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Figure 9.12 Climate adaptation options in the ski industry Improved weather reporting Source: Scott, D. and McBoyle, G. (2006) UNWTO, 9 July 2008 Improved weather forecasting Alter timing of skiing during the season Impacts and Adaptation at Tourism Destinations Alter skiing location (local, regional, international) MEDIA GOVERNMENT SKIERS/RIDERS DEMAND SIDE SKI INDUSTRY CLIMATE ADAPTATIONS SUPPLY SIDE GOVERNMENT SKI AREA OPERATORS SKI ASSOCIATIONS Subsidies (energy costs, public land leases, infrastructure grants) Improved weather forecasts Snowmaking Technological practices Slope development and operational practices Cloud seeding Public education and political lobby for GHG mitigation Indoor ski areas Ski conglomerate Business practices Revenue diversification Substitute skiing with another recreation activity FINANCIAL SECTOR Weather insurance Marketing The importance of snow-making as an adaptation to climate variability and change cannot be overstated. In eastern North America and Australia, snow-making is almost universal among ski operators. In other ski regions such as Western Europe, western North America, East Asia (Japan-Korea-China), and South America, snow-making is not as extensively used, but continuing to grow 448, 449 and in some areas, such as Austria and Italy, already widespread. 450 With advanced snow-making in place, many ski area managers in North America, Australia and Austria are highly confident in their capacity to negate the impacts of future climate change. 451, 452, 453, 454 For example, almost half of Austrian ski area managers felt that with further adaptation of snow-making their businesses would continue to be viable for at least another 75 years. 455 Assessments that test the capacity of ski areas to physically produce a reliable snow-base with snow-making under climate change are presently limited to North America and Australia, so that this confidence in the adaptive capacity provided by snow-making may be overestimated in other regions. 89
90 Climate Change and Tourism – Responding to Global Challenges Large increases in snow-making requirements under climate change scenarios raise questions about the sustainability of this adaptation strategy in certain locations (Box 13). Communities and environmental organizations have expressed concern about the extensive water use and chemical additives associated with snow-making. Even where snow-making is climatically feasible and water supplies can be secured, the additional infrastructure and energy costs associated with large increases in snow-making volumes at higher average temperatures may be uneconomic for some ski operators. Concerns have also been raised that the increased costs of snow-making, particularly for smaller operators at lower elevations, may again drive skiing to become a ‘sport for the rich’. 456 Regulation of the development and operation of snow-making systems differs across and within nations. In regional ski markets, such as the European Alps or New England states, varied government regulations and support for snow-making (through energy or water subsidies) may provide a competitive advantage to certain ski areas. For example, chemical-bacterial additives to facilitate snow-making at temperatures near or even above freezing are allowed in Switzerland 457 , but banned in Germany, offering a competitive edge to Swiss ski areas. Other important technical adaptation strategies that have been questioned from a sustainability perspective include glacier preservation and expansion of ski areas into higher elevations. Glacial retreat is observed to be a global trend 458 and ski areas have utilized two distinct strategies to preserve glaciers deemed important to their operations. 459 With the increased recession of glaciers in the Alps in recent years, notably the record warm summer of 2003, ski areas in Switzerland and Austria, have installed large sheets of white polyethylene on critical areas of glaciers to protect the ice from ultraviolet radiation and restrict melting during summer months. 460 In Canada, the Whistler-Blackcomb ski resort is considering an engineering plan to maintain the Horstman Glacier at the top of Blackcomb Mountain by installing snow fences and using snow-making near the summit to provide additional snow inputs for the glacier. 461, 462 The development of new skiable terrain at environmentally sensitive higher elevations, where snow cover is more reliable and a longer ski season possible, has also a commonly identified adaptation strategy. 463, 464, 465 Thirty-six ski areas in Austria applied for permits to expand their operations into higher elevations in 2002–2003. 466 Box 13 The sustainability of snow-making Although concerns have been raised about the environmental impacts of snow-making, little scientific research has been conducted on its differential regional impacts on mountain vegetation, watersheds or energy use and related GHG emissions. Studies have found snow-making to have a localized affect on ski slope vegetation composition and biodiversity of high alpine plants by altering spring soil temperature and moisture, as well as the introduction of phytopathogenic bacteria (used as nuclei to enhance ice crystal formulation). 467, 468 Concerns about the tremendous water use by snow-making have largely been focused on the impact of water withdrawals from natural water bodies, and there is little knowledge of inter-watershed transfers of water or any regional impact on water cycle from snow-making. When water for snowmaking is withdrawal from natural water bodies (streams and lakes), water levels may be reduced at critical times of the year, impacting fish and other marine species. Some jurisdictions have strict regulations governing water withdrawals for snow-making. For example, the State of Vermont (USA) implemented a ‘February Mean Flow’ standard, where water withdrawals for snow-making are not permitted when natural watercourses are at or below the average mean flow. To reduce impacts on natural watercourses, many ski areas have constructed reservoirs to ‘stockpile’ water during high flow periods (spring freshet) for winter use. No estimates of total water withdrawals or reservoir storage capacity are available for any ski region. The sustainability of snow-making has also been questioned on the basis of energy use and related GHG emissions. Snow-making as been referred to as a ‘perverse’ climate change adaptation because the large projected increase in snow-making under climate change scenarios 469 will further contribute to the very problem of adaptation. In tourism, similar arguments could be made of air conditioning in the Mediterranean, Caribbean or other tropical destinations. UNWTO, 9 July 2008
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