Biology Upper Secondary Teacher Guide - Department of Education

BiologyUpper SecondaryTeacher GuidePapua New GuineaDepartment of Education

Issued free to schools by the Department of EducationPublished in 2008 by the Department of Education, Papua New Guinea© Copyright 2008, Department of Education, Papua New GuineaAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system or transmitted by any form or by any means electronic,mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior writtenpermission of the publisher.ISBN: 978-9980-9925-6-7AcknowledgmentsThe Upper Secondary Biology Teacher Guide was written, edited andformatted by the Curriculum Development Division of the Department ofEducation. The development of the teacher guide was coordinatedby Jane Yanimu Ecneme Pagelio.Writers from schools, tertiary institutions and non-government organisationsacross the country have contributed to the writing of this teacher guidethrough specialist writing workshops and consultations. Quality assurancegroups and the Science Subject Advisory Committee have also contributedto the development of this teacher guide.This document was developed with the support of the AustralianGovernment through the Education Capacity Building Program.

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideContentsSecretary’s message ...................................................................... ivIntroduction......................................................................................1The outcomes approach ..................................................................2Learning and teaching .....................................................................6Biology requirements .....................................................................12Assessing Biology..........................................................................13Sample assessment tasks .............................................................23Learning activities and assessment tasks ......................................25Recording and reporting ................................................................45Resources .....................................................................................52References ....................................................................................55Glossary for Biology.......................................................................56Glossary for assessment ...............................................................59iii

BiologySecretary’s messageThis Biology teacher guide is to be used by teachers of Biology whenimplementing the Upper Secondary Biology Syllabus (Grades 11 and 12)throughout Papua New Guinea. The Biology syllabus states the learningoutcomes and outlines the content to be taught. This teacher guide givespractical ideas about ways of implementing the syllabus: suggestions aboutwhat to teach, strategies for facilitating teaching and learning, how to assessand suggested assessment tasks.A variety of suggested learning and teaching activities provide teachers withideas to motivate students’ learning, and to make learning of Biologyrelevant, interesting and fun.Teachers of Biology are encouraged to relate learning in Biology to real life,real issues and the local environment. Teaching that uses meaningfulcontexts and makes sure that students participate in appropriate practicalactivities assists students to gain deeper knowledge and understanding, anddemonstrate more scientific skills in Biology.As teachers of Biology, you are expected to recognise the different needsand interests of students who have had substantial achievement already andappropriately involve them working individually and with others in practical,field and interactive activities that are related to theoretical concepts, byapplying investigative and problem solving skills. Encourage students toeffectively communicate research based evidence of biological information,and appreciate the contribution that biology makes to their understanding ofthe world, living things, and the influence of society on the environment.Teachers of Biology must ensure safety measures are taken when handlingequipment, chemicals, live animals and plants or dead matter by students.I commend and approve the Biology Teacher Guide for use in all schoolswith Grades 11 and 12 students throughout Papua New Guinea.DR JOSEPH PAGELIOSecretary for Educationiv

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideIntroductionThe purpose of this teacher guide is to help you, the teacher of Biology toimplement the Biology syllabus. As the name suggests, this is a guideproviding you with some samples of teaching programs and suggestedactivities and assessment tasks. The samples will assist you to create yourown exciting and constructive teaching programs, and assessment activities.The Biology syllabus specifies the particular learning outcomes that studentsachieve at the end of each unit.The Biology teacher guide supports the syllabus. The syllabus states thelearning outcomes for the subject units, and outlines the content and skillsthat students will learn, and the assessment requirements.The Biology teacher guide provides direction for you in using the outcomesapproach in your classroom. The outcomes approach requires you toconsider the assessment requirements early in your planning, and todevelop appropriate and relevant activities that assist students to achieveparticular learning outcomes. This is reflected in the teacher guide. As ateacher of biology, the ideas, teaching strategies and activities that you usemust be accompanied by clear directions for students to achieve learningoutcomes.This teacher guide provides examples of learning and teaching strategies. Italso provides detailed information on criterion-referenced assessment andthe resources needed to teach Biology. The section on recording andreporting shows you how to record students’ marks and how to reportagainst the learning outcomes.Science is the art of seeingthe atom in the universe and theuniverse in the atom1

BiologyThe outcomes approachPapua New Guinea’s Lower Secondary and Upper Secondary syllabusesuse an outcomes approach. The major change in the curriculum is the shiftto what students know and can do at the end of a learning period, ratherthan a focus on what the teacher intends to teach.An outcomes approach identifies the knowledge, skills, attitudes and valuesthat all students should achieve or demonstrate at a particular grade in aparticular subject (the learning outcomes). The teacher is responsible foridentifying and selecting essential content/context and using the mostappropriate teaching strategies and resources to facilitate students’ learningto achieve these learning outcomes.Education can be seen as the process of preparing a student for adult life.Therefore, the student is on a learning journey, heading to a destination. Thedestination is the learning outcome that is described in the syllabus. Thelearning experiences leading to the learning outcomes are to be determinedby the teacher. This means that the teacher of Biology must use curriculummaterials such as the syllabus and teacher guide, relevant textbooks orelectronic media and assessment guidelines to plan hands on activities thatwill assist students achieve the learning outcomes.The outcomes approach has two main purposes. These are to:• equip all students with knowledge, understandings, skills, attitudes andvalues needed for future success• implement diverse programs and opportunities that maximise learning.Three positive assumptions of outcomes-based learning are that:• all students can learn and succeed but at their own pace• success breeds further success• schools can make a difference by providing student friendly learningenvironments.The four principles of Papua New Guinea’s outcomes approach are:1. Clarity of focus through learning outcomesThis means that everything teachers do must be clearly focused on whatthey want students to ultimately be able to do successfully. For this tohappen, the learning outcomes should be clearly interpreted. If studentsare expected to learn something, teachers must tell them what it is andcreate appropriate opportunities for them to learn it and demonstratetheir learning. Therefore, when framing tasks use cognitive terminologysuch as ‘classify’, ‘analyse’, ‘predict’, and ‘create’.2. High expectations of all studentsThis means teachers embrace criterion-referenced approaches. Theprinciple of high expectations is about insisting that work be at a veryhigh standard before it is accepted as completed. This means studentsare given ample time and the support they need to reach this standard.Students begin to realise that they are capable of far more than beforewhen they are challenged with higher order thinking, open-endedquestions as well as being encouraged and given time to ask questionsof each other.2

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide3. Expanded opportunities to learnThis is based on the idea that not all students can learn the same thing inthe same way in the same time. Some achieve the learning outcomessooner and others later. However, most students can achieve highstandards if they are given appropriate opportunities for learning.Therefore provide expanded opportunities for all students by nurturingstudents’ natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning cyclemodel such as discovery/inquiry, concept introduction and conceptapplication.4. Planning and programming by designing downThis means that the starting point for planning, programming andassessing must be the learning outcomes-the desired end results. Alldecisions on inputs and outputs are then traced back from the learningoutcomes. The achievement of the outcome is demonstrated by theskills, knowledge and attitudes gained by the student. The syllabusstates the content and the teacher guide describes a variety of ways inwhich students can demonstrate the achievement of learning outcomes.The diagram below shows the cycle of the outcomes-based approach toteaching and learningEvaluation andfeedback1 What is it that studentsneed to know andbe able to do?Outcomes4 What is the best way to findout if the students haveachieved the outcomes?2 What are the mostappropriate strategies to usein teaching the content?Assessment3 What are appropriate learningstrategies and activities forassisting students to achievethe outcomes?ContentLearning andteaching activitiesLearning outcomes provide teachers with a much clearer focus on whatstudents should learn. They also give teachers greater flexibility to decidewhat is the most appropriate way of achieving the learning outcomes andmeeting the needs of their students by developing programs to suit localcontext and involve the community.The outcomes approach promotes greater accountability in terms of studentachievement because the learning outcomes for each grade are publicknowledge-available to teachers, students, parents and the community. It is3

Biologywhat students know and can do as they progress through each grade that isimportant and must be supported by appropriate resources and a variety oflearning strategies.The outcomes approach means that learning:• has a clearer purpose• is more interactive - between teacher and students, between students• has a greater local context than before• is more closely monitored and acted upon by the teacher• uses the teacher as a facilitator of learning as well as an imparter ofknowledge.The diagram below summarises what the reform curriculum simply means,that it is student - centred and the teacher is mainly the facilitator.Outcomes focus on studentsSTUDENTThe student issupported by theteacher to achievethe outcomes.TEACHERINPUTSThe inputs include thesubject content usuallydescribed in outcomesand such things asassessment activities,teaching strategies andunits of work found inteacher guides and textbooks.These aredescribed inthe syllabusesOUTPUTSThese are the actualproducts of learningthat are assessedOUTCOMES4

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideLearning outcomesThe Biology syllabus learning outcomes describe what students are able toknow and can do at the end of Grade 12 and beyond. The level ofachievement of the learning outcome should progressively improve duringthe two years of Upper Secondary study. At the end of Grade 12, studentshave an external examination, the summative form of assessment on theachievement of the learning outcomes. The learning outcomes for Biologyare listed below.Students can:1. demonstrate an understanding of fundamental principles and models ofbiology2. investigate and explain plant and animal physiology3. describe and explain interactions between organisms and theirenvironment4. analyse and interpret data, graphics and other forms of information5. undertake investigations using scientific methodologies to solvebiological problems6. communicate biological investigations and findings in various ways usingbiological terms and conventions7. analyse and evaluate past and present biology-related developmentsand their impacts on human beings and environment and be able tomake informed and ethical decisions8. evaluate traditional biological knowledge and practices and theirrelevance today.NoteThese learning outcomes together with the numbers are carried over to theunits they are applied. Therefore, the teachers of Biology are reminded notto change the numbers of the learning outcomes.5

BiologyLearning and teachingYou as the teacher of Biology, need to ensure that the content specified inthe syllabus is covered adequately. Before you teach what students shouldknow, you must also be able to interpret content for students in a way thatmakes it relevant to them, and enables them to begin to acquire skills ofanalysis and problem solving, which will support further learning andteaching. Doing experiments is integral to teaching Biology. By all meansgive students some opportunities to apply their knowledge, to be creativeand to solve problems using scientific investigative processes andprocedures.When we like what we are learning we are morelikely to maintain interest and move to higher orderthinking. If we dislike what we are learning, wetend to stay at minimal levels of processing.Complexity of thinking determines the level ofthought we are willing to undertake. Higher orderthinking is encouraged by selecting relevantconcepts and promoting through stimulatingquestioning and investigating.Learning and teaching strategiesThere’s now a changing emphasis in teaching of science, thus the teachingof Biology. The teacher of Biology is expected to provide opportunities tostudents to carry out laboratory activities which are more open-ended type ofinvestigations. Laboratory work is not restricted only to following instructions,and reaching pre-determined knowledge but includes identifying real lifeproblems and issues and finding solutions through the scientific method.Enabling students to do practical laboratory or field work and projects is allabout ‘I do and I understand’.Provide a variety of learning and teaching strategies for motivation and toassist all students with different learning opportunities. The auditory learnerprefers to use listening as the main way of learning new material whereas avisual learner prefers to see things written down. Students should be activelyinvolved in their learning, so you need to design appropriate practicalactivities or experiments using resources that can be found in your location.In Grades 11 and 12, students will already have had a wide variety ofexperiences. You need to make use of your students’ experiences whendesigning and conducting learning in class; learning that is connected toyour students’ world.To assist and encourage students to learn, you perform certain tasks. Theseare referred to as ‘teaching strategies’. You need to engage students directly6

Upper Secondary Teacher Guidein learning, but there are times when you have to take charge of the learningin the class and teach particular concepts or ideas.There are many learning and teaching strategies described in the LowerSecondary teacher guides. These include:• experiments, investigative processes• scientific surveys• research assignments• group activities• field work• projects• class discussions and debates• presentations: written, oral, visual• teachers discussions and lectures• hand outs and work sheets• textbook activities• unit or topic assignments• demonstrations and modelling• guest speakers• classroom displays.The most efficient and long-lasting learning takes place when the teacher ofBiology encourage the development of higher-order thinking and criticalanalysis skills, which include applying, analysing, evaluation and creating.You should also pay attention to developing students’ affective andpsychomotor skills. To make sure this occurs, encourage deep or rich, ratherthan shallow, coverage of knowledge and understandings.Developing Biology skillsTeachers of Biology must strive to provide opportunities for students tocontinue to develop scientific skills which can also be relevant to life skills.Suggested student activities are designed to address the specific contentknowledge that general science strands usually cannot offer.The broad areas covered in Biology include knowledge, skills, attitudes andvalues. The knowledge must be relevant to bring about positive changes inattitudes and values, which in turn will impact on society. The opportunitiesprovided through activities, such as laboratory experiments, field work andresearch; will lead to acquiring applicable knowledge and skills.The acquisition of this knowledge and skills should enable individuals toparticipate effectively in further Biology studies and contemporary society.What do students do in Biology?SafetyTeachers of Biology must be safety conscious at all times. It is yourresponsibility for making the laboratory a place where students can worksafely. Teachers of Biology must take this responsibility extremely seriously.7

BiologyYou must let students know of any potential dangers of laboratory work, andmust explain what safe practices are required. You must carefully monitorstudents’ practices, and take actions when students behave in an unsafemanner without causing unnecessary fear in students.The most common types of accidents in the laboratory are:• chemicals in the eye, on the body, in the mouth and inhalation• cuts• burns and scalds• fainting• allergies• electric shocks• explosions.Extra care must be taken when handling live animals and plants, both macroand micro organisms.You as a Biology teacher therefore must demonstrate:• management skills• appropriate knowledge• awareness• an appropriate attitude to safety.Safety equipment in the laboratory should include:• a well stocked first aid kit/box/cupboard• fume cupboards• a fire extinguisher• a fire bucket with sand• fire blanket• student safety glasses• disposable gloves• bottles of eye wash• separate waste bins for chemicals/biological wastes.Laboratory experiments, fieldwork, and researchLaboratory experiments, fieldwork and research are essential parts of thestudy of Biology that increase meaningful student learning. They facilitatethe understanding of scientific inquiry processes and procedures. They canenhance learning opportunities for a wide range of students catering for avariety of learning and teaching approaches.Laboratory experiments enable students to:• identify problems; predict; test hypotheses by conducting experiments,observe, record and analyse data• draw conclusions, recognise errors and make recommendations forimprovement• communicate findings based on evidence• improve manipulative skills.8

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideFieldwork enables students to:• acquire knowledge about environments through hypothesising, observing,experimenting, measuring and recording phenomena in the real world in avariety of places, including the school• explore the scientific processes that inform and transform lifestyles• use different kinds of scientific tools and approaches, includinginformation and communication technology (ICT), to assist in theinterpretation of, and decision-making about, scientific phenomena• locate, select, organise and communicate scientific information• explore different perspectives on scientific issues and discern betweensubstantiated facts and opinions.Research enables students to:• explore various media and sources of obtaining information• select relevant information and issues and make informed choices• improve research writing and communication skills• design and develop models or experiments.Developing a programA teaching program outlines the sequence of learning and teachingnecessary for students to demonstrate the achievement of the learningoutcomes. The content of the syllabus describes the knowledge and thelearning context. The relevant learning outcomes for each unit are stated atthe beginning of the unit followed by the elaborated content of the outcomes.Teachers of Biology need to develop programs that include appropriatelearning activities to enable students to acquire the knowledge and skillsidentified in the outcome statements. The illustration on page 3 gives thecycle of planning that you can follow.The content prescribed in the units is an indication of the breadth and depthwith which topics should be treated. The sequence of teaching is prescribedby the sequence of content on page 7 of the Biology syllabus. The learningoutcomes and assessment, however, must be central to the planning of theteaching program.Planning and programming unitsThe main purpose of planning and programming is to help you to arrangethe presentation of the unit in an organised manner. This will help you toknow what to teach and when to teach. You must also plan when and whattype of assessment will be given in the program. It is strongly recommendedthat you plan with the other teachers who teach the same subject. Byplanning together, you will all have better lessons and make better use ofyour limited resources.Points to consider when programming• Which particular outcomes are students working towards?9

Biology• What is the essential learning experience that will assist students todevelop their knowledge and understandings, skills, and values andattitudes in the subject?• How can the learning experiences be sequenced?• How do the learning experiences in the unit relate to students’ existingknowledge and skills?• How are individual learning needs be catered for?• How can school events and practices be incorporated into the program?• Do the assessment methods address the outcomes and enhance thelearning?• How can the assessment be part of the learning and teaching program?The planning processIn this teacher guide, ideas for learning and teaching activities and samplesof assessment tasks have been provided to help you teach the units. Youare strongly advised to begin with your yearly plan. From the yearly plan, youcan develop your plans for the Terms, week and the daily lesson plan. Toplan a unit, follow these steps.Step 1: Interpreting the learning outcomesThe first step is to read the unit description in the syllabus to set the contextand study the learning outcomes. Ask what students can do to achieve thelearning outcomes of the unit, and determine what students will know and beable to do by the end of the unit.The action verb, concept and context of each learning outcome should helpyou see what skills and knowledge are embedded in the outcome.An example below shows you how you can break up a learning outcometo help you plan your lesson.Learning outcome:Students can: describe and explain interactions between organisms andtheir environment.The learning outcome is written with the main components1. the action verb - describe and explain2. the concept - interactions3. the context - between organisms and their environment.Step 2: Programming a learning sequenceThis step requires you to develop a program outlining a sequence of topicsand the time spent on each topic. If the unit involves a project, for example,you may plan to teach some theory at appropriate stages during the project,rather than teaching all theory before students start the project.Before you develop your program, study the topics listed in the syllabus andthink about the learning activities that will best provide students with theopportunity to learn the content and practice the appropriate skills. Decidehow long the activities will take. Some major activities can last several weeksand smaller activities may be completed in a single lesson.10

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideStep 3: Planning for assessmentIt is necessary to decide early how assessment is going to be done and whattype of assessment tasks will be given for each unit. For example, in Unit 1you may plan for a test, an assignment and practical work. For the next unityou may plan a research project. Once, the overall or yearly planning isdone, you can then teach necessary content and skills.You will also need time to mark the task and provide feedback. Practicaltasks may, for example, be broken into a series of stages that are markedover several weeks as students progress with their task. It is not appropriateto leave all assessment until the end of the unit.This teacher guide provides performance standards and examples ofmarking guides. You should develop marking criteria prior to your marking ofthe tasks to ensure consistency in your assessment. It is also advisable thatyou develop clear and detailed instructions for completing the task andensure all students know exactly what they have to do.Step 4: Elaboration of activities and contentOnce you have mapped out your program for the term, you then developmore detailed plans for each topic in the unit. All units require students to beactively engaged in learning, not just copying from the board. Make sure youdevelop a range of activities that suit all learning needs-some reading andwriting, some speaking and listening, some observing and doing.This teacher guide gives some suggested learning and teaching activities foreach unit and some suggested assessment tasks, and standard rubricswhich you might like to use to ensure active learning.11

BiologyBiology requirementsThere are six units in Grade 11 and four units in Grade 12, which allstudents must complete.Biology requirementsGrade Weeks Term Unit Essential resources for activitiesand assessment11 4–5 1 Living things Plant and animal specimens, roundonions, models of plant and animalcells, microscopes, charts, posters11 8–10 1–2 Nutrition Food test solutions, food samples,human torso, dissection kit, stains anddyes, charts and posters, microscope,alcohol, model of leaf structure, mediaarticles11 6–8 2 Transport systems Eosin dye, microscope, slides, tadpoles,mammalian heart, human torso, foodcolouring, pok choy11 4–6 2–3 Respiration and GasExchangeModels of organisms, mammalianlungs, fish gills, model of leaf structure11 6–8 3–4 Response to Stimuli Hormones (auxin, florigen, rootagen),live plant specimens, human torso,charts and posters11 6–8 4 Reproduction Charts, posters, a small mammal,models, HCl, flower, cuttings of plants,seeds.Hospital data, internet, library books12 8–10 1 Ecology Soil testing kit, water quality testing kit,soil samples, visking tubing (dialysistubing), posters, flow charts12 4–6 2 Population Quadrats, animal and plants populationspecies12 8–10 2–3 Genetics Models, charts, plant tissues (carrots orothers)12 6–8 3–4 Evolution Fossils, styrofoam, cardboard,modelling clay, paint, wire, glue,plasticene12

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideAssessing BiologyAssessment measures students’ achievement of the learning outcomesdescribed in the syllabus. Assessment is an integral part of learning andteaching. It is used to:• evaluate and improve learning and teaching• report achievement• provide feedback to students on their progress• provide feedback to stakeholders.Criterion-referenced assessmentAssessment in Biology is criterion-referenced. In criterion-referencedassessment, particular knowledge, skills or abilities are specified as criteriawhich must be achieved.Criterion-referenced assessment often takes on a problem-centredorientation, rather than a knowledge-based orientation. Assessment is morethan just a means of judging knowledge and performance-it becomes anintegral part of the learning process itself. Criterion-referenced assessmentis:• standards or criterion-referenced; outcomes are judged against predefinedstandards (see table below)• direct and authentic, related directly to the learning situation. This has thepotential for motivating learning, since students can see a directrelevance between what is learnt and what is assessed.Norm-referenced assessment‘Norm-referenced’ assessment makes judgments on how well the studentdid in relation to others who took the test. It is often used in conjunction witha curve of ‘normal distribution’, which assumes that a few will doexceptionally well and a few will do badly and the majority will peak in themiddle, normally judged as average.Example of a criterion-referenced testThe driving test is the classic example of a criterion-referenced test. Theexaminer has a list of criteria, each of which must be satisfactorilydemonstrated in order to pass; for example, completing a three-point turnwithout hitting either kerb. The important thing is that failure in one criterioncannot be compensated for by above-average performance in others; norcan a student fail in spite of meeting every criterion (as they can in normreferencedassessment) simply because everybody else that day surpassedthe criteria and was better than him or her.Criterion-referenced assessment has the following characteristics:• a syllabus that describes what students are expected to learn in terms ofaims, outcomes and content13

Biology• a syllabus that provides a clear sense of the syllabus standards throughits aims, outcomes and content• tasks designed to produce an image of what students have achieved atthat point in the learning and teaching process relative to the outcomes• standards of performance at different levels: the ‘performance standards’• a report that gives marks referenced to predetermined standards• assessment tasks that refer to syllabus outcomes, content, assessmentcomponents and component weightings• external exams that are based on syllabus outcomes and content.External markers use standards-referenced marking guidelinesdeveloped by the Biology examination committee• assessment that is better integrated with learning and teaching.See pages 47 and 48 for the learning outcomes performance standardswhich are criterion referenced and must be used for assessment purposes.Assessment for learningAssessment for learning is often called ‘formative assessment’. It isassessment that gathers data and evidence about student learning duringthe learning process. It enables you to see where students are havingproblems and to give immediate feedback, which will help your studentslearn better. It also helps you plan your program to make student learning,and your teaching, more effective. Often it is informal⎯students can marktheir own work or their friend’s. An example is a quick class quiz to see ifstudents remember the important points of the previous lesson.Assessment of learningAssessment of learning is often called ‘summative assessment’. It is used toobtain evidence and data that shows how much learning has occurred,usually at the end of the term or unit. End of year examinations areexamples of summative assessment. It is usually done for formal recordingand reporting purposes.Assessing Biology unitsIn Biology the learning outcomes are assessed using the range ofassessment methods specified in the syllabus. In deciding what to assess,the first point to start is: ‘what do you want to students to do and/or learn?’and, following from this: ‘how will the students engage with the material?’.which leads to the design and development of learning tasks and activities. Itis crucial that at this point the assessment tasks clearly link back to thelearning outcomes and are appropriate for the learning activities. Theassessment can be used for formative and summative purposes.Assessment can be represented as follows:14

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideThe assessment processWhat do you wantstudents to learn?LearningoutcomesHow will you, or they,know the learning andteaching interactionhas been effective?AssessmentactivitiesLearningactivitiesHow will studentsachieve this?Once it is clear what needs to be assessed and why, then the form theassessment will take needs to be determined. There are many types ofassessment tasks that can be implemented; the factors that will determinechoices include:• the number of students - how many are there, what is expected of them,how long will the assessment task take?• the learning outcomes of the subject and how they might be bestachievedDuring the year you must set assessment tasks, which ensure that all thelearning outcomes of the subject have been assessed internally. Each taskyou set must include assessment criteria that provide clear guidelines tostudents as to how, and to what extent, the achievement of the learningoutcomes may be demonstrated.Marking guides and assessment criteria help you with the marking processand ensure that your assessment is consistent across classes. It is importantthat marking guides and assessment criteria are collectively developed.Students must complete the assessment tasks set. Each task must provideclear guidelines to students for how the task will be completed and how thecriteria will be applied.When you set a task make sure that:• the requirements of the task are made as clear as possible to the student• the assessment criteria and performance standards or marking guidesare provided to the student so that they know what it is that they have todo• any sources or stimulus material used are clear and appropriate to thetask• instructions are clear and concise• the language level is appropriate for the grade• it does not contain gender, cultural or any other bias• materials and equipment needed are available to students• adequate time is allowed for completion of the task.15

BiologyAssessment methodsAlthough assessment methods and weightings are stipulated in the syllabus,you decide which assessment method to use when assessing the learningoutcomes. You should use a variety of assessment methods to suit thepurpose of the assessment.Assessment can be classified into four categories:• tests• product or project assessments – including group projects• performance assessments – individual practical skills assessment• process skills assessments.Because each has limitations, maintaining a balance of assessmentmethods is very important.TestsA ‘test’ is a formal and structured assessment of student achievement andprogress which the teacher administers to the class.Tests are an important aspect of the learning and teaching process if theyare integrated into the regular class routine and not treated merely as asummative strategy. They allow students to monitor their progress andprovide valuable information for you in planning further learning and teachingactivities.Tests will assist student learning if they are clearly linked to the outcomes.Evidence has shown that several short tests are more effective for studentprogress than one long test. It is extremely important that tests are markedand that students are given feedback on their performance.There are many different types of tests. Tests should be designed to find outwhat students know and about the development of thinking processes andskills. Open questions provide more detailed information about achievementthan a question to which there is only one answer.Principles of designing classroom testsTests allow a wide variety of ways for students to demonstrate what theyknow and can do. Therefore:• students need to understand the purpose and value of the test• the test must assess intended outcomes• test must only assess what has been taught• clear directions must be given for each section of the test• the questions should vary from simple to complex• marks should be awarded for each section• the question types (true or false, fill-in-the-blank, multiple-choice,extended response, short answer, matching) should be varied andsupported by reasons.Tests should:• be easy to read (and have space between questions to facilitate readingand writing)• reflect an appropriate reading level16

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide• involve a variety of tasks• make allowance for students with special needs• give students some choice in the questions they select• vary the levels of questions to include gathering, processing and applyinginformation• provide sufficient time for all students to finish.Product or project assessmentsA ‘project’ can be an assessment task given to an individual student or agroup of students on a topic related to the subject. The project results in a‘product’ that is assessed. The project may involve both in-class and out-ofclassresearch and development. The project should be primarily a learningexperience, not solely an assessment task.Because a great deal of time and effort goes into producing a quality productfrom a project assignment task, you should allow class time to work on theproject.A product or project:• allows the students to formulate their own questions and then try to findanswers to them• provides students with opportunities to use their multiple intelligences tocreate a product• allows teachers to assign projects at different levels of difficulty to accountfor individual learning styles and ability levels• can be motivating to students• provides an opportunity for positive interaction and collaboration amongpeers• provides an alternative for students who have problems reading andwriting• increases the self-esteem of students who would not get recognition ontests or traditional writing assignments• allows for students to share their learning and accomplishments withother students, classes, parents, or community members• can achieve essential learning outcomes through application and transfer.AssignmentsAn ‘assignment’ is an unsupervised piece of work that often combinesformative and summative assessment tasks. Assignments form a majorcomponent of continuous assessment in which more than one assessmentitem is completed within the term. Any of the methods of assessment can beset as assignments, although restrictions in format, such as word limits anddue dates, are often put on the assessment task to increase theirpracticality.InvestigationsAn ‘investigation’ involves students in a study of an issue or a problem.Teachers of Biology may guide students through their study of the issue; orindividual students, or groups of students, may choose and develop an issuein negotiation with the teacher. The emphasis in this assessment component17

Biologyis on the student’s investigation of the issue in its context by researching,identifying the issues or problems, collecting, analysing and commenting onsecondary data and information. Students should be encouraged to considerand explore a variety of perspectives as they develop and state their positionon the issue. Students may present the final investigation for assessment ina variety of forms, including one or a combination of the following: a writtenscientific report, an oral presentation, a website, linked documents,multimedia, a video or audio recording.Criteria for judging performanceThe student’s performance in the investigation will be judged by the extent towhich the student:• identifies and describes the issue or problem• states a hypothesis• describes and explains the causes and effects• records and appropriately processes data• critically analyses processed information and outlines possible stepsleading to a solution or recommendation• acknowledges errors and suggests alternatives.PortfoliosA ‘portfolio’ provides evidence for judgements of student achievement in arange of contexts. A portfolio contains a specific collection of student work orevidence. This collection of work should provide a fair, valid and informativepicture of the student’s accomplishments.Computer-based tasksUsing computers to administer student assessment can provide flexibility inthe time, location or even the questions being answered of students. Themost common type of computer-based assessment is based on multiplechoicequestions, which can assist teachers to manage large volumes ofmarking and feedback.Process skills assessmentsThis method of assessment component involves assessing students’understanding of concepts based on the practical skills that can be used, theevaluation of work done, and/or the reporting of information. These skillsinclude, for example:• interpretation skills• evaluation skills• reflection skills• communication skills (for example, writing, speaking, and listening).Types of assessment tasksUsing different assessment tasks is the way to make sure that students areable to demonstrate the range of their abilities in different contexts. Eachcategory has advantages in assessing different learning outcomes. For18

Upper Secondary Teacher Guideexample, a selected response assessment task, such as a series of multiplechoicequestions, is able to assess all areas of mastery of knowledge butonly some kinds of reasoning.Assessment ideas for individual students or groupsTests Products or projects Performances Process skillsMultiple-choiceMatchingShort answerExtendedanswerTrue or falsesupported withreasonsAssignmentsCase studiesDisplaysDiagramsExperiment resultsGraphs, charts, diagramsJournals of investigationsLab reportsFunctioning ModelsPhotographsPortfoliosCooperative learninggroup activitiesDemonstrationsExperimentsField tripsInteractive reviewsLaboratoryexperiencesPractical activitiesPresentationsSurveysInterviewsInvestigationsObservationsProcess foliosResponses to readingSafety procedures andprocessesPostersProduct descriptionsProjectsQuestionnairesResearch papersResults of surveysTimelinesFeedbackWhen you assess the task, remember that feedback will help the studentunderstand why he or she received the result and how to do better next time.Feedback should be:• constructive, so that students feel encouraged and motivated to improve• timely, so that students can use it for subsequent learning• prompt, so that students can remember what they did and thought at thetime• focused on achievement, not effort. Assess the work, not the student• specific to the unit learning outcomes, so that assessment is clearly linkedto learning.Types of feedbackFeedback can be:• informal or indirect: such as verbal feedback in the classroom to thewhole class, or person to person• formal or direct: in writing, such as checklists or written commentary toindividual student either in written or verbal form• formative: given during the topic with the purpose of helping the studentknow how to improve19

Biology• summative: given at the end of the topic with the purpose of letting thestudents know what they have achieved.Who assesses?Teacher assessmentAssessment is a continuous process. You should:• always ask questions that are relevant to the outcomes and content• use frequent formative tests or quizzes• check understanding of the previous lesson at the beginning of the nextlesson, through questions or a short quiz• constantly mark or check the students’ written exercises, class tests,homework activities and so on• use appropriate assessment methods to assess the tasks.Frequency of assessmentYou should schedule specific assessment tasks to fit in with teaching of thecontent of each unit that is being assessed. Some assessment tasks mightbe programmed to be undertaken early in the unit, others at the end of theunit. You should take care not to overload classes with assessment tasks atthe end of the term.Judging student performanceStudent achievement is recorded and reported against standards. You mustuse performance standards or marking guides—examples of which areprovided in this teacher guide—when making a decision about theachievement of your students in relation to the learning outcomes. Theperformance standards describe the level at which the student has to beworking to achieve a particular standard or mark.Students should always have access to a copy of the assessment criteriaand the performance standards so that they know what it is they have toknow and be able to do to get a good mark in a particular task. Theperformance standards will help you in your marking and will help yourstudents improve their performance in the future. They are useful whenproviding feedback to students as they explain what the student needs to doto improve.ModerationTo make sure that you are interpreting the performance standards correctlywhen assessing your students, it is important to undertake Biologymoderation of student work within your school and with teachers of nearbyschools.To moderate student work, a common assessment task must be used and amarking scheme developed so that all students complete the same taskunder the same conditions, and all teachers use the same marking scheme.Teachers can then compare (moderate) the students’ work and come to a20

Upper Secondary Teacher Guidecommon understanding of the performance standards and the requirementsfor a particular mark or level of achievement.Moderation enables you to be sure that your understanding of the requiredstandards for levels of achievement is similar to the understanding of otherteachers and that you are assessing students at the appropriate level.Self-assessment and peer assessmentSelf-assessment and peer assessment help students to understand moreabout how to learn. Students should be provided with opportunities toassess their own learning (self-assessment) and the learning of others (peerassessment) according to set criteria.Self-assessment and peer assessment:• continue the learning cycle by making assessment part of learning• show students their strengths and areas where they need to improve• engage students actively in the assessment process• enable students to be responsible for the learning• help to build self-esteem though a realistic view of their abilities• help students understand the assessment criteria and performancestandards.Managing assessment tasks for BiologyUsually, the marking of assessment tasks is done by the teacher.To reduce the amount of work it is necessary to develop a strategicapproach to assessment and develop efficiencies in marking.In Biology there are a number of assessment tasks that may be new toteachers and students. Below are suggestions on how to manage some ofthese tasks to minimise marking or presentation time.Develop efficiency in markingClarify assessment criteria:Plan the assessment task carefully, and ensure that all students areinformed of the criteria before they begin. Discuss the task and its criteria inclass, giving examples of what is required. Distribute a written copy of theinstructions and the criteria, or put them on the board. Making theassessment criteria explicit speeds marking and simplifies feedback.Supply guidelines on what is required for the taskThis reduces the time wasted evaluating student work that is irrelevant.Use attachment sheets such as marking guidesAn assignment attachment sheet, which is returned with the assessed work,rates aspects of the task with a brief comment. Such a system enables eachstudent’s work to be marked systematically and quickly. This strategy can beapplied to posters, presentations and performances.21

BiologyAssess in classUse class time to carry out and to assess tasks. Presentations or projects,marked by you or the students, enable instant developmental evaluation andfeedback. Brief assessments of projects, stages of the design process, orpractical work take less time to mark and are useful because they giveimmediate feedback to students on their progress and allow you to mark theproject in stages with minimum effort.Feedback to the whole classFeedback to the whole class can cut down on the amount of individualfeedback required. On returning assessed work, emphasise the criteria forjudging the work, discuss the characteristics of good and bad answers, andhighlight common strengths and weaknesses.Set group-work alternativesAssess one presentation per group. The student’s mark is the group mark,but may include a component based on the individual’s contribution. Astrategy for allocating an individual mark includes each member of the groupusing criteria to evaluate the relative contributions of individuals, with themarks averaged for the individual.Set clear deadlinesSet aside a time for marking. Be careful about extending this period (byallowing students to hand in work late).Shift the responsibilityIntroduce self-assessment and peer assessmentDevelop in students the skills to evaluate their own work and that of theirpeers. With the students, use the assessment criteria against which work isjudged, highlighting strengths and weaknesses. Self-assessment increasesthe amount of feedback students get. It can supplement or replace teacherassessment.Treat each task differentlyEvery piece of work need not be evaluated to the same degree; a mark neednot be the outcome in every case; and not every piece of student workneeds to contribute to the final grade. Assessment is designed to enhancethe learning and teaching experience for the teacher and the learner, not justto give marks.22

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideSample assessment tasksAll assessment tasks must test whether or not the student has achieved theoutcome or outcomes. Each task must have clear and detailed instructions.Students must know exactly what they have to do.You should develop marking guides when you are marking tasks to ensureconsistency of your assessment.The following are examples of assessment tasks and a marking guide.Grade 11Sample task: Research report• Students research a biology topic and present a report.Learning outcomes(select appropriate learning outcomes for the specified task)Students can:1. demonstrate understanding of fundamental principles and models ofbiology2. investigate and explain plant and animal physiology3. describe and explain interactions between organisms and theirenvironment4. analyse and interpret data, graphics and other forms of information5. undertake investigations using scientific methodologies to solvebiological problems6. communicate biological investigations and findings in various ways usingbiological terms and conventions7. analyse and evaluate past and present biology-related developmentsand their impacts on human beings and environment and be able tomake informed and ethical decisions8. evaluate traditional biological knowledge and practices and theirrelevance today.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• demonstrate an understanding of the topic being investigated• research and collate information• analyse and evaluate information collected• tabulate, compute and record information using charts, graphs andillustrations• communicate the findings using appropriate scientific terminology throughwritten and oral presentations.23

BiologyGrade 12Sample task: Field trip and report• Students undertake a field trip and present a scientific report.Learning outcomes(select appropriate learning outcomes for the specified field trip)Students can:1. demonstrate understanding of fundamental principles and models ofbiology2. investigate and explain plant and animal physiology3. describe and explain interactions between organisms and theirenvironment4. analyse and interpret data, graphics and other forms of information5. undertake investigations using scientific methodologies to solvebiological problems6. communicate biological investigations and findings in various ways usingbiological terms and conventions7. analyse and evaluate past and present biology-related developmentsand their impacts on human beings and environment and be able tomake informed and ethical decisions8. evaluate traditional biological knowledge and practices and theirrelevance today.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• collect and organise information• identify and describe biotic and abiotic factors of area visited• analyse the findings and make presentations• make inferences on human impact of the site.Marking guidesMarking guides like the one on page 30 can be used to assess the tasks youset.24

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideLearning activities and assessment tasksExamples of learning activities and assessment tasks for each of the Biologyunits are provided in the following sections. Some examples are explained indetail.Grade 11 units11.1 Living ThingsThis is an introductory unit and the maximum time requirement is 4–5 weeks.It is recommended that this unit be taught first.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to support students to learn the content ofthis unit. Some are identified and elaborated below.• review characteristics (feed, grow, excrete, sensitivity, reproduce, respire,move, made of cells) and survival needs (food, water, shelter) of livingthings• review parts of compound microscopes and prepare wet mounts• observe cell structures and identify organelles (mitochondria, nucleus,endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, golgi body, vacuole, cell membrane,nuclear membrane, cell wall, chloroplast, nucleolus)• research, identify and state functions of different types of cells such asnerve, muscle, skin, brain, reproductive, blood• carry out experiments to observe plant and animal cells usingmicroscopes and make comparisons• research traditional biological classification systems and compare withLinnean classification system• classify unknown organisms into categories (kingdom, phylum, class,order, family, genus, species) using simple dichotomous keysElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityCharacteristics andsurvival needs ofliving thingsExperiments usingmicroscopes toobserve plant andanimal cellsElaborationQuestions like these could be asked to help students reviewcharacteristics and survival needs of living things:• What is Biology?• How do you differentiate between living and non-living things?• What do living things need in order to survive?• Allocate materials to students in groups• Students prepare wet mounts of onion and cheek cells• Make observations: identify cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm,and vacuole. Sketch diagrams and discuss differences25

BiologyUse dichotomouskeys to classifyunknown organismsDivide students into groups. Allocate 3–4 unnamed pictures orspecimens of organisms. Use simple dichotomous keys developedby teacher to identify kingdom, phylum and class. Students can alsoresearch order, family, genus and species for each organismSuggested assessment taskAn experiment on preparing wet mounts of cheek and onion cells andobserve under the microscope.20 marksAssessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• prepare wet mounts (cheek and onion cells)• manipulate the microscope• calculate magnifications and size of specimens• observe and present• produce a written laboratory report (introduction, aim, material, method,result, discussion and conclusion).Marking guide11.1: Undertake experiment on wet mounts and present laboratoryreport20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)HighAchievement(14–17marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13 marks)Low Achievement(0–9 marks)Appropriate title(2 marks)Suitable aim(2 marks)Correctly andclearly state therequired title (2)Aims clearly andcorrectly written(2)Clearly state the title (1-2) Inappropriate title (0-1)Aims clearly stated (1-2) Irrelevant aims (0-1)Logicalprocedures(6 marks)Correctproceduresfollowed andequipment used(6)Proceduresfollowed andappropriateequipment used(4-6)Procedures andthe use ofequipmentreasonablyfollowed (1-4)Inconsistentprocedures and useof equipment (0-1)Detailedanalysis andexplanation(6 marks)Scientific analysiswith detailedexplanation andlogicalpresentation (6)Good analysisand explanation(5)Fair analysis andexplanation(3-4)Poor analysis withminimum explanation(0-2)Appropriateconclusion(4 marks)Scientific andreliable conclusion(4)Reliable and wellwrittenconclusion (3)Conclusionappropriate (2)InappropriateconclusionLacks scientificunderstanding (0-1)26

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide11.2 NutritionThe maximum time requirement for teaching this unit is 8–10 weeks.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to support students to learn the content ofthis unit. Some are identified and elaborated below.• investigate leaf adaptations for photosynthesis• observe leaf structure under a microscope to identify the epidermis,palisade and spongy mesophyll and describe their functions• carry out experiments to test for photosynthesis• carry out experiments on food tests (starch, glucose, protein, fat)• research chemical compositions of various foods i.e. fats, carbohydrates,proteins• dissect a small mammal and identify the digestive system• research functions of liver and kidneys and their related diseasesElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityCarry out experimentsto test forphotosynthesisDissect small mammaland identify digestivesystemElaborationIdentify and isolate leaves from selected plants. Follow instructionsto carry out the experiments:• observe and record the results• analyse and discuss results• discuss conclusions and recommendationsStudents can work in groups. Each group bring its own animal• students prepare dissecting board and prepare specimen• Students are guided by teacher to carry out dissection of animal• make observations of digestive system and identify the stomach,oesophagus, small and large intestines (caecum), pancreas, gallbladder, liver, kidney• do sketches and presentations of resultsSuggested assessment taskResearch on functions of liver and kidneys and their related diseases.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• research and collect information about the functions and diseases of theliver and kidney from library, internet, journals, hospitals, newspapers andso on• collate and organise information• present information on posters or written reports.27

BiologyMarking guide11.2: Carry out research on functions of liver and kidneys and their related diseases20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)High Achievement(14–17 marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13 marks)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Title (2 marks) Clearly stated (2) Title stated (1-2) Inappropriate title(0-1)Introduction(3 marks)Clearly outline reasonsfor this research (3)Good reasons for this study outlined (2)Few reasonsstated or none(0-2)Content(10 marks)Detailed descriptions andillustrations of functionsand diseases of kidneyand liver (9-10)Descriptions and someillustrations of functionsand diseases of kidneysand livers (6-8)Fair descriptions offunctions anddiseases of kidneysand liver (4-5)Inadequatedescriptions offunctions anddiseases ofkidneys and liver(0-4)Level ofpresentation(5 marks)Neat presentationContent and cover pageprovidedNeat legible writing (5)Neat and presentableReadable writingContent and cover pageprovided (3-4)Neatly presented(2-3)Presentation lacksneatness (0-3)28

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide11.3 Transport SystemsThis unit will take 6–8 weeks. It is recommended that this unit be taught asoutlined.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to support students to learn the content ofthis unit. Some are identified and elaborated below.• carry out experiments on movement of water through the stem of plants(pak choi, celery or similar plants), using eosin dye• research and describe structures and functions of the vascular bundle(xylem and phloem vessels)• carry out simple experiments on osmosis, diffusion and transpiration• observe and record the effects of osmosis on cells using visking ordialysis tubing• observe blood circulation in the transparent tail of a tadpole• measure pulses to compute average heart rate• dissect an animal heart (such as lamb) and observe different chambers,vessels, valves and so on• research the structure and function of the lymphatic system• research the diseases of the heart and problems related to the circulatorysystemElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityObserve bloodcirculation in thetransparent tail of atadpoleMeasure pulses tocompute average heartrateElaborationStudents collect materials in group and set up experiment• Mount specimen on slide and observe under the microscope• Make careful observations on flow of blood in the tadpole’s tail and drawillustrations showing direction of blood flow• Discuss movement of blood in tadpoles and its relationship to othercirculatory systemsExplain what pulses are and demonstrate how a pulse is takenHave students grouped in pairs. Students then take turns to measure theirpulses at intervals after doing variety of activities.• Record the pulse readings and calculate average heart rate of each student• Discuss the importance of heart rates and the implications of circulatorydiseases on theseSuggested assessment taskDesign and carry out experiments on movement of water through the stemsof plants.29

BiologyAssessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:1. design and set-up experiment2. carry out experiment and make accurate observations3. record the results and write up laboratory report (lab report shouldinclude title, aim, materials, procedures followed, results, discussion andconclusion).Marking guide11.3: Design and carry out experiments on movement of water through the stem of aplant20 marksPerformanceCriteriaCorrect use ofequipment andmaterials (3 marks)Very HighAchievement(18–20 marks)Equipment andmaterials correctly used(3)High Achievement(14–17 marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13 marks)Appropriate use of equipment and materials (1–2)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Inaccurate use ofequipment andmaterials (0–1)Correct setting upof experiment(3 marks)Experiment correctlyand accurately set up(3)Experiment correctlyset up (2–3)Experiment fairly setup (1-2)Experimentsunsatisfactorilyset up (0-1)Appropriate title forwrite up (3 marks)Title very clearly stated(3)Title clearly stated (2–3) Title stated (1–2) Title not stated orpoor (0–1)Procedures andmaterials (4 marks)Correctly describedprocedures andmaterials used (4)Described proceduresand materials used (2–3)Adequate descriptionof procedures andmaterials (1–2)Inadequatedescription (0–2)Results anddiscussions(5 marks)Excellent interpretationof results anddiscussion (5)Good interpretation ofresults and discussions(3–4)Adequateinterpretation (2–3)Poorinterpretation (0–2)Conclusion(3 marks)Accurate conclusionsmade (3)Good conclusions made(2–3)Reasonableconclusions(1–2)Unsatisfactoryconclusions (0–1)30

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide11.4 Respiration and Exchange of GasesThis is an 8-10 weeks unit. It is to be taught as recommended.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to support students to learn the content ofthis unit. Some are identified and elaborated below.• demonstrate the processes of diffusion and osmosis through experiments• use different-sized cubes as models of organisms to demonstrate how thesurface area to volume ratio affects the rate of diffusion• observe organs of gas exchange in amoeba, earthworm, grasshopper, afish, mammal and a green leaf• describe characteristics of palisade cells in a green leaf• observe the surface of a smeared leaf to estimate number of stomata onthe upper and lower epidermis• make a simple computation of the number of stomata for a field of view• describe overall equation for respiration (word and symbol)• research the function of mitochondria in respiration• investigate respiration in green plants by comparing and contrastingrespiration with photosynthesis• summarise gas exchange in a leaf over a 24-hour period and explainenergy changes involved in respiration and photosynthesisElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityMeasure surface area tovolume ratio using modelsCarry out experiments toestimate number of stomataon a leaf of selected pantspeciesElaborationStudents are provided with a selected range of different sizedcubes (1cm, 2cm, 4cm, 6cm,10cm)• calculate the total surface areas and volumes of each cube• compare and discuss resultsIdentify leaf from plant species• state hypothesis and aim• follow procedures and observe stomata using microscope• estimate number of stomata on upper and lower epidermis• presentation of experimental resultsSuggested assessment task• Laboratory activities to demonstrate how the surface area to volume ratioaffects the rate of diffusion using cubes as models of organisms.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:31

Biology• use appropriate materials and equipment• carry out experiment with confidence• write up a laboratory report showing− title− aim or hypothesis− procedures− results or discussion− conclusion− presentation.Marking guide11.4: Conduct laboratory activities to demonstrate how the surface area tovolume ratio affects the rate of diffusion20marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)HighAchievement(14–17 marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13 marks)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Appropriate titleand aims (2 marks)Correctly andclearly state therequired title andaims (2)Clearly state titleand aims (2–3)Title and aimsstated (1–2)Inappropriate titleand aims (0–1)Logic steps andprocedures(5 marks)In sequence, stateand follow therequired steps andcorrect use ofequipment (5)Follow the stepscorrectly and useappropriateequipment (3–5)Steps andprocedures withuse of equipmentreasonably followed(2–3)Steps andprocedures withuse of equipmentinconsistentlyfollowed (0–2)Logic steps andprocedures(5 marks)In sequence, stateand follow therequired steps andcorrect use ofequipment (5)Follow the stepscorrectly and useappropriateequipment (3–5)Steps andprocedures withuse of equipmentreasonably followed(2–3)Steps andprocedures withuse of equipmentinconsistentlyfollowed (0–2)Detailed analysisand explanation(5 marks)Scientific analysiswith detailedexplanation andlogical presentation(5)Sound analysis andexplanation (3–5)Fair analysis andexplanation (1–2)Poor analysis withminimumexplanation (0–2)Appropriateconclusion(3 marks)Scientific andreliable conclusionto approve ordisprove thehypothesis (5)Reliable and wellwrittenconclusion(3–5)Conclusionappropriate (1–2)InappropriateconclusionLacks scienceunderstanding (0–1)32

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide11.5 Response to StimuliThis unit is to be taught for 6–8 weeks.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to support students to learn the content ofthis unit. Some are identified and elaborated below.• conduct experiments to investigate responses of plants to light, gravityand water stimuli in the environment• set up controlled experiments to investigate the effect of:− thyroxin on the metamorphosis of tadpoles− gibberelic acid on the growth of dwarf plants• conduct simple experiments to show that stimuli are received byreceptors and that responses are made by effectors• research the composition and function of nervous systems• demonstrate through simple exercises voluntary and involuntary reflexes• research the composition and function of the endocrine system• compare the differences between the nervous and endocrine systemsElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityCarry out experiments toinvestigate tropism inplantsResearch the compositionand function of nervoussystemElaborationStudents are provided with various materials and equipment. Carry outexperiments to investigate plant responses to light, gravity and water• record and analyse the results• compare and discuss resultsStudents use the library, internet, magazines and journals to• research composition and function of the nervous system• collate and compile the findings• write up and present the findingsSuggested assessment taskResearch on the composition and function of the endocrine system.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• research the components of the endocrine system and their functions• compile and collate the findings• present the findings:− topic, introduction, content or discussions, conclusion33

BiologyMarking guide11.5: Research the composition and function of the endocrinesystem20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20marks)HighAchievement(14–17marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13marks)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Appropriate topic(2 marks)Topic clearlystated (2)Topic stated (1–2)Inappropriatetopic (0–1)Suitable introduction(3 marks)Very clearintroduction (3)Clearintroduction(2–3)Introductionstated (1–2)Irrelevantintroduction(0–1)Detailed discussion orillustration ofcomponents of theendocrine system(5 marks)Detaileddiscussion andillustration ofcomponents (5)Appropriatediscussion ofcomponents(4–5)Somediscussion ofcomponents(2–3)Very littlemention ordiscussion ofcomponents(0–2)Detailed discussion orillustration of functionsof the endocrinesystem (5 marks)Detaileddiscussion andillustration ofthe functions (5)Appropriatediscussion of thefunctions (4–5)Somediscussion ofthe functions(2–3)Very littlemention ordiscussion offunctions (0–2)Appropriate conclusionand recommendations(3 marks)Very clearconclusion (3)Clear conclusion(2–3)Conclusionmade(1–2)Inappropriateconclusion (0–1)Presentation neat;clearly written(2 marks)Very neat andclearpresentation (2)Clearpresentaion(1–2)Fairpresentationmade (1)Untidypresentation(0)11.6 ReproductionThis unit is to be taught between six 6–8 weeks.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to support students to learn the content ofthis unit. Some are identified and elaborated below. These can be adaptedand refined to suit different learning needs.• review main differences between asexual and sexual reproduction inplants and animals• investigate reproductive system of a flowering plant through flowerdissection• research and present findings on the reproductive systems of variousanimals and relate structures with functions of each system• distinguish between primary and secondary sexual characteristics inhumans• identify and describe the site of production and functions of reproductivehormones⎯follicle stimulating hormones (FSH), luteinising34

Upper Secondary Teacher Guidehormones(LH), testosterone, oestrogen, progesterone⎯during thedevelopment and functioning of human reproductive system• research and give a brief account of pregnancy and stages of embryonicdevelopment until birth in humans• interpret diagrams and graphs of hormonal control of human femalemenstrual cycle and recognise any difference should pregnancy occur• compare and contrast causes, symptoms, transmission and prevention ofsexually transmitted infections (STIs)Elaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityDissection of flowersto identify male andfemale reproductivesystemExamine root tips forevidence of celldivision (mitosis)ElaborationEach group selects a flower from selected plant species• students use scalpels to dissect flower and identify stamen, pistil, carpels• draw and illustrate separate parts into notebook• discuss findings through group presentationsRemove root tips and place on watch glass with IM HCl acid• put the content of the watch glass into a water bath at 60°C for 2minutes• select tips with forceps, trim using scalpels onto a clean slide and stainwith aceto-orcein (or any relevant stain)• with a glass rod, tap the root until it breaks into small pieces• apply cover slip• place slide on bench and with gentle, even pressure on cover slip,squash with thumbSuggested assessment taskResearch and present statistical data on STIs and HIV and AIDS and itseffect on child maternal health.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• research by using library, internet and hospital records on STIs and HIVAIDS• collect, analyse and organise information and data on sexuallytransmitted infections and its effect on child maternal health• write up and present research report: including tables, graphical data,charts, illustrations.35

BiologyMarking guide11.6: Research and present statistical data on STIs and HIV AIDS andits effect on child maternal health.20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)HighAchievement(14–17 marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13 marks)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Title(2 marks)Clearly stated(2)Title stated(1–2)Title stated(1–2)Inappropriatetitle (0−1)Introduction(3 marks)Clear and detailintroduction (3)Clear introduction(2–3)Adequateintroduction(1–2)Inadequateintroduction(0–1)Contentinformation anddocumentation(7 marks)Contains very clearand detaileddiscussions(6-7)Contains cleardiscussions(4–5)Sounddiscusssions(2–3)Inadequatediscussions(0–1)Organisation(5 marks)Very neatlyorganised(5)Neatly organised(3–4)Neat(1–2)Unorganised(0–1)Presentation(3 marks)Very neat, legiblewith cover(5)Neat and legible(3–4)Neatly presented(1–2)Presentationlacks neatness(0–1)36

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideGrade 12 topics12.1 EcologyThis unit is to be taught between six 8–10 weeks.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to ensure students learn the expectedcontent knowledge of this unit, such as:• explore through research the various types of biomes of the world and thebiotic and abiotic factors that influence life: tundra, desert, rainforest,wetlands, grasslands• investigate soil composition, water retention and drainage, pH andporosity of a range of soil types• observe and investigate aquatic or terrestrial environments in the schoolarea, such as pond, freshwater or seawater, mangrove, wildlife park,forested area, grassland• investigate plant and animal adaptations in each of the major biomes• visit old gardens, forested areas, mangrove or any habitat types toobserve feeding relationships• take an excursion to a logged, mined or destroyed area to identifydamage caused and its impacts on the environment• research a traditional environmental management practice and makecomparisons with the current practices• listen to a guest speaker from the Department of Environment andConservation on sustainable resource management practices in forestry,fisheries or other resource development activitiesElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityExplore throughresearch various biomesof the world and thebiotic and abiotic factorsthat influence lifeVisit old gardens,forested areas,mangroves or anyhabitat types to observefeeding relationshipsElaborationThrough questioning, have students state the major biomes of the world. Thenallocate each group one biome type and have them research the following:• geographical distribution of this biome• biotic factors• abiotic factors• common plants and animals found in this biome• how organisms are adapted to surviving in this biomeStudents then collate and compile all information collectedEach group present their findings in a report formatDivide students into their respective groups. Have students visit an old garden siteor any other habitat type common in the area• each group should be instructed to identify different plants and animals found inthe area and construct a food web showing the feeding relationships in this site• groups present their food web and discuss in class37

BiologySuggested assessment taskUndertake an excursion to a logged, mined or destroyed area to identifydamage caused and its impacts on the environment.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• make observations• complete questionnaires• record observations• write a report that shows: title; introduction; body (description of location,discussion of damage and its impact on plants and animals in the area);conclusion (conclusion of findings, recommendations for improvement).Marking guide12.1: Undertake excursion to a logged, mined or destroyed area to identifydamage caused and its impacts on the environment20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)High Achievement(14–17 marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13marks)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Appropriate topic(2 marks)Topic clearly stated (2) Topic stated (1–2) Inappropriatetopic (0–1)Suitable introductionand aim (2 marks)Appropriate introductionand clear aim (2)Clear introductionand aim stated (1–2)Stated (1) Irrelevant (0)Description of locationand purpose (2 marks)Very clear descriptionsof location and purpose(2)Clear descriptionsand purpose(1–2)Description andpurpose stated(1)Incorrectdescription andpurpose (0–1)Detailed discussion onenvironmentaldestruction and impacton organisms (5 marks)Detailed discussionsabout destruction andits impact(5)Discussions statetype of destructionand its impact(3–5)Some mentionof destructionand its impact(1–3)Very little mentionof destruction andits impact(0–2)Appropriate conclusionand recommendations(3 marks)Very clear conclusionand recommendations(3)Clear conclusion andrecommendations(2–3)Conclusion andrecommendations made(1–2)Inappropriateconclusion andrecommendations(0–1)Presentation (3 marks)ExcellentVery neatWell written(3)GoodNeatAppropriately written(2–3)Neat and fair(1–2)Untidy(0–1)38

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide12.2 PopulationThis is a 4–6 weeks unit. It is to be taught as recommended.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to ensure students learn the expectedcontent knowledge of this unit, such as:• discuss methods of counting organisms using− quadrat frame to estimate the percentage cover of plant species− capture–recapture technique for sampling animal population• discuss factors affecting population distribution− use transect lines to show population distribution of a particularhabitat• distinguish between the effects of birth, death, immigration and emigrationrates on growth rate of a population• interpret a graph showing exponential growth of population and suggestfactors that might limit this growth• explore predator–prey relationships that show population fluctuations anddescribe normal regulatory processes• describe, for a given species, the magnitude of the optimum populationthat an environment can sustain• research the relationship between world human population growth ratesand Earth’s limited resources, with emphasis on Papua New Guinea andthe Pacific regionElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityDo populationsampling usingcapture–recapturemethodElaborationSelect the animal species to be sampledCapture and count animalMark with paint and release back to the environmentAllow 10–20 minutes and then do second sampling by recapturing andcounting marked and unmarked animals using the formula below:N = n1 x n2n3whereN = total estimated populationn1= number in the first sample,n2 = number in the second sample,n3 = number of marked individuals recaptured,39

BiologyInterpret andanalyseexponentialgraphsQuestions like these could be asked to help students analyse andinterpret exponential graphs.• What is population?• What is a population graph?• How do you read a population graph• Where are the lag, log, and constant phases of the curve?• identify and label these phasesSuggested assessment taskCarry out population sampling using quadrat frame to estimate thepercentage cover of plant species.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:1. plan and carry out sampling activity2. collect data3. interpret and present findings.Marking guideMarking guide for assessment task 12.2: Carry out populationsampling using quadrat frame to estimate the percentage coverof plant species20 marksCriteriaVHA(18–20)HA(14–17)SA(10–13)LA(0–9)Plan andprepare(3 marks)Excellent planningand preparation(3)Good planning and preparation (1–2)Inadequateplanning andpreparation (0–1)Conductexperiment(5 marks)Experimentscorrectly andconfidentlycarried out (5)Experimentscorrectly carriedout (3–4)Experimentscarried out(2–3)Incorrectexperiments (0–2)Interpretationand analysis ofdata (6 marks)Accurateinterpretation andanalysis of data(6)Goodinterpretationsand analysis (4–5)Soundinterpretationsand analysis(3–4)Unsatisfactoryinterpretationsand analysis (0–2)PresentationTitleNeat(3 marks)Title statedcorrectly and veryneat and tidy (3)Fairly neat andtitle stated (1–2)Neat (1–2) Untidy (0–1)Conclusion(3 marks)Very clear andconcise review ofthe topic (3)Concise review ofthe topic (2)Fair review ofthe topic (1–2)Inadequatereview pointsraised (0–1)40

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide12.3 GeneticsThis is an 8–10 week unit.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to ensure students learn the expectedcontent knowledge of this unit, such as:• describe and explain the terms ‘inheritance’, ‘genotype’, ‘phenotype’,‘gene’, ‘genome’, ‘allele’• carry out research on Mendelian experiments• construct models of meiosis and mitosis using plasticine• demonstrate by means of models that DNA is a double helix structurecomposed of nucleotide units• investigate structure of chromosomes during DNA replication• research and interpret processes of protein synthesis• conduct an experiment to measure continuous variation in a population;draw and interpret graphs of weight or height• measure and draw graphical representations of discontinuous variationsuch as blood type, ear lobes, tongue rolling• carry out research and experiments with simple tissue culture techniquesusing carrots or other plant tissuesElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityElaborationConstruct models of DNA(double helix structure)Research, design and carryout a simple experiment ontissue cultureStudents can do the following:• research and gather information on the structure of a DNA• gather appropriate materials• construct models• do presentationStudents:• gather materials (small discs of carrot or other plant tissue,an appropriate medium in a test tube)• place experiment in safe place and make observations overa period of 21–28 days• analyse and interpret data• present findingsSuggested assessment taskMeasure and draw graphical representations of discontinuous variation suchas blood type, ear lobes, tongue rolling.41

BiologyAssessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• identify types of characteristics to investigate• carry out investigation on selected population• record, analyse and interpret results collected• present and discuss results.Marking guide12.3: Measure and draw graphical representations of discontinuous variationsuch as blood type, ear lobes, tongue rolling20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)HighAchievement(14–17 marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13 marks)Low Achievement(0–9 marks)Title (2 marks) Title clearly stated (2) Title inappropriately written and not clearlystated (1)Title not appropriateto content (0)Introduction(3 marks)Clearly define variationClearly explain whatinvestigation is about(3)Clear explanationof the investigation(2–3)Sound explanation ofthe investigation(1–2)No explanations(0–1)Description ofdiscontinuousvariations(4 marks)Clearly describeddiscontinuousvariations (4)Descriptions arestated (2–3)Some descriptionsare stated (1–2)Descriptions notstated (0–1)Analysis ofresults(5 marks)Excellent analysis andinterpretation ofresults (4–5)Very good analysisand interpretationof results (3–4)Good analysis andinterpretation ofresults (1–2)Poor analysis andinterpretation ofresults (0–1)Conclusion(3 marks)Clear summary offindings ofinvestigation(3)Summary offindings ofinvestigation stated(2–3)Some summarisedfindings stated(1–2)Unclear summary offindings(0–1Presentation(3 marks)Neat cover pageContent pageNeat and legiblewriting with glossaryand reference(3)Only have 3 –4aspects ofpresentationmentioned(2–3)Only have 2–3aspects ofpresentationmentioned(1–2)Only have 0–2aspects ofpresentationmentioned(0–1)42

Upper Secondary Teacher Guide12.4 EvolutionThis is a 6–8 weeks unit.Suggested activitiesA range of activities can be used to ensure students learn the expectedcontent knowledge of this unit, such as:• observe, analyse and compare structure of vertebrate forelimbs of frogs,birds, bats, and lizards using specimens• construct a model of two different vertebrate forelimbs (use colours toidentify similar bones in each limb) using Styrofoam, cardboard, modellingclay, paints, wire and glue• perform an investigation to model natural selection• research and describe Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection• collect, observe and analyse samples of fossilised rocks• construct fossil imprints using plasticine, clay or plasterElaboration of contentThe following table gives elaboration of some activities from the list above.ActivityElaborationInvestigate forelimbs ofvarious vertebratesCollect, observe andanalyse samples offossilised rocksStudents can do the following:• research and gather information on the different types offorelimbs• construct models• present findingsTake an excursion to a cave, beach, river side or forested area• collect samples of fossilised rocks or imprints• identify the fossils or imprints and sketch them• discuss and present findingsSuggested assessment taskConstruct a model of two different vertebrate forelimbs using Styrofoam,cardboard, modelling clay, paints, wire and glue and discuss similarities anddifferences.Assessment criteriaStudents will be assessed on the extent to which they can:• select any two vertebrates (such as bird or frog)• observe and sketch their forelimbs• design and construct models using appropriate materials• research limb modifications and discuss similarities and differences43

Biology• present findings.Marking guideMarking guide for assessment task 12.4: Construct a model oftwo different vertebrate forelimbs and discuss similarities anddifferences.20 marksPerformanceCriteriaVery HighAchievement(18–20 marks)HighAchievement(14–17marks)SatisfactoryAchievement(10–13marks)LowAchievement(0–9 marks)Sample animal(2 marks)Animal appropriatelyidentified and chosenfor use (2)Appropriateanimal used(1-2)Animal chosen(1)Inappropriateanimal(0)Observation andillustrations ofidentified limbs(4 marks)Accurateobservations andillustrations of limbs(4)Limbs observedand illustrated(3-4)Limbsillustrated(2–3)Inaccurateillustrations(0–2)Construct modelsof the design(6 marks)Excellent modelconstruction ofselected animal limbs(6)Very goodmodelsconstructed(4-5)Good modelsconstructed(3-4)Incompletemodels(0–2)Research limbmodifications anddiscuss similaritiesand differences(5 marks)Detail discussions oflimb modificationsand their similaritiesand differences(5)Cear discussionson limbmodifications(3-4)Adequatediscussions oflimbmodifications(2-3)Poordiscussions oflimbmodifications(0-1)Presentation(3 marks)Presentationvery confidentvery neat product(3)Presentationconfidentneat product(2)Fairpresentation(1)Unsatisfactorypresentation(0)44

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideRecording and reportingAll schools must meet the requirements for maintaining and submittingstudent records as specified in the Grade 12 Assessment, Examination andCertification Handbook.Recording and reporting student achievementWhen recording and reporting student achievement you must record theachievement of the students in each unit and then, at the end of the yearmake a final judgement about the overall achievement, or progress towardsachievement, of the learning outcomes. To help you do this, descriptions ofthe levels of achievement of the learning outcomes are provided in the‘Learning outcome performance standards’ table.When reporting to parents, the school will determine the method of recordingand reporting. In an outcomes-based system, student results should bereported as levels of achievement rather than marks.Remember that the final school-based mark will be statistically moderatedusing the external exam results. The students’ overall level of achievementmay change.Levels of achievementThe level of achievement of the learning outcomes is determined by thestudents’ performance in the assessment tasks. Marks are given for eachassessment task with a total of 100 marks for each 10-week unit, or 50marks for each five-week unit. The marks show the student’s level ofachievement in the unit, and therefore progress towards achievement of thelearning outcomes.There are five levels of achievement:• Very high achievement• High achievement• Satisfactory achievement• Low achievement• Below minimum standard.A very high achievement means, overall, that the student has an extensiveknowledge and understanding of the content and can readily apply thisknowledge. In addition, the student has achieved a very high level ofcompetence in the processes and skills and can apply these skills to newsituations.A high achievement means, overall, that the student has a thoroughknowledge and understanding of the content and a high level of competencein the processes and skills. In addition, the student is able to apply thisknowledge and these skills to most situations.A satisfactory achievement means, overall, that the student has a soundknowledge and understanding of the main areas of content and hasachieved an adequate level of competence in the processes and skills.45

BiologyA low achievement means, overall, that the student has a basic knowledgeand some understanding of the content and has achieved a limited or verylimited level of competence in the processes and skills.Below the minimum standard means that the student has providedinsufficient evidence to demonstrate achievement of the broad learningoutcomes.Achievement levelTotalmarksVery HighAchievementHighAchievementSatisfactoryAchievementLowAchievementBelowminimumstandard700 630–700 490–629 350–489 200–349 0–199600 540–600 420–539 300–419 120–299 0–119500 450–500 350–449 250–349 100–249 0–99400 360–400 280–359 200–279 80–199 0–79300 270–300 210–269 150–209 60–149 0–59200 180–200 140–179 100–139 40–99 0–39100 90–100 70–89 50–69 20–49 0–1960 54–60 42–53 30–41 12–29 0–1150 45–50 35–44 25–34 10–24 0–940 36–40 28–35 20–27 8–19 0–720 18–20 14–17 10–13 5–9 0–4Marks are given according to criterion referenced standards below.46

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideCriterion/standards-referenced assessmentLearning Outcomes Performance StandardsLearningOutcomesVery highachievementHighachievementSatisfactoryachievementLowachievementBelow minimumstandard1. Demonstratean understandingof fundamentalprinciples andmodels of BiologyDemonstratesextensiveknowledge andunderstanding ofa wide range ofcomplex scientificprinciples andmodels of biologyDemonstratessound knowledgeandunderstanding ofa range ofscientificprinciples andmodels of biologyDemonstratesknowledge andunderstanding ofsome scientificprinciples andmodels of biologyDemonstratessome knowledgeof scientificprinciples andmodels of biologyDemonstrateslimited knowledgeof scientificprinciples ormodels of biology2. Investigate andexplain plant andanimal physiologyIndependentlyinvestigates indetail a widerange of plantand animalphysiology andclearly andlogically explainscomplex findingsusing relevantand appropriateexamplesIndependentlyinvestigates arange of plantand animalphysiology andclearly explainsfindings usingappropriateexamplesInvestigates plantand animalphysiology andexplains findingsusing examplesInvestigates withassistance plantand animalphysiology anddescribes somefindingsInvestigates witha great deal ofassistance plantand animalphysiology anddescribes somefindings poorly3. Describe andexplaininteractionsbetweenorganisms andtheir environmentIdentifies anddescribes in detailand givescomprehensivelogicalexplanations ofvariousinteractionsbetweenorganisms andtheir environmentIdentifies anddescribes in detailand gives goodexplanations ofinteractionsbetweenorganisms andtheir environmentIdentifies,describes andexplainsinteractionsbetweenorganisms andtheir environmentDescribesinteractionsbetweenorganisms andtheir environmentStates incorrectlyinteractionsbetweenorganisms andtheir environment4. Analyse andinterpret data,graphics andother forms ofinformationIndependentlyand proficientlyanalyses andinterprets a widerange of complexdata, graphicsand other formsof informationProficientlyanalyses andinterprets a rangeof data, graphicsand other formsof informationAnalyses andinterprets data,graphics andother forms ofinformationInterprets somedata, graphicsand other formsof informationwith assistanceInterprets somesimple data, withassistance47

BiologyLearningOutcomesVery highachievementHighachievementSatisfactoryachievementLowachievementBelow minimumstandard5. Undertakeinvestigationsusing scientificmethodologies tosolve biologicalproblemsIndependentlydesigns andundertakesinvestigations byselecting andproficientlyapplying a widerange ofinnovativescientificmethodologies tosolve complexbiologicalproblemsDesigns andundertakesinvestigations byselecting andproficientlyapplying a rangeof scientificmethodologies tosolve biologicalproblemsConductsinvestigations byapplying scientificmethodologies tosolve biologicalproblemsConductsinvestigationswith some helpand assistance toSolve biologicalproblemsConducts verysimpleinvestigationswith assistance6. Communicatebiologicalinvestigation andfindings in variousways usingbiological termsand conventionsCommunicatescomplex biologicalinvestigations andfindings succinctlyand logically in avariety of waysusing correct andappropriatebiological termsand conventionsCommunicatesbiologicalinvestigations andfindings clearly ina variety of waysusing correctbiological termsand conventionsCommunicatesbiologicalinvestigations andfindings in severaldifferent waysusing biologicalterms andconventionsProvides limitedcommunication ofbiological findingsand informationProvides verylimited andinaccuratecommunication ofbiological findingsand information7. Analyse andevaluate past andpresent biologyrelateddevelopments andtheir impacts onhuman beingsand environmentand be able tomake informedand ethicaldecisionsGives logical anddetailedexplanations andreasons for pastand presentbiology-relateddevelopments andtheir impacts onhuman beingsand environmentprovidesextensiveevidence of beingable to makeinformed andethical decisionsGives logicalexplanations andreasons forfactors influencingpast and presentbiology-relateddevelopments andtheir impacts onhuman beingsand environmentprovides evidenceof being able tomake informedand ethicaldecisionsGivesexplanations forfactors influencingpast and presentbiology-relateddevelopments andtheir impacts onhuman beingsand environmentprovides evidenceof being able tomake informedand ethicaldecisionsGives limitedexplanations forfactors influencingpast and presentbiology-relateddevelopments andtheir impacts onhuman beingsand environmentand providessome evidence ofbeing able tomake informedand ethicaldecisionsGives very limitedexplanations forfactors influencingpast and presentbiology-relateddevelopments andtheir impacts onhuman beingsand environmentand provides noevidence of beingable to makeinformed andethical decisions8. Evaluatetraditionalbiologicalknowledge andpractices andtheir relevancetodayProvides detailedlogicalexplanations andreasons to giveexcellentevaluation of awide range oftraditionalbiologicalknowledge andpractices andtheir relevancetoday and to thefutureProvides detailedexplanations andreasons to givegood evaluationof a range oftraditionalbiologicalknowledge andpractices andtheirrelevance todayProvidesexplanations andsome reasons toevaluatetraditionalbiologicalknowledge andpractices andtheir relevancetodayProvides limitedevaluation oftraditionalbiologicalknowledge andpractices andtheir relevancetodayRequiresassistance toevaluate simpletraditionalbiologicalknowledge andpractices48

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideStudent name:Sample format for recording Biology assessment task resultsover two yearsGrade 11Unit Assessment task Marks Studentmark11.1 Students:• undertake experiment on preparing wet mounts of cheek and onioncells and observe under the microscope• assignment• do a theory test11.2 Students:• carry out experiments to test for photosynthesis• carry out research on functions of liver and kidneys and their relateddiseases• do a theory testHeterotrophic nutrition tests and assignments will contribute tomatriculation marks11.3 Students can• design and carry out experiments on movement of water through thestem of plants• do theory tests• do a practical test11.4 Students can• conduct laboratory activities to demonstrate how the surface area tovolume ratio affects the rate of diffusion using cubes as models oforganisms• do a practical test• do a theory test11.5 Students can:• undertake research on the composition and function of the endocrinesystem• carry out experiments to investigate tropism in plants• do a theory test11.6 Students can• research and present statistical data on STIs and HIV and AIDS• do theory test202025201025(xx/300)2060202020302015302030Thesemarkswould betheadjustmentperiodTotal marks Grade 11 30049

BiologyStudent name:Grade 12Unit Assessment task Marks Studentmark12.1 Students can• undertake excursion to a logged, mined or destructed area to identifydamages caused and its impact on the environment• do unit assignments• do unit tests12.2 Students can• carry out population sampling using quadrat frame to estimate thepercentage cover of plant species• do unit assignments• do unit tests12.3 Students can• measure and draw graphical representations of discontinuous variationsuch as blood type, ear lobes, tongue rolling• do unit assignments• do unit tests12.4 Students can• construct a model of two different vertebrate forelimbs usingStyrofoam, cardboard, modelling clay, paints, wire and glue• do unit assignments• do unit tests201060301030301030202030Total marks Grade 12 300Total marks Grade 11 and 12 600Learning outcomes and levels of achievementLevels of achievement in Grade 11 and Grade 12 are recorded and reportedagainst the learning outcomes. The performance standards for the levels ofachievement are described in the table on pages 47 and 48.Steps for awarding final student level of achievement1. Assess unit tasks using unit performance standards and assessmentcriteria.2. Record results for each task in each unit.3. Add marks to achieve a unit result and term result.4. Add term marks to get a year result.5. Determine the overall achievement using the achievement level grid.6. Report results using the broad learning outcome performance standards.50

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideUsing the learning outcomes performance standards descriptorsNameSubjectSchool-based assesmentGillian SantoBiologyHigh achievementThis assessment means that Gillian:Demonstrates sound knowledge and understanding of a range of scientificprinciples and models of biologyIndependently investigates a range of plant and animal physiology and clearlyexplains findings using appropriate examplesIdentifies and describes in detail and gives good explanations of interactionsbetween organisms and their environmentProficiently analyses and interprets a range of data, graphics and other forms ofinformationDesigns and undertakes investigations by selecting and proficiently applying arange of scientific methodologies to solve biological problemsCommunicates biological investigations and findings clearly in a variety of waysusing correct biological termsGives logical explanations and reasons for factors influencing past and presentbiology-related developments and their impacts on human beings andenvironment provides evidence of being able to make informed and ethicaldecisionsProvides detailed explanations and reasons to give good evaluation of a range oftraditional biological knowledge and practices and their relevance today51

BiologyResourcesBiology becomes more interesting and meaningful when you use a variety ofresources and local materials in your teaching.You should be always trying to adapt, improvise, make, find or write materialthat will be useful for lessons. Biology can be taught without expensiveequipment by making use of what is around you, though there is someequipment and materials that are essential to teach the Biology syllabus.Materials and equipment for Biology• variety of scientific equipment such as test tube, beaker, Bunsen burner,test tube rack, microscopes, slides• strings or ropes• natural objects such as plants, leaves, flowers, animalsTypes of resources for BiologyMaterials• textbooks, reference books including old syllabuses and resource booksfor Grade 11 and 12• magazines• diagrams, charts, posters• worksheets, information sheets• pamphlets, brochures• television and radio broadcasts• video, film, film strips• computer software• pictures, photographs• models• newspapers• made or found objectsNatural and human resources• natural environment sites: rivers, beaches, rock pools, forests, cliffs,caves• community elders• teachers• parents• scientists• health workers52

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideContacts and list of additional resources/personnelThe following organizations whose addresses appear below could becontacted for assistance to help with posters, brochures or information:1. Research & Conservation FoundationP.O Box 1261, Goroka EHPTel: 732 3211 Fax: 732 11232. The Nature ConservancyP.O Box 2750 P.O Box 217Boroko, NCDMadang, Madang ProvinceTel: 323 0699 Fax: 323 0397 Tel: 852 2366 Fax: 852 35183. World Wide Fund for NatureP.O Box 158Diwai, Madang ProvinceTel: 852 1763 Fax: 852 22914. Conservation InternationalP.O Box 106 P.O Box 176Waigani, NCDAlotau, Milne Bay ProvinceTel: 323 1532 Fax: 325 4234 Tel: 641 03495. Mahonia Na DariP.O Box 697Kimbe, West New Britain ProvinceTel: 983 47836. Live and Learn Environmental EducationP.O Box 844Kimbe, West New Britain ProvinceTel/Fax: 983 42377. Regional and Provincial Forestry Offices8. Regional Fisheries Offices9. Regional and Provincial Department of Primary Industry offices10. Cocoa and Coconut Institute11. National Agricultural Research Institute12. University of Vudal13. University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby14. University of Technology, Lae15. Department of Environment and Conservation16. Department of Health17. National and Provincial AIDS CouncilGeneral guidelines for selecting and using resourcesThe effectiveness of the resource very much depends on whether it issuitable for the knowledge or skill to be learned and the attitude of thestudents. Classroom organisation is the key to using resources successfully.You need to:53

Biology• Prepare thoroughly. Make sure that you are familiar with the resource sothat you use it with confidence and assurance. If equipment is involved,check that it is in working order, make sure that you know how to operateit and that it is available when required.• Use the resource at the right place and time in the lesson. The resourceshould fit in with the flow and sequence of the lesson. It should serve adefinite teaching purpose.Should the resource be radio, film, video or television, introduce the programby outlining the content. You might also set some questions to guidelistening or viewing. Follow up after using the resource by discussing anddrawing appropriate conclusions.54

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideReferencesAllot, A. (2001). Biology for the IB Diploma: Standard and Higher Level.Oxford University Press, Oxford.Aubusson, P.; Kennedy, E. & Hickman, P. (2004). Biology in Context: TheSpectrum of Life. Oxford University Press, Australia.Cunningham, W. P. & Cunningham, M. (2006). Principles of EnvironmentalScience: Inquiry and Applications 3 rd Edition. McGraw Hill HigherEducation, New York.Kinnear, J and Martin, M 2006, Nature of Biology, Books 1 and 2, John Wileyand Sons, Milton, Qld.McAllister, B.,Stannard, P. & Williamson, K. (1994). Senior Science Book 2.MacMillan Education, Australia.MacKean, D. G. (1995). GCSE Biology 2nd Edition. John MurrayPublishers, London.MacKean, D. G. (1984) Introduction to Biology 3 rd Edition. John MurrayPublishers, London.Pryer,J.K. (2003). Threats to Plants and Animals; Pollution: MacmillanEducation, AustraliaPryor, K.J. (2003). Pollution. Macmillan: MelbourneStoyles, P.; Pentland, P. & Demant, D. (2003). Science Issues: GeneticEngineering. Macmillan: MelbourneWilkinson, J. (1989). Secondary Science 3. Macmillan Education,Melbourne.55

BiologyGlossary for BiologyAbioticAbsorptionActive siteActive transportAIDSAerobicAlleleAmnionAnaerobicAnti-codonATPAutosomeAutotrophAuxinsBiodegradableBiodiversityBiological controlBiomassBiomeBioticCarrying capacityChlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)ChromatidChromosomesCloneNon-livingMovement of dissolved substances such as digested food andoxygen across a cell membrane to its interiorPart of an enzyme molecule that binds with a specific substanceMovement of dissolved substance across a cell membrane in anenergy requiring process that results in a net movement of thatsubstance against a concentration gradient from a region of lowerconcentration to a region of higher concentrationAcquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome: disease caused by theHuman Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that results in significantdamage to the immune system, making the infected personparticularly susceptible to infectious diseasesRequiring oxygenThe different of a particular geneIn mammals, fluid-filled sac enclosing the embryo, later a foetusNot requiring oxygen; environment where oxygen is not presentSequence of three bases in a transfer RNA molecule that can pairwith complementary codon of a messenger RNA moleculeAdenosine triphosphate: compound containing adenosine and threemolecules of phosphate, the major supplies of energy which areproduced in the mitochondria; common source of chemical energyRefers to any one of a pair of homologous chromosomes that areidentical in appearance on males and females of a speciesDescribes a group of organisms that, given a source of energy, canproduce its own food from simple inorganic substances; also knownas a producerGroup of plant hormones that control cell elongationAble to be rotted by living organisms, especially bacteriaTotal variety of living things on Earth and the ecosystems in whichthey liveThe use of one kind of organism that is a predator or parasite in thereduction or elimination of the population of a second speciesTotal mass of organic matter present in all living things in a givenspace within an ecosystemA major subdivision of the land surface of Earth, identified in termsof its dominant vegetation, such as tropical rainforest, grasslandsLivingStabilised size reached by a given population in a given habitatUsed to make products spray out of aerosol cans, to keep airconditioners and refrigerators cool and in the manufacture of foamplasticsOne of the strands in a double-stranded chromosomeThreadlike structures composed of DNA and proteins that becomevisible only during cell division (mitosis and meiosis)To make an exact copy of another living thing56

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideCodonsCompetitionDiffusionDNADominantEcosystemEmulsificationEndemicEstuaryEutrophicationFollicleFSHFossilsGenesGenetic engineersGeneticmodificationGraftGreenhouse gasHabitatHibernationHydrochlorofluorocarbons(HCFCs)HypertonicInheritedImmunityIVFKeratinLocusSequence of three bases in messenger RNA molecule that containinformation for a particular amino acid in a polypeptide chainInteractions between individuals of the same and/or differentspecies that use one or more of the same resources in the sameecosystemNet movement of a substance from an area of higher concentrationto an area of lower concentration; the process does not requireenergyDeoxyribonucleic acidRefers to a trait that is expressed in the heterozygous conditionwith certain allele masking recessive alleleBiological unit comprising a community living in a discrete region,the non-living surroundings and the interactions occurring withinthe communityBreakdown of large fat droplets into smaller fat dropletsDescribes a species that occurs naturally in and is restricted to oneparticular geographical regionWide area at the mouth of a river, subject to tidal movementsAccumulation of dissolved mineral nutrients in a body of water,often a lakeStructure in an ovary where an egg developsFollicle-stimulating hormones: produced by the pituitary gland,which stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles and ripening of anovum (egg)Remains of organisms that existed long agoInformation inside a cell about how a plant or animal looks orbehavesScientists who experiment with decoding and making changes toDNAChanging or modifying the genes of plants and animals in thelaboratoryTo transplant a piece of skin or other organA gas that traps heat in the Earth’s atmospherePart of an ecosystem in which an organism lives, feeds andreproducesState of reduced metabolic activity seen in some mammals living incold climatesHydrochlorofluorocarbons (hcfcs) can be used for many of the samepurposes as cfcsRefers to a solution having a higher concentration of dissolvedsubstances than the solution to which it is comparedReceived genetic characteristics from parentsReaction that occurs in a person in response to an infectionIn-vitro fertilisation: techniques in which eggs collected from anovary are fertilised outside the body, incubated for a time and latertransferred to the uterus for the developmentA fibrous protein of which hair, horns and feathers are madePosition of a gene on a chromosome57

BiologyLuteinisinghormoneMeiosisMetabolismMitosisMutationNicheNocturnalOrganelleOrganic matterOsmosisOvulationOvumOzone-depletingsubstancesPituitary glandPopulationPLWHIV AIDSPesticidesRecessiveRenewableresourcesRibosomesSalinitySomatic cellsSpeciationSustainableSustainable energyTaxonTropismVariationWater balanceXylemZygotePituitary hormone that causes a follicle to rupture and then becomethe corpus luteumProcess of cell division that results in the production of newgametes containing half the number of chromosomesTotal of all chemical reactions occurring in a living thingCell division taking place in all somatic cells that results in growthA spontaneous change in the genetic material (DNA)Way of life of organisms in an ecosystem; role of speciesAnimals that become active at night, by nightStructure present in a cell, which has a specific function; such asmitochondrion, chloroplastsMatter that has come from living thingsNet movement of water across a partially permeable membranewithout an input of energy and down a concentration gradientRelease of an egg or ovum from the ovaryFemale gamete or eggArtificial chemicals that reduce the amount of ozone in thestratosphereEndocrine gland attached to the hypothalamus, sometimes referredto as the ‘master gland’Members of one species living in one regionPeople living with HIV and AIDSPoisons that kill pestsRefers to a trait that is not expressed but remains hidden in aheterozygous organismEnergy resources that are constantly replenished; for example,wind and sunlightOrganelle containing RNA that are major sites of protein synthesisRefers to the amount of salt concentrationRefers to cells of the body other than gametesProcess of forming a new speciesUsing resources such as water and forests carefully so they willcontinue to be healthy in the futureSustainable energy is the production or use of energy in a mannerthat meets current energy needs without compromising the abilityof future generations to meet their economic, social andenvironmental needsAny taxonomic group; for example, class, family, genusDirectional growth response of a plant to an environmental stimulusIn a population, a condition in which members of that populationdiffer in one or more traitsBalance of water in the body, which must be maintainedVascular tissue that transports water and minerals throughout aplant and which provides a plant with supportFertilised egg that results from the fusion of haploid male andfemale gametes58

Upper Secondary Teacher GuideGlossary for assessmentSyllabus outcomes, criteria and performance standards, and examinationquestions have key words that state what students are expected to be ableto do. A glossary of key words has been developed to help provide acommon language and consistent meaning in the syllabus and teacher guidedocuments. Using the glossary will help teachers and students understandwhat is expected in responses to examinations and assessment tasks.AccountAnalyseApplyAppreciateAssessCalculateClarifyClassifyCompareConstructContrastCritically(analyse orevaluate)DeduceDefineDemonstrateDescribeDiscussDistinguishEvaluateExamineExplainExtractExtrapolateIdentifyAccount for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate aseries of events or transactionsIdentify components and the relationship between them; draw out andrelate implicationsUse, utilise, employ in a particular situationMake a judgment about the value ofMake a judgment of value, quality, outcomes, results or sizeAscertain or determine from given facts, figures or informationMake clear or plainArrange or include in classes or categoriesShow how things are similar or differentMake; build; put together items or argumentsShow how things are different or oppositeAdd a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge andunderstanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analysis orevaluation)Draw conclusionsState meaning and identify essential qualitiesShow by exampleProvide characteristics and featuresIdentify issues and provide points for and/or againstRecognise or note or indicate as being distinct or different from; tonote differences betweenMake a judgement based on criteria; determine the value ofInquire intoRelate cause and effect; make the relationships between thingsevident; provide why and/or howChoose relevant and/or appropriate detailsInfer from what is knownRecognise and nameInterpretDraw meaning fromInvestigatePlan, inquire into and draw conclusions about59

BiologyJustifyOutlineSupport an argument or conclusionSketch in general terms; indicate the main features ofPredictProposeRecallRecommendSuggest what may happen based on available informationPut forward (for example, a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion)for consideration or actionPresent remembered ideas, facts or experiencesProvide reasons in favourRecountRetell a series of eventsSummariseExpress, concisely, the relevant detailsSynthesisePutting together various elements to make a whole60