104 K. Rastle, M. Brysbaert / Cognitive Psychology 53 (2006) 97–145All of the studies presented <strong>in</strong> Table 1 compared identification accuracy when targetswere preceded by homophonic word or nonword primes (e.g., maid–MADE, brane–BRAIN), graphemic controls (e.g., mark–MADE, brans–BRAIN), and unrelated controls(ship–MADE, thoke–BRAIN). The <strong>phonological</strong> <strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong> effect is calculated by compar<strong>in</strong>gidentification accuracy <strong>in</strong> the homophone condition with identification accuracy <strong>in</strong> thegraphemic control condition. Taken together, these studies suggest a reliable <strong>phonological</strong><strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong> effect across studies of 9.11% (SD = 4.89, t(17) = 7.91, p < .01).2.2. Backward-masked perceptual identificationIn backward-masked perceptual identification, a <strong>for</strong>ward pattern mask is followed by abriefly presented target word; this target is followed by a briefly presented verbal mask,and f<strong>in</strong>ally a pattern mask. Verbal masks are generally nonwords (but see Tan & Perfetti,1999, who used words of low frequency), and are presented <strong>in</strong> a different case to the target.The dependent variable is the percentage of target words correctly identified. Six articles(18 experiments) us<strong>in</strong>g this paradigm are summarized <strong>in</strong> Table 2: Berent and Perfetti(1995), Perfetti et al. (1988), Perfetti and Bell (1991), Tan and Perfetti (1999), Verstaenet al. (1995), and Xu and Perfetti (1999).Compar<strong>in</strong>g identification accuracy <strong>in</strong> the homophone and graphemic control mask conditions,Table 2 suggests a statistically reliable <strong>phonological</strong> <strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong> effect of 3.89%,(SD = 5.54, t(17) = 2.98, p < .01).2.3. Forward-masked read<strong>in</strong>g aloudIn the <strong>for</strong>ward-masked read<strong>in</strong>g aloud procedure, a pattern mask is followed immediatelyby a briefly presented prime; this prime is masked by a target, which participants arerequired to read aloud. The dependent variable is the time taken to read the targetword aloud. Four articles (22 experiments) us<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>for</strong>ward-masked read<strong>in</strong>g aloud taskare summarized <strong>in</strong> Table 3: Berent and Perfetti (1995), Lukatela and Turvey (1994b, 2000),and Bowers, Vigliocco, and Haan (1998). Although Bowers et al. (1998) appears <strong>in</strong>Table 3, it is not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> average analyses because a graphemic control conditionwas not <strong>in</strong>cluded (and there<strong>for</strong>e it is not possible to calculate the <strong>phonological</strong> <strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong>effect). Data from this table suggests an average <strong>phonological</strong> <strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong> effect of 10 ms<strong>in</strong> the read<strong>in</strong>g aloud task, which is reliable across studies (SD = 7.28, t(19) = 6.08,p < .01).2.4. Forward-masked visual lexical decisionIn <strong>for</strong>ward-masked visual lexical decision, a pattern mask is followed by a briefly presentedprime, and this prime is masked by a target that is presented <strong>in</strong> a different case. Participantsare required to make a visual lexical decision about the target. Seven articles (21experiments) are presented <strong>in</strong> Table 4: Berent (1997), Gra<strong>in</strong>ger and Ferrand (1994),Lukatela and Turvey (2000), Davis, Castles, and Iakovidis (1998, Experiment 1), Lukatelaet al. (1998), Bowers et al. (1998), and Holyk and Pexman (2004).Data <strong>in</strong> Table 4 suggests a <strong>phonological</strong> <strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong> effect of 10 ms, which is reliable acrossstudies (SD = 17.12, t(18) = 2.45, p < .05). Once aga<strong>in</strong> Bowers et al. (1998) is not <strong>in</strong>cluded<strong>in</strong> this average, s<strong>in</strong>ce they did not use a graphemic control condition. Further, the data
Table 2Studies of <strong>English</strong> <strong>phonological</strong> <strong>prim<strong>in</strong>g</strong>, us<strong>in</strong>g the backward-masked perceptual identification paradigmStudyTargetduration (ms)PrimelexicalityPrimeduration (ms)% Correct:<strong>phonological</strong>% Correct:graphemic% Correct:unrelatedPhonologicalgraphemicPerfetti et al. (1988), Exp. 1a 30 Nonword 25 55 49 32 6 23Perfetti et al. (1988), Exp. 1b 33 Nonword 16 64 61 53 3 11Perfetti et al. (1988), Exp. 2 45 Nonword 30 54 45 32 9 22Berent and Perfetti (1995), Exp. 1a 15 Nonword 30 32 17 2 15 30Berent and Perfetti (1995), Exp. 1b 30 Nonword 30 68 69 48 1 20Berent and Perfetti (1995), Exp. 1c 45 Nonword 60 82 74 57 8 25Xu and Perfetti (1999), Exp. 1 30 Nonword 58 50 43 24 7 26Xu and Perfetti (1999), Exp. 2 30 Nonword 62 81 78 60 3 21Perfetti and Bell (1991), Exp. 1a 35 Nonword 30 27 21 7 6 20Perfetti and Bell (1991), Exp. 1b 45 Nonword 30 48 43 20 5 28Perfetti and Bell (1991), Exp. 1c 55 Nonword 30 59 55 37 4 22Verstaen et al. (1995), Exp. 1 42 Nonword 28 69 65 53 4 16Verstaen et al. (1995), Exp. 2 42 Nonword 28 55 56 43 1 12Verstaen et al. (1995), Exp. 3 56 Nonword 28 78 81 70 3 8Verstaen et al. (1995), Exp. 4a 42 Nonword 28 65 59 51 6 14Verstaen et al. (1995), Exp. 4b 42 Nonword 28 60 60 51 0 9Tan and Perfetti (1999), Exp. 1 28 Word 28 56 66 32 10 24Tan and Perfetti (1999), Exp. 2 42 Word 28 88 79 70 9 18Note: Exp., Experiment.PhonologicalunrelatedK. Rastle, M. Brysbaert / Cognitive Psychology 53 (2006) 97–145 105
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