatedactivities, which includes the validation of research measures are of prime importance in HE and especially in ODL.Attitudinal and behavioural changes in terms of human life styles, technological recouping for growth, developmentand advancement, are part of the transformational import of higher education. Human survival, socio-economically,technologically and generally are directly linked to research endeavours, even though, conducting applied research,can be tasking and very demanding (i.e. whether among academics and, or the learners).In Osiki (2007b), it was opined that learners in the Distance Learning Programmes (DLP) and, or selectedprogrammes in higher education, as part of their Degree Certification, are often expected to compile and write afield report in the form of either a project and, or dissertation/thesis before graduation. This, the ODL beneficiariesoften dread. But in other sphere, the slang „publish or perish‟ is a too familiar appendages within academia. Inconsequence therefore, while research requirement constitutes a threat to the learners either in ODL and, or HEgenerally, it is an issue of general concern, that is constantly worrisome among academics. In so far as generalapplication of knowledge is concern, and should be the vogue, the transformational value of research benefits(otherwise, breakthrough) is the product of continuity whether in politics, trade and industries, socio-religiosity,mental health and or general medicine as well as administration.Research has so many parts, and that, must be appreciated. Additionally, academics whether among the PFs and orthose in tutelage (i.e. students), once we are in academic, every participants and or stake holders should be perceivedas learners for life. We keep learning new things every day just as curricular re-appraisal and or review is a regularfeature; and that is, if programmes in HE and or ODL in particular, would have a sustainable relevance, with thecapacity to translate individual and or national dreams, to a concretized reality. Highlands does not exist in academiccircle as continuous dividend (i.e. whether in HE or ODL) is the function of collective commitments of all andsundry. In this paradigm, skills acquisition for eventful research is followed through the cyclical order where,research perspectives and the modus-operandi and, or modus-vivendi are essentially derived from the community,along functional inter-personal symbiotism. In the transformation, mentee-mentorship is a direct consequence ofempowerment, which in itself, is multi-dimensional. In its multi-dimensionality, premium is placed on the sociopsychologicalindices, personal-emotional variables, eco-religiosity while simultaneously, using the structures of thementee-mentor and community benefits. The essence of this paradigm has been summed up in the ultimate andtransformation academic capacity model in figures I and II below (appendix).CAPACITY BUILDING MODEL FOR ACADEMICS IN DISTANCE HIGHER EDUCATIONINSTITUTIONSParticularly hinged on the multi-dimensionality of the transformative theme, the empowerment of the stakeholdersin institutions of higher education (IHE) in general and ODL in particular, recognises the tripod interconnectivity ofthe mentee, mentor and community paradigm. Within a more dynamic symbiotic cyclical order, individual (i.e.mentee and mentor) change constitutes the basis for community and or national growth, advancement anddevelopment (i.e. socio-economically, technologically, politically, mental wellness and, or health, etc); and withoutequivocation, the relevance of HE in Africa. While the paradigm necessarily goad the more experienced academic toa purposefully research-driven activities along with the less experienced and, or the learners (mentees), individualchange (i.e. personal growth) instigated via continuous and eventful research breakthrough, then becomes the bridgeto community and, or national (or continental) connectedness and politico-social and economic changes. Accordingto Wilson (1996) putting it succinctly, reasoned that, to create change, „we must be ready to change individually toenable us to become partners in solving the complex issues facing us‟. It was this conceptualisation perhaps, and thesynthesis of the recognition of mentee-mentor/mentor-mentor mutual trust and respect, within a diverse perspectiveand a concomitant developing vision, with individuals striving to collaborate toward facilitating creative andrealistic solutions to the myriad of African challenges (otherwise, global challenges) that typifies empowerment(Speer & Hughey, 1995; Wilson, 1996) and, of course, the epitome of capacity building in ODL and DHE. Asencapsulated in the paradigm (figures I and II, Appendix) therefore, skills enhancement and acquisition flowsymbiotically between the mentee and mentor (i.e. irrespective of gender, age, academic status, experience,124

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010personality variables, which are all held constant), to impact positively on personal development and growth as wellas overall implication for community survival and national or African sub-regional advancement.CONCLUSIONIn this paper, we have dealt with myriad of issues which should serve as signposts for us in our distance educationmarathon journey to the „promised land‟ of efficient capacity building, through the mentoring process. It must beborne in mind however, that mentoring does not only benefit the mentee but in the process of mentoring, even thequality and performance level of the mentor in all ramifications, are also being constantly improved. We must alsonot see mentoring paradigm as a new phenomenon in our society, as it has a long historical root even with theoperation of the apprenticeship training process at the traditional functional education premise.Suffice it to say that before the advent of modern education system in Africa, there used to be a form of educationalencounter, no matter how rudimentary it was, through which character formation, skills training and even traditionalliteracy used to be imparted to the learners. Such training was holistic and all-embracing but sometimes it might bereferred to as dogmatic, repressive, authoritarian and chauvinistic. The problem is that not many people believe orconsider mentoring as anything of importance in education, let alone in distance education, through whichpermanent and flexible learning process could be undertaken for the purpose of attitudinal and behaviouralmodification as well as in coping with our daily professional challenges. Braimoh (2008) indicated that the modusoperandi of mentoring may only become more discernible now in the 21st century, nonetheless, mentoring is auseful informal and lifelong educational process which is not only cost effective, but can also stimulate personaldevelopment, increase productivity and improve performance of its trainees.We must not be oblivious of the reality that as we progress with our mentoring process, not only is mentee at thegreater receiving end to improve professionally, the by-product of his personal development will also dove-tail tobenefit the society in which he/she lives. The major challenge however, which the operators of mentoring paradigmin either the conventional and/or virtual higher institutions of learning should be more curious about, is theunconscious or the deliberate abuses of mentoring which may render impotent the usefulness of the process. Abusesof such are not limited to the mentor alone, but the mentee may also not be totally absolved from committing suchabuses, whether knowingly or inadvertently. Mentoring is no doubt, a very useful strategy of capacity building inacademia. We must however, critically assess first, the socio-cultural milieu and geo-political settings in which weare operating before it can be adopted, especially on a blanket basis, because, culturally, it may be a taboo, anoffence, a violation of human right or an aberration of custom and tradition of some group of people, who may beworking in such a heterogeneous and complex distance higher education environment.In order to stimulate further academic discourse, based on our varied individual experiences, perceptions and beliefsystems with regard to the how, why, when and to what extent we can adopt mentoring for empowerment and thuslead to the transformation of human resource base in the process of capacity building in our various higherinstitutions of learning, we have given below some few challenging recommendations. These are not meant tocastigate but to strengthen the management structure of our higher institutions in order for them to produce positiveand enviable results in their process of maintaining quality of both the academic staff and the institutionalprogrammes they offer to the teaming populations who are daily yearning for the acquisition of higher educationqualifications.1. Ladder and Stardom PhilosophyRECOMMENDATIONSMajority of senior academics in our different African Tertiary Institutions (ATIs), who by virtue of their positionsare expected to mentor others, selfishly withdraw from performing that role or are resistant to share knowledge orexperience with the junior and/or inexperienced academic staff, simply because they see them as mere threats totheir positions. They have the belief that the junior and inexperienced staff members should also struggle on theirown in “climbing the academic ladder” like they did without any available mentor to show them the way. That is awilful thinking because, it should be a thing of pride for us that we have been able to replicate ourselves througheffective mentoring process before we leave the „academic stage‟ rather than being parochial to hoard information toourselves, while we watch our junior colleagues travailing the rough academic road like a lost sheep without ashepherd.125

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 20102. Apathy due to incompetenceMany atimes, unexpressed incompetence on the part of the senior colleagues to whom many junior andinexperienced academics look unto, can be a factor of unwillingness to groom others. Many senior colleagues got totheir present exalted positions not through merit and not because of high quality and consistent academic output butsimply as a result of many years of sojourning in a particular university campus, ostensibly without anything worththe-whileto show for it. Sometimes, it is through mere political gymnastics or administrative favouritism, to say theleast. This group of people can be referred to as pseudo-academics, who parade themselves as politicians inacademic robes. To maintain quality in academia therefore, the promotion goal-post in particular, should not for anyreason be moved haphazardly at the whims and caprices of any “military general VCs” or be doctored by influentialuniversity principal officers, as “king makers” on campus, simply for the advantage of their professional andpolitical associates.3. Performance Based Assessment (PBA)Annual increment, promotion or any financial reward that may be accruing to any staff member from the rank ofsenior lecturer upward as an academic career entry point, should be weighted highly on the basis of the following:At least, one publication annually should be produced in any internationally reputable journal;Regularity and successful supervision of either the masters and/or the Ph.D. students should be mandatory inorder to remain a productive and respected Professor;Mentoring of at least one junior colleague to a higher academic and administrative competence level, within agiven period of time, continuously and with discernible results, should be encouraged;Regular attendance at university sponsored international conferences where he/she will be expected to presentsolid academic paper, to boost the image of institutional affiliation, should be the practice in all our higherinstitutions of learning.4. Leadership of University Administrative PositionsIn order to lead by example, and to supervise the junior colleagues, headship ofdepartments/schools/faculties/colleges should not only be competed for and the most competent and suitablecandidate be appointed, there must also be consideration for seniority in terms of academic ranks. It is indisputablethat “experience is the best teacher”, but it will be a mockery of administrative process to appoint someone who isjust “fresh from the University” either with a Masters or a Ph.D. degree and without any previous administrativeexposure in running a department/school/faculty/college, to lead, when there are some more senior and morequalified colleagues at the Associate and full Professorial levels available, whose services could still be utilized.There is no doubt that this may raise some serious debatable philosophical questions from some people in differentschools of thought, who may argue on the basis of where will the new graduate acquire the expected workingexperience if he/she is not given the chance now to lead? We are not against giving chances to anyone, all we aresaying is that if and when more qualified and experienced colleagues are still available and ready to accept suchpositions, they should allow the new comers to therefore, be mentored for a while by watching how the system isbeing operated in order for him/her to attain maturity level, rather than rushing in and messing up the wholeadministrative structure and process as a result of his/her own ineptitude.5. Standardize Promotion CriteriaIt may be impossible to have uniform promotion criteria across all the disciplines within a university, nonetheless,for quality assurance maintenance purpose; there must be a realistic benchmarking with other similar regional andinternational institutions for us not to be encouraging the promotion of mediocrity at the expense of academicexcellence.6. Retirement AgeA paradox of reality is with the current brain drain syndrome, which of course, is a brain gain to other institutionswithin the continent or outside of African continent, which have the economic capability to pay for the services ofthose who decide to emigrate. We must note this exodus, and therefore, not be too rigid about mandating thewilling, active and productive Professors who have attained the age of 65 years, to compulsorily retire, while yet,there are no qualified skilled human resources available on the ground to replace them. Without any sentiment, thismay be subjecting the quality of the programme in whichever departments or faculties they are retiring from to be injeopardy. It is of note however, to commend few Universities in Southern African sub-region, who practice the126

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010retention of their good Professors even up to the age of 70. Some Professors may although decide to retire officiallyin order to collect their retirement benefits by choice, they could nonetheless, be encouraged by the universitymanagement to stay further and be given contract appointments. This will however, depend on if they are stillphysically strong and mentally alert to cope with the challenges of academia. This group of people should be givenless of teaching work-load at the undergraduate level but be engaged more on institutional research activities,postgraduate students‟ supervision including essentially, the mentoring assignment of the new generation academics.REFERENCESAdetoun, B. (2005). Fostering Women‟s Empowerment: Gender and HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Nigeria. Retrieved 15April 2008 from http://www.cies.org/NCS/2004_2005/nc_badetoun.htmAfrica RAB 2007 Report: Final Reports of the Regional Advisory Board (RAB) and Regional Youth Caucus (RYC)Meetings held in Victoria, Mahe, Seychelles, 28 September - 3 October 2007Braimoh, D., (2008) “Lifelong Learning through Mentoring Process and its Operational Dimensions in Society”,Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(2).Braimoh, D., & Osiki, J.O. (2008) “Creating a Firewall against unethical Behaviours in Open and Distance EducationPractice”, In Ugur Demiray & Ramesh C. Sharma (Eds.) Ethical Practices and Implications in DistanceLearning, IGI Publishing Company, USA. (Forthcoming Chapter)Commonwealth of Nations plan of Action for Youth Empowerment (2007-2015). Retrieved 17 April 2008 fromwww.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/GFSR.asp?NodeID=169313Fieser, J. (2007). The Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy. Accessed 5 th August 2007 fromhttp://www.utm.edu/`jfieser/Fletcher, A. (2005). Guide to Students as Partners in School Change Olympia, WA: Common ActionJarvis, P. (1995) Adult and Continuing Education, Theory and Practice (2 nd edn) London, RoutledgeKolb, D. A. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, EnglewoodCliffs, N.J. Prentice-Hall, Inc.Lave, J. (1996) Teaching, as learning, in practice, Mind, Culture, and Activity, 3, 149-164.Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning, Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge, CambridgeUniversity PressMentoring.Free Management Library. Retrieved 12 April 2008 fromhttp://www.managementhelp.org/guiding/mentrng/mentrng.htmMezirow, J. (2000). Learning to think like an adult: core concepts of transformation theory, In J.Mezirow andassociates (Eds), Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress, San Fransisco,Jossey-Bass.Mohawk Valley Community College (MVCC) Learning Centre: A unit of The State University of New York.Retrieved 12 April 2008 from http://www.mvcc.edu/academics/learning/index.cfmNational University of Lesotho (NUL) Bulletin: “In the Service of the Nation”2008,vol. 1, issue 2 (March); 1-12.Ndoye, A. (2003). Experiential learning, self-beliefs and adult performance in Senegal, InternationalJournal of Lifelong Learning, 22(4), 353-366Osiki, J.O. (2006). Parental and Teacher Attitude to Girl-Child Education and Economic Empowerment. InternationalJournal of Emotional Psychology and Sport Ethics, vol.8, 38-57.127

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Osiki, J.O. (2007 a). Economic Empowerment of Women through Four Psychotherapies in Two Local GovernmentAreas, Edo State, Nigeria. Retrieved 12 August 2007 from http://www.bridgew.edu/soaa/jiw/Nov07/index.htmOsiki, J.O. (2007 b).Empowering Distance Learners‟ Research Prowess through the Effective Utilization of ThreePsychotherapies. Lesotho Social Science Review (In Press).Packer, M.J. and Goicoechea, J. (2000). Socio-cultural and constructivist theories of learning: Ontology, notjust epistemology, Educational Psychologist, 35, 227-241.Page, N. & Czuba, C. E. (1999). Empowerment: What is it?. Journal of Extension, vol. 37, no. 5. Retrieved 7 April2008 from http://www.joe.org/joe/1999october/comm1.htmlRogers, C.R. and Freiberg, H.J. (1994) Freedom to Learn (3 rd edn), Columbus OH: Merrill/MacmillanSazama, J. & Young, K. (2006). 15 Points to Successfully Involve Youth in Decision-making, Boston: Youth Board.Speer, P. W. & Hughey, J. (1995). Community Organising: An Ecological route to Empowerment and power>American Journal of Community Psychology, 23 (5); 729-748.Vavrus, J. & Fletcher, A. (2006). Guide to Social Change led by and with Young People. The Free child ProjectWilkinson, A. (2004). Empowerment: Theory and Practice. Personnel Review, vol.27, no. 1:40-56.Wilson, P. (1996). Empowerment: Community economic development from the inside out. Urban Studies, vol. 33 (4-5): 617-630.World Bank Organisation, „Empowerment‟. Retrieved 11 April 2008 from http://web.worldbank.Org/website/external/topics/extpoverty/extempowerment/0.contentMDK:20245753128

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010OPERATIONAL SCOPE•ACADEMIC ISSUES•SOCIAL ISSUES•PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES•ECONOMIC ISSUES•SPIRITUAL ISSUES•OTHER ISSUESMENTORMENTEEMALEFEMALEOLDYOUNGSINGLEMARRIEDF2FDISTANC EPHONEOTHERSMALEFEMALEOLDYOUNGSINGLEMARRIEDF2FDISTANCEON-LINEPHONEOTHERSTIMEDURATION?QUALITIES OF MENTOR•Willingness of help•Knowledgeability•Wide experience•Credibility•Accessibility•Empathy•Communication•Honesty•Objectivity•Ethical value orientation•ReputationQUALITIES OF MENTEE•Acceptability•Readiness to learn•Preparedness to work•Commitment•Respectability•Openness•Self drive•Innovativeness•Trust•PurposefulABUSES/PROBLEMS OFMENTORING•Sexual Harassment•Academic Slavery•Economic Derivatives•Pride/Indolence•Procrastination•Demotivation•Frustration•Heavy workload•Dehumanization•IngratitudeBENEFITS OF MENTORING•Self Confidence•Research Breakthrough•Skills Acquisition•Personal Growth & Development•International Exposure•Community Animator•Economic Reward•Popularity•Effective Communicator129FIG. 1: Transformative Mentoring Model for Capacity Building in Distance HigherEducation

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Mentee/LearnerAcademic/ProgramfacilitatorsResearchBreakthroughSkills acquisitionAcademic/Programfacilitators•Self dependence•Adequate Information search•Adequate information utilization•Data generation/ application•Decision makingCommunityCommunityAdvancementPersonal Development•Increased self awareness•High positive self image•Openness•Stress free (lack of acrimony)•Constructive criticism•Collaboration•Interdependence•Shared-knowledge•etc•Economics•Health•Social•Politics•etcFIG. 2: Ultimate Cyclical Transformative Capacity Building Model for Academics inDistanceHigher Education (DHE)130

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Comparison of Some Biomotoric Developments of 14 Years Old Who Exercise And ThoseNot ExerciseYağmur AKKOYUNLU and Ercan ŞİRİNÜniversity of DumlupınarPhisical Edication and Sports,Germiyan Campus43020 Kütahya,TurkeyE-mail address for correspondence: yagmur0906@gmail.com____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The aim of this stuy is to determine some biomotoric features of 14 years old who exercise in a Professionalfootball team’s junior team at least three years and 14 years old not exercise ,and to search how training effects on 14years old youngs’ physical structure and biomotoric features. 20 active footballer and 20 subjects not exercisingregularly attended this study.From the physical features; age,height,body weight, from biomotoric features; 20m speed,reach and touch,right and left hand grasp ,stop and jump,vertical jump, from the body measurement; shoulder ,back, hip,thigh, scalf, biceps flexion ,forearm flexion,forearm extension ,thigh and hip measurement, body fat percentage wastaken and in SPSS 15.00 package programme at α=0.05 anlamlılık significance level independent t test was applied.After the measurement taken; from the biomotoric measurement values of groups ,20 meter run, flexibility ,stop and longjump, vertical jump measurement difference was found significant. (P0,05). from the body measurement; shoulder ,back, hip, , biceps flexion , bicepsextension, forearm flexion, forearm extension, thigh, scalf measurement difference was found insignificant(P>0,05).body fat percentage measurement values (biceps, triceps, subscapula, upper hip) was found significant (P

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010METHODSSearch Group20 footballers playing at junior team of Tavþanlý Linyit Sport Club, struggling at Professional leauge in KütahyaProvince, and 20 subjects who never exercised ,studying at Industrial Vocational High School and Fatih AnatolianHigh School in Kütahya participated in this study. Measurements were taken at Physical Education and SportsCollage labs and sport facilities.StatisticTables and graphs used for data of Experiment and control groups were prepared at microsoft windows xp excelprogramme.Evaluation of statistics and statistical tables were prepared at SPSS 15 package programme.Normalityanaliysis was done.Whether the datas were due to the normal distribution or not was searched. The groups werehomogenious .For datas obtained from experiment and control groups t tes was applied at á=0.05 significant level for2 independent groups.Collecting DatasTo determine physical and biomotoric parameters of experiment and control groups, some physical and biomotoricmeasurements were taken. For physical measurements inelastic measuring tape (Aptamil brand), For biomotoricmeasurements for 20 m run chronometer, for vertical jump jumpmeter, for stop and long jump measuringtape(Aptamil brand), for hand grip hand dynomometer(Takai brand) was usedPhysical MeasurementsAge, height and weight measurement;The height of sportsmen participated to the study was measured barefoot withAptamil brand measuring tape , and their weight was measured on an electronic scale with just their shorts on. Theirages was evaluated depending on their birth year.Biomotor measurementsClaw force measurement; Takai Brand Hand Dynomometer was used and dynomometer was adjusted to each oneshand measure. Measurement was taken while the subject was on foot, not bending the measured arm and withouttouching the body ,when the arm angled 45 degree to the body.It was done twice fort he right and left hand, the bestvalue was recorded as kilogramme.Flexibility measurement;for flexibility measurement, reach and touch flexibility table was used. Sportsmen feetwere placed under the table, they were asked to reach the furthest point over the table without bending their arms.Theywere asked to stay there for a while and the distance they could reach was recorded as cm.20 meter Speed Test ; Sportsmen waited at starting point of the 20 meter run way and with the sign ,they ran with amaximum power consumption.Vertical Jump Test; At vertical jump test Takai brand jump meter was used.Jump meter was adjusted to sportsmenheight and Sportsman was in the middle of the rope and both feet were in equal distance.Sportsmen was asked tobend their knees to get some power and while jumping they were asked not to do abdominal shot.Stop and Long Jump; Sportsmen, behind marked line with both feet ,using maximal effort, they tried to jump to thefurthest distance. The distance between starting point and the trace left to the nearest point was measured as cm.Body Circumference MeasurementsWith just their shorts on ,Aptamil brand measuring tape was used and body measurement was taken.Measurementswere taken from 9 different part such as shoulder,waist,hip,biceps flexion,biceps extantion,forearm flexion,thigh andcalf.Underskin fat MeasurementsSportsmen’s underskin fat measurements were taken with Skinfold Caliper from the right part of thebody.Measurements were taken from 4 different parts. Biceps, Triceps, Subscapula, Supra İliak, Durning-WomersleyFormula was used.132

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010RESULTSTable 1. Comparison of Physical and Biomotor Features of GroupGroup StatisticVariants Groups N Mean Std.Deviation Std.Error Mean T value P valueAge(year) Footballer 20 14,0000 ,00022 ,00005 1,000 ,324Sedantary 20 14,0000 ,00000 ,00000 1,000 ,330Height(cm) Footballer 20 1,7090 ,06874 ,01537 2,924 0,006Sedantary 20 1,6510 ,05609 ,01254 2,924 0,006BodyWeight(kg)Footballer 20 56,9500 9,34978 2,09067 1,836 ,074Sedantary 20 52,6500 4,71587 1,05450 1,836 ,07720 m Speed Run Footballer 20 3,4195 ,19516 ,04364 -5,359 ,000*Sedantary 20 3,9095 ,35933 0,8035 -5,359 ,000*Flexibility Footballer 20 22,3500 4,40424 ,98482 2,234 0,031*Sedantary 20 17,8000 7,97100 1,78237 2,234 0,033*Right Hand Footballer 20 35,0200 7,43233 1,66192 1,979 0,055GripSedantary 20 30,9850 5,27958 1,18055 1,979 0,056Left Hand Grip Footballer 20 33,1600 6,69040 1,49602 1,136 ,263Sedantary 20 30,8100 6,39324 1,42957 1,136 ,263Stop and Long Footballer 20 1,9565 ,16181 ,03618 5,682 ,000*JumpSedantary 20 1,5770 ,25106 ,05614 5,682 ,000*Vertical Jump Footballer 20 57,8000 6,31289 1,41161 3,974 ,000*Sedantary 20 49,3500 7,11022 1,58989 3,974 ,000*P0,05)133

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 2. Groups body measurementsGroup StatisticVariant Groups N Mean Std.Deviation Std.Error T value P valueMeanShoulder width Footballer 20 96,5500 5,17560 1,15730 ,989 ,329Sedantary 20 95,1000 4,02492 ,90000 ,989 ,329WaistFootballer 20 69,9500 4,60520 1,02975 ,212 ,833CircumferenceSedantary 20 69,6500 4,31978 ,96593 ,212 ,833HipCircumference*P

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Right Hand Grip: As a result of statistical analysis, average right hand grip value of youngs participated in thisstudy in experiment group (35.02 ± 7.432 kg) was found higher when compared to average right hand grip value ofyoungs in control group (30.98 ± 5.279 kg) .Right hand grip measurement difference of experiment and controlgroup was found insignificant.Left Hand Grip: As a result of statistical analysis, average left hand grip value of youngs participated in this studyin experiment group (33.16 ± 6.690 kg) was found higher when compared to average right hand grip value of youngsin control group (30.98 ± 5.279 kg) .Stop and Long Jump: As a result of statistical analysis, average stop and long jump value of youngs participated inthis study in experiment group (1.95 ± 0.161 cm) was found higher when compared to average stop and long jumpvalue of youngs in control group (1.57 ± 0.251 cm) .Vertical Jump: As a result of statistical analysis , average vertical jump value of youngs participated in this studyin experiment group (57.80 ± 6.312 cm) was found higher when compared to average vertical jump value ofyoungs in control group (49.35 ± 7.110 cm). Vertical jump measurement difference of experiment and control groupwas found significant.Shoulder Width: As a result of statistical analysis, average shoulder width value of youngs participated in this studyin experiment group (96.55 ± 5.175 cm) was found higher when compared to average shoulder width value ofyoungs in control group (95.10 ± 4.024 cm) .Shoulder width measurement difference of experiment and controlgroup was found insignificant.Waist Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis, average waist circumference value of youngs participatedin this study in experiment group (69.95 ± 4.605 cm) was found higher when compared to average waistcircumference value of youngs in control group (69.65 ± 4.319 cm) .Waist circumference measurement differenceof experiment and control group was found insignificant.Hip Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis, average hip circumference value of youngs participated inthis study in experiment group (87.65 ± 5.193 cm) was found higher when compared to average hip circumferencevalue of youngs in control group (87.50 ± 5.907 cm) .Hip circumference measurement difference of experiment andcontrol group was found insignificant.Biceps Flexion Circumference : As a result of statistical analysis, average biceps flexion circumference value ofyoungs participated in this study in experiment group (22.85 ± 1.725 cm) was found higher when compared toaverage biceps flexion circumference value of youngs in control group (22.55 ± 1.190 cm) .Biceps flexioncircumference measurement difference of experiment and control group was found insignificant.Biceps Extention Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis, average biceps extention circumference valueof youngs participated in this study in experiment group (25.85 ± 2.412 cm) was found higher when compared toaverage biceps extention circumference value of youngs in control group (25.60 ± 1.273 cm) .Biceps extentioncircumference measurement difference of experiment and control group was found insignificant.Forearm Flexion Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis, average forearm flexion circumference value ofyoungs participated in this study in experiment group (23.10 ± 1.447 cm) was found higher when compared toaverage forearm flexion circumference value of youngs in control group (22.55 ± 1.190 cm) .Forearm flexioncircumference measurement difference of experiment and control group was found insignificant.Forearm Extention Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis , average forearm extention circumferencevalue of youngs participated in this study in experiment group (24.24 ± 1.446 cm) was found higher whencompared to average forearm extention circumference value of youngs in control group (23.70 ± 1.128 cm).Forearm extention circumference measurement difference of experiment and control group was found insignificantThigh Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis, average thigh circumference value of youngs participatedin this study in experiment group (43.65 ± 3.087 cm) was found higher when compared to average thighcircumference value of youngs in control group (42.80 ± 3.302 cm) .Thigh circumference measurement differenceof experiment and control group was found insignificantCalf Circumference: As a result of statistical analysis, average calf circumference value of youngs participated inthis study in experiment group (33.40 ± 2.062 cm was found lower when compared to average calf135

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010circumference value of youngs in control group (33.65 ± 1.954 cm) .Calf circumference measurement difference ofexperiment and control group was found insignificantBody fat percentage : As a result of statistical analysis, average body fat percentage value of youngs participatedin this study in experiment group (16.92 ± 4.083 %) was found lower when compared to average body fatpercentage value of youngs in control group (19.78 ± 4.225 %) . Body fat percentage measurement differenceof experiment and control group was found significantDISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONAt this stuy, it was aimed to determine some biomotoric features of 14 years old youngs exercising in a Professionalfootball team’s junior team at least three years and 14 years old youngs not exercising ,and to search how trainingeffects on 14 years old youngs’ physical structure and biomotoric features.For children and young athletes, with growth and maturation occurring in the body structure and sporty performancechanges were examined in various studies,ýt is indicated that growth, performance and body biomotor developmentsmay lead to some different kinds of developments.The relationship between development and motor performance in general depends on anthropometric factors and isrecognized as an important element in performance (Kalkavan, A.1999 )Loko and his colleagues, indicated that 10-17 age children who do regular exercise were faster than children with thesame age and sex.(Loko J, Aule R, Sikkut T, Ereline J, Viru A.2000)Saçaklı, in his study with 14 years old footballers, found 30 m sprint average as 4,65 second (Saçaklı,M.1998 )Kien and his colleagues found that 10-12 age children participated in recreation programme were faster than thechildren who didnot participate in recreational sports activities. These studies were parallel with the studies identifiedin.(Kien,C.L.2003).In this study, statistically a significant difference was observed in the value of verticaljump.Saygýn found a significant difference between the children who were active and who werenot.( Saygın,Ö.2003)Our findings shows parallelism with the search results in which Hofman and his colleagues found statisticallysignificant differences in vertical jump parameters of 12-14 years old children who had movementtraining.(Hofman,J.R. Stavisky,H.Falk,B.1995) Flexibility measurement difference of experiment and control groupswas found significant in this study.Yenal and his collegues,in their studies on 10-11 age children found significantdifference in experiment group when compared to control group in terms of flexibility. (Yenal, T.H, Çamlıyer H,Saraçoğlu A.S.1999)Saygın found significant difference between children whose activity level is lighter and medium in terms offlexibility.(Saygın, Ö. Polat, Y. Karacabey K.2005) . These studies are overlapping with the studies done.Stop andjump measurement difference of experiment and control groups was found significant Regular training has a positiveaffect on physical development of 14 years old young group and it increases stop and jum measurement data of youngswho are more developed as physical (height,weight) and it was thought that it may have a significant difference affecton14 years old youngs stop and jump in experiment and control group.In Metiner and Ulug’s studies on children, they indicated an important relationship between stop and longjump,physical structure and height (Metiner G, Uluğ Y1993). These results were parallel with the studies done. Ofexperimental and control group, the right hand grip, left hand grip, diameter and circumferences measurementdifference was found insignificant..Regular football –specific training has no effect on having significant difference in diameter and circumferences, butthe effection may be cause of developments in puberty period.As a result, changes occurring beacuse of the growth, maturation in 14 footballers,children and youngs’ sportyperformance,body structure ,developments in their biomotoric features are not only because of the training but alsobecause of their development period.136

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010REFERENCESHofman,J.R. Stavisky,H.Falk,B.: (1995) The Efect of Water Restriction Anaerobic Power And Vertical JumpingHeight Ýn Basketbol Players.Ýnt.J Sport Medicine,16(4):214-8Kalkavan, A : (1999 )“Comparison of Physical and Physiological features of Little , Star and Young footballers ofTrabzonspor Dynamic Sports Science Magazine 1-1”, M.Ü. BESYOKien,C.L.: (2003)Chiodo A.R.Physical Activity Ýn Midle School Aged Children Partticipating Ýn a School-BasetRecraition Program.Arch Pediatr Adolescan.157(8),811-5Loko J, Aule R, Sikkut T, Ereline J, Viru A : (2000) “Motor Performance Status in on 10 to 17 Years Old EstonianGirls and Boys” Scand J Med Sci Sports 109-13Malina,R.M.Bouchard C: (1991)Growth Maturation and Physical Activity. Human Kinetics Publishers inc,Ýlinois,.Mengütay, S :(2000 ) Movement Development and Sport at Pre-schools and Primary schools, Tütibay Publishers,AnkaraMetiner G, Uluğ Ý : (1993) Physical and Motoric Performance Difference Examination of Children Whose Parentswere Doing Sports and Those Not Doing sports. 4th National Sports Doctors Congress Information Book ,Ege University Publisher , s.253, İzmirPekel, A.H and Colleagues :( 2006 )“The Evaluation of Relationships between Anthropometric features andPhysical Convenience Test Results about Sports Children Performance”,Kastamonu Education Magazine,14Saçaklı,M.:( 1998 )Determination of Strenght Parameters of 400 Little-Star 14/16 Young Team Footballers and TheEffects on Ability Choice. Postgraduate Thesis,Marmara University Social Sciences Institution (NotPublished), s.36,ÝstanbulSaygın, Ö. Polat, Y. Karacabey K:( 2005) The effect of Movement Training of Children on Physical ConvenienceFeatures, Fýrat University Health Science Magazine, 19Saygın,Ö.: (2003) Physical Activity Level of 10-12 age children and The Examination of Their Physical Convenience.Doctorate Thesis, Marmara University Health Science Institute,Physical Education and Sports,USA,(NotPublished),s.60,ÝstanbulYenal, T.H, Çamlıyer H, Saraçoğlu A.S: (1999) “The Effect of Physical Education and Sports Activities on PrimarySchool Children’s Motoric Skills and Ability”, G.U.BESBD, 4, AnkaraZorba, E. : (2006) 9th International Sports Sciences Congress Information Book, Nobel Publisher, Muğla137

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationEuropean Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Factor – Analytic Study of Teachers’ Perceptions On Self-Efficacy In Botswana JuniorSecondary Schools: Implications for Educational Quality.Adedoyin O.OUniversity of BotswanaEmail address for correspondence: omobola_adedoyin@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This is a quantitative study of teachers’ perceptions on their self efficacy in Botswana junior secondaryschools . A teacher self efficacy questionnaire developed by Bandura (1994) on a nine likert scale, was adoptedand administered to a random sample of 150 teachers from 30 junior secondary schools within the Southerneducational region of Botswana. Out of which 132 teachers responded to the questionnaire, and these responseswere analysed using factor analytic method (available on the SPSS computer package). The principal factor withiteration was employed and varimax rotation method was also used. Nine factors with eigen values greater thanone, emerged from the factor analysis of the teachers’ response to the self-efficacy questionnaire.. These ninefactors will inform the Botswana educational system about teacher quality and effectiveness/ self efficacy inschools. It should therefore be noted that teacher self- perceive efficacy is necessary and should always be stronglylinked to teaching practices and student learning outcomes, which is very crucial in the educational system of anycountry. Studying teachers’ self-efficacy can be useful to teacher education programmes in Botswana in improvingteaching perspectives and behavior of teachers.Key words: Junior Secondary Schools, Botswana educational system__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe term self-efficacy has been defined as an individual's judgment of his or her capability to organize and executethe courses of action required to attain designated types of performances (Bandura, 1986, 1997). Bandura (1995)also stressed further that self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave.People with high efficacy beliefs set themselves challenging goals and they heighten and sustain their efforts in theface of failure. On the other hand, people who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks, which theyview as personal threats. He further stated that self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities to organize andexecute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations” (1995, p. 2). In other words, self-efficacy isa person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. A strong sense of efficacy enhances humanaccomplishment and personal well-being in many ways. People with high efficacy set themselves challenging goalsand maintain strong commitment to them. They attribute failure to insufficient effort or deficient knowledge andskills which are acquirable and approach threatening situations with assurance of having control over them. Such anefficacious outlook produces personal accomplishments, reduces stress and lowers vulnerability to depression.139

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010In contrast, people who doubt their capabilities shy away from difficult tasks which they view as personal threats.They have low aspirations and weak commitment to the goals they choose to pursue. When faced with difficulttasks, they dwell on their personal deficiencies, on the obstacles they will encounter, and all kinds of adverseoutcomes rather than concentrate on how to perform successfully. They slacken their efforts and give up quickly inthe face of difficulties. They are slow to recover their sense of efficacy following failure or setbacks. Because theyview insufficient performance as deficient aptitude it does not require much failure for them to lose faith in theircapabilities.Teacher efficacy has also been defined as teachers' "beliefs in their ability to have a positive effect on studentlearning" (Ashton, 1985; p. 142). This means that teachers with higher teaching efficacy find teaching meaningfuland rewarding, expect students to be successful, assess themselves when students fail, set goals and establishstrategies for achieving those goals, have positive attitudes about themselves and students, have a feeling of being incontrol, and share their goals with students (Ashton, 1985). Henson (2001) stated that teacher efficacy has beenfound to be one of the important variables consistently related to positive teaching behavior and student outcomes.During the past two decades, self-efficacy has emerged as a highly effective predictor of students’ motivation andlearning. Teachers’ sense of efficacy can potentially influence both the kind of environment that they create as wellas the various instructional practices introduced in the classroom (Bandura, 1997). Furthermore, teachers with a highsense of self-efficacy are confident that even the most difficult students can be reached if they exert extra effort;teachers with lower self-efficacy, on the other hand, feel a sense of helplessness when it comes to dealing withdifficult and unmotivated students (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). The literature widely documents the pervasiveinfluence of self-efficacy beliefs and corroborates social cognitive theory that places these beliefs at the roots ofhuman agency (Bandura, 2001).Understanding teachers’ perceptions and beliefs is important because teachers, heavily involved in various teachingand learning processes, are practitioners of educational principles and theories (Jia, Eslami & Burlbaw, 2006).Teachers have a primary role in determining what is needed or what would work best with their students. Findingsfrom research on teachers’ perceptions and beliefs indicate that these perceptions and beliefs not only haveconsiderable influence on their instructional practices and classroom behavior but also are related to their students’achievement ( Hollon, Anderson & Roth, 1991; Johnson, 1992). Thus, knowing the perceptions and beliefs ofteachers enables one to make predictions about teaching and assessment practices in classrooms.The current revised Botswana national policy on educational (1994) recognized that the success of any educationalsystem depends largely on teachers. According to the document, teachers “ are the catalyst of the learning processand on them rests the whole nation educational system”. In the Botswana teaching profession, “the quality ofinstructions is one of the most important determinants of the level of learning achievement. Teachers are the agentsof curriculum implementation are therefore central to the educational system and can make or break the system”.This implies that the Botswana educational system recognizes the fact that the way teachers perceive theirresponsibilities in the classroom will eventually affect the student learning outcomes. This is well collaborated bySoodak & Podell, (1997 , p. 214) that teachers’ beliefs about their own effectiveness, known as teacher efficacy,underlie many important instructional decisions which ultimately shape students’ educational experiences. Teacherself- perceive efficacy is believed to be strongly linked to teaching practices and student learning outcomes and isvery crucial in the educational system of any country.THE PROBLEMTeachers have an important influence on students’ academic achievement and they also play a crucial role ineducational attainment of their students, because the teacher is ultimately responsible for translating policy intoaction and principles based on practice during interaction with students. Both teaching and learning depends onteachers, which means that an effective teacher is one who produces desired results in the course discharging hisduties.140

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010A lot of studies has been carried out in most countries of the world on how pupils learn effectively in the classroom,but little research has been done on teacher’s effectiveness from the point of view of the teachers. That is howteachers see their own capacities with regard to the process and learning outcomes in the formal school system. Thestudy of teacher efficacy has gained significant attention from educators over the past two decades because it greatlyinfluences a broad range of behaviours in students and teachers. According to (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Linet al., 2002)’when teachers are highly efficacious, their students are found to have a high level of academicachievement, autonomy, motivation and a firm belief in their own efficacy’. Teacher efficacy also affects a teacher’slevels of aspiration, openness to new ideas and persistence in the face of difficulty among teachers. Efficaciousteachers are more likely to stay in teaching, put more time into teaching and show greater effort in classroomplanning and organization and greater enthusiasm for teaching. Ho & Hau, (2004), stressed that highly efficaciousteachers are more sensitive to the needs of students, less critical of student mistakes, more willing to work longerwith students who have problems, and make a greater contribution to the learning experiences of students .The study of teachers’ self -efficacy is a necessity in a developing country like Botswana, because teachers have tobe accountable for the academic development of their pupils, since the government of Botswana is spending a lot ofmoney on the educational system. Considering the government of Botswana’s huge investment in public education,its output in terms of quality of students’ performance have been observed to be unequal with governmentexpenditure. This can be observed using the JC examination results in all subjects over the years, which reveals thata lot of pupils are still performing below the country’s expectation, and this may be due to so many factors, but theteacher factor should not be ignored. It will then be necessary to find out from Botswana JSS teachers how theyperceive their own effectiveness/ self efficacy in schools. The purpose of the study is to find out from the juniorsecondary school (JSS) teachers in Botswana their perceptions of self-efficacy/ effectiveness and the followingresearch questions were addressed:(i) What are the perceived levels of self-efficacy of junior secondary teachers in Botswanaschools?(ii) Which of the items on the self-efficacy scale do the teachers fail to perceive as part of theirteaching effectiveness ?Significance of the studyThis research study will be of significance to the educational system in Botswana, Ministry of Education, schoolsand Colleges of Education training teachers for the junior secondary schools in Botswana to be fully aware ofteachers’ perceived self-efficacy. It will also provide the current level of teachers’ effectiveness/ self-efficacy ofthe current JSS teachers in schools, and the government can provide ways of boosting teachers self –efficacy in thepositive directions.LITERATURE REVIEWThe importance of teacher efficacy is stressed by Morin and Welsh (1991) who stated that "an educator with highteaching efficacy will engage in activities that promote the development of competencies, whereas teachers with lowefficacy may avoid engaging in those activities" (pp. 3-4). It seems reasonable to conclude that the higher a teacher'ssense of efficacy, the more successful that teacher will be in facilitating desirable student outcomes. The relationshipbetween teacher efficacy and teacher effectiveness was explored by Gibson and Dembo (1984). They observed thatteachers' beliefs in their own abilities to teach students may contribute to individual teacher differences ineffectiveness. "One would predict that teachers who believe student learning can be influenced by effectiveteaching, and who also have confidence in their own teaching abilities, should persist longer, provide a greateracademic focus in the classroom, and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lower expectationsconcerning their ability to influence student learning" (p. 570).Pigge and Marso (1993) compared a group of pre-service teachers projected to become outstanding teachers and agroup of in-service teachers recognized to be outstanding who were at early, mid, and late stages of their careers. In141

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010this particular study, no significant differences on the variables of personal teaching efficacy and teacher efficacywere found. Research on the efficacy of the teachers suggests that behaviors such as persistence at a task , risktaking , and the use of innovations are related to degrees of efficacy (Ashton & Webb ,1986 ). For example, highlyefficacious teachers are more likely to use open – ended, inquiry, student–directed teaching strategies, whileteachers with a low sense of efficacy were more likely to use teacher - directed teaching strategies such as lecture orreading from the text book.Research indicates that students generally learn more from teachers with high self efficacy than those studentswould learn from those teachers whose self – efficacy is low. Teachers with low levels of efficacy often expend littleeffort in finding materials and planning lessons that challenge students, show little persistence with students havingdifficulty and display little variety in their teaching approaches, whereas teachers with high levels of efficacy aremore likely to seek out resources and develop challenging lessons, persist with students who are struggling andteach in multitude ways that promote student understanding (Deemer, 2004, p. 74).Using the 16-item version of the Gibson and Dembo (1984) used a 16 item version of the teacher efficacy scale,Soodak and Poodell (1997) looked at how teaching experience influenced teacher efficacy among 626 elementaryand secondary preservice and practicing teachers in New York metropolitan area. The main finding from this studywas that for the elementary teachers, personal teaching efficacy was initially high during the pre-service teachingyears but in the first year of teaching, this sense of personal efficacy fell dramatically. However, with more years ofteaching experience, their personal efficacy gradually increased but their sense of their own effectiveness neverreached the same levels achieved by secondary-level teachers. On the other hand, the secondary teachers in thisstudy were more homogeneous and stable in their personal efficacy beliefs.Huang, Liu, & Shiomi, (2007) in their research study report, concluded that teachers’ efficacy beliefs influencestudents’ attitudes and achievement as well as affect teachers’ teaching behaviors . In recent years the developmentof the constructivist view of learning has resulted in modifications of teaching and learning designs in manycountries educational systems such as Turkey and Singapore (Chang, 2005, p. 96; Chan, Tan, & Khoo, 2007). Sucha view requires a classroom environment that encourages students to become active, self-motivated or masteryoriented learners (Deemer, 2004). It is obvious that teachers play an important role in creating such environments(Pajares, 1992). Specifically, teachers’ beliefs are one of the most important factors that affect the implementation ofcurriculum reforms (Day, Elliot, & Kington, 2005). For example, teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs are likelyto adopt more student-centered approaches than teacher-centered approaches in educational settings such asclassrooms (Swars, 2005). Understanding teachers' self-regulatory processes and self-efficacy is a paramountinquiry if their effects in the classroom would like to be accurately determined. From the social cognitiveperspective (Bandura, 1997), self-regulation encompasses the interaction of the person and his or her behavior aswell as the environment in a triadic process. In other words, teachers' beliefs and abilities interact with their actionsand with how they perceive and relate to their environment. Teachers' self efficacy refers to "their beliefs in theirability to have a positive effect on student learning" (Ashton, 1985, p. 142). Recent work has revealed that teachers'self-efficacy beliefs is a significant factor that influences teachers' positive attitudes toward helping their students,their level of satisfaction, and their desire to motivate their students (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk, 2001).Sampling procedureMETHODOLOGYIn all, out of 150 junior secondary school teachers in the southern educational region of Botswana selected for thisstudy, only 132 teachers participated in the study by completing the teachers’ self – efficacy questionnaire. Theinitial 150 junior secondary teachers were selected through random sampling procedure. The 132 teachers whoresponded to the questionnaire were made up of 74 (%) females and 58 (%) males. The average age of the teacherswere thirty (30) years and their average teaching experience was six (6) years in service. All of them were classroomteachers at the junior secondary schools in Botswana, and their level of education is a diploma in education.142

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010InstrumentationThe questionnaire consisted of two sections, section A contained items that were eliciting personal demographicinformation like age, marital status, qualification and teaching experience of respondents. Section B was made up ofthirty items based on a nine Likert scale from the Bandura’s (1994) teacher self- efficacy scale, in which theteachers were to indicate the extent of their agreement or otherwise. Bandura’s 30 – item scale has seven subscales:efficacy to influence decision making, efficacy to influence school resources, instructional efficacy, disciplinaryefficacy, efficacy to enlist parental involvement, efficacy to enlist community involvement, and efficacy to create apositive school climate. Each item measured on a 9-point scale anchored with the notations: nothing, very little,some influence, quite a bit, a great deal (Appendix 2).Analysis of dataThe method of analysis in this research study was factor analysis. Factor analysis is a method used to determine thenumber and nature of the underlying variables among a large number of measures. The method helps to reduce themultiplicity of tests and measures to a simple form, clarifying the tests or measures that are virtually measuring thesame dimensions. In factor analysis a common factor is shown to be responsible for the covariation among a set ofmeasured variables or test. A factor in this case is a construct, a hypothetical entity that is assumed to underlie anumber of items. One of the outcomes of a factor analysis is a factor matrix (an array of factor loadings). Factorsloadings are similar and equivalent to correlations.The responses to the thirty items in section B based on Bandura’s(1994) nine point likert scale on teacher self- efficacy scale were subjected to factor analytical procedures using theSPSS computer package. The principal factor with iteration was employed and it was rotated with varimax. Therotated matrix converged in 22 iterations., and nine factors emerged (Tables 1and 2) from the responses of theteachers to Banduras’ self-efficacy scale.PRESENTATION OF RESULTSWhat are the perceived levels of self-efficacy of junior secondary teachers in Botswana schools?The responses of the junior secondary teachers to the thirty items from Bandura’s self efficacy scale were subjectedto factor analysis; Table 1 shows the nine factors derived from the thirty items, with eigen values greater than 1,accounting for 73.374% of the total variance of teachers’ perceived agreement to the self-efficacy scale. Initially,Bandura’s scale indicated seven (7) factors of the teachers’ perceived self-efficacy, but the results of factor analysisof responses by the junior secondary teachers resulted in nine (9) identified factors (table 2).New titles were given tothe nine emerging factors from the responses of teachers to the self-efficacy scale.Table 1. Eigen values of the nine factors after varimax rotationVariables Eigen value % of variance1 3.869 12.8962 3.587 11.9573 3.212 10.7064 2.690 8.9675 2.265 7.5506 1.852 6.1757 1.693 5.6448 1.583 5.2769 1.261 4.204143

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 2. The result of the factors the emerged from the responses to the self efficacy scaleVariable/item loading statement of item on the instrumentFactor 1Efficacy on teachers’ professional abilitiesQ12 .816 How much can you do to get children to do their homeworkQ14 .742 How much can you do to control disruptive behavior in theclassroomQ15 .618 How much can you do to prevent problem behavior on the schoolgroundsQ29 .586 How much can you do to reduce school absenteeismQ27 .557 How much can you help other teachers with their teaching skillsQ22 .555 How much can you do to get local colleges and universities involvedin working with the schoolFactor 2Efficacy to create a good atmosphere/ morale for studentlearningQ20 .815 How much can you do to get churches involved in working with theschoolQ25 .746 How much can you do to get students to trust teachersQ10 .704 How much can you do to get students to work togetherQ21 .597 How much can you do to get businesses involved in working with theschoolQ11 .572 How much can you do to overcome the influence of adversecommunity conditions on studentsFactor 3Efficacy to involve parents in their children’s learningQ6 .757 How much can you do to promote learning when there is lack ofsupport from homeQ17 .722 How much can you assist parents in helping their children do well inschoolQ18 .690 How much can you do to make parents feel comfortable coming toschoolFactor 4Efficacy to improve student learning outcomesQ7 .816 How much can you do to increase students’ memory of what havebeen taught in previous lessonsQ16 .575 How much can you do to get parents to become involved in schoolactivitiesQ23 .548 How much can you do to make school a safe placeFactor 5Efficacy to create a positive school climateQ28 .832 How much can you do to reduce school dropoutQ26 .810 How much can you do to enhance collaboration between teachers andthe administrationFactor 6Efficacy to promote good relationship/rapport between theschool and studentsQ2 .771 How much can you express your views freely on important schoolmattersQ24 .619 How much can you do to make students enjoy coming to schoolQ30 .595 How much can you do to get students to believe they can do well inschoolworkFactor 7Efficacy to be able to solicit for material / personnel resources foreffective learning outcomesQ3 .683 How much can you do to get the instructional materials and equipment144

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010you needQ19 .573 How much can you do to get community groups involved in workingwith the schoolFactor 8Efficacy on instructional self efficacyQ4 .810 How much can you do to influence the class sizes in your schoolQ8 .639 How much can you do to keep students on task on difficult assignmentsFactor 9Efficacy to Influence decision makingQ1 .856 How much can you influence decisions that are made in the schoolThe eigen values greater than 1 were used to determine the number of emerging factors which were identified asfollows:-(i) Efficacy on teachers’ professional abilities(ii) Efficacy to create a good atmosphere/ morale for student learning(iii) Efficacy to involve parents in their children’s learning(iv) Efficacy to improve student learning outcomes(v) Efficacy to create a positive school climate(vi) Efficacy to promote good relationship/rapport between the school and students(vii) Efficacy to be able to solicit for material / personnel resources for effective learningoutcomes(viii) Efficacy on instructional self efficacy(ix) Efficacy to influence decision makingWhich of the items on the self-efficacy scale do the teachers fail to perceive as part of their teachingeffectiveness.The omitted questions from the factor analysis that had factor loading of less than 0.50 , were the items on the selfefficacyscale that the teachers fail to perceive as part of their teaching effectiveness and they are as follows:-Question 5 (How much can you do to get through to the most difficult students)Question 9 (How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in schoolwork)Question 13 (How much can you do to get children to follow classroom rules)DISCUSSIONWhat are the perceived levels of self-efficacy of junior secondary teachers in Botswana schools?The perceived levels of self-efficacy of junior secondary teachers in Botswana schools were based on theirprofessional abilities in the classroom to create a conducive learning and teaching atmosphere for effective learningoutcomes. It can also be observed from the teachers’ responses, that they recognized the ability to create a positiveschool climate, good relationship/ rapport within the school and around the school as part of being effective as ateacher. They also perceived that organization/ management in the classroom should be part of the duties of aneffective teacher. The efficacy to be able to solicit for materials/ personnel resources for effective learning outcomeswas also perceived by the teachers as one of the responsibilities of an effective teacher.Which of the items on the self-efficacy scale do the teachers fail to perceive as part of their teachingeffectiveness.From the self-efficacy scale the following questions were not perceived by the teachers as important to theireffectiveness as a classroom teacher, because their factor loadings were below 0.5(appendix 2)Question 5 (How much can you do to get through to the most difficult students) factor loading of 0.439.145

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Question 9 (How much can you do to motivate students who show low interest in schoolwork) factor loading of0.448.Question 13 (How much can you do to get children to follow classroom rules) factor loading of 0.493.These three questions were on the perception of teachers on how to deal with disciplinary problems in the classroomin terms of being able to control difficult students, students who show low interest in school work and for students tofollow classroom rules. From the responses of these teachers, they failed to perceive these roles of the teacher asleading to effectiveness in the classroom.From the factor analysis of the teachers response to self-efficacy, teachers were able to rate themselves on how theyperceive their levels of professional effectiveness, and were also able to distinguish between the various aspects oftheir professional duties/ work in which they feel more and less effective. The teachers perceived that they were ableto create a good working relationship within and around the school, good atmosphere / morale for student learning,improving students learning outcomes, involving parents in their children’s learning, creating a positive schoolclimate, promoting good relationship / rapport between the school and students and soliciting for both material andpersonnel resources for effective learning outcomes. The teachers in this study had a strong self-efficacycompetence and professional qualities. However, in the area of getting through to the most difficult students,motivating students who show low interest in schoolwork and getting children to follow classroom rules, theteachers had a weak sense of their effectiveness. Gorrell and Capron, (1990), suggested that "it is important to instilla sense of efficacy in those who are being prepared to ensure that they have the confidence to attempt to apply theirknowledge when the appropriate time comes" (p. 15).This was also supported by (Dembo and Gibson, 1985)” theextent to which teachers believe they can affect student learning may influence teacher/student interactions andteachers' success in facilitating gains in student achievement”.RECOMMENDATIONSThis study should provide a new perspective on teacher educational quality in Botswana, with a view of improvingthe effectiveness of classroom teachers. There should always be teacher self-efficacy or teachers’ effectivenessresearch study more often to find out from the teachers, their own views/ perceptions on their effectiveness at theBotswana junior secondary schools. From the results of this study, it was observed that there were areas that theteachers’ perceptions were very weak due to low factor loadings, these areas should be investigated and looked intobecause it has implications on learning outcomes of students at the Botswana junior secondary schools, since mostof the teachers find these tasks very challenging. In areas of the low factor loadings on the self-efficacy scale fromthe responses of the teachers, teacher education in Botswana should provide more courses to train in-service teacherson how to handle difficult students, motivate students who show low interest in schoolwork and get children tofollow classroom rules. According to Eccles et al.,(1998) “ student with low academic interest can be motivatedwhen they find that the knowledge is useful, interesting and important, and that they have the ability to learn it”.Teacher preparation programs should consider integrating new curricula into their agenda that will facilitateteachers' acquisition of crucial self-regulatory learning strategies. Therefore, the present study sought to examineself-regulatory strategies that can inform new curricula.REFERENCESAshton, P. T. (1985). Motivation and the teacher's sense of efficacy. In C. Ames & R. Ames (Eds.), Research onmotivation in education, Vol. 2 (pp. 141-171). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986) Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement,New York, Longman.Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice Hall.Bandura, A. (Ed.) (1995). Self-efficacy in changing societies. New York: Cambridge University Press.146

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26.Chan, K. W., Tan, J., & Khoo, A. (2007). Pre-service teachers’ conceptions about teaching and learning: A closerlook at Singapore cultural context. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 35 (2), 181-195.Chang, W. (2005). Impact of constructivist teaching on students’ beliefs about teaching and learning in introductoryphysics. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 5 (1), 95-109.Day, C., Elliot, B., & Kington, A. (2005). Reform, standards and teacher identity: Challenges of sustainingcommitment. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 563-567.Deemer, S. A. (2004). Classroom goal orientation in high school classrooms: revealinglinks between teacher beliefsand classroom environments. Educational Research, 46 (1), 73-90.Eccles et al.,(1998). Motivation to succeed. In: Damon, W., Eisenberg, N. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology,vol. 3. Wiley, NY. pp. 1017-1095.Gibson, S., & Dembo, M. (1984). Teacher efficacy: A construct validation. Journal of Educational Psycology, 76(4), 569-582Gorrell, J., & Capron, E.W. (1991). Cognitive modeling and self-efficacy: Effects on preservice teachers' learningof teaching strategies. Journal of Teacher Education, 41 (4), 15-22.Henson, R. K. (January 26, 2001). Teacher self-efficacy: Substantive implications and measurement dilemmas.Invited keynote address given at the annual meeting of the Educational Research Exchange, Texas A&MUniversity, College Station, Texas.Ho and Hau (2004). Australian and Chinese teacher efficacy: Similarities and differences in personal instruction,discipline, guidance efficacy and beliefs in external determinants. Teacher and Teacher Education. V20.313-323.Hollon, R. E., Anderson, C. W., & Roth, K. L. (1991). Science teachers' conceptions of teaching and learning. In J.Brophy (Ed.), Advances in research on teaching (pp. 145-185). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Hoy, W.K. & Woolfolk, A.E. (1990). Socialization of student teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 27,279-300Huang, X., Liu, M., & Shiomi, K. (2007). An analysis of the relationships between teacher efficacy, teacher selfesteemand orientations to seeking help. Social Behavior and Personality, 35 (5), 707-716.Jia, Y., Eslami, Z. R., & Burlbaw, L. (2006). ESL teachers' perceptions and factors influencing their use ofclassroom-based reading assessment. Bilingual Research Journal, 29(2), 459-482.Johnson, K.E (1992). The relationship between teachers' beliefs and practices during literacy instruction for nonnativespeakers of English. Journal of Reading Behavior, 24(1), 83-108.Liu et al., (2001). Design of a networked portfolio system. British Journal of Educational Technology. V32 i4. 492-494147

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Morin, S. M., & Welsh, L. A. (1991). Teaching efficacy scale: Job analysis and theoretical issues. ERIC, ED356206.Pajares, F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review ofEducational Research, 62, 307-332.Pigge, F. L. & Marso, R. N. (1987). Relationships between student characteristics and changes inattitudes, concerns, anxieties, and confidence about teaching during teacher preparation. Journal of EducationalResearch, 81, 109-115.Soodak, L., & Podell, D. (1996). Teaching efficacy: Toward the understanding of a multi-faceted construct.Teaching and Teacher Education, 12, 401-412.Swars, S. L. (2005). Examining perceptions of mathematics teaching effectiveness amongelementary pre-service teachers with differing levels of mathematics teacher efficacy.Instructional Psychology, 32(2), 139-147.Journal ofTschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing and elusive construct. Teachingand Teacher Education, 17, 783-805.APPENDIX 1Varimax rotated component factor matrix of the 30 items on the self-efficacy scale.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Q12Q14Q15Q29Q27Q22Q20Q25Q10Q21Q11Q6Q17Q18Q7Q16Q23Q28Q26Q2Q24Q30Q3Q19Q4Q8Q1.816.742.618.586.557.555.815.746.704.597.572.757.722.690.816.575.548.832.810.771.619.595.683.573.810.639.856148

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ComponentInitial EigenvaluesTotal Variance ExplainedRotation Sums of Squared LoadingsTotal % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %1 8.281 27.605 27.605 3.869 12.896 12.8962 2.696 8.986 36.591 3.587 11.957 24.8533 2.375 7.918 44.509 3.212 10.706 35.5594 1.845 6.151 50.660 2.690 8.967 44.5265 1.573 5.245 55.905 2.265 7.550 52.0766 1.521 5.068 60.973 1.852 6.175 58.2507 1.372 4.573 65.546 1.693 5.644 63.8948 1.202 4.007 69.553 1.583 5.276 69.1709 1.146 3.821 73.374 1.261 4.204 73.37410 .901 3.005 76.37911 .885 2.949 79.32812 .851 2.838 82.16613 .662 2.206 84.37214 .617 2.056 86.42815 .519 1.731 88.15916 .502 1.674 89.83317 .438 1.460 91.29318 .397 1.322 92.61619 .355 1.183 93.79820 .349 1.162 94.96021 .298 .992 95.95222 .265 .884 96.83723 .198 .660 97.49724 .168 .559 98.05625 .149 .497 98.55226 .131 .436 98.98827 .112 .374 99.36228 .096 .319 99.68129 .065 .217 99.89830 .031 .102 100.000Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.149

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European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Rotated Component Matrix aComponent1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9que12 .816 .118 .025 .088 .023 .267 -.119 -.065 -.177que14 .742 .132 .046 .185 .076 -.111 .007 .206 .045que15 .618 .490 -.008 .173 .270 -.062 -.311 .138 -.030que29 .586 -.052 .215 .320 -.056 .239 .279 .265 .106que27 .557 .020 .424 -.285 .173 .064 .165 -.122 .306que22 .555 .417 .262 .171 -.320 .165 .286 .034 .072que13 .493 .318 .249 .116 .269 -.012 -.449 .097 -.099que20 .174 .815 .153 .324 .041 .030 .059 .065 -.042que25 .058 .746 -.205 -.223 .179 .027 -.058 -.095 .046que10 .173 .704 .197 .221 .009 -.161 .114 .264 .234que21 .422 .597 .094 .504 .050 .132 -.100 .148 .075que11 .179 .572 .381 .279 -.217 -.083 .061 .039 .324que6 -.013 .048 .757 .189 .050 .088 -.061 .334 -.045que17 .149 .055 .722 .062 .010 -.089 .254 -.137 -.016que18 .231 .055 .690 .236 .326 .001 -.255 -.018 .124que5 .408 .416 .439 -.036 -.156 .240 .152 .076 -.225que7 .098 .106 .074 .816 -.127 .018 .070 .106 -.056que16 .465 .168 .269 .575 .295 .020 -.020 -.043 .169que23 .365 .073 .438 .548 .390 .078 -.122 -.057 .064que9 -.014 .226 .412 .448 -.195 .177 .388 -.159 .093que28 -.072 .082 .104 .016 .832 .012 .026 -.069 -.108que26 .218 .027 -.012 -.074 .810 .100 .048 .114 .150que2 .105 -.016 -.068 .122 -.085 .771 -.134 .029 .125que24 .147 -.057 .112 .043 .292 .619 -.006 .158 -.031que30 -.119 .564 .053 -.122 .020 .595 .016 -.056 -.106que3 -.058 .051 .033 .003 .112 -.261 .683 .095 .003que19 .257 .048 .222 .473 .017 .298 .573 -.125 -.162que4 .147 .087 -.058 .023 .065 .070 -.032 .810 .060que8 .036 .071 .553 .030 -.095 .086 .124 .639 -.036que1 -.033 .108 -.002 .002 .019 .053 -.019 .045 .856Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.a. Rotation converged in 22 iterations.151

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Descriptive StatisticsMean Std. Deviation Analysis Nque1 4.5909 1.51811 132que2 4.7652 1.11793 132que3 5.3712 .93617 132que4 4.9697 1.19758 132que5 4.8864 1.38502 132que6 4.9318 1.38251 132que7 4.4697 1.49523 132que8 4.8788 1.34806 132que9 4.0227 1.60850 132que10 3.8636 1.78104 132que11 3.9848 1.84922 132que12 3.8712 1.73163 132que13 4.1212 1.72556 132que14 3.5076 1.62751 132que15 4.0682 1.82097 132que16 4.3864 1.59985 132que17 4.2273 1.55112 132que18 4.4318 1.55898 132que19 3.9924 1.54078 132que20 4.3788 1.71447 132que21 4.3712 1.67334 132que22 4.3939 1.55685 132que23 4.5227 1.53566 132que24 4.7576 1.13998 132que25 4.9470 1.34400 132que26 4.9394 1.21541 132que27 4.9242 1.20825 132que28 4.7879 1.32521 132que29 4.3333 1.46025 132que30 4.6288 1.28648 132152

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010The questionnaire for JSS teachers.APPENDIX 2Introduction: This research study is about your perception of your self-efficacy in schools/ classrooms. There aretwo sections in this questionnaire, section A deals with your personal information and section B is teacher selfefficacy scale constructed by Bandura in 1994. Please fill in the questionnaire and try to be as objective as possible.Thanks for your cooperation.SECTION A1. Gender male --------- female----------------2. Name of school ------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Qualification/s ------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Years of experience ------------------------------------------------------------------------5. Teaching subjects-------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Location of school -------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Age ---------SECTION B :- Below is Bandura’s (1994) instrument on teacher self- efficacy scale, please indicate the extent towhich you agree with these 30 items.BANDURA’S INSTRUMENT ON TEACHER SELF-EFFICACY SCALE1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Nothing Very Little Some Influence Quite a Bit A Great DealEfficacy to Influence Decision making1.How much can you influence the decisions that aremade in the school?2.How much can you express your views freely onimportant school matters?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Efficacy to Influence School Resources3.How much can you do to get the instructionalmaterials and equipment you need?Instructional Self- Efficacy4.How much can you do to influence the class sizes inyour school?5.How much can you do to get through to the mostdifficult students?6.How much can you do to promote learning when thereis lack of support from the home?7.How much can you do to increase students’ memoryof what they have been taught in previous lessons?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 98.How much can you do to keep students on task ondifficult assignments?1531 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 20109.How much can you do to motivate students who showlow interest in schoolwork?10.How much can you do to get students to worktogether?11.How much can you do to overcome the influence ofadverse community conditions on students’learning?12.How much can you do to get children to do theirhomework?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Disciplinary Self-Efficacy13.How much can you do to get children to followclassroom rules?14.How much can you do to control disruptive behaviorin the classroom?15.How much can you do to prevent problem behavioron the school grounds?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Efficacy to Enlist Parental Involvement16.How much can you do to get parents to becomeinvolved in school activities?17.How much can you assist parents in helping theirchildren do well in school?18.How much can you do to make parents feelcomfortable coming to school?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Efficacy to Enlist Community Involvement19.How much can you do to get community groupsinvolved in working with the schools?20.How much can you do to get churches involved inworking with the school?21.How much can you do to get businesses involved inworking with the school?22.How much can you do to get local colleges anduniversities involved in working with the school?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9Efficacy to Create a Positive School Climate23.How much can you do to make the school a safeplace?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9154

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 201024.How much can you do to make students enjoycoming to school?25.How much can you do to get students to trustteachers?26.How much can you do to enhance collaborationbetween teachers and the administration to make theschool run effectively?27.How much can you help other teachers with theirteaching skills?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 928.How much can you do to reduce school dropout? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 929.How much can you do to reduce school absenteeism? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 930.How much can you do to get students to believe theycan do well in schoolwork?1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9155

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationLearner E-tivities: Exploring Malaysian Learners’ Roles in AsynchronousComputer-Mediated CommunicationRanjit Kaur Sidhu* and Mohamed Amin Embi***Malaysian Teaching Institute Malay Language Campus, Malaysia**Faculty of Education,Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, MalayisaE-mail address for correspondence: ranjitk_kbm@yahoo.com__________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Active, interactive and quality interactions through Asynchronous Computer-MediatedCommunication (ACMC) require a radical shift in learner roles in an effort to produce autonomouslifelong learners. This paper explores new dimensions in learner roles experienced by adult learners in alocal private university in Malaysia. The sample population comprised sixteen 3 rd Year course respondents(n=16) pursuing their Bachelor in Education (TESL) degree program. The sample within the casecomprised six (n=6) case respondents and one tutor (n=1). This descriptive case study employed bothquantitative and qualitative methods in the data collection process. Findings divulged that in their questtowards achieving learning objectives, adult learners indulged in various e-tivities. In the process they alsoexperienced changing and challenging roles. Some of these roles included: initiators-wrappers, taskorienters, social discourse networkers, e-collaborators, e-mentors and transcended from informationseekers to knowledge constructors. These findings augur well as ACMC is considered a viable ubiquitoustool in many local and foreign institutions of higher learning (IHLs). More importantly, this paper is apioneer effort in showcasing the Malaysian experience in chartering new frontiers in expanding andexploring learner roles in ACMC as a means of sowing the seeds of learner autonomy.Key Words: Learner Autonomy, Computer-mediated Communication, Threaded OnlineDiscussionsIinteractions, Virtual Learning System, Adult Learning______________________________________________________________________________________1. INTRODUCTIONToday, new frontiers are being chartered in computer conferencing in the computer-mediatedcommunication (CMC) realm as a means to enrich learners‟ teaching-learning experiences. As a result,both learners and tutors face challenging and changing roles. In lieu with this, a number of studies haveextensively explored the area of tutor roles (Coppola et al. 2001; Rowntree, 1999; Berge & Collins, 1995).However, the area of learner roles has yet to be fully explored. As a means of exploring this new dimensionin computer-mediated communication (CMC), this paper attempts to explore this aspect with the aim toshowcase the different roles that Malaysian adult learners in this study played through Asynchronous157

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Computer-Mediated Communication (ACMC) in an effort to accomplish their learning objectives andtasks.2. LITERATURE REVIEWCurrently, computer-mediated communication (CMC) continues to make great strides in introducing thelatest teaching-learning methodologies in both local and foreign institutions of higher learning (IHLs).Hence, it is important to define the term CMC. According to Berge and Collins, CMC refers to “the use ofcomputer systems and networks for the transfer, storage and retrieval of information among humans andthe computer/network system is primarily a mediator rather than a processor of the information”(1995:11). In this context, Ally (2004) further elaborated and referred to this mode of learning ascontaining the following characteristics: utilises the Internet to access and retrieve learning materials;interacting with the content, instructor and other learners; obtaining support during the learning process toacquire knowledge, to construct personal meaning and to grow from the learning experience.In differentiating the types of CMC commonly used in most IHLs, Palloff and Pratt (1999) explained thatthere were two popular modes of web based communication - synchronous communication (same time, realtime) and asynchronous communication (delayed, anytime, any pace, any place). A number of researchersargue that compared to synchronous communication, asynchronous communication gives learners moretime to reflect on their ideas, which in turn promotes critical thinking and encourage learner autonomy(Bonk, 2004; Swan, 2001; Harasim, 2000; Jonassen 2000; Gunawardena et al., 1998).Not wanting to be left behind in these global developments many IHLs in Malaysia have jumped onto theCMC bandwagon in an effort to keep abreast with these latest trends. This is in line with believing thatCMC is a potentially significant area of development. In fact, in an attempt to be on the competitive edge ofglobal economy, the need for lifelong learners and e-knowledge workers has now become more urgent.Hence, many local institutions of tertiary and higher education have taken the necessary steps and aremaking headway to ensure that the current and future generations keep abreast with this latest mode oflearning. This was highlighted by Ziguras when he said: “….many Malaysian educationists see educationaltechnologies as a means to encourage greater self-direction and creativity on the part of learners….theappeal of educational technologies is that they will require learners to be more pro-active and autonomousand these personality traits are increasingly important in the knowledge economy” (2001: 6).In line with these latest developments, this paper is a pioneer effort on the part of the researchers toinvestigate the various e-tivities that Malaysian adult learners indulged in achieving their learning tasks forthe Listening and Speaking Course (LSC). More importantly, this paper intends to look into the variousroles experienced by learners through asynchronous computer-mediated communication (ACMC) via alearning management system called Virtual Learning System (VLS). The findings in this study will setprecedents as it explores new dimensions in learner roles towards becoming autonomous lifelong learnersthus paving the way for more such studies in other colleges and IHLs both locally and globally.2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGYThis descriptive case study employed a four-pronged data collection procedure which comprisedquantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative data was obtained by administering a surveyquestionnaire to all 16 adult part-time 3 rd Year learners pursuing the Bachelor in Education (TESL) courseat the Faculty of Education in a local private university in Malaysia. The open ended questions in thesurvey questionnaire enabled the researchers to investigate the different roles respondents‟ played in theasynchronous computer-mediated communication (ACMC) environment. The SPSS version 11.5 WINsoftware was used to analyse the quantitative data collected statistically. This method of analysis restrictedto general statistical analysis. Therefore, frequencies, percentages, mean and standard deviation wereobtained to report the research findings.158

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010On the other hand, qualitative data was obtained by conducting semi-structured interviews with the „samplewithin the case‟ (Merriam, 2002) group which consisted of six case respondents and one course tutor.These interviews enabled the respondents to divulge in-depth perspectives, understanding, feelings, views,information and clarifications regarding their roles whilst participating in ACMC. In addition, analysis ofthreaded online discussions between the tutor and learners as well as analyses of six case respondents‟learning logs were also analysed to further trace learners‟ roles in this study. The qualitative data wasanalysed using the NVivo version 7 software. Finally, all qualitative data obtained from the interviewschedule, analyses of learning logs and threaded ACMC were triangulated with learners‟ responses fromthe survey questionnaire to report the research findings.3. PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS IN THE STUDYThis study involved both course and case respondents. The total number of course respondents in the oneintact class that formed the sample population for this study totalled 16 (n=16). All 16 course respondentswere coincidentally females and pursued the course on a part-time basis. All course respondents hadobtained their diplomas in teaching and were currently pursuing their degree program. The „sample withinthe case‟ (Merriam, 2002) consisted of six case respondents (R1 to R6) and one tutor. The six caserespondents (n=6) were all females. They were randomly selected from the sample population (n=16). Allsix case respondents were females and taught English language in primary schools. Their ages ranged from32 to 45 years. In terms of ethnicity, one respondent was Indian (17%), two were Chinese (33%) and therest were Malays (50%). The other respondent for this study was the course tutor, Lizzie (pseudo name)with whom an interview session was conducted.5. FINDINGSGunawardena (1995) emphasised that in order to maximise interaction there is a need to design learnercentredsystems which are based on dialogue and cooperation among learners. She further reinstated thatsuch a move engendered a „radical shift‟ in the structure of interactions among learners. In a similar vein,other researchers claim that learner-learner interactions were important as they created social presence thatpaved the way for meaningful learning (Swan, 2003; Anderson & Rourke 2001; Garrison et al., 1999).Threaded ACMC analysis in this study showed that learners‟ roles were related to the areas of obtaininginformation, accomplishing learning tasks, building collaborative learning communities, seeking help andguidance. In lieu with this, the roles that learners in this study played were categorised as initiatorswrappers,task orienters, social discourse networkers, e-collaborators, e-mentors and information seekers toknowledge constructors.5.1 Initiators and WrappersHara et al. (1998) and Feenberg (1987) opined that one way in which learners can take ownership of theirlearning is by defining roles for each learner in the CMC realm. Hara et al. described these roles as “starterwrapper”.Similarly, one important role played by respondents in this study related to being initiators ofACMC. Hara et al. in their study which analysed the content of online discussions in an applied educationalpsychology course stressed the importance of the role of “starter” and “wrapper”. In their study, a “starter”referred to someone who initiated weekly discussions based on readings given for the course. On the otherhand, a “wrapper” referred to someone who concluded and summarised weekly discussions. This studyshowed that learners were not designated any roles in the ACMC for their LSC by their tutor, Lizzie.However, some learners naturally took on the role of “initiator-wrapper”. Findings showed that amongsixteen course respondents‟, R2, R4 and R5 played the role of “initiators” and “wrappers” in the ACMC.The initiators were R2 and R4 while the wrappers were R4 and R5.159

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010For example, when Lizzie asked the learners to look up the www.turnitin website to obtain information onplagiarism, R1 was the first learner to get into action. She heeded Lizzie‟s advice and made the first attemptwith the hope of learning something new. An analysis of threaded ACMC showed that the first ACMC wasposted by R4. In short, she displayed the qualities of an initiator. She was the first respondent to initiate theACMC for this course and also contributed the most number of online postings i.e. 27 postings. In addition,she displayed a high level of initiative and was responsible in spearheading the ACMC. For example, shenot only initiated downloading the Internet article for their assignment, but also aided her course mates indiscussing how to answer the assignment question. Furthermore, she was also responsible in initiating andconducting tutorial discussions, looking up new references as well as sending attachments and related linkson listening and speaking. This finding corroborated with Kelly‟s (2007) finding which indicated theimportant role of a starter or initiator in aiding ACMC to become more interactive. In terms of “wrappers”,findings showed that both R4 and R5 summarised some aspects of the course content. On the whole, R4took ownership of most of the ACMC. Table 1 shows some sample excerpts from threaded ACMC whereR4 played the role of initiator in discussing the assignment and as a result, encouraged other peers tobecome active and interactive.Table 1 Range of discussions by R4 as course initiator.Sample threaded ACMCThis is the article that mentioned in the assignment question. [R4_ACMC/Para63].1. Introduction:Listening is an active process that involves attending, understanding, remembering, evaluatingand responding---5 stages of listening-------discuss brieflyEffective listening is essential to competent communication--------WHY?2. ANSWER THE QUESTIONS ACCORDINGLY (as required )3. Read and Understand the article: LISTEN4. Then, IDENTIFY to which area of listening does the article 'LISTEN' best respond to? Is itlistening for information, critical listening, emphatic listening or listening for enjoyment? Alsodiscuss the 4 areas of listening in detail. For further reading, you can 'key in words' like emphaticlistening (websites). NOW correlate the 4 areas with LISTEN, Identify which area best fitsLISTEN. You must JUSTIFY (GIVE REASONS). If you feel, LISTEN overlaps with other areasas well, DISCUSS about it. Identify AREAS which are NOT related to LISTEN. Then, discusswhy they are NOT related. If LISTEN RESPONDS to all the 4 AREAS, discuss WHY ANDHOW? If LISTEN does not respond to certain areas, discuss WHY?5. Do you agree with 'LISTEN" If Yes, Why? If No, Why? Do you think LISTEN would help youto be a better listener in CERTAIN CONTEXTS? DISCUSS the CONTEXTS6. Which of the 6 areas of LISTEN provides the BEST suggestions? JUSTIFY. Which of the 6areas of LISTEN has the WEAKEST Suggestions? JUSTIFY [R4_ACMC/Para71-83].5.2 Task OrientersAnalysis of threaded ACMC and learning log entries showed that most course respondents‟ discussionscentred on accomplishing their learning tasks. This included discussions on assignment, monitoring tutorialdiscussions, giving reminders and note taking. In line with achieving this aim, some course respondentsportrayed the role of task orienters. The main aim of task orienters was to ensure that they discussed and160

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010completed all learning tasks at the stipulated time. The first task on hand entailed having to complete andhand-in their assignment. Since the assignment carried 20 marks, initial ACMC seemed to focus ondiscussing the assignment. In this case, task orienters discussed and interacted to aid each othersunderstanding of the assignment which was based on an Internet article titled „LISTEN‟. Apart fromassignments, another important aspect of evaluation entailed answering quizzes. Learners were required toparticipate in two quizzes which carried ten marks and fifteen marks respectively. Therefore, task orientersmade sure that they successfully completed and obtained good grades in these assessments. Table 2 showsextracts from learning logs and ACMC on how task orienters in this study participated and thereafter faredin this aspect.Table 2Task orienters‟ learning log entries and threaded discussions on monitoringlearning and answering quizzesTask orienters’ sample interactionsArghhh! The moment we dreaded most… Quiz 2. We were all given 20 minutes to answer.Thank God! I could answer all the question on time and they were basically straight forward. Ithink I did well as I had prepared myself before hand by planning to study all the topics beforecoming to class. I hope I can get an A once more for my quiz [R2_Log3/Para46].Quiz 2. I had to answer 4 questions. Anyway this time I feel more confident as some of thequestions asked we did discuss in our online discussions, luckily. I hope I can get an A for it[R3_Log3/Para23].I will have to start reading up the topics and be ready for Quiz 1. I hope I can do well in it. Iwill try my best [R6_Log1/Para20].Hi Tutor, Trying very hard to work on it. So far so good [R1_ACMC/Para71].I was not sure whether I answer the questions correctly [R3-Log2/Para21].The next task on hand entailed participating in tutorial discussions through ACMC. Analysis of threadedACMC and learning logs showed that by communicating in online discussions learners were able todiscuss, monitor their performance and learning, clarify and evaluate each others‟ ideas thus fostering thedevelopment of critical thinking. The excerpts in Table 3 show in-depth tutorial discussions among R1, R2,R3 and R5. Through these discussions other respondents were able to benefit and accomplish their learningtasks.161

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 3 Range of discussions by case respondents regarding tutorial discussionsSample tutorial discussionsThis type of listening requires one to be sensitive to changes in the speaker's volume, force,pitch and emphasis. However there are 3 important things to consider about this type oflistening: 1. Hearing ability 2. Awareness of sound structure. 3. Integration of non-verbalcues [R1_ACMC/Para42].What is Active listening?Defining Active listening: Active listening is a way of listening and responding to anotherperson that improves mutual understanding. It is made up of three components;1. Hearing2. Interpreting[R3_ACMC/Para48-51]This finding corroborated with learning log entries made by case respondents. In fact, through suchrevelations, task orienters were able to indulge in deeper cognitive processing of course materials (Kelly,2007). For example, R2 and R3 in their third learning log entry wrote:Next, we worked in pairs and answered a Test question on two types of negotiating skills and wereasked to give two examples. My friend and I decided to make a mind map which seemed the mostrelevant….[R2_Log3/Para37].This is helpful at least when we discuss this type of question I know how to answer some testquestion and we can practice it in class. Actually I like it if we can have more of such discussionsessions. This way I can test my understanding and also see how to answer questions in the exam[R3_Log3/Para20-21].Another important aspect that task orienters indulged related to giving reminders to course mates. By doingso, course respondents in this study were able to check and inform each other regarding the latestinformation and important datelines. Some researchers have highlighted that such social interactions aid inthe development of learning communities (Swan 2001; Russell & Daugherty 2001; Poole 2000; Rheingold1993). Likewise in this study through such discourses, case respondents were able to move forward andgive support as a learning community. Table 4 shows some examples of threaded ACMC on the differenttypes of reminders given by task orienters in this course.162

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 4 Sample ACMC on giving remindersRespondents giving reminders through ACMCFinish your assignments first! [R1_ACMC/Para77]Thanks Tutor for reminding me [R2_ACMC/Para41].Hope that all of you have noticed the error [R2_ACMC/Para26].Hi everyone, Juz to inform that the exam timetable is out. Our subjects are on the 22 and 27July [R1_ACMC/Para77].Download the timetable already…thank you for the reminder. Others, please note too ok.[R4_ACMC/Para314].Another finding regarding the role of task orienters entailed note taking. Findings indicated that more thanhalf of the course respondents faced the challenge of having to memorise a lot of facts and informationfrom the course module that was provided for the LSC. Hence, one way in which task orienters addressedthis problem was by note taking. Analysis of learning logs further revealed some ways employed by caserespondents to take down notes. Some of these techniques included note taking, listing, summarising andmind maps. Below are some sample extracts from their learning logs.Anyway for me when she teaches I just note down the important and key points by highlighting itin my module maybe because I know she is just picking the important things in each topic. If thatis important for her then it is also important for me. That is how I manage my studies also. Ifollow her guide [R4_Log1/Para31].I guess since exam was just round the corner and this being the last class, my tutor gave us somestudy tips such as to make mind maps, summarizing and listing into categories to help usremember the many facts from the first to the last topic. However, for me I have been compilingmy short notes since my first tutorial [R4_Log3/Para41].In short, by employing such techniques task orienters were able to understand their course materials better.In further emphasising this R5 claimed: “This way I’m actually able to help myself and this has enabled meto increase my confidence because I can achieve my learning tasks easily and have become better inmanaging my learning ” [R5_Log2/Para18 and 23].5.3 Social Discourse NetworkersIn an effort to create a sense of belonging and camaraderie, learners played the role of social discoursenetworkers. Findings showed that in an effort to build a close knit social community, course respondentsused social cues in their messages. According to Henri (1992), social cues refer to a statement or part of astatement that does not relate to any formal content or subject matter. Studies conducted by Rourke et al.(1999) and Stacey (2002) proved that social cues lead to more intense and immediate interaction betweenlearners and tutors. Findings in this divulged that in order to create social presence, course respondentsused social cues such as conveying greetings, apologies, reciprocating, encouraging, showing appreciationand sense of humour. By using social cues, learners built a discourse learning community amongthemselves. This finding corroborated with other studies which found that learners‟ perception of howmuch they learned related to the level of social presence that was created within the discourse community(Cornelius & Higgison, 2007; Thomas et al. 2004; Richardson & Swan 2003; Jiang & Ting 2000).163

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Data analysis of threaded ACMC showed examples of social cues that were used by learners in this studyto create social presence. The first example refers to conveying apologies to fellow learners when a mistakeor error was made in order to sustain a virtual community.Sorry R2 and friends….4 the failure. I'm attaching the picture again [R4_ACMC/Para56-57].In further exploring social cues, data depicted a wide range of social cues used by course respondents intheir ACMC. When introducing or beginning an interaction session, postings from course respondentsstarted with a salutation or greeting. When ending and closing the interaction session, closures were used.In order to maintain discourse in a learning community, respondents reciprocated by asking for moreinformation, feedback and further explanation. The range of social cues used ranged from informal toformal. In fact, some were written in the English language whereas others saw a mixture of English andMalay language. On the whole, respondents used informal language when they interacted with each other.However, when they communicated with their tutor they tended to use formal language. Below are someexamples of social cues used by respondents in this study whilst interacting through ACMC.Table 5Sample social cues used by respondents in the studySample social cuesSalutation/IntroductionHi everyone, How are things getting on with you guys?[R2_ACMC/Para65-66].Assalamualaikum (greeting in Malay language), Nice to meet you again this semester[R4_ACMC/Para6-7].Formal language used when interacting with tutorGood evening to Tutor and friends [R3_ACMC/Para 83].Dear friends and Tutor, [R4_ACMC/Para 50].Greetings in both languages - Malay and EnglishHello puan (refers to madam in the Malay language) and friends, [R4_ACMC/Para103].ClosuresThank you. [R3_ACMC/Para58, 63]Good night and sweet dreams to all of you. Just me [R2_ACMC/Para70-71].In this study learners were not able to meet face-to-face. Therefore, to compensate this shortcoming, socialdiscourse networkers had to rely on social presence to provide support, encouragement, motivation andappreciation to each other in the online milieu. Table 6 presents some of the findings in this aspect.164

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 6Sample social cues of encouragement, motivation andappreciationSample social cuesGiving encouragementHope that this will help us to understand better [R2_ACMC/ Para10].All the BEST! [R2_ACMC/ Para 68-69].Hope you'll enjoy your reading [R5_ACMC/Para 89].Giving motivationDon't worry lots of time to prepare. [R1_ACMC/Para77].Hope this will help you to understand what listening means [R2_ACMC/Para10].Showing appreciationThank you friends for sharing with me the ideas [R3_ACMC/Para42].Hi R4,Thank you very much for your attachment [R1_ACMC/Para30].Henri (1992) and Hara et al. (2002) mentioned that social cues may also include jokes and the use ofsymbolic icons. Data in this study did not find any evidence of these social cues. However, there was onefeeble attempt by R4 to inject some humour which entailed:“Hehehe….I hope all of you get the joke!” [R4_ACMC/Para58].5.4 e-CollaboratorsJonassen (2000) stressed that dialogues and conversations aid in the development of collaborative learningcommunities. In short, threaded ACMC that are generally rich in dialogues and interactions are able toencourage collaboration because it provides a medium through which learners support each other, learnfrom one another, socialise and collaborate. From the socio-constructivist point of view, all these functionsare inter–related because when learners interact with the learning content, tutor(s) and peers they constructtheir own meaning and knowledge from the information that is available from that CMC environment(Hong et al., 2003).More importantly, such collaborations have been found to reduce the transactional distance betweenlearners whilst promoting collaborative learning processes (Moore & Kearsley, 2004; Chou, 2002).Findings revealed that since course respondents were members of a virtual community, in order to sustain acollaborative learning community they took on the role of e-collaborators. Analysis of threaded ACMCprovided evidence on how e-collaborators worked towards building a collaborative learning community.Data from interviews further corroborated this aspect and showed that respondents felt “they shouldparticipate actively and also answer a few questions and also anything regarding questions that are postedin the VLS should be answered by the learners” [R3_Interview/Para252].The first instance showed that e-collaborators negotiated meaning making to forge their understanding ofcourse content. For example, R4 and R5 in their threaded ACMC sought to clarify the difference betweenlistening and hearing. Table 7 provides an example of e-collaborators in action.165

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 7E-collaborators negotiating meaning making through ACMCSample ACMC of e-collaboratorsR5: It's almost true that most of us tend to hear rather than listen. Well, the problem is because wetend to take listening for granted. It happens because we seem to accomplish our listening tasksunconsciously. We only become aware of what remarkable feats of listening we achieve when weare in an unfamiliar listening environment, such as listening to a language in which we have limitedproficiency. [R5_ACMC/Para41]R4: Uncritical listening means a listener is not listening so as to maximize his or her accurateunderstanding of what the speaker is saying because he/she has not developed a range of intellectualskills and abilities to reason well. Therefore, 'avoid uncritical listening when evaluations andjudgments are called for' can be considered as a guideline to improve critical listening skills.[R4_ACMC/Para255]In other instances, as e-collaborators case respondents not only gave their opinion on a variety of topics butalso sought their peers‟ opinion and confirmation on certain areas of study. Table 8 shows some of theseexamples.Table 8More examples of e-collaborators seeking and giving opinione-collaboration through ACMCIf I am not wrong, "Speaking and writing are productive skills".[R2_ACMC/Para25].Hope that I'm right. Do correct me if I'm wrong [R2_ACMC/Para58].WHAT YOU THINK MY FRIENDS? [R6_ACMC/Para31].PLEASE GIVE YOU OPINION!!!!!!!!!!!!!![R6_ACMC/Para177].I think we can apply that to our assignment too, [R1_ACMC/Para53].As for me, I think the answer is both. Monologues is more useful in developingtransactional and critical listening and dialogue is better at developing interaction andlistening. [R2_ACMC/Para144].166

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 20105.5 e-MentorsSince the Virtual Learning System (VLS) provided a learner-centred environment, learners had to take onthe role of e-mentors. This indirectly, urged learners to take on more responsibility and to be independent(Hara et al., 1998). In line with being e-mentors, findings showed that course respondents not onlymanaged their own learning but also responded to their peers‟ queries and responses. One aspect in whichrespondents played the role of e-mentors related to pointing out errors in the module to their peers.Analysis of threaded ACMC showed that as e-mentors, respondents highlighted some errors that occurredin the course module with the hope of helping, guiding and alerting their peers. In this study R1 and R2were two respondents who showed this ability. For example, R1 wrote in her second learning log that therewere some errors in the course module [R1_Log2/Para17]. This was corroborated in the threaded ACMCwhere her posting read:Just want to point out to all of you the error found in Topic 6 as stated above. On p.105, 2ndparagraph, 1st sentence which was written "Speaking and writing are receptive skills[R2_ACMC/Para24].As e-mentors, respondents also portrayed their ability in checking and encouraging each others‟ progresswith the assignment. One such example was depicted by R2 in the threaded ACMC and is cited below:How's assignment going on? Should be ok, right? [R2_ACMC/Para119]5.6 Transcended from information seekers to knowledge constructorsBerge & Collins state that in the computer conferencing realm, learners roles changed from “passivereceptacles of knowledge to active constructors of their own knowledge” (1995: 6). It is in this context thatthe socio-constructivist view of asynchronous computer-mediated communication makes its impact.Vygotsky (1978) pointed out that when learners interact with each other and their tutor through socialinteractions mediated by language they negotiated meaning making which leads to knowledge construction.In this study too, data analysis divulged that another role learners played to accomplish their learning taskswas that of information seekers and how this eventually culminated into knowledge construction.Before learners could construct knowledge they first sought relevant information. In this aspect, datashowed that with regards to the role of information seekers, learners employed various means ofaccomplishing this task such as sharing information, providing new information, summarising information,explaining and affirming information. Below are some examples of how learners transcended their rolefrom information seekers to knowledge constructors in line with becoming autonomous learners (Nunan,1997). Data analysis showed that learners used various sources of information in their attempt to shareinformation in an effort to make meaning and construct knowledge for their learning tasks. Some of theseexamples included providing pictures, articles, definitions, tables of information and compiling notes.Table 9 provides some examples.167

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 9Examples of sharing information in order to construct knowledgeRespondents sharing information in ACMCHi R4, You want to share an interesting picture? I think attachment failed to be attached[R1_ACMC/ Para18].I think I can dig some past notes and maybe will post some examples in the onlinediscussion too [R1_Log1/Para16].I found a table on poor and good listening habits and have posted in the online generaldiscussion [R3_Log/Para21].Analysis of respondents threaded ACMC further showed that another aspect to the role of informationseekers related to taking the initiative to provide new information. Kelly (2007) stressed that throughinterpersonal interactions, learners foster the development of a learning community. Nunan (1997) andSheerin (1997) further elaborated that when learners provide new information sources they not only sharedinformation but indirectly aided learners to indulge in self-management skills and abilities which wouldeventually pave the way towards managing their own learning and becoming autonomous learners. Datashowed that respondents provided new information from a variety of sources such as friends, books, websites and other reading materials in their ACMC. Some of these examples are provided in Table 10.Table 10Examples of providing new information to construct knowledgeSample ACMC of providing new informationHi everyone,Besides the factors stated in the module, listening can be affected by personal bias, environmentalfactors, a short attention span or daydreaming. Thanks [R1_ACMC/Para7-8].According to Littlewood (1981), a listener must be prepared to cope with a wide range of situationaland performance factors which are outside his control. Therefore, i) he will need to understandspeech in situations where communication is made difficult by physical factors such as backgroundnoise, distance or unclear sound reproduction (e.g. over loudspeakers at airports or stations); and ii)he must become accustomed to speech which is not perfectly planned, but contains the false starts,hesitations and so on which characterise most everyday speech [R2_ACMC/Para16-17].Dear R4,I would like to give the definition of transactional communication. According to Brown and Yule(1983), transactional communication seeks to present, receive or exchange information andlistening is focused on giving or receiving information [R2_ACMC/Para103-105].168

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Apart from providing new information, data analysis showed that respondents employed other learningstrategies such as summarising information as a means to construct knowledge that would help themaccomplish their learning tasks. In further supporting this, Kelly (2007) pointed that learners learn fromtheir peers and discussions forced learners to think through issues and by thinking and working them intheir minds, learners would understand better. Similarly, analysis of threaded ACMC among courserespondents showed evidence that summarising information fostered knowledge construction. Table 11show types of information summarised by respondents through ACMC.Table 11 Types of information summarised by case respondents in the studySample ACMC depicting information summariesR2 posted summaries on topics that related to “listening.” She summarised listening byhighlighting two views i.e. top-down processing and bottom-up processing. She explainedboth briefly [R2_ACMC/Para34-36].R3 posted a message that related to recognising words. She summarised them according tothe following categories and provided more examples than those provided in the coursemodule.Recognising words1. Homophones-words that have the same sound but different spelling.Ex: sea-see2. Homonyms - words that have the same spelling but different meanings.Ex: bank(of a river) - bank (place of business)3. Polysemy - The use of a word which has several related meanings.Ex: run can refer several actions related to the basic meaning of moving quickly, clocksrun, trains run and so on [R3_ACMC/Para7-13].In response to R3‟s query on turn taking, R4 posted some information on recognisingwords and summarised the 5 skills involved in this activity. She explained that turn-takinginvolved 5 Skills and provided some examples1. Knowing how to signal. E.g. agreeing in some way with the speaker2. Recognising the right moment to get a turn. E.g. when speaker pauses to catch his/herbreath.3. Knowing how to use appropriate turn structure.4. Recognising another speakers signal to speak.5. Knowing how to let someone else have a turn.[R4_ACMC/ Para291-298]R4 also summarised information interestingly by using an acronym such asF > FeelingsI > Interesting topics169

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010F > Friendly surroundingA > Able to pay attention.......[R4_ACMC/Para281-285]This finding was corroborated by R4 in the interview, when she said that the strategies she and her friendsused in ACMC was as a means of aiding learners to construct meaning from text as well as a means ofmonitoring their reading to ensure that they understood what they read [R4_Interview/Para199-200].Another aspect that related to information was explaining and making elaborations. Data analysis indicatedthat not all case respondents in this study made an effort or had the skill in explaining information. Findingsrevealed that only R2 and R4 made attempts to explain information. Perhaps this would have someindication on their level of learner autonomy? Table 12 shows some examples of postings whererespondents elaborated and explained information.Table 12 Examples of explaining informationSample ACMC depicting providing explanationsI would like to elaborate on your points.1) To maintain good social relations - The communication here is listener-oriented and notmessage-oriented.2) For entertainment - The outcome of such listening is not usually measured in terms of howuseful it was but in terms of personal satisfaction.3) To obtain information - People listen to announcement at the airport, train terminal, newsbroadcast to enable them to get information necessary for day-to-day living.4) For academic purposes - Listening is a central part of all learning. People listen to lectures,seminars and talks as a way of extending their knowledge and skills. A student who cannotunderstand what the teacher is saying in a class is seriously hampered in his learning.Hope I'm right in my explanation [R2_ACMC/Para76-81].R4 explaining the difference between receptive and productive skills.Listening and reading are called receptive skills as input is received via these skills whileinput is produced through speaking and writing. Hence, speaking and writing are known asproductive skills [R4_ACMC/Para38].Recreational listening is more to entertainment where it is listening for pleasure and also forappreciating an event. Usually we do this in our pre-listening example listening to music,songs and etc. It does not focus on information context, relationship maintenance or inputevaluation [R4_ACMC/Para116-120].Studies have shown that in CMC environments learners seek approval, consent and guidance from theirtutor(s) and peers. Hara et al. (1998) in their study discovered that learners feel comfortable workingtogether when they succeed in building a common ground. One way of building this common ground was170

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010by affirming information. Findings showed that when peers affirmed posted information it indicated astrong sense of belonging, increased motivation and learners perception of learning was more positive(Richardson & Swan 2003; Picciano 2002; Swan 2001; Gunawardena & Zittle 1997). Hence, in this studytoo, respondents sought assurance by providing affirmation to each other as a means to support their coursemates through ACMC. Table 13 shows some examples of how respondents affirmed information throughACMC.Table 13 Examples of threaded ACMC extracts on affirming informationRespondents affirming information through ACMCDear R1,I truly agree with you that listening is also affected by the factors stated above[R2_ACMC/Para15-16].Dear R6,You're right. Those are the component skills in the process of listening [R2_ACMC/Para110-111].Yes. I agree that noise distorts the message [R3_ACMC/Para101].Another important quality of transcending from information seekers to knowledge constructors entailed awillingness to seek help and guidance from course mates and tutor(s) when faced with difficulties toaccomplish their learning tasks. Kelly (2007) stressed that apart from learners learning from each other,learners also needed guidance from tutor(s) as they had relevant past experience from which they couldlearn. Data analysis showed that some respondents sought help and guidance in their quest to obtain newinformation. Below are some sample extracts that prove this point:Looks like there isn't anything we can do because we need a password and ID number. Cananyone help? [R1_ACMC/Para64]Hope that I am right. Do give your opinion [R2_ACMC/Para145].Good afternoon Tutor. Can I explain in detail about the areas of listening? [R3_ACMC/Para37]Am I correct Tutor? [R4_ACMC/Para85]Tutor, Pls guide [R4_ACMC/Para305].171

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010CONCLUSIONAlthough not many studies have investigated learners‟ roles in the ACMC realm, this pioneer effort on thepart of the researchers has shown that learners‟ roles are just as important as tutor roles. Some of the rolesthat learners played were categorised as initiators-wrappers, task orienters, social discourse networkers, e-collaborators, e-mentors and transcending from information seekers to knowledge constructors. All theseroles were geared towards aiding social presence among learners. In short, they were meant for learners tobecome active and interactive to accomplish their learning objectives and tasks. In addition, as learnersindulged in the various e-tivities, socialised, worked, helped, guided and collaborated with each throughsocial cues, learners reduced the transactional distance but increased meaning making by seekinginformation which eventually led to knowledge construction. By participating in the ACMC they began tobuild collaborative learning communities that would foster the development of autonomous learners.Although the findings of this study are not generalisable, it bodes well as ACMC is considered a viable toolin many local and foreign institutions of higher learning (IHLs). More importantly, this paper hassucceeded in exploring learner roles in ACMC as a means to sow the seeds of autonomous learners (Ranjit& Mohamed Amin, 2007).REFERENCESAlly, M. 2004. Foundations of educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson, & F. Elloumi (Eds).Theory and Practice of Online Learning. Online:http://cde.athabascau.ca/online_book/pdf/TPOL_book.pdfAnderson, T. & Rourke, L. 2001. Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journalof Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2), pp 1-7.Berge, Z.L., & Collins, M.P. 1995. Computer mediated communication and the online classroom:Overview and Perspectives. Cresskill, New Jersey: Hampton Press, Inc.Bonk, C.J. 2004. The perfect e-storm emerging technology, enormous learner demand, enhanced pedagogy,and erased budgets. The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education. Part 1: Storm No. 1 andNo. 2.Chou, C. 2002. A comparative content analysis of student interaction in synchronous and asynchronouslearning networks. Presented at the 35 th Annual Hawaii International Conference on SystemSciences, Hawaii.Coppola, N.W., Hiltz, S. R. & Rotter, N. 2001. Becoming a virtual professor: Pegadogical roles and ALN,Proceedings of the 37th. Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS-34). Piscataway, NJ: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Press.Cornelius, A. & Higgison, C. 2007. Online tutoring e-book. (online)http://www.otis.scotcit.ac.uk/onlinebook/otisT208.htm (19 January 2009).Feenberg, A. 1987. Computer conferencing and the humanities. Instructional Sciences, 16, pp. 169-186.Garrison, D.R., Anderson, T. & Archer, W. 1999. Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computerconferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2/3), pp. 87-104.Gunawardena, C.N. 1995. Social presence theory and implications for interaction and collaborativelearning in computer conferences. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications 1:147-166.Gunawardena, C. & Zittle, F. 1997. Social presence as a predictor of satisfaction within a computermediated conferencing environment. American Journal of Distance Education 11(3): 8-26.172

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European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ISSN 1946-6331© 2010 Ozean PublicationPERCEPTIONS OF SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHERS ABOUT SOCIAL STUDIESGOALS AND CONTENT AREAS IN OMANMohammed Abdullah Al-NofliMinistry of Education P.O. Box: 3 Postal Code: 113 Muscat, OmanE-mail address for correspondence: malnofli@moe.om________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The primary purpose of this national study was to examine social studies teachers’ perceptionsabout the importance and implementation of social studies goals and content areas that should constitute thesocial studies curricula of grades five to 10 in Oman. Of 538 surveys sent to social studies teachers in basiceducation schools of the second cycle (grades 5-10), 407 usable surveys were received for a response rate of76%. Findings indicated that social studies teachers supported all goals suggested in this study. However, theperceived implementation of each goal was significantly lower than that of importance. The most importantcontent areas were perceived to be current events, core values of Oman society, geography, environmentaleducation, history, family life education, and public issues. Geography and history, along with the perceivedmost important content areas, received the highest degree of implementation. The perceived importance ofeach content area was significantly higher than the perceived implementation. Major barriers to teachingsocial studies were centered on the lack of participation of local communities, students, and teachers indetermining social studies goals and content areas. The author provided some recommendations for practice.Keywords: Social studies, citizenship education, global education, teachers’ perceptions, survey research.________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONSocial studies in Oman has long been one of the core school subjects because it is assigned the responsibilityto develop essential knowledge, values, and skills associated with citizenship. At the basic-education stage(grades 1-10), social studies is a required subject for students in grade three through 10 in all public schoolsaround the country. The curriculum of each grade level integrates content areas from geography, history, andcivic education. At the post-basic education stage (grades 11 and 12), social studies program consists ofrequired and elective courses. There are two required courses (This is My Homeland 1 and 2) for students ingrades 11 and 12. These courses are organized around topics representing various dimensions of Omanisociety. Elective courses include Economic Geography, Geography and Modern Technologies, IslamicCivilization, and the World around Me. The last course includes topics about world energy, world heritageand efforts to maintain it, world cultural regions, cross-cultural dialogue, and international efforts for a betterlife.The current reform movement in Oman focuses heavily on the implementation of student-centered strategies,including cooperative learning, inquiry, and role-playing. In line with this trend, greater emphasis has been175

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010placed on implementing formative assessment methods such as class observations, student projects, shortquizzes, self-assessment, and other useful methods (Ministry of Education, 2001, 2006). Despite considerableefforts to improve social studies, there is growing evidence that social studies becomes a marginalized subjectin basic education schools. Unfortunately, social studies is not included in study plans for grades one and two.Its weekly instructional time in grade three through 10 is less than that of mathematics, science, and languagearts. Further evidence comes from a recent survey conducted with a sample of 618 students (318 boys and 300girls) in grades eight, nine, and 10 (Al-Gharibi, 2008). Although students viewed learning social studieslessons as enjoyable, they did not see social studies as useful for a career or helpful to learn about their owncountry or even being related to their own lives. English language followed by mathematics and science wereseen as important subjects for getting career opportunities. Given the declining status of social studies inOman, educators continually need to examine various issues facing teaching and learning social studies.Purpose of the StudyThe primary purpose of this national study was to examine social studies teachers’ perceptions about theimportance and implementation of a wide range of social studies goals and content areas that shouldconstitute the social studies curricula of grades five to 10 in Oman. The second purpose was to identify majorchallenges that may hinder the implementation of social studies goals and content areas in Omani schools.Findings of this study could help social studies teachers and curriculum designers create more effective andmeaningful social studies curricula in Omani schools.Review of Related LiteratureIt is generally agreed that citizenship education is the primary purpose of social studies (Hertzberg, 1981;Martorella, 2001; National Council for the Social Studies [NCSS], 1994). Citizenship education providesstudents with a wide range of knowledge, skills, and dispositions that enable them to participate effectively intheir society (Hill, 1979). Over the years, social studies educators and professional organizations havesuggested several frameworks for the social studies (Barr, Barth, & Shermis, 1977; Brubaker, Simon, &Williams, 1977; Hass, 1979; Janzen, 1995; Martorella, 2001; NCSS, 1994; Newmann, 1977). Theseframeworks are intended to serve as guidelines for social studies goals, methods, and content areas. In theirframework, Barr et al. (1977) identified three traditions or philosophical orientations. The dominant traditionto social studies is citizenship transmission. It involves indoctrination of what is believed to be coreknowledge, values, and beliefs of society. The second tradition called social science focuses on teaching basicknowledge and skills from social science disciplines. The third is reflective inquiry, which emphasizesreflective thinking and inquiry process.Dynneson and Gross (1982) provided insights into major approaches to citizenship education. They identifiedeight approaches, which can be used to guide the selection of social studies goals and content areas. Theseapproaches were citizenship as persuasion and indoctrination, citizenship as contemporary issues and currentevents, citizenship as the study of history and social science disciplines, citizenship as civic participation andcivic action, citizenship as scientific thinking, citizenship as jurisprudence process, citizenship as growth anddevelopment of children, and citizenship as preparation for global interdependence.Over the years, global education has increasingly become an important aspect of social studies curriculum.The purpose of citizenship education is to help students develop knowledge, skills, and dispositions “neededto live effectively in a world possessing limited natural resources and characterized by ethnic diversity,cultural pluralism, and increasing interdependence” (NCSS, 1982, p. 37). Kniep (1986) suggested fouressential content areas for global education. These content areas include: (a) human values around the world;(b) global systems such as economic, political, ecological, and technological systems; (c) global issues andproblems; and (d) global history.A few studies have been conducted on teachers’ perceptions about some aspects of social studies curricula inOman. Using textbook analyses, surveys, and class observations, Al-Riyami (1997) examined the status ofgeographic education in secondary schools (grades 10, 11, and 12). Major findings indicated that scope andsequence patterns were repetitive and static. Geographic education did not emphasize critical thinking skills,176

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010inquiry, group discussions, games, and field trips. The majority of geography teachers engaged in lectures. Itwas evident in this study that geographic education in Oman lacked learning experiences pertinent to the livesof students and their community.In a more recent study, AlMaamari (2009) examined the perceptions of social studies student teachers (n =257) and their tutors (n = 32) about citizenship education in seven colleges of education in Oman. Participantsviewed citizenship education as a means to build national pride and unity, which are necessary to maintain theprogress of Oman. Among the perceived highest-ranked goals of citizenship education were to providestudents with knowledge about their country and its political, economic, and cultural systems; appreciateOmani heritage and culture; understand rights and responsibilities; develop positive attitudes toward work,production, saving, and consumption; develop patriotic and loyal citizens; develop moral behavior; anddevelop critical thinking and problem solving skills. The content was perceived to focus mainly on nationalhistory and geography, government structure, traditions and customs, and values that promote loyalty, respect,and love of the country.In the preceding literature, the author attempted to identify major perspectives that can be used to guide thedevelopment of social studies goals and content areas. Based on this analysis, there is an importantimplication for social studies in Oman. Social studies curricula should include a broad range of goals andcontent areas that focus on national heritage of Omani society, knowledge and skills from history and socialscience disciplines, reflective thinking skills, students’ interests and needs, global interdependence, culturaldiversity, community participation, and other useful experiences.CONTEXT OF THE STUDYThe Sultanate of Oman is one of the Middle Eastern countries. It is situated in the Southeastern corner of theArabian Peninsula, with a land area of approximately 309, 500 km 2 (119,498 mi 2 ) and a coastline extendingover 3,165 km (1,967 mi). It is bounded by the Arabian Sea to the east, the United Arab Emirates and SaudiArabia to the west, Strait of Hormuz to the north, and Yemen to the south. The 2003 censes indicated that thepopulation of Oman was 2,340,815 (Ministry of National Economy, 2003). Over the past four decades, oilrevenues have been a vital part of the country’s economy. This has influenced rapid social, economic, andtechnological changes in Omani society. For example, the number of students and schools has increaseddramatically from 909 students in only three schools prior to 1970 to 553,236 students in 1,052 public schools(Ministry of Education, 2006, 2008). To provide education that meets the changing needs of Omani society,the Ministry of Education places considerable emphasis on teaching mathematics, science, English language,and information technology in early grades.Like many countries, Oman has involved in several school reforms. Education has undergone significantchanges since the implementation of the Basic Education Reform in 1998. Some key changes includeequipping all schools with advanced learning resource centers, increasing the school year, introducing newsubject areas into school plans, and improving school curricula. The current educational system is divided intotwo stages: basic education (grades 1-10) and post-basic education (grades 11-12). Within the basic-educationstage, there are two sub cycles. The first cycle consists of grades 1-4, and the second cycle consists of grades5-10. Each cycle is designed to meet students’ basic needs in terms of knowledge, skills, and values (Ministryof Education, 2001). The Ministry of Education supervises public schools and maintains a centralized anduniformed educational system around the country. It provides free education for all students enrolled in publicschools.177

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010METHODParticipantsThis national study involved a population of all social studies teachers in basic education schools of thesecond cycle (grades 5-10). This population comprised 538 teachers (236 males and 302 females) distributedin 119 schools around the country. It needs to be pointed out that a basic education school of the second cycleconsists of grades from five to 10 in one school building. Social studies teachers in basic education schoolsthat did not include a complete set of grades from five to 10 were excluded from participation in this study.Data about teachers and their schools were obtained from a database provided by the Ministry of Education.InstrumentationA survey was utilized in collecting data for this study. The survey was a four-point scale consisting of 41items. It included four parts asking respondents about (1) demographic data, (2) degree of importance andimplementation of nine social studies goals, (3) degree of importance and implementation of 16 social studiescontent areas, and (4) challenges that may hinder the implementation of social studies goals and content areas.In order to develop a list of social studies goals, I reviewed major perspectives that are often discussed insocial studies literature (Barr et al., 1977; Brubaker et al., 1977; Dynneson & Gross, 1982; Janzen, 1995;Kniep, 1986; Martorella, 2001; NCSS, 1994; Newmann, 1977). The following is a brief description of majorperspectives: Citizenship transmission is mainly concerned with transmitting basic knowledge, values,norms, and beliefs of society. Reflective inquiry emphasizes reflective thinking and inquiry process. Social science focuses on teaching basic knowledge and skills from history and socialscience disciplines. Community participation provides opportunities for students to participate in variousactivities of their community. Student-centered education provides students with meaningful learning experiences relatedto their interests and needs. Global education provides students with learning experiences about global interdependence. Cultural diversity focuses on teaching about various cultural aspects of Oman, includingarts, popular dance, music, and other cultural activities that represent all Omani provinces. Science, technology, and society provide experiences “for the study of relationships amongscience, technology, and society” (NCSS, 1994, p. 43).Overall, these perspectives provided the foundation for developing an array of broad social studies goals. Interms of social studies content, I included the fundamental social science disciplines and other related contentareas, including career education, environmental education, family life education, current events (Dynneson& Gross, 1982), law-related education (Newmann, 1977), and public issues (Oliver & Shaver, 1966).Challenges included in this study were based on my teaching and administrative experiences in Oman. Someitems were developed from social studies literature.A panel of educators with specialties in social studies, teacher education, and research methods reviewed thesurvey. Based on their recommendations and suggestions, modifications were made to the survey. The surveywas pilot tested with a group of 20 teachers in six schools in Oman. Participants in the pilot study agreed thatdirections and items were clear, and scales were easy to use. Their responses were positive about the contentof the survey. The internal consistency of the survey was evaluated for each subscale using Cronbach’s alpha.The alpha values ranged from .723 to .861. The resulting alpha value for the whole scale was .886, whichindicated sufficient internal consistency reliability (George & Mallery, 2009).178

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010ProceduresData collection took place during the spring semester of 2008, following approval of the study by the Ministryof Education. Each teacher received a survey packet containing the survey, cover letter, and return envelope.Teachers voluntarily participated in this study and anonymously responded to the survey. After the completedsurveys were returned, data were coded and analyzed using SPSS. Statistical analyses included descriptivestatistics and dependent (paired) t-tests to examine if there were statistically significant differences betweenthe perceived importance and perceived implementation of social studies goals and content areas. Sincemultiple t-tests were performed, the Bonferroni correction was used to control the familywise error rate. Thiswas accomplished by dividing the alpha level of .05 by number of t-tests being conducted (Huck, 2000).Cohen’s effect size was calculated to determine the magnitude of mean differences between the perceivedimportance and the perceived implementation of social studies goals and content areas. This wasaccomplished by dividing the difference between two means by the standard deviation of the difference(Kotrlik & Williams, 2003).RESULTSThis section includes demographic characteristics of social studies teachers and their perceptions about socialstudies goals, content areas, and challenges that may hinder the implementation of social studies goals andcontent areas.DemographicsOf 538 surveys sent to social studies teachers, 407 surveys were completed and received for a response rate of76%. The majority of social studies teachers were female (59.7%). The Bachelor of Education was the mostcommonly held degree (75.2 %), followed by a Bachelor of Arts and Diploma in Education (19.2%), a twoyearDiploma in Education (4.4%), and a Master’s degree (1.2%). The teachers were specialized in geography(59.7%), history (30.2 %), and general social studies (9.6%). Of the teachers in this study, 34.2% had one tothree years of teaching experience, 32.9% had seven to nine years, 16.5% had four to six years, 6.4% had 10-12 years, and 10% had over 12 years.Perceptions about Social Studies GoalsThe second part of the survey asked respondents to indicate the degree of importance of social studies goalson a scale ranging from one (unimportant) to four (very important) and the degree of implementation of thesegoals on a scale ranging from one (never) to four (very often). As shown in Table 1, social studies teacherssupported all goals suggested in this study. The top three important goals were to help students feel pride intheir country and its core values and beliefs (M = 3.87), cope with issues of contemporary life (M = 3.65), andacquire knowledge and skills from history and the social sciences (M = 3.59). Although social studies teachersviewed all social studies goals as important, the perceived implementation of each goal was lower than that ofimportance.To determine if there were statistically significant differences between the perceived importance andperceived implementation of social studies goals, dependent (paired) t-tests were conducted. Utilizing theBonferroni correction, the alpha level of .05 was divided by nine (= number of t-tests). Then, the results of thet-tests were compared to the adjusted alpha = .005. As indicated in Table 1, statistically significant differenceswere found between the perceived importance and perceived implementation on all social studies goals (p

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 1 Dependent (Paired) t Tests for the Degree of Importance and Implementation of Social Studies GoalsSocial Studies GoalsdfDegree ofImportanceDegree ofImplementation t pM SD M SDHelp students feel pride in their countryand its core values and beliefs.EffectSize402 3.87 0.39 3.48 0.66 12.24 .000* 0.60Help students cope with issues ofcontemporary life.397 3.65 0.59 3.13 0.81 12.82 .000* 0.64Help students acquire knowledge andskills from history, geography, andother social sciences.403 3.59 0.65 3.24 0.79 9.51 .000* 0.47Help students develop critical thinkingskills.401 3.47 0.68 2.90 0.78 14.13 .000* 0.70Help students examine the influence oftechnology tools on our lives.405 3.46 0.72 2.89 0.87 12.61 .000* 0.63Help students participate in social andpolitical affairs of their society.396 3.38 0.78 2.77 0.86 12.48 .000* 0.63Help students meet their personalinterests and needs related to socialstudies.397 3.37 0.68 2.96 0.81 11.39 .000* 0.57Help students learn about cultures andissues from other countries.399 3.29 0.83 2.89 0.85 8.94 .000* 0.45Help students learn about culturalheritage of Oman including customs,arts, music, and dance.400 3.12 0.93 2.75 0.95 8.95 .000* 0.45*p < .005Perceptions about Social Studies Content Areas180

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010The third part of the survey asked respondents to indicate the degree of importance of content areas on a scaleranging from one (unimportant) to four (very important) and the degree of implementation of these contentareas on a scale ranging from one (never) to four (very often). As shown in Table 2, the perceived mostimportant content areas were current events (M = 3.77), core values of Oman society (M = 3.75), geography(M = 3.68), environmental education (M = 3.68), history (M = 3.66), family life education (M = 3.66), andpublic issues (M = 3.54). Geography and history, along with the perceived most important content areas,received the highest degree of implementation. The lowest-ranked content areas in both importance andimplementation were sociology, political science, psychology, and law-related education.Dependent t-tests were used to determine if there were statistically significant differences between theperceived importance and perceived implementation of social studies content areas. Utilizing the Bonferronicorrection, the initial alpha level of .05 was divided by 16 (= number of t-tests). Then, the results of the t-testswere compared to the adjusted alpha = .003. As shown in Table 2, statistically significant differences werefound between the perceived importance and perceived implementation on all social studies content areas (p< .003). Specifically, the mean of importance of each content area was significantly higher than that ofimplementation. Effect sizes ranged from a magnitude of 0.25 to 0.72, with the largest effects found onanthropology (d = 0.72) and career education (d = 0.68). It should be noted that content areas with smallereffect sizes were among the most implemented content areas. On the other hand, content areas with largereffect sizes were among the least implemented content areas.181

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010Table 2 Dependent (Paired) t Tests for the Degree of Importance and Implementation of Social StudiesContent AreasDegree ofImportanceDegree ofImplementation t pEffectSizeSocial Studies Content AreasdfM SD M SDCurrent events 394 3.77 0.54 3.43 0.77 9.32 .000* 0.46Core values of Oman society 396 3.75 0.59 3.42 0.78 9.07 .000* 0.46Geography 396 3.68 0.60 3.52 0.67 5.13 .000* 0.25Environmental education 388 3.68 0.58 3.36 0.77 8.89 .000* 0.45Family life education 394 3.66 0.59 3.37 0.75 7.74 .000* 0.40History 396 3.66 0.61 3.44 0.72 6.38 .000* 0.32Public issues 394 3.54 0.68 3.14 0.86 9.01 .000* 0.45Issues and content that representglobal interest and concern390 3.38 0.72 2.95 0.83 10.45 .000* 0. 53Economics 391 3.24 0.76 2.76 0.84 11.71 .000* 0.59Oman’s cultural heritage includingcustoms, arts, music, and dance394 3.14 0.93 2.73 0.97 8.97 .000* 0.45Career education 384 3.13 0.82 2.48 0.89 13.35 .000* 0.68Anthropology 396 3.12 0.84 2.48 0.81 14.37 .000* 0.72Sociology 395 2.97 0.88 2.45 0.93 10.58 .000* 0.53Political science 387 2.97 0.89 2.38 0.87 11.98 .000* 0.61Psychology 389 2.81 1.00 2.16 0.93 12.29 .000* 0.63Law-related education 391 2.77 0.91 2.16 0.88 12.40 .000* 0.63*p < .003Perceptions about ChallengesThe last part of the survey asked respondents to indicate some possible challenges that may hinder theimplementation of social studies goals and content areas. Respondents were asked to rate their responses on a182

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010scale ranging from one (no barrier) to four (very high barrier). As illustrated in Table 3, the top threechallenges were reported in the lack of community involvement in determining social studies goals andcontent areas (M = 3.20), lack of teacher freedom over the curriculum (M = 3.05), and lack of students’involvement in determining social studies goals and content areas (M = 3.03). Clearly, these findings contrastsharply with educational trends that emphasize participation of community members, teachers, and students incurriculum planning and development.Table 3 Perceptions of Social Studies Teachers about Challenges Facing the Implementation of SocialStudies Goals and Content AreasChallenges N M SDLack of community involvement in determining social studies goals and content 402 3.20 0.90areas.Lack of teacher freedom to add or delete goals and content areas of socialstudies syllabus.405 3.05 1.02Lack of students’ involvement in determining social studies goals and contentareas.400 3.03 1.04Lack of participation in professional development programs to enhanceknowledge and skills related to social studies.394 2.84 0.94Lack of access to academic journals and publications related to the field ofsocial studies.401 2.78 1.01Priority of teaching other subjects over the social studies in your school. 401 2.64 1. 17Lack of technology tools such as computers and educational games in yourschool.400 2.64 1.16Lack of students’ interests in learning social studies. 392 2.50 1.10Lack of administrative support from the school or school district. 401 2.42 1.10Lack of teachers’ interests in teaching social studies. 392 2.12 1.09Insufficient instructional time devoted to teaching social studies. 395 1.66 0.97The primary purpose of the present study was to examine social studies teachers’ perceptions about theimportance and implementation of social studies goals and content areas that should constitute the socialstudies curricula of grades five to 10. Of nine social studies goals included in this study, helping students feel183

European Journal of Educational Studies 2(2), 2010pride in their country and its core values and beliefs received the highest rating in both importance andimplementation. Clearly, teaching core values of Omani society has been considered a key vehicle foreffective citizenship. Among the core values included in social studies textbooks of some grade levels aretruth, honesty, justice, equity, tolerance, responsibility, cooperation, respect for family, respect for laws, andcommitment to the public good (Ministry of Education, 2005, 2007a, 2007b). Traditionally, the textbooks alsointegrate content areas and activities that promote Oman-Arab identity and develop recognition andunderstanding of various achievements of Oman at local, regional, and global levels.Across social studies goals suggested in this study, there is also strong support for helping students cope withissues of contemporary life. One reason explaining this finding can be attributed to the emphasis of thecurrent reform on helping students develop “life skills”, “ability to adapt to innovation”, and “ability to dealrationally with problems of the present era” (Ministry of Education, 2001, p. 9). This goal is best exemplifiedin social studies lessons dealing with family life education, consumer education, health education, and roadsafetyeducation (Ministry of Education, 2003, 2007a, 2007c).It is evident in this study that social studies in Omani schools lacked some essential characteristics of acomprehensive social studies program. For example, development of critical thinking received fourth inimportance and fifth in implementation, with a medium to large effect size (d = 0.70). Clearly, this findingconflicts with widespread support for critical thinking in social studies (Martorella, 2001; NCSS, 1994). Inaddition, participation in socio-political aspects of society was ranked sixth in importance and eighth inimplementation. This suggests that social studies teachers in Oman put little emphasis on helping studentsparticipate in socio-political aspects of Omani society. It is disheartening that social studies teachers in thecurrent reform place little emphasis on critical thinking and community participation.The most striking findings of this study were the statistically significant differences between the perceivedimportance and the perceived implementation on all social studies content areas. These findings can beattributed to the current design of social studies curricula of grades five to 10. The social studies curriculum ofeach grade level integrates interdisciplinary content areas. In general, one limitation of the integratedcurriculum is that it does not provide in-depth content knowledge from various social science disciplines.Major challenges facing social studies were centered on the lack of participation of local communities,teachers, and students in determining social studies goals and content areas. One reason explaining thesefindings lies in the centralized decision-making authority in Oman. Central committees in the Ministry ofEducation are responsible for designing and developing various aspects of social studies. As a result, teachersand students have fewer opportunities to participate in planning and developing social studies curricula. Whilethe Basic Education Reform emphasizes the implementation of constructivist teaching practices, it is crucialthat teachers and students must be given greater opportunities to participate in various aspects of curriculumplanning and development.Recommendations for PracticeIn this study, the author attempted to bring attention to some aspects of social studies in Oman. In essence, ifsocial studies is to help students participate effectively in Omani society, emphasis on a broad range of goalsthat focus on critical thinking, socio-political participation, and global interdependence is crucial to asuccessful social studies program in Omani schools. The traditional disciplines of geography and historyreceived the highest degree of implementation in social studies classrooms. It is important that studentsshould be acquainted with concepts and theories of a broad range of the social sciences, including politicalscience, anthropology, sociology, and psychology. To overcome some limitations of the current social studiescurricula of grades five to 10, a range of elective social sciences should be offered for students in the uppergrades of basic education. Some possible elective courses may include introduction to sociology, law andsociety, principles of economics, world cultures, participation in government, and introduction to psychology.Acknowledgment184

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