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UNWTO, 9 July 2008 Impacts and Adaptation at Tourism Destinations The losses experienced in Honduras and Nicaragua from Hurricane Mitch in 1999 totalled more than the combined GDP of both countries and over 7000 people died in Honduras. 352 Similarly, the major cyclone that hit Bangladesh in 1991 resulted in a storm surge of 7 metres and winds of 235 miles/hour; over 138,000 people were killed and 840,000 homes destroyed, with over 12 million people impacted by the cyclone. 353 The economic impact of strong storm events on tourism is substantial. The ten-day closure and cleanup following Hurricane Georges in 1998 resulted in tourism revenue losses of approximately US$ 32 million in the Florida Keys. 354 The economic impact of the four hurricanes that struck Florida in 2004 was estimated to be several times larger. However, this revenue was not lost to the industry as whole, as other US destinations such as Arizona and California benefited from the transfer of large numbers of visitors not going to Florida. 355 With 26 tropical storms and 14 hurricanes, the 2005 hurricane season was one of the most active and destructive in history, spawning three of the most intense North Atlantic storms on record, including Hurricane Katrina with its associated environmental, social and economic impacts. Hurricane Katrina caused extensive damage to the tourism infrastructure in New Orleans and Coastal Mississippi, with major losses in tourism, convention business and gambling expected for some time after the event. 356 Sea level rise Sea level rise is of major importance to tourism given that most tourism activities take place in coastal zones. Further global sea level rises could range from 31 to 65 cm by 2100, aggravating coastal erosion and leading to the loss of beaches. 357 This is primarily a consequence of the expansion of sea water (70–75%), as a result of the increase in oceanic temperatures, and of the continued melting of mountain glaciers and small ice caps. 358 In a few countries the sea level has fallen due to tectonic uplift; however, overall, sea level is projected to rise, at an escalating rate. Even small rises in sea level will result in significant erosion and submersion of land, increased flood hazard, contamination of freshwater aquifers, loss of protective coral reefs, mangrove areas and sand beaches which will increase exposure to hurricanes and storm surges in coastal zones. In small island regions especially, much of the biological diversity and most of the population, agricultural land and capital assets are located in these areas and so at risk. 359 This has major implications for tourism which needs to be assessed. In the Indian Ocean, the Maldives average only 1.5 meters above sea level and projected rates of sea level rise are likely to inundate large areas of the different islands and atolls. Of the archipelago’s 1,192 islands and coral atolls, 194 are inhabited, and the beaches on 60% of those are already facing varying degrees of erosion and encroachment. Other low lying islands, such as the Bahamas and Kiribati, face similar problems. 360 One-quarter of the Indian population live along the coastline and are to a great extent dependent on coastal livelihoods. Sea level rises ill have major impacts in these areas especially in the Bay of Bengal area which also experiences seasonal monsoon and cyclonic patterns. 361 In Europe, the EUROSION study 362 into the management of coastal erosion throughout the EU reported that 20% of the European shoreline is retreating and/or is being artificially stabilised. Its findings indicated that for Europe, the value of economic assets located within 500 metres of EU coastline, and at risk from sea level rises (including those related to infrastructure, industry, agriculture and tourism), is € 500 to € 1,000 Billion. Ocean circulations Sophisticated computer-based global climate models are now used to estimate global winds and ocean currents. Ocean currents have a large influence on local climatic conditions. Changes in rainfall variability and tropical cyclone characteristics in the South Pacific, for example, are strongly dependent on El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El Niño manifests in a decrease in precipitation for areas in the Western Pacific (e.g., Australia). As the El Niño develops, the extent of its influence on global weather increases, resulting in anomalous weather and climate conditions worldwide. This includes a decrease in tropical storm activity in the Atlantic Ocean, droughts in the Caribbean and Central 75
76 Climate Change and Tourism – Responding to Global Challenges America, increased tropical storm activity in the Eastern Pacific, and wet conditions in the Southern USA and Eastern Africa. The drought, floods and fires that inflict Southeast Asia during an El Niño have a major impact on the region’s tourism industry, due in part to the haze resulting from man-made fires reducing visibility, impeding air traffic and increasing health risks. 363, 364 Ecosystems Coastal and island ecosystems are affected by the above mentioned climate change impacts. Most directly, extreme events can destroy ecosystems, such as mangrove forests, tropical forests or coral reefs. In the South African Cape Floral Region, some lowland areas are threatened due to sea level rises, which will have consequences both for the coastal ecosystem itself and for the buffering of associated ecosystems. 365 Coral reefs especially are a crucial resource for tourism and other sectors. In many destinations, reefs are the key pull factor (as a visitor attraction) for tourists, and therefore a major economic asset; “[…] more than half of the tourists currently visiting the regions along the Great Barrier Reef are ‘reef-interested’, and, as these tend to be relatively big-spending, they represent 70% of the total tourism expenditure in these regions.” 366 The increasing sea surface temperature and increasing acidity of the water will have an important impact on marine life and coral reefs 367 (Figure 9.7). Figure 9.7 Coral bleaching in Tobago UNWTO, 9 July 2008 Photo credit: Simpson, M. C. Box 6 Impact and adaptation in Mauritius 368 Tourism destination and situation: Island of Mauritius, Indian Ocean – SCUBA Diving. Climate change impact: More frequent and intense cyclones and El Niño phenomena killing and/ or damaging the coral reefs. Adaptation strategy/strategies: Coastal Zone Management (CZM) has reduced local pollution levels thereby attempting to increase resilience of the reef to local and global environmental change (although findings of the study show that the state of coral reefs are only relevant for a minor share of specialized and experience divers). Organization implementing the adaptation strategy: Mauritius Government.
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