engagements

Attacker Overshoots in a Spiral DiveWhen all other maneuvers fail, the spiral dive is a last-ditch attempt to shake off a resolute pursuer. This involves maintaining thehighest possible rate of turn in a dive steep enough to retain manoeuvring airpeed. If the attacker follows the spiral the defendershould throttle back. This tends to flatten out the spiral and reduces the rate at which height is lost. The defender will slowly losespeed. As it is extremely difficult for the attacker to notice early enough that his opponent has reduced power he may start toovershoot at this point. If he does, a hard rolling reversal and pull-up by the defender will force the attacker out in front.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Attacker%20Overshoots%20in%20a%20Spiral%20Dive.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

Barrel Roll AttackThis maneuver differs from the defensive high-g barrel roll in that a great loss of speed to force an attacking fighter to overshoot isnot necessary. The g forces can therefore often be quite small. Closely resembling the rollaway, the barrel roll attack is used to alterthe angle of approach to the defender without losing a lot of speed. It is used when the attacker becomes aware that he is going toovershoot a turning target. He rolls the wings level, pulls the nose hard up, then rolls away from the direction of turn. This threedimensionalmaneuver is completed by sliding in astern of the target.The counter to a well executed barrel roll attack is for the defender to dive away and increase speed. While doing this he must keepa sharp lookout for a missile attack and be ready to evade it. If he reverses his turn, he will probably set himself up for a gun attack.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Barrel%20Roll%20Attack.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

Breaking Stalemate in the ScissorsScissoring can easily result in a stalemate. This can be broken by waiting until both aircraft are pointing away from each other, thenrolling inverted and diving away. The dive regains the speed lost in the scissors, and can be followed by a steep climb, preferablyinto the sun.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Breaking%20Stalemate%20in%20the%20Scissors.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

Countering Low-Speed Yo YoThe main counter to the low speed yoyo is for the defender to wait until the attacker begins his pull-up from the bottom of the dive,then, easing his turn a trifle, he lifts his nose and rolls down into him. Much depends on the execution of the yoyo; if the attackergets too low, or cuts too tightly across the circle, the defender can pull up and barrel down into him. Copying the yoyo can be used,to maintain the stalemate.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Countering%20Low-Speed%20Yo%20Yo.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

Crossturn / Inward TurnaboutThis is a method of reversing course without causing undue horizontal displacement of the formation. It can be used to meet athreat developing from astern, or to turn in pursuit after a head-on engagement. Each fighter breaks hard inward, the high mangoing low and the low man high or, where the tightest possible turn is needed, both men pulling high. In either case the high man atthe end of the turn will be furthest from the Sun. The cross-turn, or inward turnabout as it is sometimes known, has the advantagethat the pilots can clear each other's blind spots as they pass. The disadvantage is that they may briefly lose visual contact with eachother.For a pair in combat spread to reverse their direction of flight by traditional means would be a long and cumbersome affair, withlarge lateral displacement. To reverse course through 180° the aircraft cross-turn exchanging positions.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Crossturn%20-%20Inward%20Turnabout.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

Defensive SplitIn the defensive split, the attackers have to choose between two targets. When they choose one they leave the other free as apotential threat to sandwich them. The defensive split is executed by a two-aircraft element in both horizontal and vertical planes.From the attacker's point of view it is preferable to follow the high man. The fighter that has split upwards will lose energy fasterthan the low man. Provided that the attackers entered the fight witha surplus of energy, the high man represents their best chance ofa kill. Furthermore it will take the low man longer to get back into a fight high above him than it will for the high man to dropdown. Also, the low man has more difficulty in spotting a fight above him than does the high man looking down. From thedefender's point of view, the low man must be ready to pitch up into the fight as soon as it becomes clear that he is not menaced,while the high man must attempt to bring the fight down as quickly as possible to enable the low man to support him. Of course, itis possible that an attacker, faced with a defensive split, will break off and look for an easier victim, in which case the split hassucceeded.The defensive split is used by a pair to divide the ^ attention of the attackers. The split is made in both the vertical and horizontalplanes. Whichever one the attackers choose to follow leaves them liable to counterattack by the other.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Defensive%20Split.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

Forward Velocity VectorIn the scissors, both fighters are trying to reduce their forward velocity vector, which is their speed along a straight line aroundwhich they are both reversing. The winner will be the fighter with the slowest forward velocity as he will finish up astern of hisopponent.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Forward%20Velocity%20Vector.htm05.08.2006 10:41:44

High-G Barrel RollThis maneuver is used against an attacker closing fast from astern. It starts with a break, then a roll in the opposite direction to thebreak. The fact that it is a high g maneuver means that quite a lot of speed is lost, up to 100 knots in some cases, particularly ifperformed "over the top".If the attacker is closing fast and is caught by surprise he may easily fly through and end up in front, the positions reversed. If heattempts to follow the barrel roll, he will probably end up high and wide of the defender who can then turn in towards him, forcinghim down and in front. But woe betide the defender who attempts a barrel roll in front of a slowly closing attacker who will followhim through the maneuver, ending on his tail in easy gun range. His only recourse in this event is to jink.The High G Barrel Roll is a difficult maneuver to execute successfully, and is in fact easy for the attacker to counter. It will onlywork if the attacker has been led into, or is in, a high angle-off, high overtake situation.The High G Barrel Roll can be very effective against an attacker closing fast from astern. Commencing with a break turn to put theattacker in a high angle-off position, the roll is then carried out in the opposite direction to the turn.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/High-G%20Barrel%20Roll.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

High Speed Yo YoWhen the attacker realises that he is unable to stay on the inside of the defender's turn, he relaxes his angle of bank a little, thenpulls high. As he comes over the top he is inverted, looking down at his opponent through the top of his canopy. His speed falls dueto the climb, and this diminishes his radius of turn. The Ig of gravity is utilised by turning in the vertical plane, which reduces theradius of turn still further. The attacker should then be well placed to slide down into a firing position.The high-speed yoyo is a very difficult maneuver to perform well, and demands perfect timing and precise execution. If it iscommenced too early, the defender can counter by pulling up into the attack. If started too late, the attacker is forced to pull up at anexcessively steep angle to avoid overshooting. This allows the defender to disengage by diving away. A common fault in executingthe high-speed yoyo is not pulling the nose high enough. This can result in the attacker ending directly above the defender. Somepilots find that they obtain better results from a series of small yoyos than one large one. A variant on this maneuver, used toprevent overshooting or to reduce the angle-off, is the rollaway.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/High%20Speed%20Yo%20Yo.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Lag PursuitThis can be used when the primary cause of overshooting is excess speed. Basically it consists of maintaining position astern butoutside the turn radius of the defending fighter. In this manner both speed advantage and initiative are retained, the attackermatching the defender's rate of turn in degrees per second while remaining concealed in the blind spot beneath the defender's tail.Lag pursuit is best countered by tightening the turn into a spiral dive. The temptation is to reverse and commence scissoring, butthis is a good way to die if the attacker is on the ball.LAG PURSUIT ROLLThis is used when at close range with a high overtake, high speed and high angle-off. The defender gets the nose high and rolls tothe outside of the turn. He uses maximum g to pull the nose up and towards the target. This puts him in a ± 30° angle-off missileenvelope.When overshooting is mainly the result of excess speed, position can be maintained outside the radius of the defender's turn bymatching his rate of turn, thus maintaining both speed and initiative. The pursuer is hidden beneath the defender's tail, which couldcause him to make an error. This is called lag pursuit.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Lag%20Pursuit.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Low Speed Yo YoAnother combat situation which can arise is a stalemate in either a tail chase or a turning match. To break the stalemate, a lowspeedyoyo is used. This is based on the age-old concept of trading height for speed. If a pursuer finds that he is unable to close towithin shooting range in straight flight, he can gain extra speed in a shallow dive. This will allow him to close the horizontaldistance and takes him into his opponent's blind spot at six o'clock low. When a suitable position and overtaking speed have beenattained, the pursuer can pull up and attack. The counter? Keep a good lookout behind!The most widely used variant of the low speed yoyo is used in a turning fight to break a stalemate caused by lack of overtake.Dropping his nose to the inside of the turn, the pursuer can cut across the circle.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Low%20Speed%20Yo%20Yo.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Low Speed Yo Yo - Straight PursuitTwo versions of the low speed yoyo exist. The first, illust- rated here, is based on trading height for speed. It is used to break astalemate in a tail chase where the attacker is unable to close to within range. He unloads in a shallow dive, gaining speed. Whenthe distance has been closed, he pulls up into the attack.More often, the low-speed yoyo is used to break a stalemate in a turning fight. The attacker drops his nose to the inside of the turn,then cuts low across the circle before pulling up towards his opponent's six o'clock. The gain is often marginal, but repeating theprocess nibbles off a few degrees of angle each time, due to manoeuvring in the vertical plane. The pull-up should be started whena position of about 30 degrees angle-off is reached. It is important that the angle of cut-off is correct or the attacker will arrive in afly-through situation with too much angle-off as he approaches the target. If this happens then he must endeavour to pull up into ahigh-speed yoyo.Defence against the low-speed yoyo takes two forms. The first is to copy the maneuver while remaining in phase with the attacker.This maintains the stalemate. The second counter is more positive. The defender holds the turn until the attacker starts his pull-up.He then eases his turn a trifle, lifts his nose, and makes a rolling descending turn into his opponent.If the attacking pilot has tried to lead the defender by too much or dived too low by being greedy, the defender can also pull up andbarrel down onto the attacker.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Low%20Speed%20Yo%20Yo%20-%20Straight%20Pursuit.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Offensive SplitA pair of fighters can carry out the "offensive split" maneuver in a variety of ways. In one version the nearest man is in combatspread, drawing the attention of the bandits, while his partner (hopefully unobserved) sneaks around the back either high or low,depending on relative altitudes at the start of the encounter. For example, referring back to the eyeball/shooter attack, when thelookout gains visual contact and clears the shooter to fire at the far bogey. The lookout will be visible to the enemy at much thesame time, and the bandit will almost certainly react by turning towards him. The shooter, still low, still hopefully undetected, canswing across behind his leader, then reverse into a hard climbing turn which should bring him out into a good attacking position.There are many variations of the offensive split. Here the leader visually identifies bandits, who turn towards him. Meanwhile hisNo. 2 has crossed under unobserved to pull up hard from underneath for a belly shot.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Offensive%20Split.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Offset Head-on PassThe off-set head-on pass may be used by the pilot of an extremely maneuverable fighter. Faced with a head-on attack, he can offsetto one side to give himself space in which to use his superior turning ability.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Offset%20Head-on%20Pass.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

SandwichFor a pair, the "sandwich" is the oldest trick in the book. A fighter attacked from the rear quarter outside the formation breaks intothe attack. If he is followed by an enemy, his wingman slots neatly into place behind the bandit for a rear quarter shot, taking greatcare, of course, not to fire a heat missile until his comrade has cleared the danger area.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Sandwich.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

ScissorsThis is a series of turn reversals performed with the object of forcing the overshooting attacker out in front to a position ofdisadvantage. The initial turn is reversed when the attacker has definitely overshot and has drifted sufficiently wide as to preventhim from pulling back into the cone of vulnerability when the defender reverses. Timing the reversals is absolutely critical. Thebasic rule is that if the attacker is overshooting fast, reverse early, but if he is drifting slowly wide, take time and make sure.The scissors is the natural outcome of a successful break which has forced the attacker to overshoot. It consists of a series ofreversals to get behind the attacker by forcing him out in front. The more manoeuvrable fighter has an advantage in the scissors.Full power is used throughout the scissors but with the nose trimmed high to reduce the forward velocity vector. Airbrakes can beused to force the flythrough but if they are used too early they will advertise the defender's intentions. The scissors may turn into astalemate with neither side gaining the advantage. The stalmate can be broken by one fighter rolling inverted when passing throughthe adversary's six o'clock and diving away to gain speed before pulling back up,preferably into sun. This will hopefully take himby surprise. Scissoring for more than a couple of reversals is not recommended against an opponent who is able to turn faster and/ortighter, and it should not be attempted if there is more than one attacker, either. Fighter pilots recommend that unless the advantageis gained after three reversals, the pilot should, aiming to pass head-on to the attacker, since this would put him at a disadvantage inhaving to turn back toward the defender as he runs out.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Scissors.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Split SIn this the defender rolls inverted and dives away vertically, pulling out in a direction opposite to that of his opponent.Most defensive maneuvers are designed to counter an attack coming from astern, mainly by forcing an attacker to overshoot. Whatare the attacker's needs? Much depends on whether he is planning a missile or gun attack. As we saw in the attack phase, a missileattack should be fast, deadly, and conclusive. But, as World War I German Chief of Staff von Moltke observed many years ago:plans rarely survive contact with the enemy. The fighter pilot should be prepared for his attack to fail and know precisely what hewill do next, either disengage or enter into manoeuvring combat.If his attack is from head-on, much will depend on the maneuver potential of the two opponents. The more manoeuvrable fighterwill have the edge in a turning fight. (The more manoeuvrable fighter at this stage is frequently the one travelling slowest ratherthan the most aerodynamically capable.) If this is the attacker he should endeavour to pass wide of his opponent to give himselfturning room. If there is any doubt about relative maneuver potential he should pass close to deny his adversary turning room, thenpull high in the turn. In either case he should pass down-Sun so that his next change of direction forces his opponent to look into thedazzle. If after a head- on pass both aircraft pull high a vertical ascending scissors may result.A missile attack from astern is normally made at a high closing speed. If the attack fails the attacker must zoom climb to dissipatehis excess speed if he wishes to continue the fight, although it is easier and probably safer to disengage at this point. A gun attackshould be made with an overtake speed of about 50 knots (just under 90 feet, 2 7m) per second). This gives time to track the targetin the sight, minimises the risk of overshooting and retains an energy advantage for manoeuvring combat.The defensive maneuvers described earlier place much stres on forcing an attacker to overshoot It is obviously important to avoidovershooting, so how is it done?file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Split%20S.htm (1 von 2)05.08.2006 10:41:45

Split SAn overshoot is caused by one or two factors. The first is an excessively large angle subtended between the fuselages of therespective aircraft. The second is excessive closing speed. This is difficult for the attacker to spot until he is fairly close in. Eitherway the attacker is faced with overshooting. His first remedy is the high-speed yoyo.The Split S is a time-honoured method of disengaging from combat. Known to the Royal Air Force as the Half Roll and theLuftwaffe as the Abschwung, it uses maneuver in the vertical plane to evade attack.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Split%20S.htm (2 von 2)05.08.2006 10:41:45

The BreakThis is used when an attacker is first seen approaching or is already in the cone of vulnerability. Its purpose is twofold: to spoilthe attacker's aim and to force him to overshoot. The break is always made towards the direction of attack, This generates"angle-off" as quickly as possible which makes the defender a difficult target. The attacker may be able to cut inside the turnbut he is forced to pull lead. To do this he must tighten his turn, which increases his angle of attack. It is difficult for him topull his nose around at high angles of attack to achieve a firing solution. The defender should also alter his plane of flight tomake himself a more difficult target.Two forms of break are possible, depending on the circumstances of the attack. The defender can use a maximum-ratesustained turn in which he does not lose speed, or the hardest possible turn in which he almost certainly does. The speed lossattendant on the hard turn aids his chances of forcing the attacker to overshoot, as does the smaller radius of turn, but oftquotedmaxims such as "speed is life" act as an inhibitor. If the break succeeds in forcing the attacker to overshoot, the nextmaneuver is the Scissors.The break is a life-saving maneuver. It is used against an attacker who is about to achieve a firing position (or already has). Itconsists of a hard turn into the direction of attack, to generate angle-off as rapidly as possible to present the most difficulttarget.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Break.htm (1 von 2)05.08.2006 10:41:45

The Breakfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Break.htm (2 von 2)05.08.2006 10:41:45

Vertical ReverseThe vertical reverse can be used when an attack or maneuver is completed with a vertical climb. The aircraft continues straight upuntil it loses flying speed. It is then ruddered around very sharply into a steep dive, gaining speed as it goes. This maneuver can beused at the top of a vertical ascending scissors either to disengage or to offer a pursuer a little head-on discouragement, but ismostly used to reposition for a further attack. Very few modern fighters are controllable at such low speeds; only those that are -notably the Harrier, F-16 Fighting Falcon and F-5 Tiger II - can carry out this maneuver.The vertical reverse is only for the fighter with exceptional low speed handling. It is used at the end of a vertical climb when allflying speed is lost, the aircraft being ruddered around sharply into a dive.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Vertical%20Reverse.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Vertical Rolling ScissorsThis is similar to the scissors described earlier but is carried out in either a steep climb or dive and the reversals are often carriedout by executing a complete barrel roll. The ascending vertical rolling scissors places the fighter with the better zoom climb (or thehigher initial energy state) at a disadvantage at first. Otherwisethe fighter with the best sustained rate of climb will have theadvantage. If in a descending vertical rolling scissors the defender finds himself forced below his adversary he should attempt toplace himself directly beneath his opponent and maneuver in phase with him. In this position he cannot be seen and can pick hismoment to disengage with a splitS.● Site Design © 2000-2005 ● Contact Us ● http://www.combataircraft.com/file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Vertical%20Rolling%20Scissors.htm05.08.2006 10:41:45

Untitled DocumentThe Geometry of Air CombatIn order to become a great fighter pilot, you must perform great BFM (Basic FlightManeuvers). Now, in order to perform BFM, a fighter pilot must understand his positionalrelationship to the target from three perspectives: positional geometry, attack geometry and theweapons envelope.Positional GeometryAngle-off, range and aspect angle are terms used in BFM discussions to describe the relativeadvantage or disadvantage that one aircraft has in relation to anotherAngle Offback to topAngle-Off is the difference, measured in degrees, between your heading and the bandit's. Thisangle provides information about the relative fuselage alignment between the pilot's jet and thebandit's. For example, if the Angle-Off between you and a bandit were 0°, you would be on aparallel heading with the bandit, and the two fuselages would be aligned. If the angle-off were90°, your fuselage would be perpendicular to the bandit.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (1 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentRangeback to topRange is the distance between your jet and the bandit. In most HUD's, range is measured infeet, out to one nautical mile (6,000 feet). Outside one nautical mile, range is measured in milesand tenths of miles. For example, a range to the target of 9,000 feet would be displayed as 1.5nautical milesfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (2 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentAspect Angleback to topAspect angle is the number of degrees measured from the tail of a target to your aircraft.Aspect angle is important because it indicates how far away your aircraft is from the target's 6o'clock position. Aspect angle has nothing to do with your heading. Note that the aspect anglestays the same, regardless of which way your aircraft is heading. Along with a measure indegrees from the target's tail. In order to determine if the angle is left or right aspect, start at thetarget's 6 o'clock facing the target. If your aircraft is in the right hemisphere, you have rightaspect; in the left hemisphere, you have left target aspect. Aspect angle is important because, ifyou know the aspect angle and range to the target, you then know his lateral displacement orturning room from the target-and lateral displacement is very important in BFM.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (3 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentAttack Geometryback to topAttack geometry describes the path that the offensive fighter takes as he converges on thebandit. When you start an attack on the bandit, there are three distinct paths or pursuit coursesyou can follow. These pursuit courses are lag pursuit, pure pursuit and lead pursuit. If you arepointing your aircraft behind the bandit, you are in lag pursuit. If you are pointing directly atthe bandit, you are in pure pursuit. If you are pointing in front of the bandit, you are in leadpursuit.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (4 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentLead Pursuitback to topLead pursuit is used to close on the bandit and is also used for gun shots. Flying a lead pursuitcourse is the fastest way to get to the bandit because you cut him off in the sky. The problemwith establishing a lead pursuit course too early is that you will overshoot the bandit when youget in close unless you have a significant turn rate advantage. If you are fighting a similaraircraft, such as the MiG-29, you will not normally be able to stay in lead and will be forcedinto an overshoot. It is important, however, to establish lead pursuit at the proper time in thefight because it is the only way that you can get into the gun envelope.Determining the Pursuit Courseback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (5 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentIf the attacker is in the defender's plane of motion, the velocity vector of the attacker determines thepursuit course.The velocity vector, for the sake of our discussion, is the nose of the aircraft and represents the directionthat your jet travels through the air at any given time. From the cockpit, the velocity vector is depicted bythe flight path marker.What if the attacker is not in the same plane of motion as the defender? How do you determine thepursuit course for out-of-plane maneuvering? When the attacker is not in the same plane as the defender,pursuit course is deter-mined by the lift vector of the attacker. An aircrafts lift vector is simply a vectorthat sticks directly out of the top of the jet, perpendicular to the aircraft's wings. At high G, an aircraftmoves along its lift vector. You position the lift vector by rolling, and when you pull G's, the nose of thejet tracks toward the lift vector. The image below shows a fighter's lift vector.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (6 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentIf an attacker pulls out of plane with a bandit, his pursuit course is then determined by where his liftvector is taking him. When the attacker pulls out of plane with a bandit, he is, by definition, flying lagpursuit. As he pulls back into a bandit, he may be flying lag, pure or lead pursuit, depending on thegeometry of the fight. (The image below does not show a recommended maneuver but rather illustratesthe effect of out-of-plane maneuvering on the pursuit course.)file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (7 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentIn this image, the F-1 6 immediately goes to lag pursuit when he pulls his nose out of plane in position B.At the top of this maneuver, he initiates a pull back down into the defender at position C. In this position,the F- 16 is in pure pursuit. Notice at position D, when the F- 16 enters the MiG-29's plane-of-motion,his nose is on the Fulcrum and he is again flying a pure pursuit course.Where you position the nose of the aircraft is very important when a pilot attacks the bandit. The use ofattack pursuit geometry will be explained later on in detail, and we will talk in specific terms aboutwhere to place the jet in relationship to the bandit. For now, just make sure you understand what each ofthe pursuit courses are and what they do for you.The Weapons EnvelopeThe weapons envelope is the area around the bandit where your missiles or gun can beeffective. The weapons envelope is defined by angle-off, range and aspect angle. Thedimensions and position of this area are dictated by the type of weapons you are carrying.back to topIf your jet is loaded with all-aspect AIM-9M's or AIM-120's missiles, the area around thebandit looks like a doughnut; the outside ring being maximum range (Rmax) and the insidering being minimum range (Rmin). With each missile, Rmax and Rmin are different. Generallyspeaking, missiles that have a greater range or Rmax also have a greater minimum range orRmin.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (8 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentNotice the oval shape of the all-aspect missile envelope. More of the area is in front of thebandit than behind him because a missile fired at high aspect on a bandit (that is, from in front),has a greater effective range than a missile fired at low-aspect (from behind). If you shoot amissile head-on at a bandit, the mere fact that the bandit is flying towards you will help themissile reach its target. The missile may actually fly a shorter distance to hit the bandit head-onthan if it were fired at the bandit's six. However, the range at which you first launch the missilewill be greater, and this is what is important. The farther away you can launch a missile on thebandit and still have that missile be effective, the better. Always strive to get maximumperformance out of your weapons. Another way to increase a missile's effective range is tolaunch at a significantly higher altitude than the bandit. This will give your missile a reserve ofpotential energy that it can convert into kinetic energy.As a target pulls G's, the weapons envelope shifts. Generally, the limits of Rmax and Rmin infront of the aircraft both move out in the direction of the turn, while Rmax and Rmin behindthe aircraft move in on the belly side of turn. The next image shows a target in a 5 G turn. Theimportant point to remember is that a bandit that is in fear of dying will turn into you at high G.When this happens, Rmin expands outward from the target at a rapid rate, and within secondsyou may be inside minimum range for a missile shot.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (9 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentFor Gunsback to topThe gun is different from missiles in that it has no minimum range. The gun weapons envelopeis a circle around the bandit depicting the gun's maximum range. There is no minimum rangecircle.Remember, a fighter pilot must be aware of where he is at all times in respect to his weaponsenvelope.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (10 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled Document© Mavrck_667th & Tacohell_667th 2003file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/The%20Geometry%20of%20Air%20Combat.htm (11 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:34

Untitled DocumentIntroduction to Offensive BFMIn order to become a great fighter pilot, you must perform great BFM (Basic flightManeuvers). Now, in order to perform BFM, a fighter pilot must understand his positionalrelationship to the target from three perspectives: positional geometry, attack geometry and theweapons envelope.Introduction to Offensive BFMback to topThe ultimate goal of offensive BFM is to kill the bandit in the minimum amount of time. In order toaccomplish this goal, the fighter pilot must understand basic offensive maneuvering. It is helpful tothink of offensive BFM as a series of fluid rolls, turns and accelerations. Some of the maneuvers inoffensive BFM have names, but the modern day fighter pilot thinks in terms of driving his jet intothe control position from an offensive setup, rather than in terms of executing a series of named"moves" to counter the bandit's defensive maneuvering. The sustained maneuverability of a modernfighter has made a "move-counter-move" discussion of offensive BFM obsolete. This study guidereflects current offensive BFM thinking.It may seem obvious, but the primary reason that you need offensive BFM techniques is to counter abandit's turn. When you are behind a bandit who is flying straight and level, it is a simple matter tocontrol your airspeed with the throttle and fly around behind him. When the bandit turns, however,things change dramatically. A turning bandit will immediately create BFM problems.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (1 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentIn order to stay in weapons parameters and in control of the bandit, you must stay at his 6 o'clock. Todo this, you must maintain control of angle-off, range and aspect angle. Remember these termsdefined the angular relationship between two aircraft. The above image shows how a bandit's turnwill change the angular relation-ship between the offensive and defensive fighter. To control the"angles" and stay at 6 o'clock, the offensive fighter must also turn his jet. The below image showswhy an immediate turn by the offensive fighter will not work. If the offensive fighter goes into a turnto match the defensive fighter, he will just end up out in front because the center of there turn circlesare offsetfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (2 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentAn immediate turn will not work, and driving straight will not work. A turn of some sort is thesolution to solving the BFM problems of angle-off, aspect angle and range caused by the bandit'sdefensive turn. The problem is twofold-how to turn and when to turn. Let's look first at themechanics of turns.BFM and TurnsBFM has a lot to do with turns. It is important to under-stand several concepts about turns inorder to be successful at BFM. These include the concepts of positional energy, turn radius,turn rate, corner velocity and vertical turns.back to topPower for Positionback to top"Ps (specific power) for position" is a concept that is an integral part of BFM. Fighters havetwo types of energy: kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is simply the velocity or speed atwhich the jet is traveling. Potential energy is "stored" energy that can be converted to kineticenergy. Potential energy is directly related to aircraft altitude. If a jet is at high altitude, itspotential energy is high. If the same jet is flying at low altitude, its potential energy is low.Always remember that you can trade altitude (potential energy) for speed. Likewise, you canconvert aircraft speed back into altitude or potential energy.You can also exchange energy for nose position. Anytime you maneuver or turn a fighter; it"costs" energy. When you turn a jet at high G, you "spend" or lose energy. That's the bad news.The good news is that the defensive fighter also gives up energy to turn and defend himself.Turn Radius and Turn Rateback to topThe first two characteristics of turns are turn radius and turn rate. Turn radius is simply ameasure of how tight your jet is turning. If you are looking down on the aircraft as it turns, theturn radius is the distance from the center of your turn circle to the aircraft, measured in feet.It is not important that you understand how to compute turn radius. Just realize that velocity issquared in the turn radius equation, meaning that turn radius will grow exponentially based onvelocity. The equation also includes aircraft G's. The more G's that you pull, the tighter theturn. Still, velocity is squared, so airspeed has a greater effect on turn radius than G.Turn rate is the second important factor for turning the jet. Turn rate indicates how fast theaircraft moves around the turn radius or circle we just talked about. It is also described as howfast an aircraft can change its nose position. Turn rate is measured in degrees per second and isalso dependent on G's and airspeed.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (3 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentThe higher the G in the above equation, the faster the turn rate. Velocity still remains animportant factor. Notice that G is divided by velocity. If G remains at maximum, a highervelocity will cause turn rate to decrease. The reverse is true: a lower velocity will yield a higherturn rate.Corner Velocityback to topYou may think that slowing down to minimum airspeed and pulling as hard as you can is the best course ofaction in order to achieve a high turn rate. Not so fast. There is a relationship between airspeed and G's. At lowerairspeeds, you have less G available or, in other words, you can't pull as many G's as you get slow. Less lift isproduced by the wings of an aircraft at slower speeds, and as a result, there is less force available to turn theaircraft. If you get going really fast (above Mach 1, for example), you also lose G availability. For every fighter,there is an optimum airspeed for achieving the highest turn rate. The airspeed where the jet has the quickest turnrate with the smallest turn radius is called corner velocity. In most modern fighters, it is between 400 to 500KCAS. The F- 16 has a corner velocity of about 450 KCAS.The next image shows the relationship between airspeed (labeled as a Mach number), turn rate and turn radius.The top of the image shows turn rate and turn radius broken out individually, while the bottom of the graphshows them combined. These graphs in the image below are generic turn rate and radius charts. The bottomchart represents the approximate turn performance of an F- 16.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (4 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled Documentfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (5 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentNote that at 0.6 Mach, the jet can pull 9 G's and turn at a rate of 24° per second. At 0.6 Mach, the jet can alsoturn in a radius of 1,500 feet. This is the best (tightest) radius the jet can achieve at the highest turn rate possible.The jet can turn this same radius at slower airspeeds, but turn rate will go down significantly. At 0.4 Mach, forexample, the jet can turn with a radius of 1,500 feet, but the turn rate falls from 24° to 16° a second. Just to putthis figure in perspective, a 2° per second turn rate advantage will allow you to dominate an adversary.●●●●●The airspeed of a jet can be controlled by the pilot in the following four ways:Throttle positionDrag devicesNose position in relation to the horizonAircraft GThrottle position controls how much slow, cold air you turn into fast, hot gas. Drag devices refer primarily tospeed brakes. Nose position in relation to the horizon also affects airspeed. For example, a nose-low positionwill increase your airspeed because of the effect of gravity. Finally, G force causes airspeed to bleed off.Remember the brief discussion earlier about exchanging energy for position. No modern fighter flying atmedium altitude can stay at corner velocity while pulling max G's for long. As you pull G's, you will get slower.It is important, however, to start maneuvering close to corner velocity because the first turn you make is usuallythe most important in the fight.Fighter pilots should think in terms of both turn rate and turn radius. A fighter with a superior turn rate canoutmaneuver a fighter that has a poor turn rate but a tighter turn radius. Fighter pilots have a simple two-wordsaying: "Rate kills." What this means is that the ability to move (or rate) your nose is the primary means ofemploying weapons (which is what offensive BFM is all about). A bandit may have a tight turn circle, but if youcan rate your nose on him and shoot, the fight is over. The flaming wreckage will no longer cause you BFMproblems.Vertical Turnsback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (6 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentI have heard it said (incorrectly) that you fly in relation to the bandit and not the earth. While it isobvious that you must fly in relation to the bandit, you must simultaneously keep your nose in controlof the horizon. Gravity affects airspeed, as already mentioned. Gravity also affects G availability. Ifyou pull the nose of a fighter straight across the horizon, gravity will have no effect on your turnperformance. When you pull the nose up or down, however, gravity becomes a player.The next image introduces a new term: radial G. To understand how an aircraft turns, you mustunderstand that there are two factors that determine the rate and radius of a fighter's turn. The first isthe G being felt and read out on the G meter in the cockpit. The second is the pull of gravity. Radial Gis a term used by fighter pilots to describe the effective G that determines a fighter's turn. This showsthis concept by depicting a fighter doing a loop. In the image below, the cockpit G (the G felt by thepilot) is a constant 5 G's. You will notice that when an aircraft is straight and level and trying to pull inthe vertical, the effective G or radial G is only 4. Gravity is subtracted from cockpit G so that the jet ispulling only 4 radial Gs. When the fighter is pulling 5 G's in the cockpit in the pure vertical (90° point)either straight up or straight down, gravity has no effect, so radial G is equal to cockpit G. When thefighter is inverted and pulling straight down at 5 G's, gravity adds 1 G to your effective or radial G.The fighter, in effect, is turning at 6 G's at this point. Radial G then is simply a term that describes theeffective or turning G created by combining the positive or negative influence of gravity with cockpitG.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (7 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentWhat the above image shows is that cockpit G is not equal to radial or turning G when maneuvering inthe vertical. Remember that 2' per second is a significant turning advantage. The extra G you can getby placing your nose below the horizon when you turn can give you at least 2' per second turnadvantage. Most of the time, 1 GR equates to 3°-4° per second.The concept of radial G can be seen in our next image. In this image, both fighters are pulling the samecockpit G. Notice that the fighter with his lift vector below the horizon is turning tighter. What is notso obvious in this figure is that the fighter turning toward the ground is also moving or rating the nosefaster.Turning Roomback to topWhen a bandit turns his jet, he creates BFM problems for you. To solve these problems, you need toturn your jet. In order to turn your jet and solve these BFM problems, you need turning room.Turning room is the offset or distance from the bandit. There are three basic types of turning room:lateral (or horizontal) turning room, vertical turning room, and a combination of both. In order tounderstand the concept of turning room, you must first understand turn circles. Turn circles aresimply the paths that a fighter cuts through the sky when it turns. Our next image shows a turncircle.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (8 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentThe concept of turn circles is critically important to understand because, in order to turn and solveBFM problems created by the bandit, you must first drive your jet inside the bandit's turn circle.Here's how turn circles and turning room are related.A bandit turns his jet to defend against your attack. You need to get displacement from the bandit inthe horizontal or vertical in order to turn and stay behind him. If you try to get displacement whileyou are still outside the bandit's turn circle, it will not work. Why? Because if you are outside thebandit's turn circle, the bandit can get around the turn and meet you close to head-on. This meansthat the bandit can turn and take away your turning room. Now we show a fighter turning for lateraloffset outside a defender's turn circle.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (9 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentIt is very dangerous to try to get turning room in the vertical, outside the bandit's turn circle. If youare climbing in the vertical outside or dose to the bandit's turn circle, the bandit can get his nosearound on you. When you pass at high aspect, the bandit will be nose high while you will be noselow. The bandit gets the first use of gravity to increase his radial G as you pass and will probablyget behind you. For this reason, do not try to get turning room outside the bandit's turn circle.Any maneuvering you do outside the bandit's turn circle will delay you from getting inside thebandit's turn circle. You must be inside the bandit's turn circle in order to turn and solve the BFMproblem. In the next section, we will describe how to determine if you are inside or outside the turncircle of the bandit and how to use BFM to get and stay in weapons parameters.Solving the Offensive BFM Problemback to topThe reason you are out there burning jet fuel is simple: to get into weapons parameters andshoot. BFM is real simple against a guy hanging in a chute. All you have to do is watch out forhim shooting at you with his pistol as you fly by and wave. Anytime you can take a shot andend the fight, do it. The problem is that when you start from 1.0 to 1.5 nm behind the banditand he turns, you will only be in AIM-9M parameters for a very short time. The AIM-9M isjust like every other heat missile out there today it doesn’t like the high line-of-sight ratesgenerated by targets in tight, turning fights. You have time for one shot. If you miss, you hadbetter be ready to put some offensive BFM on him, or you will end up wearing an AA- 11Archer. The end result of your best offensive BFM will be a gunshot. Here is how you do it.The bandit turns. The first question you must ask yourself is "Am I inside or outside thebandit's turn circle?"How do you know? Watch the bandit's turn.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (11 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentIf the bandit's present turn rate will force his nose on you or even close to you, you are outsidethe bandit's turn circle. For modern fighters at high G, you are normally outside the bandit'sturn circle at ranges outside 2 nm. At 1 nm, you are normally inside the bandit's turn circle, andbetween these ranges, you are in a transition zone. These ranges, of course, do not really matterto a fighter pilot. When you start behind a bandit, you simply fight what you see. As the banditturns, you predict where he is going and maneuver based on this prediction. For example, if thebandit is only pulling 4 G's, then at 2 nm you are still inside his turn circle. The next imageshows the difference between starting at 2 nm from a 4 G target and starting at 2 nm from a 7G target.Most fighter pilots will not pull only 4 G's, however, when they are in danger of dying. Still,you fight what you see.If you are outside the bandit's turn circle at the beginning of the fight, you are not in anoffensive fight-you are in a head-on BFM fight. Head-on BFM is the subject of Chapter 4, butfor now, just think about an AIM-9M shot in this situation. The bandit cannot shoot you untilhe gets his nose around to within about 40° of your jet. You should be able to get one goodmissile shot at him before he forces you inside Rmin.Gun Shot Proceduresback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (12 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentFlying good offensive BFM against a bandit will put him right in your gun sights. You'll gethim there by under-standing the dynamics of getting into position, closing and firing.Flying into Gun Parametersback to topIt is time to discuss how and when we turn to stay behind the bandit. You are inside 1.5 nm ona hard turning bandit, and you need turning room to get around on his six. The first step is toobserve the bandit's turn. If you are outside the bandit's turn circle, get ready for a head-onBFM fight. If you are near or inside the bandit's turn circle, you have a positional advantagethat you can keep. Shoot, if a shot presents itself, but don't get mesmerized watching your ownmissile and forget to BFM. Next, drive to where the bandit started his turn. If the bandit dropsflares or chaff, he will mark the point in the sky where he started his turn. Drive to this position(called the entry window). Next you'll see the entry window. The entry window is locatedinside the bandit's turn circle. You can start your high G turn into the bandit once you arriveinside this window.In the below image, the F- 16 drove in a lag pursuit course to a position inside the bandit's turncircle. By driving to this position, the F- 16 gained horizontal turning room that the bandit can'tuse or take away. You know you are at the entry window and must start your turn when thebandit is approximately 30° off your nose.When you get into this relationship with the bandit, start your turn. Remember corner velocity.If you arrive at the window too fast or too slow, you will get stuck in lag pursuit because youwill not have sufficient turn rate to get your nose out in front of the bandit.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (13 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentThe next step is to pull 7 to 8 G's into the bandit. As you come around the corner, keep yournose in lag. If you see the nose of your jet approaching pure pursuit, ease up on the G. Holdthis lag pursuit course until you get within 3,000 feet of the bandit. At this range, go to leadpursuit and get ready for a gun shot.When you arrive inside 3,000 feet on the bandit with your nose in pure or lead pursuit, yourthrottle controls your overtake. Note this. In close to the bandit, with your angle-off less than45° and your nose in pure or lead pursuit, the position of your throttle controls your closure.When you get saddled up for a gun shot, you must match airspeed with the target. In mostcases, this will require constant movement of the throttle. In addition to banging the throttle offboth stops, you may have to maneuver out of plane to control your airspeed. If a throttlereduction and the speed brakes dot slow you down enough, roll the jet to orient your lift vectorout of the bandit's plane-of-motion and pull. Hold this lag pursuit pull for about two seconds;then ease off the G and watch the bandit. When he starts to move forward on your canopy, it istime to pull back into him. Pull your lift vector out in front of the bandit as you pull down.Taking a Gun Shotback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (14 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentYou are inside 3,000 feet on the bandit with your nose in lead. How do you take a gun shot?The gun in most fighters is actually a cannon. The F-16, for example, has an M-61A1 20mmcannon, which is common to almost every U.S. fighter. The M-61A1 shoots High ExplosiveIncendiary (HEI) rounds at the rate of 100 per second. At the proper range, the gun is like agiant buzz saw. In order to carve up the enemy, however, you must understand thefundamentals of taking a gun shot. To hit a target with the gun, you must meet the followingconditions:●●●You must be in range. This range varies, depending on aspect, but it is usually about2,500 feet at low aspect angles and about 4,000 feet at high aspect.You must have your nose in lead pursuit. The bullets fired by the gun are unguidedprojectiles that take time to get to the target. For most gunshots, the bullet time-offlight(TOF) is .5 to 1.5 seconds. If you point directly at the target and fire, the bulletswill pass behind the target. If the bullet moved at the speed of light, you could pointright at a turning target and score a hit. Since the bullet is considerably slower, youmust pull lead. This lead may not be very pronounced, however, at dose range.You must be in the bandit's plane of motion. When an aircraft turns, it carves a circle inthe sky that creates a plane. In order for you to hit the target with the gun, you must beturning in the same plane as your target. For example, if the target is flying a loop andcreating a vertically oriented plane of motion, you have to be flying a loop in the sameplane as the target.Using the Gun SightThe new gun sight for the F-16 and F-15 is called EEGS. EEGS (pronounced as it is spelled)stands for Enhanced Envelope Gun Sight. The EEGS funnel allows the pilot to match thewingspan of the target with the width of the funnel to determine the proper firing range. Theother important gun aiming cue in the HUD is the gun cross. The gun cross represents thedeparture line of the bullets. You can consider the gun cross as the gun barrel. Bullets passstraight out the gun cross.back to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (15 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentSo, how do you use the funnel? The gun in the F- 16 is boresighted to 6 mils. This means thatthe gun is adjusted to fire a burst that will put 80% of the rounds inside a 6-foot diameter circleat 1,000 feet. This is a tight pattern. You can have either a highly concentrated burst thatcompletely misses the target or a very lethal burst that vaporizes the target. It just depends onthe quality of your gun sight (and your ability to aim it.) Air-to-air situations are alwaysdynamic, and targets under attack will normally jink violently to stay alive. Since the sight (andyour reactions) are not instantaneous, it is likely you may achieve a highly accurate miss; thatis, a tight burst that finds only empty air. The sight was lined up and stable, but you missed.How could this happen? The sight was lying because the target was jinking faster than the sightcould react. The way to overcome this problem is to strive for an inaccurate hit. You do this byusing the EEGS funnel to fire a burst while moving the target through the area of uncertainty.The EEGS funnel gives you a perfect solution when the wingtips of the target match the widthof the funnel. If the target is jinking, however, this "perfect solution' may be in error.Here is how to use the gun cross / funnel combination to kill the bandit:Place the gun cross out in front of the target. Picture the target with a long pilot boom stickingout the nose. The gun cross should be placed on this extended pilot boom. If the target changeshis plane-of-motion, then fly to place the gun cross on the new position of this imaginary polesticking out of the nose of the target.Next, over lead the target by making the wingspan of the target extend past the funnel. Thiswill place your bullet stream in front of the target's nose.Fire the gun while easing up on the G. This will move the target from the bottom of the funnelto the top. Cease fire when the target's wings are inside the funnel.Make a slight jink out of the bandit's plane-of-motion so, when he blows up, you don't suck abody part down your intake.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (16 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentThis technique uses the gun cross and the EEGS funnel to place the bullet stream in front of thebandit. When you ease up on the G, the target should fly through your bullets. Our last imageshows how to make this shot.© Mavrck_667th & TacoHell_667th 2003file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Offensive%20BFM.htm (17 von 17)05.08.2006 10:41:38

Untitled DocumentIntroduction to Defensive BFMIntroduction to Defensive BFMback to topThe stakes are high when you find yourself on the defensive. Defensive BFM ischaracterized by difficult, high-G combat, flown while you look out the back of the jet.Since most fighter pilots don't do their best creative thinking twisted around in thecockpit under high G's, it is best to have a game plan in mind before finding a bandit atyour 6 o'clock. We mentioned in earlier that offensive BFM is not a set of specificmoves but rather a series of fluid maneuvers. The same is true when you start with abandit behind you. There are no magic moves that will move a bandit from your 6o'clock to your 12 o'clock. In fact, if you fly perfect defensive BFM and the bandit fliesperfect offensive BFM, you will get shot down. This statement speaks volumes aboutdefensive BFM.Defensive BFM is very simple: create BFM problems for the bandit, and when heBFM's, try to counter his BFM to buy time and survive a little longer. By forcing thebandit to BFM, you may force him to make a BFM error that you can capitalize on. Ifhe doesn't make a mistake, he will drive into gun parameters. When this happens, youmust be ready to defeat the gunshot.Detecting the Attackback to topBefore you can defend against an attack, you must detect that you are under attack.Most air-to-air kills are against targets that have no idea that they are about to be stuck.There are three primary methods used to detect an attack:Radarback to topYour air-to-air radar is the best way to detect an attack because it can look out past 40nm. All airborne intercept (Al) radars are limited in azimuth and elevation coverage, soradar will not always warn you that bandits are in your area.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (1 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentThreat Warning System (TWS)back to topYour threat warning system can detect if any radars are looking at your jet. Again, TWSthreat reactions will be covered during the discussion of the engaged two-ship elementin the next book.Visualback to topNo matter how else you detect an attacking bandit, eventually you will have to get atally to fight him effectively. This chapter will discuss what to do when you see anattacking bandit.Defending Against a Missileback to topWhether you see an attacking bandit or not, you must adhere to a fundamental rule ofair combat: "Fight the most immediate threat." You will face a lot of confusingsituations as a fighter pilot. To increase your chances of survival, fight the threat that isin the best position to kill you. For example, take a MiG-29 at 6 o'clock that has fired anAA-11 Archer IR missile at you. When that missile leaves the rail and starts guiding onyou, the MiG is no longer the biggest threat to your jet. The missile becomes theprimary threat, so you must fight the missile.Here's another fighter pilot axiom to keep in mind: "Fight missiles with aspect' When amissile is fired at your jet in the aft quadrant, the best way to defeat it is with amaximum rate turn to put the missile on the beam (along your 3/9 line). You will give amissile the most guidance problems if you put the missile at your 3 or 9 o'clockposition. In this position, you will be at 90' of aspect with respect to the missile, and itwill have the worst possible line-of-sight rate problem to solve. Missiles fly lead pursuitcourses to the target in order to achieve maximum range. If you hold the missilesomewhere on your 3/9 line, you will make the missile pull the maximum amount oflead. You will also be moving across the missile field-of-view at the fastest rate. Thisimage shows this position.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (2 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentEarlier, we discussed max G turns at corner velocity. It is critical that you generate yourbest turn rate to drive the missile to the beam quickly. Don't think in terms of trying toforce the missile to overshoot with a tight turn radius. Missiles are designed to explodeas they overshoot you. If they fly past you inside the lethal radius of the warhead, youwill be turned into a cloud of body parts. Also, while making a defensive turn to put themissile on the beam, always remember to dispense chaff and flares.Creating BFM Problems for the BanditA bandit shows up at your 6 o'clock. What do you do?back to topIf he fires a missile, fight the missile! But before a missile is fired, you must turn and create BFM problems for thebandit. The defensive turn should be the quickest, tightest turn you can make. There are obvious BFM reasons fordoing a high-G turn, but there are psychological reasons as well. An 8 G turn into the bandit will make a clearstatement of your intent to remain alive and fight this guy with everything you've got. An 8 G turn says to thebandit, "It is me against you for all the wine and women in world." A 4 to 5 G turn says that you are Little BoPeep and have somehow managed to take off in a fighter. You will invite slaughter (and deserve it) with a weakturn.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (3 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentWe've already mentioned that in order to get the quickest, tightest turn, you must be at corner velocity. As youstart a defensive turn into the bandit, you should place your lift vector directly on him. This will give the banditthe most angle-off and aspect problems to solve. You will also deny him turning room by keeping your lift vectordirectly on his jet. It is easy to see why turning with your lift vector off of the bandit will give him turning room.In the above image, you can see a defending F-16 placing his lift vector below the horizon while doing a defensiveturn. The attacking MiG-29 stays level and gains turning room above the defender by just driving in level.Bandit Outside Your Turn Circleback to topSo you have rolled your jet to place your lift vector right on the bandit and executed your best high-G turn atcorner velocity. What next?Now you must determine if your defensive turn is working. If the bandit is being forced forward from 6 o'clocktoward your 3 or 9 o'clock position, then the turn is working. A bandit that starts outside your turn circle will beforced in front of your 3/9 line if you perform the defensive turn correctly. The next image shows a MiG-29attacking an F-16. The F-16 pilot turns with his lift vector on the bandit at corner velocity and forces the bandit infront of his 3/9 line.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (4 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentYour turn is working if you push a bandit forward towards your nose. Keep in mind that he can still shoot you! Ifthe bandit has his nose in lead as you drive him forward with your defensive turn, be ready to defend against agunshot. Remember, in order for him to take a gunshot, he needs to meet three conditions: he must be in range, hemust be in plane, and he must have his nose in lead pursuit. If the bandit's nose is in lead pursuit, watch out! Eventhough he will overshoot, the bandit will probably attempt a gun shot at the pass. To defend against this type ofgunshot, all you have to do is break suddenly out of plane. Because of the high line-of-sight rates involved, thebandit will not be able to correct in time and will overshoot. A bandit that starts outside your turn circle and drivesin with his nose in lead for a gunshot will overshoot. Overshoots are discussed in more detail below.Bandit Inside Your Turn Circleback to topWhat if the bandit starts at 1 nm? Your reaction should be the same. Put your bestdefensive turn on the bandit and see what he does. When a bandit starts close to yourturn circle, he is a serious threat, and your best defensive turn may not force himforward. The bandit has one good option if he is committed to staying around andkilling you: he has to fly lag pursuit to get to your turn circle entry window. When abandit starts inside your turn circle and drives to lag, you are in for a long day. The bestcourse of action is to continue your high-G turn and try to stick his nose in lag. Thereare some schools of thought that say you should unload the jet (release the G) andextend for energy. The problem with an extension is that it is very hard to judge howlong to keep the jet unloaded and driving straight. When you unload and accelerate, thebandit will move quickly to deep 6 o'clock, and you will probably attract an AA- 11shot. The best course of action against a lagging bandit is to continue turning and see ifthe bandit has a sufficient turn rate to get his nose around on you. If he does, get readyfor gun defense. Our next image shows a MiG-29 flying a good lag entry on an F-16.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (5 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentThe bandit may not fly perfect BFM. What if he climbs above you?If the bandit pulls into the vertical for turning room, keep the hard turn coming withyour lift vector directly on the him. As you pull up into the bandit, watch him. If heimmediately pulls down to a lag position as you pull up into him, he knows what he isdoing and will quickly dose the range for a gunshot. If he keeps his nose high, you willend up in a neutral position on the bandit because you are slower and have a smallerturn radius. Since you have just started your turn, you should still have enough energyand turn rate ability to get around the corner and pass the bandit at high angles. Thisimage shows this type of fight.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (6 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentIn this type of fight, you will end up in a scissors. Scissors occur when two fighters arein a line-abreast, neutral position. They both pull for each other's 6 o'clock position and,as they pass, they roll back into each other and pull. The scissors is usually won by thefighter that can slow his forward velocity, in relation to the bandit, the quickest. Ournext image shows a scissors.Lead pursuit is another attack pursuit course that the bandit may take. If a bandit startsat 1 nm back and flies a lead pursuit course, he will probably overshoot. Remember the2 nm setup already discussed? The same result will occur at 1 nm. In order to force thebandit to overshoot, however, you must be executing your best turn. The bandit will notovershoot if you are 50 or more knots slower or faster than corner velocity, or if you arenot pulling enough G.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (7 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentThe last option the bandit has is a pure pursuit attack. If you see a bandit pointing at youand a missile is not coming off of his jet, you are in for a treat. A guy that points at youfor more than a few seconds is clueless. This type of maneuvering is called HUD BFM.HUD BFM almost always results in a gross overshoot and a lead change-in otherwords, the bandit will end up in front.Overshootsback to topThere are two type of overshoots: the flight path overshoot and the 3/9 line overshoot.A 3/9 line overshoot is always tactically significant, while a flight path overshoot maynot be. The next image shows a 3/9 line overshoot along with two flight pathovershoots. Aircraft A slightly overshoots the F- 16's flight path. This is not tacticallysignificant. Aircraft B, on the other hand, overshoots the F-16's flight path far enoughthat he may end up line-abreast or out in front if the F- 16 reverses his turn. Aircraft Cis obviously in big trouble because he has blundered past the F- 16's 3/9 line. Allovershoots are not created equal.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (8 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentWhen you predict that a bandit may overshoot, note the range, angle-off, and the line-ofsightrate of the bandit. His position, in relation to you, will dictate how you willreverse. As a rule of thumb, the greater the range when he overshoots and the slowerthe line-of-sight rate, the less chance you have of forcing him out in front of your 3/9line with a reversal.When a bandit overshoots, there are basically two ways to reverse your turn to takeadvantage of it. If you see the bandit is going to overshoot with a high line-of-sight rate,you should perform an unloaded reversal. To do an unloaded reversal, simply releasethe G, roll the aircraft to position your lift vector directly on the bandit, and then pullmaximum G directly at him. You should only use this reversal method when you aresure that the bandit will overshoot. This type of reversal does not "force" the bandit outin front of you; it just gets your nose on the bandit quickly when he does overshoot.The other type of reversal should be used with caution. It is called a loaded reversal. Toexecute a loaded reversal, keep the Gs on the jet as you roll and pull toward the bandit.This type of reversal is used to "force" a bandit that is about to overshoot into anovershoot. This type of situation is shown here.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (9 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentThe problem with a loaded reversal is that, if you execute it and the bandit doesn’tovershoot, you will have a bad guy in your chili at close range, and you won't have theair-speed to maneuver. A loaded reversal is used to stop your aircraft in the sky, and ifdoesn't work, you're in trouble. For this reason, let's go over a few overshoot rules ofthumb.When in doubt about a bandit's overshoot, don't reverse your turn. It is best to reversewhen a bandit is overshooting your flight path inside 2,000 feet with a high line-of-sightrate. Outside 3,000 feet, it is best not to reverse your turn. The bandit has too muchroom to correct his overshoot and maintain a 3/9 advantage on you.Guns Defenseback to topYou have flown perfect defensive BFM, but the bandit has flown perfect offensiveBFM and is closing for a gunshot. What should you do?Snapshots and Tracking Shotsback to topThere are basically two types of gun shots: the high line-of-sight snapshot and thestabilized tracking gun shot. This chapter has already briefly explained how to defend -against a snapshot. When a bandit is closing with a high line-of-sight rate on your jetwith his nose in lead, think "snap-shot' " A snapshot is usually not the result of perfectlyflown BFM, but it can still kill you. To defend against a snapshot, you should break outof plane. The only tough part is judging when to make your move. It is better to make ittoo soon rather than too late. If you go early, the bandit can correct, but when he does,you can jink out of plane again. If you jink late, you may end up having a valuableappendage carved off by the bandit's gun.How about tracking gun shots? These are harder to defend against because the bandit isnot passing his gun through you quickly, as he does in a snapshot. In a trackinggunshot, the bandit is in a stable position behind you and will take multiple shots. Forthis reason, you will have to make multiple out-of-plane jinks to keep from getting shot.The key to guns defense is to make sudden jinks at least 70° out of plane with theattacker. Keep a tally on the bandit, and before he gets established in this new plane ofmotion, jink again. This type of defense is a random guns jink.The Snakeback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (10 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentA popular guns jink, currently in vogue in the F-16 community, is the "snake." Here'show you do it: when you see the bandit pulling his nose into lead, you unload rapidly,roll 180°, and reverse your direction of turn. Hold this course and make the bandit pullhis nose back into lead. If the bandit reduces power to stay behind you, he may end upgetting stuck in lag. If his nose is stuck in lag, keep turning with your lift vector abovethe horizon.If the bandit has the energy to get his nose back into lead, unload again and roll 180° toreverse your turn again. This time, reduce power to bait him into an overshoot. As thebandit repositions to lead pursuit, unload and roll 180' again and reduce power further.If you have lived this long, you should be jamming the bandit and forcing an overshoot.Anytime you see that the bandit is going to over-shoot, get back into full burner, setyour wings level with the horizon and pull max G. This will help him fly out in front ofyour 3/9 line.This maneuver is not a magic move. If the bandit is highly skilled, he will probably gunyou, snake or no snake. It is worth a try, however, because against a plumber, it willwork almost every time. If you're lucky, you might get a chance to see his best gunsdefense.© Mavrck_667th & TacoHell_667th 2003file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Defensive%20BFM.htm (11 von 11)05.08.2006 10:41:39

Untitled DocumentIntroduction to Head-On BFMIntroduction to Head-On BFMback to topA head-on BFM fight requires more maneuvering than any other fight we have discussed so far. As you approachan enemy fighter head-on, you have two options: you can separate or you can stay and fight. The biggest decisionyou must make when passing a bandit head-on is whether you should get anchored in a turning fight. If you entera fight with a bandit from head-on, you will use up both energy and time. Energy is needed to maneuver, and timecan be used against you by yet another bandit who may find your fight and get in on you for a shot. If you take toomuch time, you may be winning the fight you started with one bandit, but losing a fight with a second bandit youdon't see.There are many good reasons to blow past the bandit and separate. There are also plenty of times when you willhave to turn and fight. This chapter will provide the academic background to help you construct a game plan forfighting a bandit from head-on. Before plunging into head-on BFM, you need to understand the concept of the"escape window."The Escape Windowback to topA fighter pilot enters a fight to shoot down the enemy and survive to fight another day. As you enter a fight, you mustbe aware of your position in regard to your escape window. The escape window represents your safe path out of thefight. Said another way, the window represents your chances of separating from the fight. The window expands andcontracts based on both the geometry of fight and your energy. If you jump a single bandit that doesn't have a tally,your escape window is huge. You can leave the fight at anytime. However, if the bandit picks up a tally and starts adefensive turn, your escape window starts to shrink. As the window shrinks, the probability of getting out of the fightgoes down. At some point in a maneuvering fight, your escape window closes completely. The engagement on the leftshows an offensive BFM setup with the attacking fighter inside the bandit's turn circle at low angle-off. Is the escapewindow open or closed?file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (1 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentIn this engagement, the escape window is dosed. The engagement on the right shows why. At low angle-off, inside thebandit's turn circle, the attacker cannot get out of the fight. If he tries to leave the fight, the bandit will just reverse histurn and stick the attacker with a missile. The escape window for the bandit is definitely closed. Since neither fightercan get out of this engagement, somebody is going to the meat locker. The defensive fighter knows that he can't get outof this fight. The offensive fighter may not know the window is dosed. Lots of guys try to dive out of a closed escapewindow, only to get hosed in the attempt.Below, the engagement on the left shows another offensive BFM setup. Is the offensive fighter's escape windowopened or closed in this engagement?file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (2 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentIt is open. The engagement on the right illustrates why. When you are out-side the bandit's turn circle, you can get yournose to lead pursuit early enough in the fight to pass the bandit with high angle-off and high speed. You also force thebandit to turn back 180' to put his nose on you after already turning 180' to meet you with high angles. Since the banditwill be slow, your escape window will be open throughout this engagement. What would happen if the attacker droveinto lag pursuit and then turned aggressively to put his nose on the bandit? The escape window would close.In our next engagement, two fighters have entered what we call a Luftberry. They are across the circle from each other,pulling to gain an advantage. Can either one of them get out of this fight? No. Again, the first one that tries to leave,dies.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (3 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentDo not conclude from this discussion that the purpose of air combat is to fly around and keep your escape windowopen. If you want to be really safe, you should stay on the ground, holding hands with sweet Marie. If you are going tostrap on a fighter, you will have to hang it out at some point, in order to kill the enemy. As you enter a fight, however,you should be aware of what your escape window is doing, so you won't get caught trying to dive out a closed escapewindowStay In Fight? Or Seperate ?back to topSo what affects your escape window? Assuming everybody in the fight has a tally (an assumption that is seldomcorrect), the following factors drive the position of your escape window:●●●Your range from the bandit: the greater the range, the more "open" the escape window.Your energy relative to the bandit: the greater your energy, the more "open" your escape window.Your combined angle-off and aspect with the bandit: a head-on pass gives you the best chance for anopen escape window.As you enter a head-on fight, your escape window is usually open. Think carefully before you turn and slam itshut.Lead Turnsback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (4 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentA lead turn is an attempt to decrease angle-off prior to passing the bandit's 3/9 line. Lead turning is one of themost important concepts in BFM. Lead turns can be used anywhere, but they are used most often in head-on BFM.Lead turns are the most energy efficient way to BFM. Stated more directly, if one fighter lead turns and the otherfighter does not, the lead turning fighter will win. Here's how you execute a lead turn.As you approach a bandit head-on, watch the line-of-sight rate of the bandit. When you approach an aircraft headon,it will be relatively stationary on your canopy. As you get closer, the bandit will start to move aft on yourcanopy. There is a place in space and time, just as you pass the bandit, where the closure will transition from highpositive numbers to high negative numbers. What this means is that, as you approach the bandit, the Vc(pronounced "V sub C") is high. Your jets are closing on each other at about 1,000 knots since, head-on, Vc willbe the sum of your airspeeds. As you pass the bandit's 3/9 line in this example, the Vc will change rapidly fromplus 1,000 knots to negative 1,000 knots. When the Vc starts to change from positive to negative, it is time to startyour lead turn.Unfortunately, there is no lead turn light in the cockpit and watching the Vc in the HUD while simultaneouslywatching the bandit is very difficult. The best way to judge when to start a lead turn is to watch the bandit's line-ofsightrate across your canopy. When it starts to increase rapidly, start your turn. This spot where the line-of-sightrate of the bandit increases is usually very close to 30° off your nose. This engagement shows an F-16 lead turninga MiG-29.How about the turn itself? Usually lead turns are done at the maximum G possible. When you lead turn, you areclosing your escape window and committing yourself to maneuvering combat. Lead turns can be initiated from allaspects and angles-off, but you need to predict the flight path of the bandit and take care not to fly out in front ofhim while you are doing your lead turn. This engagement shows a lead turn that is initiated too soon.There is one particular situation where a lead turn can be used to dominate an adversary. This is the nose-high-tonose-lowpass. Nose-high and nose-low refer to the position of an aircraft's nose in relation to the horizon. Whenyou are nose-high and passing a bandit who is nose-low, it is time to do a big lead turn at max G. You will havethe benefit of using the extra radial G caused by gravity, and the bandit will have to fight gravity. If you blunderinto this situation or cleverly maneuver the bandit into this situation, you should be able to use a lead turn to gainan immediate 3/9 line advantage. Our next engagement shows a nose-high-to-nose-low lead turn.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (5 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentYou may ask, "if a lead turn is such a potent maneuver) wont the bandit be lead turning my jet?" The answer is"Yes, he will." The best way to negate the effects of a bandits lead turn is with a lead turn of your own. If you andyour done are both flying F-16s and you each perform a lead turn into the other, the net effect is zero. If you are inan F-16, however, and a bandit is in a MiG-29, and you each perform a lead turn into the other, you will gain aslight advantage, since you have a better- turning jet. The way to counter a lead then is with a lead turn of yourown.Options At The Passback to topAs you approach a bandit head-on, one of your first thoughts should be "How can I get this over with quick?"Shoot a heat missile if you can, and don't forget the gun. In most head-on passes, you will have to sacrifice BFMto shoot the gun, so it is not advisable to try to line up for a gun shot. If you are committed to separate, however,you should think about a head-on gun shot. Consider that he might also be lining up for a gun shot against you,and even if he isn't, head-on gun shots are dangerous because of the high midair-collision potential. For the sake ofour discussion, let's assume you are not going to take a gun shot and you've decided to stay and fight. Here areyour options:●●●●You can turn nose low.You can turn level.You can go straight up in the vertical.You can do a few other things, like pitch back or split-S, but if you see these types of moves on a headonpass, it normally indicates that the bandit is in the wrong profession. He should be showing a fat ladysomething in a size 1OD pump instead of fighting you in a fighter.Anyway, before deciding which maneuver to execute from the options we just mentioned, keep in mind thisfighter pilot axiom: "Head-on fights are lost and not won." Head-on fights require a lot of maneuvering, so theodds that one of the players will make a mistake is high. The biggest mistake made during head-on BFM is losingsight of the bandit. Since you can't fight what you can't see, this is a sure way to get your knickers ripped. Theabsolute best BFM move is no good if you lose sight of the bandit halfway through the maneuver. Some othercommon head-on BFM mistakes are insufficient G, poor airspeed control, bad lift vector control, failure to leadfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (6 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled Documentturn, and trying to BFM in an F-14. (Just kidding on that last one-well, not really.)So, we are committed to a head-on fight. Let's talk about each option.Nose-Low: The Sliceback to topThe quickest way to get your nose around on the bandit is by initiating a lead turn slice into the bandit. To do thismaneuver, start an immediate 8 G lead turn into the bandit with your nose about 10° below the horizon when theline-of-sight rate of the bandit starts to increase. By pulling around with your nose low, you will gain the use ofgravity, which will preserve your airspeed and increase your effective turn rate. (Remember radial G?)The slice is one of the Viper (F-16) pilot's favorite moves. The reason is simple. The F-16 can out-turn anything inthe sky, so a big lead turn executed nose-low will intimidate the bandit. After completing the turn, you will havegained angles on the bandit and still have plenty of energy for the next turn. The disadvantage of the slice is that itis a high-G, nose-low maneuver that places the bandit at deep six and out of sight momentarily. This is not too biga disadvantage if you know where to look for him as you come out of the turn. The bandit should be slightly abovethe horizon and approaching your 12 o'clock as you complete 180° of turn. The above engagement shows a slice.The Level Turnback to topAnother good option at the pass is a level turn into the bandit. This option does not get your nose around as fast asthe slice, but it has a big advantage over the slice-you can usually maintain a tally throughout the turn. You performthe level turn the same way as you do the slice, except you drag your nose straight across the horizon.Besides slowing down your turn rate, the level turn will slow your airspeed more than the slice does. Don't forgetto lead turn when you execute this maneuver.The Vertical Flightback to topfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (7 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentThe last option is a straight pull-up into the vertical. This move is only included for a few special cases. If you arefighting a bandit and the sun is directly overhead, you may want to consider a pull-up into the vertical. Remember,head-on fights are usually lost and not won. If you take the sun on your first move, the bandit may lose sight. Youcan usually tell when a bandit has lost sight because he does a "Magellan Act." You will see him S-turn and rockhis wings trying to pick up tally. His lift vector will probably not be pointing at you as he flails around.There is another related advantage of a move into the vertical-you will have a lot of aircraft platform to look at, soit is easy to maintain a tally. The big disadvantage of this move is that your initial turn rate is poor as you fightgravity on the pull-up. At the top, of course, you have gravity's help, so your turn rate goes back up.Unfortunately, the bandit will have made some angles on you by then. Another disadvantage of going into thepure vertical is that you present a very hot target, from the heat plume of your jet exhaust, against a very cold skybackground. This, coupled with the fact that the bandit has probably gained some angle advantage, might lead youto grief. As a general rule, don't go into the vertical on the first move.If you must go into the vertical, here is how you do it. As you pass the bandit, start a wings-level pull at 550 knotsor as close to 550 as you can get. This is not corner velocity, but it doesn't matter. As you start your 7 G pull, youwill bleed off knots like sweat off a pig. This next engagement shows this initial move in the vertical and howmuch altitude you will gain on the bandit by pulling straight up, rather than turning in the oblique (somewhere inbetween horizontal and vertical).file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (8 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentAs you get to the pure vertical (straight up), pick up the bandit and pirouette to rotate your lift vector right on him.When your lift vector is on him, pull down. If he sees you, he will pull up into you. At this point, you will be onthe receiving end of the nose-high-to-nose-low lead turn. In this situation, counter the lead turn by starting a leadturn of your own. After you counter the lead turn, continue around in a level turn to put your lift vector on thebandit.The other option is to continue the vertical fight. If you do this, go up again and do not wait until you get 550knots. When you have 300 knots and are passing the bandit, pull into the vertical. If you delay your pull up, thebandit will gain angles on you. Once you get to the pure vertical, repeat the pirouette and pull. You know you arewinning this fight when the bandit no longer pulls his nose up into you. This is a sign that he is out of energy. Younow own the turning room above the bandit and can use it to convert on him.Remember, if you are committed to going vertical, roll wings-level and make your initial pull straight up. Thenroll to find the bandit and pull for him. Do not go into the oblique, or you will give the bandit turning room. Anold fighter pilot saying from the Vietnam era is "You meet a better class of people in the vertical." This is still truetoday.Basic Geometry: One-Circle and Two-Circle Fightsback to topThe options that we discussed at the pass can result in either a one-circle or two-circle fight. If both fighters start a leadturn, the fight will go two-circle, as shown in the below engagement. This means that two distinct turn circles arecreated.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (9 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled Documentfile:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (10 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentIf one of the players turns away, then the fight goes one-circle, as shown above.Keep in mind that either you or the bandit can force a one-or two-circle fight. A fighter pilot should understand thecharacteristics of both of these types of fights. Most head-on passes result in two-circle fights. The reason for this issimple. Usually, fighters lead turn into each other to use the turning room available in an attempt to reduce angle-off. Ifyou are offset from the bandit and turn away, you are not using the turning room available, but worse yet, you areletting him use it. The next engagement shows a case where turning away from the bandit will cause you problems.file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (11 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

Untitled DocumentTwo-circle fights have another advantage for an aircraft with a high turn rate and an all-aspect heat missile. You maybe able to get your nose around fast enough to get a shot at the bandit. A one-circle fight is far too tight for a heatmissile shot after the pass. In fact, that is the principal reason for taking a fight one-circle. If you are in a fighterwithout an all-aspect heat missile, you should try to jam the bandit's missile by going one-circle.A last word about one-circle and two-circle fights. Once you have started your turn, don't reverse it. In other words, ifyou want to go two-circle but the bandit turns away from you, just keep turning. You will give up far too many anglesby taking the time to reverse your turn.© Mavrck_667th & TacoHell_667th 2003file:///G|/DATAS/RvE/Training%20Manual/Introduction%20to%20Head-On%20BFM.htm (12 von 12)05.08.2006 10:41:40

NAVAL AIR TRAINING COMMANDNAS CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS CNATRA P-1230 (REV. 10-98) PATAIR COMBAT MANEUVERINGFLIGHT PROCEDURESFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDE1998

T-45A FLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDECHANGE SUMMARY PAGECHANGE DATENUMBER ENTERED CHANGE DESCRIPTION INITIALS

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP FSLGList of Effective PagesFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDELIST OF EFFECTIVE PAGESEFFECTIVEPAGESPAGENUMBERSEFFECTIVEPAGESPAGENUMBERSACMFP-01OriginalTitle page(s)Original 1-1 thru 1-34ACMFP-02OriginalTitle page(s)Original 2-1 thru 2-38ACMFP-03OriginalTitle page(s)Original 3-1 thru 3-36ACMFP-04OriginalTitle page(s)Original 4-1 thru 4-12ACMFP-06OriginalTitle page(s)Original 6-1 thru 6-102(10-98 Original)Page LEP-1

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDECOURSE/STAGE: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT Air Combat ManeuveringLESSON TITLE: Introduction to ACMLESSON IDENTIFIER: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: ClassroomALLOTTED LESSON TIME: .8 hrTRAINING AIDS:* ACMFP CD-ROM* T-45 Scale ModelSTUDY RESOURCES:* T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000* Air Combat Maneuvering Flight Training Instruction (FTI)LESSON PREPARATION:Read:* T-45A ACM FTI “Introduction” and “Background” sections with specialattention to symbology and terminologyREINFORCEMENT: N/AEXAMINATION:The objectives in this lesson will be tested in ACMFP-05X.(10-98) ORIGINALPage 1-i

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMTHIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.Page 1-ii

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMLESSON OBJECTIVES6.7.2.1Relate environmental components to ACM performance6.7.2.3Relate fixed aircraft factors to ACM performance6.7.2.4Relate variable aircraft factors to ACM performance6.7.2.6.1Identify energy management components for the T-45A6.7.8.5Recall procedure for the performance characteristics exercise6.7.2.2Recall basic ACM considerations6.7.3.5.2Recall the actions which lead to a one-circle fight6.7.3.5.5Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a one-circle fight6.7.3.5.3Recall the actions which lead to a two-circle fight6.7.3.5.6Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a two-circle fight6.7.3.5.7Recall out-of-plane (OOP) maneuveringtactical considerations6.7.6.1.1Recall procedures for maintaining sight/lookout doctrine6.7.1.2Recall ACM terminology and descriptions(10-98) OriginalPage 1-1

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM6.7.1.3Recall ACM symbology6.7.1.1Recall training rules for ACM exercises6.7.1.1.2Recall procedure for lost comm situation in ACM6.7.1.1.1Recall procedure for lost sight situations in ACM6.7.4.10.3Recall procedures for conducting G-LOC turnsPage 1-2(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMVideoSg 0, fr 2MOTIVATIONALVIDEONOTE: You cannotstop the video after ithas started to play.Select “Navigate” tochoose the next frameif you do not want toview the entire video.MOTIVATIONAs a major element of America’s first line of defense, pilots involved inincidents like this one spend many hours, day and night, to be prepared forthat moment. They already know what you are about to find out.ACM is not something that you learn quickly. You will not become an ace bythe end of the ACM block of instruction. You will, however, learn severalconcepts that will take years to perfect: 1) speed is life—never reach a pointwhere you end up out of airspeed and ideas; 2) know your aircraft to makethe enemy fight your fight, not vice versa; 3) your game plan and yourreactions in an engagement must be executed automatically; 4) the bestfighters press the edge of their operating envelope all the time.(10-98) OriginalPage 1-3

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMOVERVIEWThis lesson enables you to utilize ACM principles, terminology, andsymbology during your preparation for ACM engagements.In this lesson you will be studying:* ACM overview—real world and training command* ACM considerations* ACM terminology and symbology* ACM training rulesREFRESHERThis lesson builds on information presented previously. In particular, recall:* T-45A TacForm FTI- Mutual support concepts- Communications and strategies in loose deuce maneuveringPage 1-4(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMINTRODUCTION TO ACMSg 1, fr 1* Overview* ACM considerations* ACM terminology andsymbology* ACM training rulesPRESENTATIONI. ACM OverviewA. Goal1. Overall (real world)a. Gain firing solution and destroy aircraftb. Deny firing solution to another aircraft2. Training Command—to execute maneuvers and practiceengagements necessary to reach a firing solution or deny banditfiring solution(10-98) OriginalPage 1-5

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 1, fr 2Use T-45AScaleModelACM ENVIRONMENTB. ACM environment 6.7.2.11. Three dimensions—defined by longitudinal, lateral, and verticalaxesa. Can describe an infinite number of ACM planes fromvertical through oblique to horizontalb. Force of gravity(1) Gravity—pulls downward on aircraft(2) Load factor (indicated g)(a) Oriented perpendicular to aircraft wing(b) Vertical component (effective lift) offsets gravity(c) Horizontal component (radial g) used to turnaircraftPage 1-6(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 1, fr 3VERTICAL PLANE MANEUVERING EGG2. “The egg”—represents three dimensional sphere showingeffects of gravity and lift vectors on maneuveringa. Vertical maneuvering(1) Represents theoretical loop in vertical plane atconstant TAS and constant indicated g(2) Radial g—sum of indicated cockpit g and force ofgravity(3) When lift vector above horizon (bottom of egg), radial glower because of gravity(a) Larger turn radius(b) Slower turn rate(4) When lift vector below horizon (top of egg—fighterinverted), radial g higher because gravity adds to loadfactor(a) Smaller radius(b) Faster turn rate(10-98) OriginalPage 1-7

GGLIFTLIFTT-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM(5) Aircraft pure vertical (side of egg)(a) Load factor equals radial g(b) Results in intermediate turn performanceRGLFSg 1, fr 4RGLFLF = LOAD FACTORG = GRAVITYRG = RADIAL GHORIZONTAL PLANE MANEUVERING EGGb. Horizontal maneuveringLESSON NOTESThe instructor/SNP may refer to Figure 2 in the ACM FTI for a more thoroughexplanation of horizontal maneuvering.(1) Represents theoretical circle in horizontal plane at constant TASand constant indicated gPage 1-8(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM(2) Effect of gravity affects horizontal turn performancesignificantly(3) Load factor(a) Lift component overcomes gravity(b) Remaining radial g component enables turnSg 1, fr 5OBLIQUE PLANE MANEUVERING EGG(4) Results in reduced turn performance due to forcesbeing dividedc. Oblique maneuvering(1) Gravity affects oblique maneuvering in similar manneras it does in the vertical and the horizontal dependingupon steepness of maneuvering plane(10-98) OriginalPage 1-9

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM(2) Regardless of plane of maneuver(a) Lift vector above horizon—detracts from turnperformance(b) Lift vector below horizon—helps turn performanced. Geometry of tactics—effective ACM, both offensive anddefensive, requires timely and dynamic use of multipleplanes of maneuveringLESSON NOTESEmphasize the importance of maneuvering in the oblique plane to capitalizeon the bandit’s horizontal turn performance.Page 1-10(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMAeroelasticLimit(Redline)+CorneringSpeedULTIMATE STRUCTURAL LIMIT POSITIVESTRUCTURAL LIMIT POSITIVESg 1, fr 6LOADFACTORg FORCEAerodynamicLimitPositiveVELOCITYThe EnvelopeSTRUCTURAL LIMIT NEGATIVE-AerodynamicLimitNegativeULTIMATE STRUCTURAL LIMIT NEGATIVEV nDIAGRAMC. Operational maneuverability—changes in altitude, airspeed anddirection limited by fixed and variable factors1. Fixed factors 6.7.2.3a. Structural limitations(1) Maximum lift that can be supported by airframestructure without yielding(2) Maximum g capability—lift/gross weight (limitationsvary with fuel/ordnance loads)(3) Operating envelope (V ndiagram) displays load factor glimitationsb. Thrust-to-weight(1) Thrust varies with altitude and temperature(2) Independent of airspeed (jet aircraft)(3) Ratio equals aircraft thrust divided by combat weight(4) Used to compare performance of aircraft(10-98) OriginalPage 1-11

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMc. Wing loading—combat weight/wing area(1) Aircraft with higher wing loading has larger turn radiusand slower turn rate(2) Aircraft with lower wing loading has smaller turn radiusand faster turn rate2. Variable factors 6.7.2.4a. Altitude—provides potential energy (PE) for maneuveringb. Airspeed—kinetic energy (KE): as altitude increases, TASincreases for constant KIAS airspeedc. Angle of attack(1) At a given AOA, coefficient of lift and drag is constantregardless of airspeed, gross weight, and altitude(2) In an engaging turn (energy sustaining turn),corresponding AOA reflects optimum lift to drag ratiod. G loadingNOTE: Optimum AOA’s are explained in the followingenergy management section.(1) Ratio of lift to weight(2) In turns or direction changes, lift must exceed weight,and g loads greater than 1 g are necessary(3) At constant TAS, as g is increased so does AOA(4) Radial g—determines turn radius and rate(5) Instantaneous g(a) Maximum lift a wing may generate at a givenairspeed(b) Dependent upon aircraft airframe/wingPage 1-12(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM(c) Displayed on velocity load factor (V n) diagram(d) ACM relationship—used to generate maximumrate of turn(6) Sustained ge. Turn radius(a) A function of aircraft thrust available with respectto wing loading(b) Maximum g capability in level turn with constantairspeed(c) Increases with higher thrust-to-weight ratio(d) ACM relationship—to maintain energy throughoutan engagement(1) Distance that aircraft displaces laterally in turn(2) Dependent on TAS and g with constant altitude—TAS 2 /g(3) TAS has a greater effect on turn radius than rate(4) Sustainability—given two aircraft at constant TAS, theaircraft that can sustain most g will have the smallestturn radiusf. Turn rate(1) Equates to pitch rate in horizontal plane(2) Dependent on TAS and g with constant altitude(g/TAS)(3) Given two aircraft at a constant TAS, the aircraft thatcan sustain most g will have fastest turn rate(4) Instantaneous—maximum available turn rate at anygiven airspeed without regard to energy sustainability(10-98) OriginalPage 1-13

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM3. Total energy (TE)—combination of aircraft’s altitude (PE) and airspeed(KE)NOTE: Determining the TE advantage determination for a given aircraft isdifficult because of the possible speed differences between fighters.a. Specific excess power (Ps)—measures ability of aircraft to increaseits energy state by using excess thrustPage 1-14(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM8.06.0Sg 1, fr 7(G)NORMAL ACCELERATION4.02.00.0-2.0-4.00.0 0.20.40.60.81.0 1.2MACHSpecific Data TBDV nDIAGRAM FOR T-45ASpecific Data TBDb. Cornering speedNOTE: Cornering speed has previously been referred toas maneuvering speed.(1) Minimum airspeed at which maximum structural g canbe attained (airspeed for maximum turn rate andminimum turn radius)(2) Below this speed(a) Buffet or stall exists at aerodynamic limit(b) Turn radius increases and turn rate decreases ataerodynamic limit(3) Above this speed with increased available g(a) Structural limits exceeded resulting in overstressat structural limit(b) Turn radius increases and rate decreases atstructural limit(10-98) OriginalPage 1-15

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMNOTE: Remember that V ndiagrams show onlyinstantaneous turn performance.D. Energy management for the T-45A 6.7.2.6.11. Cornering speed is approximately 410 kts2. Maneuvering airspeed band roughly 300-350 KIASE. Performance characteristics exercise 6.7.8.51. Purpose—to demonstrate timed turns, timed accelerations, andzero-airspeed departures2. Applicationa. Set-up: separate from wingman, climb to 15,000 ft MSL,establish desired airspeed and level flightb. Execution(1) Timed turns(a) At 300 kt, fly a cardinal heading(b) Execute an energy sustaining turn (13-14 units) atMRT for 180 degrees, maintaining 300 kts (IP willrecord time)(c) Reestablish cardinal heading, execute hard turn(17 units) at MRT for 180 degrees of turn,maintaining 300 kts (IP will record time and energyloss)NOTE: The nose will have to be below thehorizon to maintain 300 kts.(d) Climb back to 15,000 ft and reestablish cardinalheading, execute maximum performance turn(break turn 19-21 units) at MRT for 180 degrees ofturn, attempting to maintain 300 kts (IP will recordtime and energy loss)Page 1-16(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMNOTE: The nose will have to be below the horizon tomaintain 300 kts.(2) Timed acceleration(a) From 250 kts at level flight, go to MRT and accelerate inlevel flight to 300 kts, (IP will record time)(b) Reestablish airspeed at 250 kts, go to MRT, and unload theaircraft to 5-10 units to arrive at 300 kts, (IP will record time)(3) Zero airspeed departures: same as in OCF3. Common errorsa. Problem: during maximum performance turn, failing to maintain 19-21 units due to unfamiliarity with aircraft performanceCorrection: avoid tendency to relax back stick(10-98) OriginalPage 1-17

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 2, fr 1Sg 2, fr 2INTRODUCTION TO ACM* Overview* ACM considerations* ACM terminology andsymbology* ACM training rulesACM CONSIDERATIONS* Mind-set* Game plans* Out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering* LookoutSg 2, fr 3MIND-SETII.ACM considerationsA. Mind-set 6.7.2.21. PressurePage 1-18(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMa. Aggressiveb. Many airspeed excursions for position advantagec. Deny opponent’s superior weapon system or turn rateadvantage2. Separationa. Conservativeb. Exploit superior, all-aspect weaponsc. Fewer excursions from target airspeed band (normallycorner)GAME PLANSSg 2, fr 4* One-Circle* Two-CircleB. Game plans(10-98) OriginalPage 1-19

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 2, fr 5ONE-CIRCLE1. One-circle 6.7.3.5.2, 6.7.3.5.5a. Both aircraft fighting for control of the same turn circleb. Position advantage goes to aircraft with smallest turn circlePage 1-20(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 2, fr 6TWO-CIRCLE2. Two-circle 6.7.3.5.3, 6.7.3.5.6a. Both aircraft maneuvering within their own turn circle forweapon separation/position advantageb. Advantage to aircraft with best turn rate(10-98) OriginalPage 1-21

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 2, fr 7 Sg 2, fr 8ONE-CIRCLE (OUT OF PLANE)TWO-CIRCLE (OUT OF PLANE)C. Out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering 6.7.3.5.71. With respect to bandit’s plane of motion (POM)2. Nose high—collapse turn circle and/or stop closure3. Nose low—increase turn rate/decrease turn radiusPage 1-22(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMSg 2, fr 9LOOKOUTD. Lookout 6.7.6.1.11. Key to winning any engagement is keeping sighta. Preflight gear (no loose comm cords, scratched visors,ill-fitting masks, etc.)b. Flexibility in cockpit (check for freedom of movementbefore you launch)c. Learn to fly with one hand2. Develop a lost sight game plana. Where was he headed the last time I saw him?b. If he isn’t there, could he have reversed?c. Don’t fixate on sund. For God’s sake, keep fighting the jet while you look!(10-98) OriginalPage 1-23

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMINTRODUCTION TO ACMSg 3, fr 1* Overview* ACM considerations* ACM terminology andsymbology* ACM training rulesIII.ACM terminology and symbologyA. Terminology 6.7.1.21. Anglesa. Angle off the tail (AOT)(1) Angle between defender’s longitudinal axis andattacker’s line-of-sight(2) Attacker’s position off defender’s tailb. Track crossing angle—angular difference in velocity vectorsat any instant2. Angels—altitude of aircraft in thousands of feet3. Atolla. Soviet IR missileb. Missile call used by banditPage 1-24(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM4. Bandit—unidentified air contact5. BFM—basic fighter maneuvering. Maneuvering to gain positionadvantage aft of opponent’s wingline so that he may be killed6. Blind—I do not see my lead/wingman7. Break—maximum rate turn (20 units AOA) executed to destroyfiring solution8. Bubble—aircraft’s max performance turn circle in any givenPOM9. Bug out—disengage from ACM to exit safely from fight10. Buster—fly at MRT11. Contact—initial and subsequent detections of object by anydetecting device12. Control point—point approximately one instantaneous turnradius aft of the bandit (dependent on airspeed)13. Control zone—region where all possible control points arelocated, generally defined as a cone beginning at +/- 20degrees AOT at 2,000 ft aft of bandit and extending to +/- 40degrees at 4,000 ft14. Eyeball—in section forward quarter tactics, fighter who hastally/radar contact and will take bandit close aboard to obtainvisual identification (VID) and facilitate his wingman acquiringtally for shot15. FOX-2—AIM-9 IR missile firing solution16. GUNS—rear quarter steady state or snap guns firing solution17. Hard turn—compromise between maximum rate turn andenergy conserving turn (300 kt at 17 units AOA)18. Heads up—Enemy got through (part or all) or I am not inposition to engage target(10-98) OriginalPage 1-25

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM19. Joker—fuel state preparatory to bug out followed shortlythereafter by bugout call20. Knock it off—Stop fight or current maneuvers21. Line of Sight (LOS)—bearing to bandit relative to fighter22. Lufbery—horizontal or slightly oblique stalemate engagementwith both aircraft across the circle from each other, turning insame direction at low energy state23. Merge plot—radar tracks have come together, cannot bedistinguished from each other24. Mil lead—the flight lead25. No joy—I do not see the bandit26. On the deck—at minimum altitude27. Overshoot—two types:a. 3/9 line overshoot—passing from aft of a bandit’s winglineto in front of itb. Flight-path overshoot—flying through a bandit’s flight pathaft of his 3/9 line. Further defined by its relation to ControlZone28. Padlocked—I have tally and can’t take my eyes off bandit forfear of losing contact due to visibility/range, etc.29. Pigeons—the magnetic bearing and distance of home base (orunit indicated)30. Pitchback—pulling vertically 60 degrees nose-high at 17 unitsAOA, used to attempt to meet the bandit head-on with minimumlateral separation in situations where the bandit is less than1 mile, high above horizon, or at your dead six31. POM—plane of motion. The two dimensional plane in which anaircraft's turn circle is being scribed.32. Popeye—in clouds or area of reduced visibilityPage 1-26(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM33. Post—the center of the bubble (one turn radius from theaircraft). The post determines pursuit curves needed foreffective BFM.34. Range—linear distance between two aircraft stated in nm or ft35. SA (situational awareness)—cognizance of all factors in atactical arena that affect mission success36. Say state—transmit Fuel remaining37. Shackle—turn made to redress section by crossing member toother side, thus resuming proper combat spread position38. Shooter—as applied to section forward quarter tactics, fighterpulling for shot as his wingman passes close aboard and VIDsthe bandit39. Slice turn—a radical change in direction with minimal lateraldisplacement and energy/speed bleedoff performed by rolling toplace the lift vector below the horizon at some oblique angleand applying g40. Steady—I am on prescribed heading41. Steady up—Roll out immediately on present heading42. Tac (tactical) Lead—member of flight having best SA anddirecting section maneuvers (not always the Mil lead)43. Tally—bandit visually sighted44. Visual—wingman in sight(10-98) OriginalPage 1-27

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM1. FIGHTER2. BANDIT3. CLIMBING TURNSg 3, fr 24. DESCENDING TURN5. EXTENSION6. PITCHBACK7. PURE VERTICALACM SYMBOLOGYB. Symbology 6.7.1.31. Fighter2. Bandit3. Climbing turn4. Descending turn5. Extension6. Pitchback7. Pure verticalPage 1-28(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMINTRODUCTION TO ACMSg 4, fr 1* Overview* ACM considerations* ACM terminology andsymbology* ACM training rulesIV. ACM training rules 6.7.1.1A. GeneralNOTE: The following ACM training rules apply to all ACM training and shall bestrictly observed. These rules include those found in OPNAVINST 3710.7;however, pilots are responsible for knowing that directive.1. ACM training shall be conducted only in designated areas.2. All ACM participants shall attend face-to-face briefings and debriefings foreach flight. Brief items shall includea. Conduct of flightb. CNATRA training rulesc. Selected safety of flight aspectsd. Maneuvers flowne. Spin avoidance and recovery procedures3. Termination of maneuvering shall be signaled by “Call sign” and “Knock itoff.”(10-98) OriginalPage 1-29

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMNOTE: Upon hearing “Knock it off,” both aircraft should return to combatspread.4. The minimum altitude (deck) for ACM is 10,000 ft AGL. The engagementshall automatically cease when any aircraft descends below 10,000 ft, andthat aircraft shall be considered a “kill.”5. An aircraft pursuing another aircraft in a descent shall monitor thedefensive aircraft’s altitude/attitude and break off the attack with a turnaway prior to either aircraft descending through the hard deck.6. Aircraft configuration changes are limited to use of speed brakes.7. Lost communications 6.7.1.1.2a. Two-way radio communication lost(1) Terminate maneuvering(2) Rock wings(3) Set up 30-degree AOB rendezvous turnb. Lost ICS with good radio(1) Terminate maneuvering(2) Transmit “Call sign” and “Knock it off”(3) Set up 30-degree AOB rendezvous turn8. If lost sight, perform the following procedure 6.7.1.1.1a. Transmit “Lost sight”b. Other aircraft in flight will transmit further instructions9. During horizontal scissors or weave, nose-high aircraft shall go high andnose-low aircraft shall go low. The low aircraft has the responsibility formaintaining flight separation. Always transmit “[Call sign]” and intent.Page 1-30(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACM10. The aircraft in sun is responsible for safe separation.a. If the “up-sun” aircraft loses sight, broadcast “Lost sight” and maintaina predictable course.b. If “down-sun” aircraft loses sight, break off the attack, lag the up-sunaircraft, and broadcast “Lost sight.”11. Maintain 500-ft bubble around your aircraft at all times; always assumethe other aircraft does not see you.12. On head-on passes, both aircraft will maintain the established trend.Where no trend exists, each aircraft will give way to the right to create aleft-to-left pass. Broadcast your intentions.13. No blind lead turns14. A “G” awareness maneuver is required prior to ACM. Aircrew whoexperience “GLOC” shall immediately terminate ACM and return to base.6.7.4.10.315. Minimum range for guns tracking is 1,000 ft, head-on guns are prohibited16. A “Knock-it-off” will be called for any of the following situations:a. Any violation of Training Rulesb. Dangerous situation/loss of situational awarenessc. Radio failure/loss of ICS (see #7 above)d. Airspeed less than 80 kts(1) nose-high and decelerating(2) departure(3) out-of-control flighte. Unbriefed aircraft enters the flightf. Aircraft enters a cloud(10-98) OriginalPage 1-31

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMg. Bingo fuel state reachedh. GLOC (see #14 above)i. Training objectives have been metB. Weather—all engagements shall be conducted under VMC conditions with thefollowing additions:1. Minimum 5-statute-mile visibility with defined horizon2. Above or between cloud layers only with distinct horizon3. Minimum of 15,000 ft between broken/overcast layers4. Horizontal minimum of 1 nm horizontally and 2,000 ft vertically from allclouds5. Solo flight cloud tops shall not be higher than 7,000 ft AGL6. Dual flight cloud tops shall not be higher than 8,000 ft AGL7. Deck set at minimum 5,000 ft above all cloud topsPage 1-32(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMINTRODUCTION TO ACMREVIEW OPTIONSSg 5, fr 11. Entire lesson2. Overview3. ACM considerations4. ACM terminology and symbology5. End this lessonPlease selectSUMMARYThis lesson has focused on the following topics:* An overview of ACM goals, principles and strategies* ACM considerations* Terminology and symbology* Training rulesCONCLUSIONThis concludes the introductory lecture for the ACM block of instruction. The followinglectures present offensive and defensive strategies. You will then have an opportunityto practice these tactics in the air. Grasping the concepts presented in this lesson iskey to understanding the material in later lectures and to flying victoriously in ACMengagements.(10-98) OriginalPage 1-33

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-01Introduction to ACMNOTESPage 1-34(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDECOURSE/STAGE: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT Air Combat ManeuveringLESSON TITLE: ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringLESSON IDENTIFIER: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-02LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: ClassroomALLOTTED LESSON TIME: 1.0 hrTRAINING AIDS:* ACMFP CD-ROMSTUDY RESOURCES:* T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000* Air Combat Maneuvering Flight Training Instruction (FTI)LESSON PREPARATION:Read:* T-45A ACM FTI “Offensive Flight Procedures” sectionREINFORCEMENT: N/AEXAMINATION:The objectives in this lesson will be tested in ACMFP-05X.(10-98) ORIGINALPage 2-i

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringTHIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.Page 2-ii

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringLESSON OBJECTIVES6.7.3.1.1Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to offensive ACM6.7.3.1.8Recall the purpose and application of the snap guns exercise in ACM(offensive)6.7.3.2.6.1Recall the procedure for performing the snap guns exercise (offensive)6.7.3.1.3Recall the purpose and application of the high yo-yo in ACM6.7.3.1.4Recall the purpose and application of the low yo-yo in ACM6.7.3.1.11Recall the purpose and application of the horizontal scissors (offensive)6.7.3.2.9.1Recall procedure for performing horizontal scissors (offensive)6.7.3.1.12Recall the purpose and application of the rolling scissors (offensive)6.7.3.2.10.1Recall procedure for performing rolling scissors (offensive)6.7.3.1.9Recall the purpose and application of the offensive counter to the defensivepitchback6.7.3.2.3Recall procedures for performing low-angle hard counter (offensive)6.7.3.2.8.1Recall procedure for the “break turn” exercise (offensive)(10-98) OriginalPage 2-1

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering6.7.3.1.10Recall the offensive considerations for disengagement6.7.3.6.2Recall the procedures for execution of offensive disengagementPage 2-2(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringVideoSg 0, fr 2MOTIVATIONALVIDEONOTE: You cannotstop the video after ithas started to play.Select "NAVIGATE" tochoose the next frameif you do not want toview the video.MOTIVATIONFighter tactics exist to defeat other aircraft. The airplane itself may be considered aweapons platform designed to bring the weapons system into position for firing.Meeting these weapons-firing requirements must, therefore, be the goal of all fightertactics and maneuvering.You have just seen glimpses of the air war in Vietnam and Desert Storm. Naval fightersended the Vietnam war with a 12.5:1 kill ratio. Before you make your first ACM flight,you must understand that your success as a fighter pilot depends on your commitmentto be the victor not the victim.(10-98) OriginalPage 2-3

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringOVERVIEWThis lesson prepares you to fly offensive 1 vs 1 air combat maneuvering.In this lesson you will be studying:* Offensive concepts/tactics* Snap guns exercise* High yo-yo* Low yo-yo* Horizontal scissors* Rolling scissors* Low-angle hard counter* Break turn exercise* DisengagementREFRESHERThis lesson builds on information presented previously. In particular, review:* Procedures for high/low yo-yo and displacement roll found in TFFP-03Page 2-4(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 1, fr 1Sg 1, fr 2ACM 1 v 1 OFFENSIVE MANEUVERING* Offensive concepts/tactics* Offensive maneuvers* Disengagement/bugoutBUBBLEPRESENTATIONI. Offensive concepts/tactics 6.7.3.1.1A. The “bubble”1. Aircraft’s maximum performance turn circle in any given POM2. Fighter must be inside opponent’s bubble to do any basic fightermaneuvering (BFM)(10-98) OriginalPage 2-5

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 1, fr 3POSTB. Post1. Center of the bubble2. Determines pursuit curve required3. Holding lead pursuit ahead of bandit’s post may result in 3/9 lineovershoot and bandit reversal4. Holding lead until aft of post will keep bandit in predictable flowPage 2-6(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering4,000 ft2,000 ftSg 1, fr 4CONTROL ZONEC. Control zone1. Cone beginning approximately +/- 20 degrees from flight path, 2,000 ft aftof bandit, and extending to +/- 40 degrees of flight path, 4,000 ft aft2. Position within control zone allows for missile shots and follow-ongunshots with minimal AOT3. Denies bandit opportunity to reverse; keeps him predictable(10-98) OriginalPage 2-7

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 1, fr 5PURSUIT CURVESD. Pursuit curves1. Chosen based on position relative to post/control zone/weapons envelope2. When in bandit’s POM, nose position determines pursuit3. When in a different POM, lift vector determines pursuitPage 2-8(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 1, fr 6ENERGY STATEE. Energy state1. Never arbitrarily give up energya. You may be willing to trade energy for position advantage or shotopportunities2. Look for opportunities to regain energy (0 g provides optimum energyaddition)3. Recognize flow and modify energy accordinglya. Two-circle flow requires sustained turn rate (higher airspeed givesmore g available)b. One-circle flow may require trading airspeed for altitude or position(10-98) OriginalPage 2-9

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 OFFENSIVE MANEUVERINGSg 2, fr 1* Offensive concepts/tactics* Offensive maneuvers* Disengagement/bugoutII.Offensive maneuversNOTE: In this lesson, offensive maneuvers are viewed from the attacker’sperspective. Therefore, the attacker is the “fighter” (SNP) and the defender is the“bandit” (IP). The associated diagrams are labelled “Defender” and “Attacker”according to aircraft position in the fight, not according to role.Page 2-10(10-98) Original

5131. Combat Spread2. Snap Guns3. Combat Spread4. Snap Guns5. Combat Spread4422531T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 2Choose from menu to showanimation or diagram and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 3SNAP GUNS EXERCISEANIMATIONSNAP GUNS EXERCISE1. Animation2. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 4Also mayuse T-45Scale ModelSNAP GUNS EXERCISEA. Snap guns exercise 6.7.3.1.81. Purpose—practice reaching snap guns envelope againstmaneuvering bandit2. Applicationa. Setup: 15,000 ft/300 KIAS/combat spreadb. Execution 6.7.3.2.6.1LESSON NOTESWhenever a topic is supported by both a screen projection and animated video,you will have a menu. You cannot stop the animation once it has begun toplay. Choosing “Animation” will display the first frame of the animation. Select“MORE” to start the animation or “NAVIGATE” to return to the menu. Choosing“Diagram” will call up the screen projection, which will be a ribbon diagram orspaghetti diagram of the maneuver. Use your own discretion as to which youshow first, and continue the lesson by choosing “Continue” at the end of themenu.(10-98) OriginalPage 2-11

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering(1) Bandit calls “In as the target” and turns with 45-60 degree AOBinto fighter(2) Fighter calls “In as the shooter” and hard turns into bandit(3) Fighter reverses as bandit reaches 10 or 2 o’clock to achieve asnap guns solution of 60-90 degrees AOT(4) Bandit maneuvers out-of-plane to defeat gun solution(5) Fighter overshoots bandit because of high track crossing angle(TCA)(6) Bandit reverses back to approximately original heading as fighterovershoots(7) Both aircraft finish in combat spread ready to initiate subsequentattempts3. Common errorsa. Problem: delaying reversal and overshooting without reaching gunsolutionCorrection: reverse sooner and use back stick, and rudder to positionnose into snap guns envelopeb. Problem: reversing early and passing too close with too high AOTCorrection: turn away and pass outside of bandit’s turn to avoidmidair collisionPage 2-12(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 5Choose from menu to showanimation or diagrams and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 6HIGH AND LOW YO-YOANIMATIONHIGH AND LOW YO-YO1. Animation2. High yo-yo diagram2213. Low yo-yo diagram4. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 83321321Defender31AttackerHIGH YO-YOB. High yo-yo 6.7.3.1.31. Purposea. Method of employing lag pursuitb. Prevent 3/9 line overshootc. Pre-position fighter noseup for follow-on one-circle fight should banditreverse2. Applicationa. Setup—no specific set. BFM tacticb. Execution(1) As excessive closure is apparent, quarter roll away from bandit’splane of maneuvering (lag pursuit)(2) Pull nose up to collapse turn circle relative to bandit’s flight path(3) If bandit reverses, minimize turn radius by trading airspeed foraltitude and reposition lift vector aft of bandit(10-98) OriginalPage 2-13

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering(4) If bandit continues two-circle, immediately come out of the highyo-yo and regain airspeed to increase turn rate; low yo-yo maybe required to bring nose to bear(5) Close to weapons envelopeLESSON NOTESPoint out that yo-yo’s may be employed in any maneuvering plane.3. Common errorsa. Problem: overshoots because of 1) failure to recognize closure rateand 2) late execution of high yo-yoCorrection: anticipate need for reducing closure and execute high yoyoto prevent overshoot (could result in possible horizontal scissors)b. Problem: holds high portion of yo-yo too long and allows bandit toincrease nose-to-tail separation, thus losing advantageCorrection: with closure controlled and overshoot prevented, bringnose down to maintain nose-to-tail (could result in possible low yo-yo)Page 2-14(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 5Choose from menu to showanimation or diagrams and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 6HIGH AND LOW YO-YOANIMATIONHIGH AND LOW YO-YO1. Animation2. High yo-yo diagram323213. Low yo-yo diagram4. Continue with lessonDiagram (3)Sg 2, fr 9332Attacker1211DefenderLOW YO-YOC. Low yo-yo 6.7.3.1.41. Purposea. Method of employing lead pursuitb. Increases turn rate/AOT2. Applicationa. Setup—no specific set. BFM tacticb. Execution(1) Overbank to lower nose relative to bandit, increasing turn rate(2) Pull inside bandit’s turn (lead pursuit) and bring weapons to bear(3) Be aware of increasing AOT and be prepared for possibleovershoot inside of control zone(4) Fire weapon when within weapons envelope(10-98) OriginalPage 2-15

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering3. Common errorsa. Problem: bleeding excessive energy while pulling inside bandit’s turnCorrection: once lead pursuit is established, ease AOA to regainenergy and regain closurePage 2-16(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 10Choose from menu to showanimation or diagrams and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 11HORIZONTAL SCISSORSANIMATIONHORIZONTAL SCISSORS1. Animation2 32. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 131122331DefenderAttacker231HORIZONTAL SCISSORS (OFFENSIVE)D. Horizontal scissors 6.7.3.1.111. Purpose: minimize loss of offensive position following 3/9 line overshoot2. Applicationa. Setup: 14,000 ft co-altitude/250 KIAS/combat spreadb. Execution 6.7.3.2.9.1(1) Fighter: calls in as “shooter” just as in snap-shot drillBandit: cooperatively maneuvers to place fighter in minimumrange snap-shot envelope (60-90 degrees AOT)(2) Fighter: at minimum range (1,000 ft) for guns, aggressively rollwings level and initiate maximum performance pull approximately50-60 degrees nose high. Passing through 30-40 degrees nosehigh, reposition lift vector aft of the reversing bandit’s winglinewith approximately 120-degree overbankBandit: attempt to capitalize on fighter overshoot with aggressiveone-circle entry(10-98) OriginalPage 2-17

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering(3) Fighter: as airspeed bleeds, gradually reduce nose attitude/AOBto capture an airspeed which will allow for smallest turn circle(usually 130-150 KIAS). At 150 KIAS, coordinated stick/rudderwill be required for aircraft control. Slower airspeeds will requireturns to be initiated almost entirely with rudderBandit: establishes aircraft in best one-circle regime(4) Fighter(a)(b)Attempt to work for position advantage by flying a tighter turncircle than the bandit, thus creating turning room (throughlag pursuit) which can be converted to position advantage(through a pull to lead)Initiate reversal at bandit wingline to capitalize on lateralseparation. If nose can be brought to bear at anytime in avalid gun envelope, put him out of his misery3. Common errorsBandit: attempt to maximize AOT, expand width of thescissors and disengagea. Problem: on initial overshoot, delaying turn back into bandit results inexcessive down-range travel and possible loss of offensiveadvantageCorrection: initiate turn into bandit as soon as 30-degree nose-highattitude is reachedb. Problem: on initial overshoot, failing to get nose-high enoughresulting in excessive down-range travel and loss of offensiveadvantageCorrection: Continue to pull with lift vector aft of the banditc. Problem: using excessive AOA that causes reduced directionalcontrol and aircraft acceleration, resulting in excessive down-rangetravel and loss of offensive advantageCorrection: release back pressure and avoid excessive buffetPage 2-18(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuveringd. Problem: delaying reversal, resulting in increased lateral separationallowing bandit opportunity to increase AOT, compromising offensivepositionCorrection: reverse at bandit wingline, taking lateral separation forposition advantage and minimizing overshoote. Problem: remaining perched high on bandit resulting in going blindon bandit and perpetuating overshootsCorrection: pull power while maintaining other parameters to positionfor gunsNOTE: The ideal position to work a bandit in a horizontal scissors isbelow and behind his wingline with your guns sweeping through hisaircraft.f. Problem: using excessive AOB during reversal causes nose to dropand aircraft to accelerate resulting in excessive down-range traveland loss of offensive advantage4. Follow-onCorrection: coordinate stick and rudder at high AOA/slow airspeedNOTE: At approximately 120 KIAS, the rudder is the primary controlsurface used to induce or stop rolling moments.a. Expect bandit to attempt a disengagement by maximizing AOT anddriving scissors as wide as possible.b. At first recognition of bandit bugout attempt, drop the nose toincrease turn rate and bring nose to bear. If bandit pitches back anddefeats your shot, assess your position with respect to his controlzone and initiate a little BFM.c. If fighter positions himself for a valid gunshot while in scissors, expectbandit to redefine the fight by aggressively overbanking in a nose-lowguns defense. The result could well be a tight two-circle spiral.AVOID EXCESSIVE LEAD! Be patient with it and let him deal withthe deck.(10-98) OriginalPage 2-19

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringE. Rolling scissors 6.7.3.1.121. Purposea. Often the result of fighter overshooting the bandit in boththe horizontal and vertical planeb. Often follows from a bandit counter to a barrel roll attackNOTE: Demonstrate applicability of barrel roll attack whenfighter attempts to achieve control zone positioning from a pointinside bandit bubble, with significant AOT and fuselages closelyaligned.2. Applicationa. Setup: 15-16,000 ft (fighter stepped up)/250 KIAS/0.5 nm/60-70 degree AOTPage 2-20(10-98) Original

232333211211T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringAnimation (1)Sg 2, fr 15Diagram (2)Sg 2, fr 17Sg 2, fr 14Choose from menu to showanimation or diagrams and/orcontinue with the lesson.BARREL ROLL ATTACKANIMATIONDefenderAttackerROLLING SCISSORS1. Barrel roll attack animationAnimation (3)Sg 2, fr 18BARREL ROLL ATTACKDiagram (4)Sg 2, fr 202. Barrel roll attack diagram443 32213. Rolling scissors animationROLLING SCISSORSANIMATION43124. Rolling scissors diagram321Defender1Attacker5. Diagram--scissors positions6. Continue with lessonDiagram (5)Sg 2, fr 214ROLLING SCISSORS (OFFENSIVE)Fighter1 2 3BanditROLLING SCISSORS POSITIONSb. Execution 6.7.3.2.10.1(1) Fighter: starts conversion over top of barrel roll attackBandit: hard turns into fighter to cause horizontalovershoot and then pitches up vertically to generatevertical overshoot(2) Fighter(a) Rolls in order to place lift vector on bandit(b) Keeps lift vector on bandit using 17 units AOAuntil wings level on bottom(10-98) OriginalPage 2-21

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringBandit: attempts to generate a horizontal overshoot ontop while executing barrel roll attack on fighter(3) Fighter(a) Holds lift vector aft of bandit’s 6(b) Pitches vertically 40-60 degrees nose-highdepending on energy state(c) Uses 17 units AOA in pitchup(d)Rolls toward bandit in barrel roll attack to place liftvector on banditBandit: overshoots vertically(4) Both aircraft now locked in series of vertical andhorizontal overshootsc. Energy considerations(1) Manage energy by using vertical/oblique planeNOTE: In similar aircraft, the steepness of the climbsand dives determines the horizontal movement morethan does the absolute speed differential.(a) Pull up wings level into vertical(b) Make all heading changes (horizontal turns) byrolling off after reaching desired vertical attitude(2) Trade airspeed for altitude to reduce forward vector(3) Amount of acceleration depends on bandit’s relativeposition to fighterNOTE: Keep the lift vector perpendicular to otheraircraft throughout maneuver except when takingadvantage of vertical to reduce forward vector.(a) Monitor AOA to avoid buffetPage 2-22(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering(b) Control airspeed gain in pullout to maintain theadvantage(4) Maintaining the advantage(a) Use 17-21 units AOA (lead pursuit) over top ofeach loop(b) Maintain 14-17 units AOA (lag pursuit) alongbottom of each loop, i.e., max AOA without buffetd. Effects of radial g(1) Neutral—illusionary advantages/disadvantages(a) Perspective as bottom aircraft—greater airspeedand bigger turn radius gives appearance of beingforced out in front of top aircraft(b) Perspective as top aircraft—less airspeed andsmaller turn radius gives appearance of slidingback behind bottom aircraft(2) Defensive and offensive—real advantage/disadvantage(a) Perspective as bottom aircraft—greater airspeedand bigger turn radius gives appearancei) Defensive—being in front of bandit forced tolook aft when commencing vertical moveii)Offensive—bandit forward of neutral point onyour canopy(b) Perspective as top aircraft—less airspeed andsmaller turn radius gives appearancei) Defensive—bandit aft of your aircraftii)Offensive—bandit directly underneath orforward of your aircraft(10-98) OriginalPage 2-23

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering3. Common errorsNOTE: If your nose is in-phase with the bandit,you are offensive, e.g., bandit nose-lowapproaching bottom; fighter established nose-lowover the top.a. Problem: rolling too rapidly placing lift vector in front ofbanditCorrection: counter roll rate with opposite control force tokeep lift vector on or slightly behind banditb. Problem: rolling with insufficient rate resulting in excessivenose-low attitudeCorrection: increase roll ratec. Problem: maintaining insufficient AOA over top resulting innose-low attitude4. Follow-onCorrection: increase AOAa. Conversion to horizontal scissorsNOTE: Approximately 2,500 ft above the hard deck isneeded for a successful nose-low roll through the vertical tocontinue the rolling scissors.(1) Aircraft at top of roller remains nose-high andcontinues to pull back toward opponent’s aircraft togenerate horizontal overshoot(2) Instead of rolling through vertical, opponent’s aircrafton top will reverse nose-high and pull back towardaircraft beginning vertical pullup resulting in horizontalscissorsb. Bandit attempts disengagement from top of roller(1) Bandit fails to generate sufficient nose-to-tailseparationPage 2-24(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering(a) Fighter rolls off his vertical move early to reduce airspeedloss and minimize nose-to-tail separation(b) Fighter pulls for shot and remains in phase usingcombination and/or variation of high and low yo-yo’s(2) Bandit generates sufficient nose-to-tail separation, disengagessuccessfully, and performs pitchback 6.7.3.1.9F. Low-angle hard counter 6.7.3.2.31. Purpose: to successfully prosecute a bandit from a position near thecontrol zone2. Applicationa. Setup—15-16,000 ft (fighter stepped up)/300 KIAS/approximately 40degrees AOT(10-98) OriginalPage 2-25

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 22LOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTERb. Execution(1) Fighter: When cleared in, aggressively pull nose on forimmediate FOX-2Bandit: Break turn to defeat missilePage 2-26(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 23LOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTER(2) Fighter: Assess bandit break turn whilemaintaining momentary pure pursuit(a) Weak bandit break: pull lead as necessary tofill this girly-man fill of 20 MMTransition to lag NLT minimum range with high yo-yo (ifrequired) or simple reposition in plane. Key is to not give banditreversal option(10-98) OriginalPage 2-27

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 24LOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTER(b)Maximum instantaneous break turn: Lag tocontrol zone via unload or easing of the g. OnceAOT is manageable, bring nose to bear throughsuperior turn rate. Low yo-yo may be requiredBandit: Assess fighter pursuit and either continue topull in plane for maximum AOT, guns defense ifrequired, reverse if appropriate, manage energy iffighter goes to immediate lagPage 2-28(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 25LOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTER(3) Fighter: Kill him(10-98) OriginalPage 2-29

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering3. Common errors:a. Problem: Inappropriate pursuit given anglesCorrection: Calibrate eye to recognize controllableangles which allow for immediate gunshotopportunities and those which will result in 3/9 lineovershoots without a lag maneuverb. Problem: Not maximum performing jet when in twocircleflowCorrection: Maintain at least 17 AOA when in targetairspeed bandit. Do not bleed below 300 KIAS oncedeck prevents maintaining 17 units (15-16 unitsmaximum sustainable)c. Problem: Late recognition of bandit reversal, resultingin insufficient pre-circle transition and subsequentbandit bullets passing through student’s cranium.4. Follow-ona. Should lag pursuit be excessive, it is possible to getstuck in either a lufbery or extended two-circle fight onthe deck with minimal circle misalignment.Disengagement is an option if a quick kill cannot beachievedb. Excessive lead could result in either a climbing precirclefight or, worse yet, a roller if there is a verticalcomponent to the overshootPage 2-30(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 26Choose from menu to showanimation or diagrams and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 27BREAK TURN EXERCISEANIMATIONBREAK TURN EXERCISE1. Animation2. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 2922(2)31 13(1)13322(2)(1)1BREAK TURN EXERCISE - OFFENSIVE PERSPECTIVEG. Break turn exercise 6.7.3.2.8.11. Purpose: simulate section defeating long range missileshot while maneuvering to guns firing solution2. Applicationa. Setup(1) 15-16,000 (fighter stepped up)/300 KIAS/combatspread(2) Simulates bandit who launches missile fromapproximately 2 miles aft, between the sectionb. Execution(1) Wingman simulates missile defense(a) Calls lead to break into missile(b) Simultaneously pulls nose up 30 degrees andthen slow rolls in lead's directions as leadexecutes a break turn into missile(10-98) OriginalPage 2-31

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering(c) Calls lead to ease turn, simulating missiledefeat(2) Simulated counterattack optionNOTE: The lead now assumes the role of apassive bandit.(a) Wingman continues roll, keeping bandit insight(b) Increases rate of roll, relaxes backstickpressure slightly to establish nose-low in theoblique, and ends up in nose-low slice turn inlag pursuit(c) Maintains g until pure pursuit position for Fox-2(3) Simulated counterattack—option 2(a) Reverses turn nose-high prior to banditpassing underneath fighter resulting inmonetary lost sight(b) Overbanks aircraft to engage bandit in noselowslice turn in lag pursuit(c) Maintains 17 units AOA until reaching purepursuit position (avoid heavy buffet)(d) Maneuvers to Fox-2Page 2-32(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 30BREAK TURN EXERCISE(4) After FOX-2, begin unloaded straight line for bandit’s post(as he executes breakturn back into fighter). Hold lagpursuit until penetrating bandit’s bubble with max knots.There will be minimal line-of-sight (LOS) change from bandituntil established within his turn circle(10-98) OriginalPage 2-33

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 31BREAK TURN EXERCISE(5) When LOS begins to increase rapidly, initiate a maxperformance pull around bandit’s post to achieve controlzone positioning. Bring nose to bear and shoot him! Followonlead to a tracking solution can now be initiated(6) If fighter buries his nose prior to initially bringing weapons tobear, bandit may elect to pitchback vertically. If this is thecase, fighter should recognize changing post (closer tobandit as his airspeed decays in the vertical) and initiateappropriate pursuit curve. If bandit falls out of the fighter’sPOM, fighter should lead/pure pursuit bandit appropriately,until he has committed himself nose low. At this point,fighter should pull aggressive lead to bring nose to bearPage 2-34(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering3. Common errorsa. Problem: rolling too slowly causing buried nose at bottomCorrection: increase roll rate enough to prevent burying noseb. Problem: early pull to leadCorrection: Wait until LOS picks up rapidly before transitioning toleadc. Problem: late pull to leadCorrection: At rapid LOS, max perform airplane to achievecontrol zone positiond. Problem: excessive bandit extension leading to inability to reachpost or, worse yet, a neutral mergeCorrection: At exercise initiation, max perform jet to arrive noseon with minimal bandit separation4. Follow-on—defensive pitchback 6.7.3.1.9a. If unable to reach post prior to transitioning to lead/pure, banditmay elect to reverse. The fighter must anticipate this possibilityand establish jet in appropriate parametersb. Excessive lag around the post could lead to a protracted twocirclefight without enough turn rate to get nose on, or anextension/pitchback out of the bandit and subsequentdisengagement attempt(10-98) OriginalPage 2-35

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 OFFENSIVE MANEUVERINGSg 3, fr 1* Offensive concepts/tactics* Offensive maneuvers* Disengagement/bugoutIII. Disengagement/bugout 6.7.3.1.10A. Offensive considerations1. Aircraft problemsa. Mechanical problemsb. Guns misfirec. Hung ordnance2. Ordnance expended3. Bingo/Joker fuel4. Time-to-kill becomes factorB. Procedures for execution 6.7.3.6.21. Maintain sight of bandit and keep him at aft visibility limit2. Reduce altitude to deck, if practicable, for terrain and weaponsconsiderationsPage 2-36(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive Maneuvering3. Attain high energy level as soon as possible after initiating bugout4. Head for friendly territory when disengaging5. Once disengaged, do not allow bandit to close without making positivedefensive response(10-98) OriginalPage 2-37

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-02ACM 1 v 1 Offensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 OFFENSIVE MANEUVERINGREVIEW OPTIONSSg 4, fr 11. Entire lesson2. Offensive concepts/tactics3. Offensive maneuvers4. End this lessonPlease selectSUMMARYThis lesson focused on the offensive aspect of the air combat arena including:* Offensive concepts/tactics* Snap guns exercise* High yo-yo* Low yo-yo* Horizontal scissors* Rolling scissors* Low-angle hard counter* Break turn exercise* DisengagementCONCLUSIONGood fighter pilots must have this one outstanding trait—aggressiveness. Remember,the fighter pilot who wins is the pilot who makes the fewest mistakes.Page 2-38(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDECOURSE/STAGE: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT Air Combat ManeuveringLESSON TITLE:ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringLESSON IDENTIFIER: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: ClassroomALLOTTED LESSON TIME: 1.0 hrTRAINING AIDS:* ACMFP CD-ROM* T-45 Scale ModelsSTUDY RESOURCES:* T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000* Air Combat Maneuvering Flight Training Instruction (FTI)LESSON PREPARATION:Read:* T-45A ACM FTI “Defensive Maneuvering Flight Procedures” sectionREINFORCEMENT: N/AEXAMINATION:The objectives in this lesson will be tested in ACMFP-05X.(10-98) ORIGINALPage 3-i

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringTHIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.Page 3-ii

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringLESSON OBJECTIVES6.7.3.3.1Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to defensive ACM6.7.3.6.1Recall factors/techniques for defensive disengagement6.7.3.6.3Recall disengagement follow-on options6.7.3.3.9Recall the purpose and application of the snap guns exercise inACM (defensive)6.7.3.4.8.1Recall the procedure for performing the snap guns exercise(defensive)6.7.3.3.3Recall the purpose and application of the horizontal scissors(defensive)6.7.3.4.3.1Recall procedure for performing horizontal scissors (defensive)6.7.3.3.4Recall the purpose and application of the rolling scissors(defensive)6.7.3.4.4.1Recall procedure for performing rolling scissors (defensive)6.7.3.4.5.1Recall purpose and application of defensive low-angle to hardcounter6.7.3.4.5.2Recall procedures for performing a defensive low-angle to hardcounter(10-98) OriginalPage 3-1

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering6.7.3.4.10.2Recall purpose and application for break turn exercise (defensive)6.7.3.4.10.1Recall procedure for the “break turn” exercise (defensive)6.7.3.3.5Recall the purpose and application of the lufbery6.7.3.3.6Recall the purpose and application of the diving spiral6.7.3.4.6.1Recall procedure for performing a diving spiral6.7.3.3.7Recall the purpose and application of the high “g” roll6.7.3.4.7.1Recall the procedure for performing a high “g” roll6.7.3.3.8Recall the purpose and application of jink-out maneuvers6.7.3.3.8.1Recall procedures for performing jink-out maneuversPage 3-2(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringMOTIVATIONIf the motto for TOPGUN, “You fight like you train,” holds true, beingaggressive and persevering is essential to reaching the main goal ofdefensive maneuvering--survive to fight another day.Since you’re involved in combat not just to save your skin, but to win, learnhow to put the other guy on the run.OVERVIEWThis lesson will enable you to perform the procedures for defensivemaneuvering in the ACM environment.This lesson covers defensive aspects of the following:* Concepts and tactics* Snap guns exercise* Horizontal scissors* Rolling scissors* Low-angle hard counter* Break turn exercise* Lufbery* Diving spiral* High-g roll* Jink-outREFRESHERReview the procedures covered in ACMFP-01 and ACMFP-02.(10-98) OriginalPage 3-3

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 DEFENSIVE MANEUVERINGSg 1, fr 1* Defensive concepts/tactics* Defensive maneuvers* Last ditch maneuversPRESENTATIONI. Defensive concepts/tactics 6.7.3.3.1, 6.7.3.6.1, 6.7.3.6.3A. Priorities1. Survivea. Maximize AOT by keeping lift vector on, in-plane when twocircleb. If nose comes to bear, defeat missile with maximuminstantaneous break turnc. If bandit satisfies lead, range and POM, defeat gunshot bymaneuvering perpendicular to destroy POM. Afterdefeating gun threat, continue to pull in plane with banditand look for reversal opportunityPage 3-4(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringSg 1, fr 2BUGOUTS2. Bugouta. Maximize AOT, look for reversal opportunitiesb. Reverse only if you can force the bandit into the forwardquarterc. Bandit overshoots of fighter’s flight path should beassessed for unload opportunities (manage energy for bestsustained rate if continuing two-circle)d. Misaligned circles in two-circle flow lead to merges whichmay offer bugout or extension/pitchback possibilitiese. Look for maximum AOT, minimum lateral separation, andmaximum knots to successfully disengagef. DO NOT lose sight. Check turn as required on bugs tokeep sight3. Reverse rolesa. If the bandit is stupid enough to fly out in front of you, he’sprobably better off dead. However, if you can’t get a quickkill, consider it a sign from God, and run away(10-98) OriginalPage 3-5

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 DEFENSIVE MANEUVERINGSg 2, fr 1* Defensive concepts/tactics* Defensive maneuvers* Last ditch maneuversII.Defensive maneuversNOTE: In this lesson, defensive maneuvers are viewed from the defender’sperspective. Therefore, the defender is the “fighter” and the attacker is the“bandit.” The associated diagrams are labelled “defender” and “attacker”according to aircraft position in the fight, not according to role.A. Snap guns exercise 6.7.3.3.91. Purpose: practice defending against high angle-off guns attack whilemaintaining sufficient energy to counter next attackPage 3-6(10-98) Original

1. Combat Spread3. Combat Spread5. Combat Spread1534422531T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 2Choose from menu to showanimation or diagram and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 3SNAP GUNS EXERCISE--DEFENSEANIMATIONSNAP GUNS EXERCISE---Defense1. Animation2. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 5Please selectAlso mayuse T-45Scale ModelSNAP GUNS EXERCISE--DEFENSIVE PERSPECTIVE2. ApplicationLESSON NOTESWhenever a topic is supported by both a screen projection and animatedvideo, you will have a menu. You cannot stop the animation once it hasbegun to play. Choosing “Animation” will display the first frame of theanimation. Select “MORE” to start the animation or “NAVIGATE” to returnto the menu. Choosing “Diagram” will call up the screen projection, whichwill be a ribbon diagram or spaghetti diagram of the maneuver. Use yourown discretion as to which you show first, and continue the lesson bychoosing “Continue” at the end of the menu.a. Setup: level combat spreadb. Execution 6.7.3.4.8.1(1) Bandit calls “In as the shooter” and hard turns intoattack(10-98) OriginalPage 3-7

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(2) Fighter calls “In as the target” and turns with 45-60degree AOB into attack(3) Bandit reverses as fighter approaches 10/2 o’clock toachieve a snap guns solution of 60-90 degrees AOT(4) Fighter3. Common errors(a) Reduce planform by breaking out-of-plane andpulling hard to avoid bandit’s pipper, prior tobandit’s nose coming on(b) Maintains sufficient closure rate to force overshoota. Problem: continuing to pull in-plane with bandit allowinggreater shot opportunitiesPrevention: maneuver aggressively out-of-planeb. Problem: allowing bandit to position nose on fighter priorto maneuvering out-of-planePrevention: recognize bandit’s nose position andanticipate maneuverc. Problem: initiating an out-of-plane maneuver too earlyPrevention: generate sufficient angles/closure to force anovershoot prior to out-of-plane maneuveringPage 3-8(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 6Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 7HORIZONTAL SCISSORS--DEFENSEANIMATIONHORIZONTAL SCISSORS---Defense1. Animation2. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 91122 33Please select1Attacker2332Defender1HORIZONTAL SCISSORS--DEFENSIVE PERSPECTIVEB. Horizontal scissors 6.7.3.3.31. Purpose: to exploit an in-close horizontal overshoot2. Applicationa. Setup: 14/14,000 ft/250 KIAS/combat spreadb. Execution 6.7.3.4.3.1(1) Allow bandit to maneuver into a 60-90 degree AOTsnapshot envelope and aggressively pull out-of-planeprior to a valid shot. Continue to pull nose up andreverse as bandit overshoots your flight path(2) The reversal should be such that the fighter’s liftvector is aggressively positioned aft of the bandit asnose is initially brought 60-70 degrees nose high.Gradually allow nose to come down and AOB todecrease as fighter establishes an airspeed which willminimize turn radius(3) Fighter must continue to maneuver so as to keep thebandit in the forward quarter whenever his nose comesto bear. If the bandit is able to come nose on aft of the(10-98) OriginalPage 3-9

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuveringfighter’s wingline, a nose-low redefinition must occur.Ideally, the fighter will force relatively neutral merges,delaying reversals as long as possible to drive his ownturn circle away from the bandit’s, allowing the fight toassume the characteristics of two-circle flow(4) As the scissors widens, the fighter may be able tounload for a second or two at the merge, meeting thebandit with an ever-growing bag of knots. At somepoint (preferably 180 degrees out with somethinggreater than 200-220 kts), a disengagement can beattempted. If the attempt is made with the banditpotentially belly-up in his reversal, his late recognitionof a fighter bug attempt may facilitate its success(5) As the bugout is attempted, the fighter has to keepsight of the bandit. A series of check turns followed by0-g unloads will maximize extension. The ultimate callas to the success of the disengagement has got to bemade by the fighter, needless to say3. Common errorsa. Problem: Asking too much of the jet when at slowairspeed, high AOA leading to inability to control turn circleCorrection: Coordinate stick/rudder and shoot for anairspeed which is controllable (130-150 KIAS works well).b. Problem: Not recognizing a bandit who is bringing nose tobear behind fighter's wingline and reversing when there isno overshoot.Correction: Remember what a valid snapshot looks likefrom the Snapshot drill. If you see this same sight pictureat 150 kts and negligible TCR, redefine the fight!c. Problem: Poor bugout timing or poor techniqueCorrection: Fighter should not attempt a disengagementunless he can get at least 150 degrees AOT and then mustgo immediately to 0 g while check turning as required tokeep bandit near aft visibility limit.Page 3-10(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering4. Follow-ona. Should a two-circle redefinition be necessary, a tight,spiraling fight may result. Fighter must assess bandit’s pursuit curveand react accordingly. If he’s pulling lead for a shot, a nose-highdefense may well send the bandit into the deck. If bandit goes intolag, the fighter must pick up an airspeed/AOA combination tomaximize turn rate while avoiding the rocks.b. If a bugout attempt is unsuccessful, the fighter must initiate apitchback to maximize AOT prior to the bandit bringing the nose tobear. The range and nose attitude of the bandit will dictate thenature of the fighter’s pitchback(10-98) OriginalPage 3-11

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringC. Rolling scissors 6.7.3.3.41. Purposea. To exploit in-close horizontal and vertical overshootb. To force opponent out in front by reducing forward vectorSg 2, fr 10Choose from menu to showanimation or diagram and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 11ROLLING SCISSORS--DEFENSEANIMATIONROLLING SCISSORS---Defense1. Animation2. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 13443 33221124Please select321Defender1Attacker4ROLLING SCISSORS--DEFENSIVE PERSPECTIVE2. Applicationa. Setup: 15-16,000 ft (fighter low)/250 KIAS/0.5 nm/60-70 degreesAOTb. Execution 6.7.3.4.4.1(1) As bandit attempts barrel roll attack, execute slightly nose-lowhard defensive counter turn into bandit(2) Maintain turn until bandit crosses on top of your flight pathPage 3-12(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(3) At moment of overshoot, commence defensive pitchup(a) Level wings(b) Keep 17 units AOA(c) Execute vertical pitchup to approximately60 degrees nose-high(4) As energy dissipates, commence roll-off (barrel roll)using aileron and rudder to complete roll(5) Once nose-high attitude established by fighterc. Termination(a) Pull for horizontal overshoot on top(b) Maintain nose above horizon until commencingfollow on rolls to avoid burying noseNOTE: The remainder of the procedures identicalto rolling scissors procedure appear in theoffensive lesson ACMFP-02.(1) Reason—lack of altitude(2) Reaction3. Common errors(a) Flatten rolling scissors (shorten verticalseparation)(b) Convert into horizontal scissors(c) Disengagea. Problem: allowing bandit to pull behind 3/9 line caused bya weak nose-low hard counterturn in horizontalPrevention: pull aggressively in the horizontal to forceovershoot(10-98) OriginalPage 3-13

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuveringb. Problem: allowing bandit to generate excessive nose-totailseparation caused by a delayed or weak initial pull intoverticalPrevention: pull aggressively into vertical to forceovershootc. Problem: reversing in opposite direction of horizontalovershoot4. Follow-onPrevention: recognize direction of horizontal overshootNOTE: Other common errors that are identical to offensiveand defensive position are included in offensive lesson—ACMFP-02.a. Conversion to flattened rolling scissors—occurs whenpressing to become offensive but run out of altitude tocontinue offensive pursuitNOTE: Flattening the rolling scissors will work to thefighter’s advantage only if the fighter’s energy state is atleast equal to the bandit’s. If bandit’s energy state isgreater, the bandit can generate sufficient verticaldisplacement for his subsequent rolls, i.e., he will not beflattening his scissors, and therefore forcing the fighterfarther in front.(1) Continue roll through(2) Put lift vector in front of bandit to shallow slice turn andmiss deck. If bandit rolls through without being awareof altitude problem, bandit is scraped off(a)If bandit rolls through without being aware ofaltitude problem, bandit is scraped off(b) If bandit aware of altitude and your tactic, banditforced to put lift vector in front resulting inreordering relative geometryPage 3-14(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuveringb. Conversion to horizontal scissorsNOTE: About 2,500 ft above the hard deck is needed for asuccessful nose-low roll through the vertical to continue therolling scissors.(1) Fighter/bandit at top of roller will remain nose-high andcontinue to pull back toward bandit/fighter to generateovershoot(2) Instead of rolling through vertical, aircraft on top willreverse nose-high and pull back toward aircraftbeginning vertical pullup resulting in horizontalscissorsc. Disengagement from top of rollerNOTE: The opportune bugout time occurs when the banditis going up and the fighter is going down.(1) Ensure bandit’s noseup attitude(2) Instead of performing roll(a) Continue pull to nose-low attitude generatingmaximum AOT and minimum lateral separation(b) Unload toward bandit’s extended 6(c) Disengage and bug out(10-98) OriginalPage 3-15

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringSet 15,000/16,000 ft300 KIASSg 2, fr 14LOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTERD. Low angle hard counter 6.7.3.4.5.11. Purpose: Survive a highly threatening bandit near fighter’scontrol zone2. Applicabilitya. Setup: 15-16,000 ft (fighter low)/300 KIAS/bandit perched40 degrees AOTPage 3-16(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering"Fights On"Sg 2, fr 15LOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTERb. Execution: 6.7.3.4.5.2(1) At “fight’s on,” initiate a maximum instantaneous break turn todefeat bandit missile(10-98) OriginalPage 3-17

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringBandit PullsExcessive LeadSg 2, fr 16Bandit LagsExcessivelyLOW-ANGLE HARD COUNTER(2) Continue break turn as you assess bandit’s pursuit. Ifbandit pulls lead, continue to generate angles,executing guns defense when appropriate. If banditovershoots in close with a high TCR, execute amaximum performance nose-high reversal to swing thebandit into the forward quarter. Trade airspeed foraltitude/position advantage and look fordisengagement opportunities off subsequent flatscissors(3) If bandit overshoots in close and sufficient verticalseparation exists after fighter reversal, roll over the topto capitalize on turning room and look for bugoutopportunities(4) If bandit moves to lag and attempts control zonepositioning, the fighter must evaluate his own energystate—sustained turn rate will determine whether thebandit is able to bring his nose to bear. If there is anopportunity to unload for knots while bandit’s nose isoff, this may provide fighter with a more survivableenergy package. If there isn’t an opportunity to unload,the fighter will at least need to come off maximuminstantaneous turn and continue a 17-unit pullPage 3-18(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(5) The bandit may attempt to convert altitude below into increasedturn rate through the use of a low yo-yo. When the fighterrecognizes this, he needs to match the bandit nose-low-tocounter(6) If the bandit is able to get the nose on following initial move, thefighter must defend against the shot. Aggressively pulling nosehigh out of plane from a bandit shooting a maximum rangesnapshot will destroy fighter’s hopes of keeping the bandit out ofthe control zone. However, as the bandit holds the pipper onand range decreases, the lethality of the shot increasesdramatically and a more aggressive guns defense will berequired. Again, an overly aggressive bandit may drive himselfinto a reversible overshoot affording fighter possible bugopportunity3. Common errorsa. Problem: Not generating maximum instantaneous turn rate off initialbreak turn allowing bandit the luxury of gunning his brains out with noadverse consequencesCorrection: At 300 KIAS, maximum instantaneous turn rate isachieved through a 19-21 unit pull. Maintaining 300 KIAS willrequire at least 30 degrees nose low in the break turnb. Problem: Losing sight of bandit during bandit lagCorrection: Don’t lose sightc. Problem: Bleeding below 300 KIAS during pullCorrection: Cross-check airspeed off HUD if required, but don’tbleed. Below 300 KIAS, turn rate falls off a cliffd. Problem: Busting deck while looking aftCorrection: A rocks kill is just as lethal as soaking up a missile. Thefighter must have a deck transition plan that allows for a smoothtransition to maximum sustained turn rate (approximately 15-16 unitsat 300 KIAS).(10-98) OriginalPage 3-19

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering4. Follow-ona. If an opportunity presents itself to reverse, adisengagement opportunity may present itself.b. If the bandit achieves a tracking solution, fighter must keepworking out-of-plane to destroy bandit solution. Anaggressive bandit may well be slow to recognize closurefrom an airspeed differential, resulting in an in-closeovershootE. Break turn exercise, 6.7.3.4.10.21. Purpose—practice defensive maneuvering against long rangemissile shot and guns firing solutionSg 2, fr 17Choose from menu to showanimation or diagram and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 2, fr 18BREAK TURN EXERCISE--DEFENSEANIMATIONBREAK TURN EXERCISE---Defense1. Animation2. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 2022222233Please select31 111311BREAK TURN EXERCISE--DEFENSIVE PERSPECTIVE2. Applicationa. SetupPage 3-20(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(1) Section in combat spread(2) Simulated bandit attacking from 6 between section,spotted by lead (IP)b. Execution 6.7.3.4.10.1(1) Lead(a) Calls wingman to break into missile(b) Simultaneously initiates nose-high roll intowingman(c) Calls wingman to ease turn as he reaches45 degrees of turn (simulating missile defeat)(2) Wingman:(a) Responds with a 19-21 unit AOA break turn intothe simulated missile(b) Becomes defensive fighter(c) Continue break turn until pulling bandit to aftvisibility limit, then start an unload to maximizenose-to-tail separation(d) BEFORE bandit brings nose to bear, executemaximum instantaneous turn into bandit. Max gavailable should be held until reaching targetairspeed band when 17 units will maximizesustained turn rate(10-98) OriginalPage 3-21

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringSg 2, fr 21BREAK TURN EXERCISE - BANDIT PURSUIT OPTIONS(e) If bandit pulls lead ahead of fighter’s post, a reversal mayposition fighter for a disengagement. Similarly, if fighter canachieve a neutral pass with the bandit, a bugout may well besuccessful(f)If the bandit lags excessively, extend and attempt a reversalnose low in plane with the bandit. Range may allow asecond merge closer to neutral and another bugoutopportunity(g) A well-executed lag move around fighter’s post will requirecareful energy management from the fighter to survive(h) If the bandit’s nose gets buried off the initial move, a verticalmove may allow the fighter to hold the bandit’s nose off.However, range should be the overriding considerationsince a savvy bandit can counter a vertical pitchback fairlyeasily(i)The key to successfully disengaging from the bandit off avertical pitchback is first, timing. At the point the bandit’snose reaches its lowest point, the fighter needs to executehis wings level, 17-unit pull into the vertical. This concept isknown as “opposing the nose” and, if executed properly, willgive the bandit the furthest distance to pull the nose beforePage 3-22(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuveringhe can bring the nose to bear. However, thefighter must roll the jet into the bandit’s POM uponreaching the pure vertical and attempt to achievea neutral high-to-low merge and subsequentdisengagement. As you might recall from theOffensive section, this pitchback can be fairlyeasily countered(3) Lead: becomes offensive bandit--calls “Fox-2”(4) Fighter3. Common errors(a) Executes second break turn(b) Continues pull until bandit acquired(c) Defends against high and low yo-yosa. Problem: Not putting the bandit at the aft visibility on theinitial extensionCorrection: Continue pulling until the bandit is just off thetail before attempting an extensionb. Problem: Other than a 0-g unload, missing chance toacquire maximum energyCorrection: Push on the stick to 5 units or a “light in theseat” feelc. Problem: Hitting the deck on either the unload or thepitchbackCorrection: Keep the deck in your scan(10-98) OriginalPage 3-23

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering300 KTSSg 2, fr 22300 KTSLUFBERYF. Lufbery 6.7.3.3.51. Descriptiona. Results from neutral situation or one developing from defensivesituation against similar performance banditb. Considered a stalemate2. Disengagement—especially in low-altitude situationNOTE: This disengagement maneuver requires a great amount of timeand fuel. Normally during your syllabus flights, the lufbery will beterminated early.NOTE: A one-move disengagement should not be performed as thelateral separation and AOT are usually not great enough to prevent thebandit from gaining the advantage.a. Begin series of unloads and pullbacks to gain airspeed and nose-totailseparation(1) Reduce AOA momentarily, to an unloaded condition(2) Maintain AOB to disguise extension maneuverPage 3-24(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(3) Pull back into bandit to stabilize AOTb. With sufficient airspeed and nose-to-tail separation, execute bugoutor defensive pitchbackc. If disengagement is unsuccessful, then another guns defensemaneuver can ensue(10-98) OriginalPage 3-25

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 DEFENSIVE MANEUVERINGSg 3, fr 1* Defensive concepts/tactics* Defensive maneuvers* Last ditch maneuversIII.Last-ditch maneuversNOTE: Last-ditch maneuvers should only be employed as a last resortto defeat a shot by the bandit.A. Defensive diving spiral 6.7.3.3.6NOTE: A diving spiral is essentially a tight two-circle fight extremelynose-low. (Two-circle fights are explained in neutral starts.)1. Purposea. Counter in-close, medium-to-low angle off gun attack whileretaining maneuvering potentialb. Offers escape opportunityc. Drive bandit into deckPage 3-26(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringSg 3, fr 2Choose from menu to showanimation or diagram and/orcontinue with the lesson.Animation (1)Sg 3, fr 3DIVING SPIRALANIMATIONDIVING SPIRAL1. AnimationDefender 12. Diagram3. Continue with lessonDiagram (2)Sg 3, fr 51Attacker22Please select3344DIVING SPIRAL2. Applicationa. Setup: bandit nears gun employment position and fighter’s hard orbreak turn proves ineffectiveb. Conditions(1) Sufficient altitude (10,000 ft above deck)(2) Cooperative bandit (follow into spiral)(3) Max deceleration (power/speed brakes)c. Execution—fighter 6.7.3.4.6.1CAUTION: Descent rates in excess of 30,000 fpm may occur.Late pullout must be avoided, especially if padlocked on a banditin the rear quadrant. Typically 8,000 plus ft of altitude loss per360 degrees of turn can be expected. Be aware of deckproximity.(1) Executing spiral(10-98) Original(a) Continue hard turn into bandit, over-bank utilizing aileronand rudder to place lift vector on banditPage 3-27

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(b) Use aileron and rudder to roll aircraft to maintain lift vectoron the bandit throughout spiral(2) Pullout of maneuverCAUTION: Begin pullout prior to 1,500-3,000 ft above thedeck, depending on nose attitude.(a) If bandit begins pullout first, roll aircraft about own axis andgain angles on bandit(b) If bandit doesn’t pull out earlier, judge own successfulpullout above deck so as to force bandit into deck(c) If spiral fairly even, exit by leveling wings and pulling out atmax power and best AOA, without accelerated stall oroverstress (this will depend on airspeed--approximately 14-18 units)d. Common errors(1) Problem: highlighting initial move, allowing bandit to delaycommitting his nosePrevention: bait bandit into committing his nose-low by initiallylowering nose slightly, prior to entering excessive nose-lowattitude(2) Problem: delaying pullout to avoid deckPrevention: monitor altitude and time pulloute. Variation: if bandit overshoots vertically in spiral, maintain offensiveadvantage and be aware of deckB. High-g roll 6.7.3.3.71. Purposea. Use against low angle off attack, when bandit at close range, to forceovershoot by quickly reducing velocity vector (maximumdeceleration)Page 3-28(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuveringb. Make tracking difficult due to dramatic changes in three axes (pitch,yaw, roll) and increase in closurec. Spit bandit to outside resulting in a possible neutral scissorsNOTE: Maneuver involves uncoordinated flight techniques (snaproll), power reduction, and drag increase (parasite and induced) asavailable in order to increase bandit’s closure.345Sg 3, fr 6232451Attacker1DefenderHIGH-g ROLL OVER THE TOP2. Over the topa. Setup—speed is greater than 275 KIAS and bandit within 1,500 ftb. Execution—fighter 6.7.3.4.7.1(1) From hard turn, increase back pressure to force overshootingsituation(2) Reduce power and extend speed brakes while keeping backstick pressure(10-98) OriginalPage 3-29

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(3) Roll opposite to plane of attack (initiated with ailerons butcontinued with fully deflected rudder)(4) While inverted in roll(a) Increase rate of roll(b) Continue back pressure(c) Continue rudder use to keep nose from getting too low(5) At 270 degrees into roll, continue to play top rudder to controlnose and check opponent(6) Recover nose-high into bandit by retracting speed brakes andadding max powerc. Advantage: usually results in greater overshoot, possibly allowingfighter to gain offensive position by reversing back toward bandit asovershoot occursd. Disadvantage: causes greater speed and energy lossNOTE: If the high-g roll over the top is begun at too low a speed, itmay leave the fighter too slow and unmaneuverable on top, thusunable to successfully complete the maneuver and avoid a closerangesnapshot.Page 3-30(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering4523Sg 3, fr 71Attacker1 2Defender534HIGH-g ROLL UNDERNEATH3. Underneatha. Setup—roll underneath if speed is less than 275 KIAS, altitude is atleast 2,000 ft above deck, and bandit within 1,500 ftb. Execution—fighter(1) Continue hard pull in defensive turn until bandit is at highestpossible angle off, then pull to buffet(2) Start rolling underneath into direction of defensive turn—use fullbottom rudder to roll(3) Reduce power, extend speed brakes to increase closure,maintain neutral ailerons(4) Using rudder, but not ailerons, roll below bandit’s projected flightpath in same direction of turn(5) Maintain rudder in direction of turn throughout roll, along withback pressure on stick(6) When lift vector starts above horizon (halfway through the roll),maintain 19-20 units AOA while adding full power and retractingspeed brakes(10-98) OriginalPage 3-31

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuvering(7) Continue roll to wings level(8) Neutralize rudder to stop roll, maintain back stick to achievenose-high attitude(9) Check for bandit’s positionc. Advantages(1) Gravity assists in early stages(2) Reduces speed loss during maneuver—possibly providing bettermaneuverabilityd. Disadvantage: results in considerable loss of altitude4. Common errorsa. Problem: failing to force bandit into overshootPrevention: increase closure and AOT with break turn and reducepowerb. Problem: failing to maintain loaded-up condition resulting in flat orextremely nose-low situation5. VariationsPrevention: keep aircraft loaded up throughout rolla. If bandit overshoots outside radius of turn, then continue to pull upand into bandit in order to(1) Increase AOT(2) Force bandit into horizontal scissors(3) Look for opportunities to disengageb. If bandit inside radius of turn, then continue max performance turninto bandit and attempt another maneuverPage 3-32(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringC. Jink-out, 6.7.3.3.81. Purposea. Destroy gun solution while maneuvering to out-of-phase situationb. Retain potential to neutralize follow-on or seek disengagement2. Applicationa. Setup: bandit approaches medium-to-low angle off, in-close, firingconeb. Execution, 6.7.3.3.8.1(1) Increase turn to create overshoot(2) Assuming overshoot does not occur and bandit begins to pulllead(a) Apply negative g to push aircraft out of bandit’s predictedguns tracking solutionWARNING: Due to the risk of structural damage to theaircraft, negative g should be limited to one negative gin training. In combat, maximum negative g availablecan be used.(b) Maintain negative g for approximately 2 sec(c) Establish positive-g break turn for 2-4 sec back into bandit’sposition(d) Establish out-of-phase overshoot by maximum rate of rollreversal and positive-g turnc. Common error(1) Problem: not unloading aircraft to a negative-g situationPrevention: ensure unload is at least one negative g (limit to oneg in training), practice and acquire a feel for negative-g flight(10-98) OriginalPage 3-33

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive Maneuveringd. Variation—out-of-phase overshoot occurs(1) If insufficient angle off and lateral separation occur, then userolling reversal(2) If initially you have greater amount of angle off and lateralseparation, then use connecting maneuver such as diving spiralor maneuver for airspeed and lateral separationPage 3-34(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringACM 1 v 1 DEFENSIVE MANEUVERINGREVIEW OPTIONSSg 4, fr 11. Defensive maneuvers2. Last ditch maneuvers3. End this lessonPlease selectSUMMARYThis lesson covered the defensive aspects of the following:* Concepts and tactics* Snap guns exercise* Horizontal scissors* Rolling scissors* Low angle hard counter* Break turn exercise* Lufbery* Diving spiral* High-g roll* Jink-outCONCLUSIONYou’ve learned maneuvers for creating overshoots and staying out-of-phase to saveyour skin and to put the other guy on the run in 1 v 1 air combat maneuvering. You’vetaken another step toward becoming an ace.(10-98) OriginalPage 3-35

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-03ACM 1 v 1 Defensive ManeuveringNOTESPage 3-36(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDECOURSE/STAGE:T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT Air Combat ManeuveringLESSON TITLE: ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsLESSON IDENTIFIER: T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: ClassroomALLOTTED LESSON TIME: 0.8 hrTRAINING AIDS:* ACMFP CD-ROM* T-45 Scale ModelSTUDY RESOURCES:* T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000* Air Combat Maneuvering Flight Training Instruction (FTI)LESSON PREPARATION:Read:* T-45A ACM FTI “1 v 1 Engagement Concepts and Tactics” sectionREINFORCEMENT: N/AEXAMINATION:The objectives in this lesson will be tested in ACMFP-05X.(10-98) ORIGINALPage 4-i

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04 ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsTHIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.Page 4-ii

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsLESSON OBJECTIVES6.7.3.5.1.1Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to basic fightermaneuvers (BFM)6.7.3.5.1.2Recall the parameters which constitute a neutral start6.7.3.5.2Recall the actions which lead to a one-circle fight6.7.3.5.5Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a one-circle fight6.7.3.5.3Recall the actions which lead to a two-circle fight6.7.3.5.6Recall the advantages/disadvantages of a two-circle fight6.7.3.5.7Recall out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering tactical considerations6.7.3.5.4Recall the actions which lead to a vertical fight/merges6.7.3.5.1Assess the neutral 1 v 1 tactical situation(10-98) OriginalPage 4-1

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsMOTIVATIONWhat would your game plan be in a one-on-one engagement? What planningwill you do before climbing into the cockpit? You have learned specificmaneuvers, but now you have to consider more of the fight. Will you use energyor angles to make your fight? Are you aware of your aircraft capabilities? Areyou aware of your opponent’s capabilities? What is your optimum AOA forextension or energy conservation? You must consider many variables as youprepare for your fight.OVERVIEWThis lesson will enable you to employ appropriate tactics in a neutralengagement.This lesson addresses:* High-aspect BFM- Flow- Out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering- Vertical merges* Putting it all togetherREFRESHERThe maneuvers you learned in offensive/defensive ACM lessons are appliedduring engagements resulting from neutral starts.Page 4-2(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsSg 1, fr 1You mayalso use theT-45 ScaleModelACM 1 v 1 NEUTRAL STARTS* High-aspect BFM* Putting it all togetherSg 1, fr 2High Aspect BFM Considerations* Flow* OOP maneuvering* Vertical mergesPRESENTATIONI. High-aspect BFM 6.7.3.5.1.1, 6.7.3.5.1.2A. Considerations(10-98) OriginalPage 4-3

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsSg 1, fr 3ONE CIRCLETWO CIRCLEFLOW1. Flowa. One-circle 6.7.3.5.2, 6.7.3.5.5(1) One jet reverses at the merge, both jets fight for positionadvantage within the same turn circle(2) Advantage to jet with smallest relative turn radius(3) Uncountered out-of-plane maneuvering collapses relativeturn radius(4) Goal for fighter is to maneuver around bandit post andreverse to capitalize on turning room availableb. Two-circle 6.7.3.5.3, 6.7.3.5.6(1) Jets turn across each other's tail, maneuvering for noseonwithin their own turn circle(2) Advantage to jet with best turn rate(3) Since forward quarter weapons are not trained to in theTraining Command, two-circle option should capitalize onboth rate and radius advantage for positionPage 4-4(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral Starts(4) Uncountered OOP (nose low) will increase turn rate and collapseradius relative to opponentSg 1, fr 4OUT-OF-PLANE MANEUVERING2. Out-of-plane (OOP) maneuvering 6.7.3.5.7a. Uncountered, provides advantage both in smaller radius (nose high orlow) and better rate (nose low)b. Even slight delayed reaction from bandit will benefit fighter who employsOOP maneuvering intelligently (i.e., to maximize performancecharacteristic based on flow of fight)c. Fighter must counter bandit use of OOP instantly, either maneuvering toremain in plane or mirroring bandit move (ex., bandit pulls 30 degreesnose high one-circle, fighter counters 30-degree nose high)(10-98) OriginalPage 4-5

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsSg 1, fr 53. Vertical merges 6.7.3.5.4a. Low-to-high(1) Fighter may have option of aggressively early turningbandit, if bandit's nose is committed low(2) Influence nature of the vertical — in general, the steeper,the betterb. High-to-low(1) Try to shallow out the merge early, if possible(2) Use reversal, unload as required to gain extension if youbelieve the bandit is slow (little pitch authority) at themerge and unable to keep fighter in same turn circle bybringing nose to bear rapidly(3) If bandit aggressively turns fighter, putting lift vector onand entering two-circle spiral is an optionPage 4-6(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsSg 2, fr 1Sg 2, fr 2DEVELOP GAME PLANACM 1 v 1 NEUTRAL STARTS* High-aspect BFM* Putting it all together* One-circle nose high* One-circle nose low* Two-circle nose low* Vertical* ExtensionII. Execution (Putting it all together) 6.7.3.5.1A. Develop a game plan prior to the merge1. Attempt to drive bandit into reactionary mode2. Assume the bandit knows BFM and be prepared to fly out of your game planif requiredLESSON NOTESWhenever a topic is supported by both a screen projection and animated video, youwill have a menu. You cannot stop the animation once it has begun to play.Choosing “Animation” will display the first frame of the animation. Select “MORE” tostart the animation or “NAVIGATE” to return to the menu. Choosing “Diagram” will callup the screen projection, which will be a ribbon diagram or spaghetti diagram of themaneuver. Use your own discretion as to which you show first, and continue thelesson by choosing “Continue” at the end of the menu.(10-98) OriginalPage 4-7

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsSg 2, fr 3 Sg 2, fr 4FIGHTSHEAD-ON PASSANIMATION1. Two-circle animation2. Two-circle diagram3. One-circle animationAnimation (1)Sg 2, fr 5TWO-CIRCLEANIMATIONDiagram (2)Sg 2, fr 74. One-circle diagram5. Continue with lessonPlease selectAnimation (3)Sg 2, fr8ONE-CIRCLEANIMATIONDiagram (4)Sg 2, fr 10TWO-CIRCLE FIGHTSg 2, fr 11ONE-CIRCLE FIGHTVERTICAL FIGHT3. If bandit allows significant turning room at the merge, take it!Page 4-8(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsMatch your jet with the flow of the fight!Sg 2, fr 12RATE OR RADIUSB. Fly your jet to maximize position advantage/minimize time to kill1. If two-circle, maximize sustained turn rate2. If one-circle, collapse turn circle to create turning room and take it!3. Manage your energy wisely(a) If selling significant energy will get you a kill shot, take it!(b) If the fight appears protracted, higher energy will win in the long haul(unless some bonehead BFM comes into play)(10-98) OriginalPage 4-9

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsPRIORITIESSg 2, fr 13* Survive* Kill* Control4. Keep in mind priorities(a) When neutral, strive to become offensive and kill(b) If you start to lose position advantage, think about bugging(c) Anytime a quick kill can’t be achieved, disengagement is a smartoption. (There’s no shame in disengaging from an offensive position ifyou just can't bring weapons to bear. OK, maybe there's a little shamebut consider what it's like when you leave the comfy confines of theTRACOM.) Bandit’s rarely travel alone!Page 4-10(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsACM 1 v 1 NEUTRAL STARTSREVIEW OPTIONSSg 3, fr 11. Entire lesson2. High-aspect BFM3. Putting it all together4. End this lessonPlease selectSUMMARYDuring this lesson we discussed:* High-aspect BFM- Flow- Out-of-plane maneuvering- Vertical merges* Putting it all togetherCONCLUSIONBuilding on your knowledge of offensive/defensive maneuvers, we have introduced anddiscussed how ACM fights may develop from a neutral start. In order to be effective fromthe start, use the tactics taught in this lesson to your advantage in the air. Start your gameplanning now! Check SIX!(10-98) OriginalPage 4-11

T-45A UJPT, ADV & IUT ACMFP-04ACM 1 v 1 Neutral StartsNOTESPage 4-12(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2V1 Flight ProceduresFLIGHT SUPPORT LECTURE GUIDECOURSE/STAGE: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT Air Combat ManeuveringLESSON TITLE:Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresLESSON IDENTIFIER: T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06LEARNING ENVIRONMENT:ClassroomALLOTTED LESSON TIME: 2.7STUDY RESOURCES:* T-45A NATOPS Flight Manual, A1-T45AB-NFM-000* Air Combat Maneuvering Flight Training InstructionLESSON PREPARATION:Read:* T-45A ACM FTI “2 v 1 Mission Procedures/Maneuvers” sectionREINFORCEMENT:N/AEXAMINATION:The objectives in this lesson will be tested in ACMFP-07X.(10-98) ORIGINALPage 6-i

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresTHIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.Page 6-ii

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresLESSON OBJECTIVES6.1.1.1Recall procedures/guidelines provided by ACM briefing6.7.1.1Recall rules of engagement (ROE) for conducting ACM training6.7.2.2.1Recall parameters of the weapons envelope used by CNATRA6.7.2.2.2Recall ACM working areas and enroute/RTB procedures6.7.2.1.1Recall weather minimums/requirements for ACM6.7.3.1Recall ACM tactical communications plan/usage6.7.2.6.1Identify energy components for the T-45A6.7.3.1.5Recall tactical considerations and ACM brief board information6.7.4.10.3Recall procedures for conducting G-LOC turns6.7.4.10.2Recall engaged/free fighter tactical doctrine applicable to ACM6.7.4.1.3Recall 2 v 1 mutual support tactical and procedural considerations6.7.4.10.1.1Recall the 2 v 1 considerations for disengagement6.7.4.8.1Recall procedures for 2 v 1 disengagement5.7.1.3.1.3Describe the correct position and purpose of the combat spread formation(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-1

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight Procedures6.7.1.3.1Recall other tactical formations used in ACM6.7.4.1.2Recall tactical communications requirements for ACM6.7.4.1.4Recall additional tactical considerations for ACM6.7.4.10Assess 2 v 1 tactical situation (used for all engagements)6.7.4.10.1Recall the concepts and tactics applicable to 2 v 1 ACM6.7.4.1.1Recall responsibilities of each aircraft in the “call the bandit” exercise6.7.4.9.1Describe actions of engaged/free fighter response to counterflow rear quarter attack6.7.4.2.1Describe actions of engaged/free fighter response to no-switch rear quarter attack6.7.4.3.1Describe actions of engaged/free fighter to single-switch exercise6.7.4.4.1Describe action of engaged/free fighter in response to multi-switch exercise6.7.4.7.1Describe actions of engaged/free fighter in VFQ attack6.7.4.7.2Describe actions of engaged/free fighter in response to abeam attack6.7.1.3.1Recall methods for regaining section integrity6.7.4.11.1Recall the procedures for beyond visual range (BVR) engagementsPage 6-2Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresOUTLINEPart 1* Training Rules* Fighter Engagement Videos* Self-Test* Conduct of Hop* Engaged/Free Fighter Doctrine* Formations* Communication* Additional ConsiderationsPart 2* Engagements* ReviewMOTIVATIONThe relatively simple fighters of previous wars that relied solely upon the gun to kill havegiven way to the more sophisticated fighters of today that can employ missiles out toseveral miles. Through an evolutionary process, the tactical communities have developeda two-aircraft formation and a set of tactical principles that will optimize thesection’s combat potential in the visualcombat arena.As you begin your final ACM lesson, you must learn those tactics that support a sectionmember in ACM engagements. In order to effectively defeat a bandit, you must maintainsection integrity and mutual support. All of the skills you have learned thus far inyour training will be put to critical scrutiny in the ACM environment.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-3

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresT45TST-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING 2 V 1 FLIGHT PROCEDURESPart 1Page 6-4Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresTRAINING RULES FORTHREE-PLANE ACMLECTUREQuestion and Answer PolicySnacks and Drinks OkayBreaks As NeededClass Participation Required(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-5

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresOVERVIEWPart 11. Fighter Engagement Videos2. Self-Test3. Conduct of Hop4. Engaged/Free Fighter Doctrine5. Formations6. Communication7. Additional ConsiderationsPart 21. Engagements2. ReviewPage 6-6Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresMOTIVATIONAL VIDEO(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-7

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresSELF-TESTLet’s see if we are ready to jumpinto three-plane ACM.NOTE: The self-test is in the back of the ACM FTI.Page 6-8Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefDeparture and En RouteEngagement FlowRTB(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-9

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefACM TRAINING RULESRequired for all participantsPage 6-10Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBrief90 DEG3K2K 3K40 DEG* LOW ALTITUDEAND > 100 KTS VC= 1.5 NM*2 NMWeapons Envelope(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-11

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefKINGS IIIEASTWEST"B""C""D"KINGS IIIACM Working AreasPage 6-12Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefW-228DW-228DDACM Working Areas(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-13

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefWeather mins:1. Remain 1 nm horizontal and 2,000 ft from allclouds2. Must have 5 nm visibility with a definedhorizon3. Must have 15,000 ft min between cloud layers4. Hard deck will be at least 5,000 ft above cloudtopsDual: OPNAV mins (max cloud tops 8,000 ft)Solo: 1,000 ft/3 sm (max cloud tops 7,000 ft)* CO can waive down to 500/2 for solosPage 6-14Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresComm plan:CONDUCT OF HOPBrief1. Start up with tactical freq in comm 2- Use it for admin enroute comm- Switch back to button 1 when clear of duty2. Use area freq for all fighter comm** Do not use button 5 for tactical comm(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-15

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefComm plan:COMM1COMM220 18/30/252.519123456/7/8/9/1020113/172/161Page 6-16Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefFuel:1. “Joker Fuel”A fuel state set far enough above bingo fuel toallow a successful disengagement.2. “Bingo Fuel”A fuel state at which the fighter must return toship or home base.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-17

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefFuel:1. Fuel is one of the most critical items that afighter must monitor2. Typical local area joker and bingostates = 1.2/1.0 to 1.0/800Page 6-18Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefDetermining factors:1. Distance to base2. Weather3. Mission (dual/solo)4. Field status (FCLPs, PAR, single rwy?)5. Threat (types and #’s of bandits and SAMS)(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-19

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPBriefEmergencies:1. Takeoff aborts2. NORDO/ICS failure3. Loss of NAVAIDS4. Lost plane5. Lost sight/LCLS6. System failure7. Midair8. Ejection9. Down plane/SARPage 6-20Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresBrief board:CONDUCT OF HOPBriefMISSIONA/C CALLSIGNS SOE EP’S____________WX___________________________AREA COMM QODJOKER/BINGOWEPS ENVELOPE(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-21

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPDeparture and En RouteTakeoff OptionsLead ChangeG-WARM TurnsPage 6-22Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPDeparture and En RouteTakeoff options:1. Section go for lead and “2” with “3” executinga 10-second running rendezvous2. 10-second running rendezvous for dash “2” and“3” (crosswind limits)3. Individual takeoffs with TACAN rendezvousfor all (bad weather--need separate clearance)(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-23

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPDeparture and En RouteLead change:1. Bandit will pass lead to “2” once confirmedthat fighters have each other in sight- Fighter lead assumes flight lead and isresponsible for area management. Banditwill now answer as “3”- Fighter lead ensures bandit is outsideformation before pushing wingmaninto combat spreadPage 6-24Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPDeparture and En RouteG-WARM:1. OPNAV 3710.7 requires 180 degrees of turnto the maximum amount of g’s anticipatedon that particular flight2. TW-2 executes this G-WARM as two 90-degreeturns at approximately 4 g’s* Kid, G-WARM left. . .“2”. . .“3”. . .Kid, G-WARM right. . .“2”. . .“3”(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-25

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPEngagement FlowACM - 10 (Dual)Call the bandit Do X 2Counterflow Demo/Do X 2No switch Do X 2Single switch Demo/Do X 2Multi-switch bug Demo X 1Multi-switch kill Do X 1Multi-switch bugDo X 1 (Gaspermitting)Page 6-26Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPEngagement FlowACM - 11X (Dual)Call the bandit Do X 2Counterflow Do X 2Single switch Do X 2Multi-switch bug or kill Do X 2VFQ Demo/Do X 2BVRDemo/Do(Gas permitting)(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-27

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPEngagement FlowACM - 12 (Solo)Call the bandit Do X 2Counterflow Do X 2Multi-switch bug or kill Do X 2VFQ Do X 2BVR Do X ?Page 6-28Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPEngagement FlowACM - 13 (Solo)Call the bandit Do X 2Counterflow Do X 1Multi-switch bug or kill Do X 1VFQ Do X 1BVR Do X ?* NOTE: Conduct is at IP’s discretion(may do more BVRs)(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-29

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCONDUCT OF HOPRTBThe fighter lead will lead back:1. Dash 2 picks one side (bandit gets theother)2. Bandit is Dash-3Recoveries:1. Stage II/4-second break2. Individual TOPS IFR/TOPS GCAPage 6-30Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED/FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEENGAGEDFIGHTERFREEFIGHTERSIMPLE DEFINITION: Engaged fighter keepsbandit tied up while the free fighter maneuversinto position to ambush the bandit.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-31

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED\FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEENGAGEDFIGHTERFREEFIGHTERENGAGED FIGHTER: That member of thesection with the best capability of forcing thebandit into a predictable flight path (offensive ordefensive).Page 6-32Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED\FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEENGAGEDFIGHTERFREEFIGHTERFREE FIGHTER: That member of the sectionnot pressing the bandit into a predictable flightpath while he maneuvers for an offensiveposition to employ weapons.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-33

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED\FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEEngaged Fighter Objectives:(Defensive or offensive)1. Kill the bandit2. Keep the bandit in sight3. Bleed the bandit’s energy4. Force the bandit to be predictable5. Deny the bandit a shot opportunity6. Force the bandit to fight your fight7. Maintain high-energy level8. Clear own “six”Page 6-34Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED\FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEFree Fighter Objectives:1. Kill the bandit2. Keep track of engaged fighter and bandit3. Clear engaged fighter’s and own “six”4. Maintain high-energy state5. Get out-of-plane and out-of-phase6. Attempt to maneuver to bandit’s blind spot7. Direct the fight if required(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-35

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED/FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEAdvantages:1. Tactical capability of two aircraft more thandoubles when a section works effectivelytogether2. Mutual support assists the section in engagingthe bandit, achieving a quick kill, and regainingsection integrityNOTE: This assumes a high level of skill for bothfighters.Page 6-36Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGED/FREE FIGHTERDOCTRINEBottom LineTeam Work!!(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-37

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONS3/4 TO 1 NM1,000 FTCombat SpreadPage 6-38Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSAdvantages of Combat Spread:LEAD'SBLIND CONEWINGMAN'SBLIND CONEMUTUALBLIND CONE1. Visual limits are increased(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-39

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSAdvantages of Combat Spread:2. Detection more difficult for banditPage 6-40Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSAdvantages of Combat Spread:??????3. Forces early commitment on onefighter or the other by the bandit(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-41

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSAdvantages of Combat Spread:4. Weapons employment more effectivePage 6-42Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSAdvantages of Combat Spread:5. Maneuverability increases:a. More time for lookout versusflying formb. Fighters may use maximumperformance turns with little riskof midair collision or losing sightof each other(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-43

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSAdvantages of Combat Spread:6. Flexible:a. When wingman has initial visualcontact with the bandit, he directsthe flight and assumes the tacticallead role.b. Rapid role designation enablessection to quickly employ fullcombat potentialPage 6-44Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSOther Types ofSection Formations(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-45

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONSLead-Trail:1. Very offensive2. Low mutual support3. Wingman vulnerable4. Difficult to stay togetherPage 6-46Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFighter Wing:FORMATIONS1. Easy to stay together2. Wingman has low situationalawareness3. Poor mutual support4. Easy for bandit to see bothfighters(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-47

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresHigh-Low:FORMATIONS1. Offensive2. Low mutual support3. Wingman and lead vulnerable4. Very difficult to stay togetherPage 6-48Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresFORMATIONS“Never break your formation into less than two-shipelements. Stay in pairs. A man by himself is aliability; a two-ship team is an asset. If you areseparated, join up immediately with other friendlyairplanes.”Major Thomas B. “Tommy” McGuire, USAAF(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-49

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONThe most challenging aspectof three-plane ACM is good comm.Page 6-50Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONCommunication must be:1. Clear2. Concise3. Accurate(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-51

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresTalk and Turn:COMMUNICATION1. When the bandit is detected close in(less than 3 nm), the section member with a“tally” must employ tactical maneuvering whilecommunicating with his wingman--not after!2. His wingman must execute the calledmaneuvering while responding--not after!Page 6-52Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONStandard Call:1. Call sign “Blaze”2. Maneuver “Hard right”3. Detection “MIG”4. Direction “Right 3”5. Elevation “Slightly low”6. Range “1 mile”7. Remarks “Nose on”(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-53

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONStandard Responses:1. “No joy”2. “Tally, engaged”3. “Tally, free”* Update visual status as soon asbandit is sightedPage 6-54Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONComm PriorityMost important comm is to definefree and engaged roles ASAP.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-55

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONCadence:1. Practice good cadenceby transmitting, then pausefor reply . . . . If no replyafter a few seconds, transmit,then pause again2. Do not step on each other . . . .Listen to what your lead/wingmanis saying; think, then talkPage 6-56Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresCOMMUNICATIONUsing verbal shorthand assistsin clear, concise transmissions.Provide a simple statementof intentions early to allowyour section to work as a team.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-57

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSPage 6-58Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSWeather:1. Undercast/Overcast. . .. . .improves visual range2. Bad weather. . .. . .increases joker/bingo3. IFR weather. . .. . .is bandit VFR only4. Hide in a cloud. . .. . .IR/radar will find you(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-59

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSThe Bandit:1. Type of bandit aircraft?2. Weapons load?3. Fuel load?4. GCI required for bandit?5. What tactics does bandit use?Page 6-60Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSManeuvering Out of Plane:1. Forces early commit2. Difficult for bandit to shoot free fighter3. Difficult for bandit to keep sight(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-61

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSManeuvering Out of Phase:1. More flexibility to maneuver for shot2. Free fighter able to keep high energy state3. Difficult for bandit to keep sight of or shootat the free fighterPage 6-62Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSManeuvering Don’ts:1. Staying in the same dimensional plane2. Meeting wingman close aboard3. Losing sight (especially on bugout)(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-63

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONSManeuvering Do’s:1. Force bandit to commit early2. Avoid splitting into singles3. Go for quick kill4. Attempt to bracket banditPage 6-64Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresT45TST-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06AIR COMBAT MANEUVERING 2 V 1 FLIGHT PROCEDURESPart 2(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-65

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresOVERVIEWPart 11. Fighter Engagement Videos2. Self-Test3. Conduct of Hop4. Engaged/Free Fighter Doctrine5. Formations6. Communication7. Additional ConsiderationsPart 21. Engagements2. ReviewPage 6-66 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSCall the BanditCounterflowNo SwitchSingle SwitchMulti-Switch BugoutMulti-Switch KillVisual Forward Quarter (VFQ)Beyond Visual Range (BVR)(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-67

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTS18-minute VideoPage 6-68 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSNow we will cover each of the individualengagements on the white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-69

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSCall the Bandit(No Switch):360LEAD WINGMANNeed two volunteers to come upfront and demo call the banditno switch.Page 6-70 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSCall the Bandit(Single Switch):360LEADWINGMANNeed two new volunteers to come upfront and demo call the banditsingle switch.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-71

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSCall the BanditRemember:1. Know comm cold2. Fly good platform as leadPage 6-72 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSCounterflow360LEAD WINGMANDraw and discuss on white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-73

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSCounterflowRemember:1. Talk and turn2. Good break turn and defensive 1 v 13. Don't arc4. Bandit planform +3 for horizontal/+5 for vertical5. Do not get into pitchbuck on turn in6. “Tally visual” before Fox-2Page 6-74 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSNo Switch360LEADWINGMANDraw and discuss on white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-75

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSNo SwitchRemember:1. Talk and turn2. Good break turn3. KIO (Knock it off) headingPage 6-76 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSSingle Switch360LEAD WINGMANDraw and discuss on white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-77

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresRemember:ENGAGEMENTSSingle Switch1. Talk and turn2. Good break turn3. Call the pass you see4. Fight good scissors5. “Tally visual” before you shootPage 6-78 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSMulti-Switch Bugout360LEAD WINGMANDraw and discuss on white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-79

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSMulti-Switch BugoutRemember:1. Talk and turn2. Good break turn3. Call the pass you see4. Fight good scissors5. Free fighter call pass ASAP!6. Kick fight across the tail and get nose down7. Regain combat spread and mutual supportPage 6-80 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSMulti-Switch Kill360LEAD WINGMANDraw and discuss on white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-81

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSMulti-Switch KillRemember:1. Talk and turn2. Good break turn3. Call the pass you see4. Fight good scissors5. Free fighter call pass ASAP!6. Kick fight across the tail and get nose down7. Force the bandit 1 circlePage 6-82 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSVisual Forward Quarter(VFQ)360LEAD WINGMANDraw and discuss on white board.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-83

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresRemember:ENGAGEMENTSVisual Forward Quarter(VFQ)1. Get comm out quickly2. Turn 120 degrees at 6 o'clock before lead turn3. Shoot at pass if you can4. Call direction of engaged turns5. Deconflict engaged fighter when taking Fox-2Page 6-84 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range(BVR)BVR gives you a chance to use everything you havelearned up to this point.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-85

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range(BVR)You will practice:1. Formation management2. Lookout doctrine3. Engaging turns4. Communications5. Defining roles (free and engaged)6. Forcing the bandit to be predictable7. Staying out of phase and out of plane8. Killing the bandit9. Bugging outPage 6-86 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR):1. Select CAPS about 10-15 nm apart--eitherTACAN radials or ground gouge will work fine.(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-87

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR):2. Choose your block. The low blockis 10,000-15,000 ft and the high blockis 16,000-20,000 ft--you may leaveyour block when either you or yourwingman has sight of the banditPage 6-88 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR):Now you have to get sight of that wily bandit ASAP!(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-89

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)Let’s see if we know what to do for all the abovepossibilities.Page 6-90 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)How could you handle this?(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-91

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)CounterflowPage 6-92 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)How could you handle this?(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-93

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)No-switch or multi-switchPage 6-94 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)How could you handle this?(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-95

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)VFQPage 6-96 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)How could you handle this?(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-97

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range (BVR)Execute a check turn or tac turn to set upeyeball--shooter VFQPage 6-98 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresENGAGEMENTSBeyond Visual Range(BVR)BVR for Dick and Jane:1. Define roles quickly2. Engaged fighter mustaggressively force banditto be predictable3. Free fighter work out of planeand phase for a quick kill4. Keep sight5. Repeat 1-4(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-99

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresREVIEWPage 6-100 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresREVIEWThree-Plane ACMReview Options1. Review the entire lesson2. Conduct of Hop3. Engaged/Free Fighter Doctrine4. Formations5. Communication6. Additional Considerations7. Engagements8. End this lessonPlease select>THE END(10-98) OriginalInstructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”Page 6-101

T-45A UJPT, ADV, & IUT ACMFP-06Air Combat Maneuvering 2 V 1 Flight ProceduresPage 6-102 Instructor: For Review Menu, select NAVIGATE, then select “Segment 10, Frame 4”(10-98) Original

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 394.6. Principles/Concepts Of Basic Fighter Maneuvers (BFM)The maneuvers required during a BFM engagement are nothing more than a combination of thoselearned during AHC. The primary objective of BFM is to maneuver your aircraft into weaponsparameters to employ ordnance. To accomplish this you may first need to maneuver so as to keep a banditfrom employing ordnance against you. The required maneuvers are not pre-staged to arrive at the endgame solution, but are combined as necessary based upon continual reassessment of the situation. Theentire process of observing, predicting, and maneuvering is repeated until either a kill or disengagementhas been achieved. In order to successfully execute BFM, a pilot must understand his geometricrelationship to the target and how it affects his ability to employ his weapons. The spatial relationship oftwo aircraft can be analyzed from three perspectives: positional geometry, attack geometry, and theweapon envelope.4.6.1. Positional GeometryWhen discussing one aircraft's position relative to another, range, aspect angle, and angle-off (headingcrossing angle [HCA]) are used to describe angular relationships. These three factors dictate whichaircraft enjoys a positional advantage, and how much of an advantage it is (Figure 4.1).Range is the distance between two aircraft.Aspect angle describes the relative position of the attacker to the target, without regard to the attacker'sheading. It is defined as the angle measured from the tail of the target to the position of the attacker.Angle-off is primarily concerned with the relative headings of two aircraft. Angle-off is defined as theangular distance between the longitudinal axes of the attacker and the defender. Whenever the attacker ispointing at the defender, the aspect angle and angle-off will be the same.ASPECT ANGLE(Target to Attacker)ANGLE-OFF(HCA)RANGEMCM0401Figure 4.1 Angular Relationships4.6.2. Attack GeometryThere are three available attack pursuit courses: lead, lag, and pure (Figure 4.2). The attacker's noseposition or his lift vector will determine the pursuit course being flown.

40MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996If the attacker is in the defender's plane of turn, the position of the attacker's nose determines thepursuit course. With his nose pointed in front of the defender (such as in the case of a gunshot), he is inlead pursuit. If he points behind the defender, he is in lag pursuit. If he points at his adversary, he is inpure pursuit. Note that an initial lead pursuit attacker could be driven into a lag pursuit course if he hasinsufficient turn rate available to maintain lead (Figure 4.3).LAGPURELEADMCM0402Figure 4.2 Attack Pursuit CoursesLAGLEADMCM0403Figure 4.3 Insufficient Turn Rate To Maintain Lead (Resulting in Lag)

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 41When the attacker is out of the defender's plane of turn, his pursuit course is determined by where hispresent lift vector (the top of his canopy) will position his nose as he enters the defender's plane of turn.For example, if forced out-of-plane by a defender's hard turn, an attacker may have his nose pointedbehind the defender during the reposition. After gaining sufficient turning room, if the attacker pulls farenough in front of the bandit to arrive back in-plane with his nose in front on the defender, then he is inlead pursuit. The same holds true for pure or lag pursuit (Figure 4.4). Whether to establish a lead, lag, orpure pursuit course will depend on the relative position of the attacker with respect to the defender's turncircle (TC). The key at point C is to be sure you will enter the defender's turn circle aft of his winglinewith the ability to establish an in-plane, lead pursuit course at point D.CBBADADCMCM0404Figure 4.4 Out-of-plane Maneuvering4.6.3. Weapons EnvelopeThe vulnerable cone of a defender is defined using range, aspect, angle-off, and pursuit course toapproximate the employment envelope for a specific type of ordnance. BFM is used when necessary todecrease range, aspect, and angle-off, or until an attacker is within the bandit's vulnerable cone for theordnance he plans to employ.4.6.4. Turning RoomIn order to discuss how BFM can solve range, aspect, and angle-off, a concept called turning room andturning circles is used. Turning room is the separation between the two aircraft that can be used toaccelerate, to decrease range, or turn and decrease aspect angle and angle-off. A turn circle is defined byaerodynamics and is based on a certain size (the diameter) and how quickly an aircraft can move its nose(turn rate). The determinant of whether an aircraft is (at any instant in time) "inside" or "outside" of adefender's turn circle is the relationship between the attacker's aspect angle and range and the defender's

42MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996turn radius/rate. If the defender is turning at a rate that will allow him to continue to increase aspectangle, the attacker is outside the defender's turn circle (Figure 4.5). At the instant the defender can nolonger increase aspect angle, the attacker has "arrived" inside the defender's turn circle.BBACACCINCREASINGASPECTBLOWASPECTCBALOW ASPECTAAT "B" AND "C" ATTACKER ISINSIDE TURNING CIRCLEOUTSIDE TURNING CIRCLEMCM0405Figure 4.5 Outside/Inside The Turn CircleThe attacker's nose position (i.e., lead or lag) relative to the defender's current position and flight pathdoes not strictly determine whether the attacker is inside or outside the defender's turn circle (Figure 4.6).

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 43Figure 4.6 Lag Pursuit Outside/Inside the Turn CircleAs the defender bleeds off energy and airspeed, while performing his defensive turn, his turn radiuswill decrease. His turn rate will also decrease, once the defender slows below his corner velocity(discussed later). This relationship often results in a characteristic "fishhook" appearance to thedefender's turn (Figure 4.7). The attacker may start inside the turn circle, but end up outside as thedefender tightens his turn or slows below corner velocity—depending on the defender's ability to maintainthe turn rate and how the attacker maneuvers. It is very important to note that turning room can beacquired in either the lateral or vertical planes or a combination of both. Another important note isturning room can be used by either aircraft.

44MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.7 Fishhook TurnLateral turning room is in the bandit's plane of motion. The bandit's turn direction (into or away fromthe attacker) will affect how much turning room is available. If the attacker is inside the bandit's turncircle, he must have a turn rate and radius capability that will allow him to "make the corner" the banditpresents. The disadvantage of lateral turning room inside the bandit's turn is that it frequently requireshigh energy bleed rates to generate the turn rate required to make the corner and stay in the bandit's planeof motion. If the defender turns away from the attacker, turning room increases. If the attacker is on thebelly-side of the defender's turn, part of his geometry problem is being solved initially since the bandit isrotating his vulnerable cone towards the attacker.Vertical turning room is acquired out of the bandit's plane of turn. If the bandit is in a vertical turn,this turning room may be located in a horizontal plane. If the bandit is in the horizontal, then turningroom will be available either above or below his plane of motion. Range and closure will govern theamount of turning room that can be generated. Energy can be gained while maneuvering for turningroom below. If the pilot elects to go for turning room above the bandit, he must have the airspeed to driveabove the bandit while retaining sufficient energy to continue his attack. The attacker must remember histurning room is also the bandit's turning room. If the attacker does not have the energy to use the turningroom, then he must deny the bandit the use of it. Turning room required is based on an aircraft's turnperformance and turn geometry; therefore, a more maneuverable aircraft will not require as much turningroom as a less maneuverable one.Turning room is normally established as you transition inside the defender's turn circle. Trying toestablish vertical or lateral turning room outside the turn circle can result in the attacker becoming thedefender. The same thing can happen while trying to build turning room starting from inside a defender'sturn circle if you subsequently maneuver outside of his turn circle. The bandit may have the capability toforce a role reversal similar to an overshoot.The attacker can recognize that he is inside or will transition inside the defender's turn circle byobserving the defender. If the defender's present rate of turn will not bring his nose on the attacker andthe attacker sees line of sight (LOS) movement by the defender, then the attacker is inside, or willtransition inside, the defender's turn circle (Figure 4.8). Another visual cue is the defender's aspect angleremains constant or begins to decrease.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 45As you can see from Figure 4.8, both attackers A and B begin outside the bandit's turn circle andtransition inside. The position relative to the defender's 3/9 line has nothing to do with being inside oroutside the defender's turn circle. The defender's ability to point at the attacker will determine whetherthe attacker is inside, will transition inside, or is outside of the turning circle. There are a myriad ofthings that determine the aspect and angle-off when transitioning into the defender's turn circle, i.e.,range, Vc, defender's turn capability, and the aspect and angle-off when beginning the attack. The aspectand angle-off the attacker perceives at the transition will determine the initial pursuit course he elects.The actual aspect and angle-off as well as the turning room and relative energy states will dictate weaponsenvelope and the degree of BFM necessary to achieve a kill.Figure 4.8 Recognizing Turn Circle4.6.5. Mechanics of BFMThis section will examine the three basic principles of BFM: roll, turn, and acceleration.4.6.5.1. RollRoll allows the pilot to position his lift vector, thus determining the plane of motion in which he willturn. At high speed and low AOA, the F-16 has a very high roll-rate capability. However, as the airspeedslows and AOA builds, the roll performance begins to degrade. At slow speed, in order to roll morerapidly, the AOA must be reduced prior to initiating the roll. It should also be noted that the slower theairspeed, the longer it will take to command a reduction of AOA. This factor becomes very important inslow speed lift vector positioning such as might be required to defeat a gunshot.An important aspect of roll is the ability to slow the forward velocity of the aircraft. If G is maintainedand a roll is initiated, a spiral is made in the flight path, thereby increasing the "through the air" distancethe aircraft flies to arrive at any selected point.An additional benefit of roll is the ability to position the bandit so the pilot can maintain a tally. Thisis especially useful with an aft quadrant bandit where a simple roll to maintain line of sight (LOS) ispreferable to energy depleting "kickouts."

46MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 19964.6.5.2. TurnTurn radius determines the size of the turn circle. This radius is based on the aircraft's TAS and radialG. The size of the circle and the relative turn rate capability of the two aircraft will determine how wellthe pilot can solve the angular problems the defender presents. The objective is to work to where availableG will allow the attacker to point his nose at the defender to achieve a missile or gun shot with anacceptable specific power (Ps) bleed-off. How well an aircraft can turn is a function of the turn rate andradius it generates.Radius defines the size of an aircraft's turn or its turning "circle." In the F-16, turn radius at maxAOA/G is relatively constant over an airspeed range of 170 knots calibrated airspeed (KCAS) up to 330KCAS. Above 330 KCAS, turn radius increases slightly as max G is obtained (440 KCAS). Above 440KCAS, turn radius increases dramatically. Because of the F-16 flight control system, the F-16 does nothave a true corner velocity. It has a "corner plateau" which is an airspeed range of 330 - 440 KCAS thatproduces a good turn rate based on available G. (see Figure 4.9). Offensively, sustained operations are notpossible in the same plane against a defender with a smaller turn circle (radius) assuming similar turnrates without inviting an overshoot/reversal situation (Figure 4.10).Figure 4.9 Turn Rate and Velocity

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 47Figure 4.10 Overshoot/Reversal SituationEven if the attacker has the identical turn rate/radius capability as the defender (1v1 similar), theattacker is unable to sustain operations in the same plane to the degree the center of the two turn circlesare offset. In a gross example, if the attacker is outside the defender's turn circle and immediately turns,instead of accelerating into the defender's turn circle, roles will be reversed after 180° of turn (Figure4.11).

48MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.11 Turning on Offset Turn CirclesThe attacker's solution to the situation described above (outside defender's turn circle) is to maneuverinto the defender's turn circle, aiming toward an "entry window" (Figure 4.12). This involves initiallypointing to lag. For example, at point B in Figure 4.12 the attacker has just entered the turn circle andhas his nose in lag. Upon reaching the "entry window," to close on the defender the attacker may need anout-of-plane maneuver (discussed later) to avoid overshooting, followed by a pull back towards leadpursuit. The ability to enter the defender's turn circle and control geometric closure by initially pointingto lag is an important concept in BFM.A defender wants to decrease his turning circle as much as possible. This is because a superiorturning aircraft cannot use his better turn capability until he is inside a defender's turn circle. An earlierturn would merely effect an "in-place" turn (Figure 4.11).

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 49Figure 4.12 Lag to Entry WindowRate is needed to achieve weapons parameters or defeat attacks. The F-16's turn rate increases veryrapidly from slow speed up to 330 KCAS, at which point the rate is the highest (Figure 4.9). Rate allowsthe attacker to match or exceed the turn rate of his adversary and establish lead for a gunshot. Theattacker needs a turn rate advantage that will allow him to pull his nose onto the bandit to employ theAIM-9 or point to lead pursuit for a gun shot. It is important to note an attacker with a higher sustainedturn rate can maintain a positional advantage against a defender with a smaller turn radius but reducedrate (Figure 4.13). In order to employ the AIM-9, he must have a turn rate that will allow him to keep hisnose within approximately 30° of the bandit for tone acquisition and missile launch. The ability tomaintain a high sustained turn rate (corner plateau, 330 - 440 KCAS in the F-16) while the defendersacrifices sustained rate for a tighter turn is another key concept in understanding BFM. In this sense, aturn rate advantage is more tactically significant than a smaller turn radius.

50MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996DDCCBASMALLER RADIUS/SLOWER RATEBALARGER RADIUS/FASTER RATEMCM0415Figure 4.13 Turning at Different RatesRate is also used to defeat threats. A defender can use rate to drive an attacker into a lag position andthereby deny him a missile shot or a gunshot opportunity. In close, if the attacker has already establishedlead, the defender can roll and turn out of the bandit's plane of turn to spoil his gunshot solution. Amissile fired in the aft quadrant can be defeated by rotating the aircraft towards 90° aspect angle withregard to the missile. This will generate the maximum line-of-sight (LOS) problem for the missile andhopefully exceed its gimbal tracking capability or its turn capability. Slowing below corner to decreaseturn radius is not advisable. As already discussed, a smaller turn radius will enhance the overshootprobability of the missile, but the missile will still kill if the overshoot occurs within fuze functioningdistance of the target. A higher turn rate, not a small turn radius, is necessary for a successful missiledefense. The F-16 also turns better with afterburner (AB). AB gives a better turn capability because itallows the pilot to sustain airspeed and thereby sustain a higher turn rate (assuming near corner velocity).In addition, maneuvering at higher AOAs results in a greater portion of the aircraft's thrust vector to bepointed toward the center of the turn, which also helps the F-16 maintain a smaller turn radius and greaterturn rate. To achieve the highest turn rate possible, slow or accelerate towards corner velocity speed range(330 to 440 KCAS) as quickly as possible and turn hard to generate maximum angles in the shortest time.The maximum LOS problem for a missile occurs at 90° of aspect angle (Figure 4.14). For furtherdiscussion on infrared missile defense, refer to MCM 3-1, Volume 5.It is important to remember that although a turn initiated on the limiter may give you your best initialturn rate, you may not be able to sustain it. Monitor your airspeed. If it falls below 330 KCAS, you willhave to relax G (or descend) in order to maintain best sustained turn rate airspeed. Remember, speed islife. Unless you have a reason to be slow, don’t get there.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 51As a rule of thumb, these are some reasons you may find yourself slow (hopefully not for long) due totrading energy for turn rate:• Solving those last few angles during BFM in order to employ ordnance.• To salvage a bad situation. To avoid becoming defensive or losing 3/9 advantage.• Defeating enemy ordnance.• You discover you’re a student in the Weapons School.Figure 4.14 Missile LOS RatesWhen turning in the vertical, rate and radius are affected by the earth's pull (gravity). Any time theaircraft's lift vector is above the horizon, turn rate is decreased and turn radius is increased. If a loop wereperformed at a constant (cockpit) G, the flight path would be characterized by an "egg" shape (Figure4.15). A 4 G loop would result in effective radial G (GR) loading as indicated in the figure. From thecockpit perspective, a 4 G turn at the top of a loop "turns like" a 5 G horizontal turn.

52MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.15 Vertical TurningIf a pilot can utilize a downhill turn at key points in a BFM engagement, his relative turningperformance will be better than his adversary's. This fact allows an attacker, flying proper BFM andstarting from inside the defender's turn circle, to maintain a positional advantage. When a vertical(downhill) turn is used to complete a counter turn, the attacker can more than make up for turnperformance lost while performing the counter turn. The attacker can use superior turning performance tosolve angle-off problems and choose the desired pursuit curve to fly to weapons employment parameters.In practice, the counter turn and/or the initial part of the reversal is often accompanied by a slight climbthat allows the attacker to set up the downhill part of his maneuver and not be required to fly excessivelybelow the defender's plane of motion while turning to solve angle-off and pursuit curve problems. Thisslight climb (while turning) and slice turn sequence results in a maneuver commonly called a "Hi Yo-Yo"usually followed by a "Low Yo-Yo." Another important concept of vertical turning is "optimizing" turnrate and energy (airspeed) expenditure. Utilizing maximum available G while entering a purely verticalturn (loop) excessively bleeds energy while "working against" gravity. Generally, a lower G vertical turnis more efficient at the beginning and end of a loop, while maximum G (maximum rate) vertical turns canbe best employed when working "with" gravity—from nose pointing straight up until nose pointingstraight down. Flying an optimum loop—using 3 - 4 G's at beginning and end, and maximum G availablewhile flying over the top—maximizes vertical maneuvering potential. Maximum turn rate at the bottomof vertical turns should normally be used only to force a trailing aircraft's nose into lag and to cause thetrailer to overshoot in the vertical (Figure 4.16). Additionally, vertical turns performed in the "pure"vertical (i.e., no lateral or horizontal component) deny a trailing (similar) aircraft, at a lower energy state,the capability to counter the result of the energy differential by performing an oblique or horizontal turn(Figure 4.17).

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 53Figure 4.16 Vertical OvershootFigure 4.17 Vertical Versus Oblique Turning

54MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 19964.6.5.3. AccelerationThe three primary factors affecting acceleration are altitude, attitude, and airspeed.4.6.5.3.1. Effects of AltitudeThe lower the density altitude the more effective the acceleration will be because of increased thrust.4.6.5.3.2. Effects of AttitudeThe total energy gained during an acceleration maneuver is a trade off between airspeed gained andaltitude lost. Aircraft attitude determines the effect of gravity on an acceleration maneuver. If the aircraftvelocity vector is above the horizon, acceleration effectiveness is reduced. If the aircraft velocity vector isbelow the horizon, effectiveness is enhanced. Aircraft G loading effects induced drag and accelerationeffectiveness. The fastest airspeed gain occurs in an unloaded (0 G), nose-low acceleration. The endresult of this maneuver is a large altitude loss and very nose-low attitude that may be unacceptable in anaerial engagement. If altitude is a factor, select AB and fly a 0.7 to 0.9 G, slightly nose-low extensionmaneuver. While airspeed gain will not be as rapid as at 0 G, altitude loss is minimized and you will notbury the nose. The point to remember is that the closer you are to 0 G, the faster you will accelerate, butyou will bury the nose more and lose more altitude. This is especially important in an attempt to separatefrom an opponent, because if the nose is buried in a very nose-low, unloaded acceleration, the resultinghigh G pullout may provide the bandit a chance to affect a lead pursuit course or "arc you" during theground avoidance turn. In any case, however, attempt to get the nose below the horizon beforeestablishing the "optimum G" for an acceleration. Rarely will a nose-high acceleration be effective.4.6.5.3.3. Effects of AirspeedAcceleration is a trade off between thrust and drag. Thrust increases at a greater rate than parasitedrag with velocity increases over the speed range of 100 KCAS to 450 KCAS (or 0.95 mach whichevercomes first) due to the ram air effects on the engine. Above 450 KCAS, acceleration rates decrease asdrag becomes dominant (both parasite drag and compressibility drag). As a rule of thumb, the bestacceleration rates occur in the speed range from 300 to 400 KCAS.Figure 4.18 Effect of Bank Angle on Separation

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 55Often, the purpose of an acceleration maneuver is to separate from an adversary—get beyond hismaximum missile range. In this case, the object is to fly a straight line over the ground to prevent theadversary from arcing. As bank angle increases from wings level to 90°, the corresponding "optimum"acceleration G decreases (to maintain a straight line flight path). At 0.9 G and 90° of bank, the aircraft isturning laterally as though it was in a 30° (rejoin) level turn (Figure 4.18). To reduce the potential forarcing, reduce G to 0 when approaching 90° of bank.4.6.6. Lead TurnsA lead turn is the most efficient BFM maneuver. A lead turn is nothing more than an attempt todecrease angle-off prior to passing the opponent's 3/9 line. It can be done in any plane (horizontal, verticalor combination of both). The classic lead turn is accomplished by the pilot offsetting his flight path oneturn diameter from his adversary. He observes where his opponent is going and predicts where he will beat some point in the future. He then initiates a turn to arrive at a point in space with reduced aspect andangle-off (Figure 4.19). Plan to lead turn to a position about one turn radius behind the defender.Figure 4.19 Lead TurnThe size of your turn circle, turn rate capability, and the defender's airspeed will determine the pointyou initiate the lead turn. Considerable judgment is required to properly initiate and execute a lead turnso as to arrive within the intended weapons parameters. It is important to stress that a lead turn requiresthe initiation of the turn forward of the defender's 3/9 line. (Remember turning room for one is alsoturning room for the other and the tighter turning fighter has the advantage.) The point to start the turn isbased on the question "Can I make that corner?" When the answer is "Yes," start the turn. You may alsonotice the proper lead point as where LOS movement increases. The lead turn opportunity normallybegins inside the bandit’s turn circle, and just as the LOS rate changes as you enter a bandit’s circle froma 9,000 foot perch setup, the LOS rate will increase in a high aspect pass as you enter the bandit’s turncircle, except that the change in LOS rate is not as apparent. This LOS rate is that caused by the relative

56MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996motion between the fighter and the bandit, not the apparent LOS rate caused by fighter maneuvering.During the turn, G should be adjusted as required to keep the adversary moving slightly forward along thehorizon (horizontal turn). The objective is to roll out behind the adversary. The more turning roomacquired, the longer the range for lead turn initiation and the lower the G-loading required to completethe maneuver. Conversely, if the maneuver is initiated at short range with little or no offset, a high-Gturn will be required to complete the maneuver. The uprange distance at which a lead turn is initiatedwill govern the roll-out range at the target's six (Figure 4.20). Lead turns against a target that maneuversprior to passing your 3/9 line will not produce a dead six position, but should still result in some turnadvantage. Bandit LOS rate aft on the canopy and aspect less than 180 are the visual cues for a lead turnand work for both horizontal and vertical conversions. these cues only take into account positionaladvantages, not energy differences. Once LOS movement becomes apparent, put the lift vector in lead ofthe bandit and use enough G to keep the turn rate as close to the LOS rate as possible, or allow the LOS todrift slightly forward. If you pull to exceed the bandit’s LOS rate (bandit moving forward on the canopy)you may be turning belly up to the bandit and risk becoming defensive, unless the conditions permit a norespectlead turn. A bandit who turns to pass 180 aspect with you will not allow a lead turn. If you wereto try to lead turn a bandit 180° out prior to passing him, and without seeing the proper cues, you couldallow yourself to be lead turned unless you are in a no respect lead turn situation.Figure 4.20 Lead Turn to Weapons ParametersA lead turn may be attempted without turning room simply by initiating a turn prior to passing theopponent's 3/9 line. This is commonly referred to as a "no respect" lead turn and should only be done ifyou can definitely out perform the defender or if you are positive the bandit has not detected you. If theopponent continues on his present course, the attacker will roll out with decreased angle-off, but will stillhave a small aspect angle problem (Figure 4.21). This lead turn may be easily countered by pulling awayfrom the direction the attacker is turning and continuing to build angle-off (Figure 4.22). If the attackerinitiates the turn well outside the defender's turning circle, the defender can slow his forward vector(throttle, speed brakes, out-of-plane) and allow the attacker to fly in front of the former defender's 3/9 line(Figure 4.23).

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 57Figure 4.21 Lead Turn Without Turning RoomFigure 4.22 Turning Away to Defeat Lead Turn

58MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.23 Use of Vertical to Defeat Lead TurnLead turns can be accomplished in any plane. Assuming airspeed is in the "corner plateau" region,lead turns going down will require slightly less offset than lead turns going up.A lead turn down or a split-S is useful because it preserves airspeed. This is especially important if theadversary has a predictable flight path due to a low energy state. The adversary must try to deny the leadturn with a turn degraded by the effects of gravity. If the attacker achieves offset above his adversary, butis hesitant to commit to a nose-low slice, he may lead turn in the horizontal. This is done by pulling to alead point in a plane above the bandit's flight path. Although not as efficient (there is still an aspectproblem to be solved) as a turn done in a plane with the bandit, it preserves nose position (the verticalHCA between the attacker and defender) and prevents a vertical overshoot should the bandit counter thelead turn by pulling up and into the attacker.A lead turn up is effective because it allows visual contact with the defender while possibly placing theattacker in the defender's blind zone. A lead turn coming from low to high takes great advantage of radialG during the terminal portion of the turn (when the attacker's lift vector is below the horizon). The leadturn in the vertical should be avoided if over the top airspeed is not achieved (minimum of 250 KCASlevel) or a significant energy advantage does not already exist (ascending aircraft does not have verticalmaneuvering potential). Lateral offset should be achieved as necessary to maintain a tally during themaneuver.4.6.6.1. No-Respect Lead Turn (Lead Turn Without Turning Room)A no-respect lead turn can be accomplished against a bandit that does not see the fighter or a turndeficient bandit (Figure 4.21). If the bandit does not see the fighter, the end result is an unobservedconversion turn. A turn deficient bandit has a either very large turn radius and/or a very slow turn rategenerally because of two reasons-either the bandit is extremely fast or extremely slow.For example a bandit traveling at Mach 1.3 will have a very large turn radius compared to a fighternear corner velocity. The fighter at corner velocity can begin a lead turn well ahead of the bandit’s 3-9line, giving up angles and even going belly up to the bandit. But because of the bandit’s high airspeed

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 59and the inability to perhaps bleed it down quickly, he cannot take advantage of the angles the fighter isgiving up.A second example is a very slow bandit coming down from over the top. If a bandit goes vertical andis coming down slow on airspeed, a fighter may lead turn the bandit and even go belly up to the banditprior to the 3-9 line because the bandit is too slow to bring his aircraft to point at the fighter lead turningin front of him.The above two examples are extreme cases where a bandit cannot stop a fighter from lead turning infront of him because of an airspeed related performance limit.4.6.6.2. CountersThe counter to a lead turn is to remove the offset prior to the lead point, i.e., take your share ofturning room by beginning your own lead turn.Against aircraft with inferior turn performance, if the pilot plans and initiates a lead turn at the properrange, he will automatically negate any turn his opponent attempts (Figure 4.24). The opponent with aninferior turn performance will initiate a lead turn sooner than you wish to initiate yours. The inferiorturning aircraft will also strive for more lateral offset than you need for your own turn. This can be easilycountered by turning to deny his lead turn and initiating your own lead turn at the proper point for yourturn capability. This will quickly develop into a lagging contest won by the aircraft generating the bestsustained turn rate.Figure 4.24 Denying Lead Turn Versus Inferior PerformerAgainst an aircraft with superior turn performance, or if you have gotten slow and have less turningcapability, a defending pilot should fly directly at his opponent, eliminating all offset and denying anychance for a lead turn. It is important that he make the turn to point at his opponent prior to the pointwhere the opponent transitions inside the defender's turn circle. The sooner this is accomplished, the lesssevere the maneuvering required to deny the lead turn (Figure 4.25).

60MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.25 Denying the Lead Turn Versus Superior Performer4.6.7. Energy Versus PositionEnergy is the potential to maneuver. However, too much energy can be a dangerous thing. Excessivespeed can lead to severely degraded turn performance, minimum time in weapons parameters, andreduced station time. The key to the fighter pilot is the determination of how much energy he needs andhow much he is willing to expend for a given positional advantage. BFM allows the achievement ofweapons parameters with minimum energy expenditure in as little time as possible. This concept ofefficient maneuvering is important because in a tactical situation, it will dictate how much BFM is to beemployed in a given engagement. How much predictable time can the F-16 pilot afford on one attack withregard to the entire tactical environment? How much energy or future maneuvering potential can beexpended for a given positional advantage? Will that position be sufficient for the kill or will it justprolong the maneuvering, requiring more time and energy? All these questions must be asked andevaluated to determine the trade off for a given situation. Obviously, high energy bleed off for position isjustified to achieve firing parameters against a Flogger attacking the home drome, while the same Psexpenditure may be unwise in an outnumbered sweep vs sweep scenario deep in enemy airspace. Energyand position must continually be balanced by the fighter pilot. BFM is a tool the F-16 pilot uses toachieve this balance—always trading energy for position and using position to employ ordnance,remaining cognizant of his own need for survival.4.7. Offensive BFMThe primary consideration in offensive BFM is to kill the bandit by arriving in lethal weaponsparameters as soon as possible and take the shot. Understanding the concept of turn circles is mandatoryto assessing which BFM discussed in this chapter will work in which instances. It should be rememberedthat BFM is not a fixed set of maneuvers, but rather, combinations of rolls, turns, and accelerations thathave been optimized for certain situations and named for the sake of discussion. Since the end goal of anyoffensive engagement is to kill the bandit, BFM is designed precisely to do just that with minimum timeand energy expended.4.7.1. Objectives of Offensive BFMThe first and primary goal of offensive BFM is to kill. In order to kill, the fighter pilot must recognizeweapons parameters and employ ordnance once in those parameters. If he cannot shoot, he mustreposition until he can employ ordnance.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 61• Gain and maintain sufficient energy to have future maneuvering potential against the adversary.• Maintain nose/tail separation against the adversary. Offensive maneuvers will position the pilotbehind the bandit with sufficient energy to enable him to stay there.• Allow the pilot to drive into a position from which ordnance may be employed against the adversary.4.7.2. Outside the Turn CircleSeveral things happen quickly/simultaneously (Figure 4.26):• If able, point at the bandit and fire an AIM-9.• Select AB.• Point to where you want to enter the bandit’s turn circle. Do not pure pursuit the bandit during missiletime-of-flight.• Assess the bandit’s turn.MCM00401Figure 4.26 Outside the Turn Circle4.7.2.1. TC Entry CuesThis is one of the most important aspect of flying BFM. You must recognize when you are in thebandit's TC, and what to do once you're there if you ever hope to arrive at an end game kill. Your primaryreference should be the LOS across the horizon. If you never changed your initial aim point (assuming itwas a good one) then LOS across the canopy works also. But that's not what you should look for becauseyou control that somewhat by where you point and how hard you pull, so look at the horizon. Back toLOS rate. Initially you will see the bandit move very little across the horizon but he will be rotating inspace. As you approach his TC, his aspect will begin to stabilize (rotation stops) and his movement acrossthe horizon will pick up. You have entered his TC! The Bandit will probably slide out of the HUD FOVprior to your entering the TC, but it will happen at a low LOS. For the typical set-up this will occur about10:00 or 2:00, (sounds like 40°- 50° on the locator line) but will vary depending on how hot your entry is.Range is dependent primarily on how hard the bandit breaks and a little on aspect, but 5000' - 6000' is

62MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996again typical for what we do, (normally about 6 seconds from "fights-on" with the bandit normallythrough 120° of turn with aspect about 70.).Another technique for determining your position relative to the bandit’s TC is to evaluate the bandit’spresent rate of turn. If this turn will bring you forward of the bandit’s 3/9 line, then you are outside thebandit’s TC. You are inside the bandit’s TC when you determine that his rate of turn will not bring youforward of his 3/9 line.Use the afterburner to gain airspeed. Because you're outside the bandits TC, the time it takes for youto get there is dead time. Every second the bandit generates 15-20° more angles you'll need to solve andyou can't solve any angles until you get to his TC. Therefore you'll want to get there as quick as possible.However, once there you'll need to slow back down by getting out of A/B and/or use of S/B. A good tradeoff is about 500 knots at the TC entry. Faster and your radius is too large and rate drops off, slower andyou'll quickly have to ease off the "G" to sustain corner. Power modulation in the Viper, especiallyagainst a thrust deficient bandit is all important, i.e. two- handed turns are a requirement.4.7.2.2. Point at the BanditThe TC entry point is a window from where he started (actually just inside) to just short of the centerof his TC. Anywhere within this window is the correct solution, however, exactly where will determinethe amount of vertical needed to solve the problem. The hotter the entry (i.e. the closer to the center of theTC) the more vertical required. This assumes you are fighting a bandit similar in capability to you. Agood rule of thumb is to enter about 2/3 of the way out from the center. Assuming a standard set-up, atthe "fights on/Fox II" you need only to roll out and point to where the bandit was (or at the first flare) tohit this entry point. This is the conservative approach, but will enable you to see the TC entry moreclearly. How about vertical? This is a wonderful concept, but too low and the bandit can keep his energyup by keeping lift vector on, too high and you delay getting to the TC. Again look for a window, withinabout 500' high or low is reasonable. If you go low, the bandit can create max angles with lift vector on aswell as maintain energy by having his lift vector below the horizon. A level (or even a slight climb) willforce the bandit to make a decision. If he keeps lift vector on he bleeds energy, if he keeps lift vectorslightly below the horizon he builds you some vertical turning room. The point here is two fold; have agame plan, but realize the bandit may not be cooperative. Constant assessment of what the bandit isdoing, and being able to adjust is a must.4.7.2.3. Assess the BanditLook through the bandit at the horizon beyond. This gives you the best cues to determine the size ofthe bandits TC, (and therefore the center of it), the amount of altitude delta you have (space betweenhorizon and bandit is vertical turning room), and most importantly, it will be the best cue for TC entrytime.4.7.2.4. Knowing When to Start Your TurnYou've arrived at his TC (Figure 4.27) but now you need to solve the other problems that have beencreated, such as angles and range; realize that the bandit will not be in your HUD at this point. Referencethe previous discussion on airspeed at TC entry and power modulation. If you see greater than 500 (notlikely with a PW motor) pull power to min AB, or fan the boards, you will slow down during your initialturn. Less than 500, leave power set in full AB. As the bandit's airspeed decreases, so does his TC size.When you enter his TC your turn circle will be a bit larger than his initially. Your initial move should beto make a loaded roll to set your lift vector on or slightly above the bandit, and pull. This is initially alimiter pull while you assess range and closure.During the maneuver, you need to asses what the bandit is doing, along with your range, closure, andheading crossing angle (HCA). This initial turn will take you through about 120° of turn. It is critical tokeep your nose in check with the horizon as well as the bandit, + 15°. (Slightly more may be required ifyou chose to make your entry hotter due to higher aspect angles) Done correctly your flight path will takeyou slightly outside his, and you will always be looking at the top of his aircraft. What you do from heredepends on what type of defense the bandit is doing. For this discussion two will be addressed: check andextend & continuous turn.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 63MCM00402Figure 4.27 Turn Circle Entry4.7.3. Follow-On BFM4.7.3.1. Check & ExtendThere are a number of different which cues the bandit is doing this (Figure 4.28). Probably the first isthe ability to pull the bandit to your nose with relative ease. Next is a rapid change in aspect. During yourinitial turn you were continually looking at the top of his aircraft. As the bandit extends, the burner canbecomes the focus of your attention. Another cue is LOS. When you entered his TC you saw rapid LOSacross the horizon. As the bandit extends his LOS across the horizon stops. The last cue is range. Duringyour initial you closed rapidly, but the extension will again increase range. When you see this the banditis trying to get something you are trying to deny, energy and range. Your reaction should be to stay on thelimiter and point at him as quickly as possible to threaten him. This should bring him back into a turn, ifnot shoot him with a missile. the bandit’s extension has opened up the range enough to place you outsidehis turn circle, so think about getting there again. Your move should be another TC entry the same asbefore, but it will quicker, and both the bandit's energy and your energy are diminished. Resist the urge topoint directly at him. This typically happens with new BFMers, and though it can be a quick kill option,it's best left to be learned as experience increases.Your goal is to get to a position of control (the control zone, his elbow, etc.) and beat him down onenergy until you decide to prosecute. Typically you will arrive there after 2 or 3 extensions by the bandit,provided you didn't let him extend too long each time. Transitioning to the eventual kill with the gun willbe discussed later. Take your time, be patient, and the kill will happen quicker in the endgame.

64MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996MCM00403Figure 4.28 Check and Extend4.7.3.2. Continuous TurnThe cues you have that this (Figure 4.29) is the bandit's game plan are opposite of the check & extend.You may be able to pull him to your nose, but it will unnecessarily deplete energy require all you've gotand is not the appropriate move. Your first cue should be the continuous LOS across the horizon. Also,you'll continue to see the top of his aircraft. Finally, the range between you and the bandit does not openup by virtue of the bandit's maneuvers. Depending on how well he flies this defense will determine howfast you beat him down on energy and kill him. He is presenting angle problems, and trying to force anerror out of you (most notably bleed down your energy). Your BFM should not let this happen. You willneed to threaten him to get him to bleed energy, but if you try to make it happen in one fell swoop you'lllose. When you detect this is his game plan, ease off of the turn to preserve range, position and energy.This will solve your angular problem by itself.As a target, try to close no closer than about 3000' initially and maintain about 350 kts (300 as anabsolute min). The 3000’ is an approximation of his turn radius. As long as you are outside this, and youmake a slight flight path overshoot (which will happen), he can't do anything about it. This also happensto be an approximation of your turn radius, and you will need turning room to threaten/prosecute.Preservation of range is critical here and the greater your HCA the more you'll need. As long as yourHCA is within about 30° as you slide outside of his flight path this range is sufficient. If the HCA isgreater than that you'll need more range, so shoot for about 4000' - 5000'. Maintaining 350 KTS willoptimize your turn radius and your turn rate. The closer your nose is to the bandit the more threatened thebandit will feel, and force him to turn harder and deplete energy. Using a series of small high and lowyo-yo’s will eventually bring your nose into lead thus forcing the bandit to do something. Do not get yournose too low, you'll be fighting God’s G and the bandit, and you'll lose. Along with the yo-yo’s, your turncircles will be slightly offset, so even if the bandit has equal energy initially, your nose will arrive in lead.Be patient!! Don't let your energy deplete until you are sure his is gone and you are ready to kill. Crosscheck your range and closure at the initial turn to avoid setting yourself up to pass too close to the banditwith HCA out of control ( i.e. setting up a reversal opportunity for the bandit).

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 65MCM00404Figure 4.29 Continuous TurnCommon Errors:• No AB: delays entry, overall energy is lower.• Too hot of a TC entry: set up a reversal opportunity, best case delay the kill unnecessarily.• Late TC recognition: flying out the back, letting the bandit get a good extension.• Pulls too hard: range/closer problem, depletion of your energy.• HUD BFM: develops closure problems quickly, sets up an overshoot.• Being greedy: PATIENCE is the key to success.4.7.4. Vertical ConsiderationsThe concepts for a vertical fight (Figure 4.30) are similar to other BFM skills. Look for TC cues, crosscheck over the top airspeed, and prosecute the attack. When you follow the bandit up, it's not a limiterpull into the vertical. Perform a loop (like back in TR), except at the top you can pull harder to threatenthe bandit. If your airspeed is significantly greater than his, you may be able to use that to prosecuteacross the top, but you may not have a free overshoot. Keys here are: cross check closure, and ensure hisnose is committed down before you go for the kill. The biggest error made happens at the onset. If thebandit goes up and you immediately follow. Essentially you're cutting across the center of his TC, andcreating problems talked about earlier. Remember to point to where he was and make a good TC entry.

66MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996MCM00405Figure 4.30 Vertical Fight Entry4.7.5. Closing for GunsThis section applies not only to perch sets, but also when you transition from the long range offensivesets and decide it's time to give the bandit a shower of 20mm (Figure 4.31) from the control position. Ifthe bandit has 300 kts, he can generate tremendous problems and you probably won’t maintain the controlposition. Normally don't try to gun him until he is 250 or less (there are a number ways to tell hisairspeed: closure combined with aspect, and looking in the MFD). There are two options you have as theattacker at the "fight's on". The first is pull lead and gun him now, The second is to bid to lag and beathis energy down.MCM00406Figure 4.31 Closing for GunsIf you elect to pull lead and gun him from the start, prepare for the possible outcomes. If he's a duckand simply puts lift vector on and pulls, he dies, fight's over in 3 seconds provided your pipper control ison the mark. If not, or he jinks, you now have a closure problem and angle problem which you may not

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 67be able to solve very quickly especially if you continue to press the attack and follow his jink. The way tokeep out of trouble here is to pull lead, if he even hints at a jink it's time to reposition while your stilloutside 2500'. If you decide to shoot, do so with a lethal burst, then reposition immediately. If the shot isgood, call him dead. If it's not, you're already solving the closure problem before it gets out of control.The other option is to make a bid to lag (Figure 4.32) to beat the bandit's energy down before you gunhim. This option is highly recommended for the less experienced, and should be your primary game planuntil your proficiency increases. The bid to lag can be accomplished in a variety of ways. The simplest isto ease off of your turn to float back to the bandit's elbow. This will keep energy up so you can pull yournose to lead at your discretion. Power can stay in mil. It also keeps your nose in a threatening position tothe bandit and prevents him from selecting AB (If he does shoot him with the missile). You may alsoelect to reposition using a slight out of plane maneuver, This is acceptable and does kill closure rapidly,but may also send a non-threatening message to the bandit by going out of plane while his energy is stillup. Executed correctly this technique is fine, but make it quick, small, and crisp. Remember this is twohanded BFM, AB may be required but not usually on the first move.MCM00407Figure 4.32 Bid to LagThe bandit has a couple of options to try and force an error. If he continues his turn, think offset turncircles, and small yo-yo’s. He's on the down side of the Ps curves, so you're controlling the fight from thestart. One of mistake is to bleed your energy before him. Ride the smoke trail, and monitor his airspeed.When he's down to about 200 kts you own him. Avoid being low and not in lead, you'll scrape off on thefloor first. As long as you're slightly high, the bandit will have to flatten his turn to avoid the floor.When he does you can trade your altitude for turn rate and gun him.If the bandit reverses (Figure 4.33) in a nose counter or roll underneath, he's trying to cause severalproblems. First is to get your nose out of sync with his, and make you fly a shorter string causing aclosure problem. You can control this with an appropriate reposition to his six. Idle / speedbrakes mayalso help. Either a yo-yo type maneuver out of plane or a lag roll will work, but be extremely careful notto bury your nose or it may stagnate the fight. The idea is to stop your forward movement to preserverange. If you keep a constant cross check of range and closure, and solve it early, you'll stay behind himall day. If you delay, you're sure to find yourself in a stack or defensive. As a rule of thumb at 2000' ifyou see 100 knots of closure, reposition, At 1500' if you see 50 knots, reposition. This is two handedBFM, using small crisp maneuvers. When in doubt, reposition! It can't hurt, and you'll preserve youroffensive position.Common Errors:• Poor Vc control; leads to overshoots, reversals, or stacks.• Exaggerated repositions; allows the bandit extension and turning opportunities.• Poor pipper control; don’t waste your bullets.

68MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996MCM00408Figure 4.33 Bandit Reversals4.7.6. Slow Speed FightingIf late recognition of undesired closure/range occurs, the bandit may reverse and force a slow speedfight. There are three common types of slow speed fights: flat scissors, rolling scissors, and high/lowstack.4.7.6.1. Flat ScissorsA flat scissors is the result of an in-plane overshoot. Given an energy advantage, exclusive use of thevertical may exist. If so, reposition high and loop the bandit. Be patient and drive to his six o'clockposition prior to committing the nose back down. Without exclusive use of the vertical, a determinationmust be made in relation to the bandit's turn circle. At slow speed, turn circles may be very small (1200'radius or so). If outside his turn circle, pull with lift vector on and attempt a snap shot. If the snap shot isdenied/defeated, attempt a lead turn to gain 3/9 line advantage. If the lead turn is denied or the scissorsstarts from inside the bandit's turn circle, forward velocity relative to him must be stopped to gain 3/9 lineadvantage. To do so, align fuselages and set the wings relative to the horizon to stop forward motion.Power/drag can be used to slow forward velocity followed by max AB to maintain pitch attitude. Whenthe bandit begins to move forward on the canopy, pull to his six o'clock to establish a 3/9 line advantage.If both of you are pulling for a high six o'clock position and neither establishes a 3/9 line advantage, arolling scissors will result.4.7.6.2. Rolling ScissorsIn a rolling scissors, the pilot that can point, intimidate, and cause the other pilot to stop pullingshould have the advantage. If unable to point and intimidate, then stop the rolling when the nose is abovethe horizon and the bandit's nose is below the horizon. By rolling out with the nose above the horizon,forward velocity is slowed. Because the bandit's nose is below the horizon, he should have a greaterforward velocity. This should result in a 3/9 line advantage for you (Figure 4.34). If a rolling scissorscontinues, then both aircraft's airspeed will decrease so that the scissors transitions to a vertical rollingscissors. In a vertical rolling scissors, the opportunity to stop the nose above the horizon may not occur.Therefore, attempt to pirouette in the vertical and point to intimidate the bandit. A vertical rollingscissors fight will lose altitude rapidly, maintain SA on altitude lost and terrain clearance. When a rollingscissors transitions to a horizontal fight (neither pilot having a 3/9 line advantage), the fight may result ina high/low stack.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 69Figure 4.34 Forcing the Bandit Forward4.7.6.3. High/Low StackA high/low stack can result from an overshoot in the vertical or stopping a rolling scissors. If the highman, use power to gain turning room above the bandit. Keep sight by weaving slightly during the climb.Be sure to keep the nose above the horizon to prevent an increase in forward velocity. Attempt to get hisnose out of synchronization (sync) to gain lateral as well as vertical turning room. At approximately3000' of turning room (adversary outside the turn circle), maneuver to gain 3/9 line advantage. While thehigh man has a slightly higher potential energy, the low man has the advantage of an easy tally. Try tomirror everything the bandit does to force his loss of sight, but not to the point of losing lift. This willdeny him lateral and vertical turning room, forcing the bandit to roll to regain sight. If he rollsexcessively, his nose will drop increasing his forward velocity. Once the 3/9 line advantage is gained,maneuver to the bandit's six o'clock and attempt a gun shot.4.8. Defensive BFMThe following discussion of defensive BFM is predicated on an understanding of offensive BFM. Indefense, realizing the mistakes of the attacker gives the defender his best chance of role reversal or escape.To recognize the attacker's mistakes the defender must know offensive BFM concepts. The primaryobjective of defensive BFM is survival. Unfortunately, you are looking over your shoulder, often underhigh G-load to accomplish this. More than any other situation in flying, defensive BFM is a physicalproblem. It hurts to pull G's and look over your shoulder. The ramifications of being physicallyunprepared for the defensive BFM arena should be obvious. In the F-16, it can kill you. Physicalconditioning and proper body positioning are a must!4.8.1. Objectives During Defensive BFMThere is no magic maneuver you can use on defense which will automatically change you to anoffensive position against a similar bandit. In order for you to go offensive or separate, he must make amistake. Therefore, it is essential you maintain a tally so you can take advantage of his mistakes,assuming he makes any. Your maneuvering on defense must be weighed with keeping the tally. If thebandit doesn't make any mistakes, or makes fewer than you, the best you can hope for is to keep him fromemploying ordnance against you. As the engagement continues, this can become extremely frustrating

70MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996and there is a tendency to give up. Your will to live must remain high. As long as the bandit isn'tshooting, your defense is working. There are two basic objectives during defensive BFM:• Survive the bandit's attack. Deny the bandit weapons employment opportunities. Defeat any weaponsemployed by the bandit.• Separate or kill the bandit.There are a few principles that are important if you intend to survive:• First is the will to live. Whatever it's for it doesn't matter, but the instant you give up you die. Oncethis attitude has been established the fight may commence.• A game plan is important, and a couple will be discussed later. However, if the game plan you decideon is not working, do something else.• Keeping a tally is a must! Do whatever it takes not to lose the bandit once you have him in sight.BFM is a constant trade-off between energy and position. Only expend enough energy as required andno more. Airspeed is rate, and rate is critical in defeating ordnance and causing angular problems for thebandit. If you give up airspeed and don't get anything for it, you'll die. However if you try to conserveairspeed at the wrong time, you’ll offer the bandit a shot opportunity. Don’t die with airspeed or altitudebelow you.Along the same line is nose position relative to the horizon. Don't get it buried or you becomeextremely predictable which makes the bandit's job a lot easier.4.8.2. Bandit Outside the Turn CircleThe initial turn is critical, and sets the stage for the rest of the fight. It should be almost reactionary,but watching the bandit throughout is a must. At the "fight's on" call, a break turn needs to be initiated.This means roll to set your lift vector (on the bandit or slightly below the horizon), power in mil, pullsmoothly to the limiter, and dispense flares. Lift vector position is very important. Lift vector on thebandit will prevent him from obtaining out of plane turning room. However, if the bandit stays level orclimbs slightly, you’ll bleed airspeed quicker, and once below corner you’ll lose turn rate. Lift vectorbelow the horizon will allow you to sustain a good turn rate longer, creating more angles on the bandit,but it may also give the bandit some vertical turning room high. Either is acceptable, but realize whatyour gaining/giving up with each, and know how it plays into your game plan. There are a number ofways to visualize your lift vector: the top of the canopy, the vertical stabilizer, or bandit's relative positionon the horizon.This turn must be on the limiter! You must create as many angles as possible before the bandit gets toyour turn circle. With this in mind, the need for a proper straining maneuver is paramount. Anticipatethe G onset. Also, it is important to blend in the G quickly and smoothly, rather than a snap to 9 G's. Anon-limiter turn makes the bandit's job easier.Flares need to be expended to decoy missiles in flight as well as missiles before they ever come off therail. You must continue to expend flares as long as the bandit is in a position to shoot a missile. Thisvaries considerably depending on the threat, but for the purpose of this discussion, assume the bandit hasan off-boresight capability of 30°.During this break turn, assess what the bandit is doing and determine what your next move will be.What you will see for the first part of this break turn is the bandit tracking forward on your canopy. Thisis good!!4.8.3. Bandit OptionsWhat the bandit does will depend on his game plan, aircraft capabilities, and pilot abilities. Thisdiscussion will be limited to the bandit making some big out of plane maneuver, going to pure/leadpursuit, or making a bid for lag.If the bandit elects to make a big move out of plane (Figure 4.35), he is going for turning room andprobably doesn't think he has a turn capability equal to yours. Don not allow huge amounts of verticalturning room. The missile threat will go away rather quickly, so your move should be to select full AB,put lift vector on him, and continue the pull on the limiter. Depending on the amount of vertical, he may

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 71not have ever entered your turn circle. In this case you should be able to pull him to the front of yourcanopy and pass him high aspect. This pass will most likely be low to high for you, and give you anopportunity to reverse on the bandit. Reversals will be discussed later.MCM00409Figure 4.35 Bandit Maneuvering Out-of-PlaneIf the bandit elects to go pure or pull lead pursuit he may be trying to separate (Figure 4.36), he maynot understand the concepts of BFM, or he may just be very aggressive. He is definitely trying to shootyou, be it with a missile or the gun. What you will see is constant forward movement on your canopy bythe bandit. Also you will see his nose on or lots of belly and intake. Your actions should be to continue todispense flares for the missile, and continue to pull on the limiter to generate as many angles as possible.The bandit also could be trying for a high aspect gun shot so be prepared to get out of plane at about4000'- 5000'. This out of plane maneuver does not need to be excessive, about 15° will suffice. A coupleof options are available. For a short period of time there is an overlap between the missile WEZ and thegun WEZ, so you may be defending against both at the same time. Once the missile has been min rangedselect AB. Min range for the missile is affected greatly by aspect angle and Vc, and should occur at about4500'. Watch the bandit!! If he repositions early you will have to revert to your defensive game plan. Ifthe attack is pursued he is either preparing for a separation or setting himself up to give up 3/9. In thiscase you may elect to separate. Recheck full AB and unload to accelerate as fast as possible. Check tokeep the bandit in sight, and continue to assess range and bandit intent. Your other option is to reverse onthe bandit.

72MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996MCM00410Figure 4.36 Separating BanditIf the bandit makes an initial bid to lag (Figure 4.37), he probably has the intention of staying in thisfight, and knows what he is doing. You will see forward LOS on your canopy initially, then as the banditenters your turn circle he will stop then move aft. Also you will see the top or side of his aircraft, and hisnose off of you. You have two options: either a check and extend defense, or a continuous turn defense.MCM00411Figure 4.37 Bandit Bid to Lag4.8.4. Check and Extend DefenseThe concept behind a check and extend defense is to get energy when his nose is off, and try toincrease the range between you and the bandit. So whenever you turn it's on the limiter, and when youextend it's with both hands forward. Continue to turn on the limiter until the bandit starts to move aft onyour canopy. With the bandit's nose off of you (which may happen before he enters your turn circle) selectfull AB. Your next action is to unload. You've just been at 9 G's so ensure you unload to less than 1 G

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 73and not to 2-3 G's. Rolling out of the bank as you extend will telegraph your intentions, so stay in thebank. Your nose should be slightly low, but not buried, and most importantly maintain sight of thebandit.What you are looking for is nose rate and nose position. At first you will see a lot of plan form whichwill decrease as the bandit tries to pull you to his nose (Figure 4.38). Ideally, you need to start back intoyour turn before his missiles are a threat. So when you assess that the length of his aircraft is about equalto the width, get back into a limiter turn. Turning now will allow you to start the turn in AB, if you wait abit longer the turn will be a full fledge break again. When you turn may also be dictated by airspeed. Ifyou are guaranteed to stay and fight, you should start you turn at about 450 kts to optimize turnperformance. When you are within 30° of his nose, get back to mil power and expend flares. Now lookfor the same cues as before as to when you have the opportunity to extend again. Realize that the checkand extend defense may allow the offender to salvage a poor TC entry.MCM00412Figure 4.38 Bandit Planform ViewsThis process continues until the bandit makes a mistake or you need to transition to a guns defense.The bandit's options are the same as previously discussed, and should be dealt with in the same manner.As this fight progresses, your opportunities to extend, and the length of your extensions will decreasedepending on the bandit mistakes.Common Errors:• Not breaking on the limiter.• Lift vector control (too high and you bleed energy, too low results in getting your nose buried.• Poor IRMD.• Poor timing of extensions/turns.• Poorly timed out of plane maneuvers.• Failure to recognize bandit errors.• Losing sight.4.8.5. Continuous Turn DefenseThis defense is much tougher to fly correctly than the check and extend, but gives you the bestopportunity to survive in an air-to-air arena which involves radar missiles and all-aspect IR missiles. Thebasic principle is to maintain an energy state where your aircraft performs best, creating angles andforcing the bandit into making a mistake. As with the check and extend, initially you need to turn (Figure4.39) on the limiter as long as the bandit moves forward on your canopy. When the bandit's nose is off getthe power back into full AB, and assess your energy. Typically you'll be around 350 kts when the banditenters your turn circle. Get your lift vector slightly below the horizon so God's G can help you maintainenergy and continue your pull. Ease off of the limiter and hold 330-350 kts. 330 kts will optimize yourturn rate and turn radius. Continue to monitor the bandit! His flight path should take him slightlyoutside yours, but not past your extended longitudinal axis. As long as he is not in a position to employmissiles you can keep it in AB, but as soon as the bandit rates his nose around you'll have to use IRMD.

74MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996If the bandit bleeds all his energy in the first turn, and continues to pull maximum G, he may stagnate.You should feel pretty good at this point, but remember it is the bandit's decision to stay "stuck in lag" notyours, and if he wants/knows how to get out of it he can. However, if he is experienced, when herecognized that your game plan was a continuous turn he probably eased off his turn to preserve bothenergy and range. Eventually he will threaten you enough to force you out of AB, and rate his nose tothreaten you with the gun. When this happens it's time to give up some of your airspeed and turn to createangles and closure problems. The bandit will have to reposition to maintain control, and as soon as hedoes plug in the AB, and ease off your turn to capture the rate that will not deplete any more airspeed.When the bandit threatens you again, repeat the process. If the bandit makes no mistakes you'll eventuallyhave to transition to a guns defense. If he does he may overshoot to a scissors, stack, or even a reversal.MCM00413Figure 4.39 Continuous Turn DefenseCommon Errors:• Lift vector control.• Poor IRMD.• Poor energy management.• Failing to recognize bandit errors.• Late transition to a guns defense.Whether you elect to do a check and extend defense or a continuous turn defense the goal is to forcethe bandit to make an error that you may capitalize on. There are several keys to assessing the bandit'senergy state. If the air is right to produce contrails, and the contrails are coming off the bandit's wingtips, his energy is high. If they are coming off of the fuselage, then the bandit's energy is low. The bestindicator of the bandit's energy is nose rate. Couple this with bandit maneuvers and you're on you cancapitalize his errors. If the bandit bids low to arc you across the circle; a small bid down by the banditcan easily be countered by matching him. This will not only take away his turning room, but will aid inkeeping your energy up. If the bandit makes a large bid down to cut across the circle, chances are hisenergy is low. You could match this move also, but that may result in moving the entire fight to thebottom of the area and give the bandit a possible snap shot. If you know his energy is such that he doesnot have over the top air speed, and you do, use the vertical. This can be extremely risky, especially if youmiss-judge his energy and he has range. Another option is to place your lift vector slightly above thebandit and pull on the limiter. This will keep you out of plane, increase angles, and possibly send thisfight neutral or offensive for you. In most cases, your defense will be a combination of both the check andextend, and the continuous turn. Proper application of both will prolong your survival and give the banditmore opportunities to create an error for you to capitalize on.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 754.8.6. Guns DefenseIf you're in a gun fight, defeating the gun shot should be at the top of your thoughts (Figure 4.40), butthe missile is still a threat at close ranges so don't forget IRCM. For the bandit to get a valid guns trackhe must be in plane, in range, and nose in lead. As a general rule give the bandit what he doesn't want.(i.e. if he tries for lead give him lag and visa versa)MCM00414Figure 4.40 Guns DefenseAt the "fight's on" your first move must be out of plane. Rotate your lift vector down (about 20°) in thedirection of the bandit and pull as if your life depended upon it, and watch the bandit. How long you pulldepends on the bandit, but be extremely careful not to bury your nose and become predictable. He hasonly two options: make a bid to lag, or pull lead for a gun shot.If the bandit makes a bid to lag you'll see an aft movement on your canopy, and his nose come off ofyou. Your move can either be to keep turning to try and get him to stagnate, or nose counter to createclosure problems. If you continue to turn be prepared to jink (Figure 4.41) as the bandit rates his nose toyou. If you nose counter right off the bat, keep in mind that even though you're creating closureimmediately, the bandit may still bring his nose through you in his next reposition.MCM00415Figure 4.41 Guns Jink

76MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996If initially bandit pulls lead for a gun shot you'll see forward movement on your canopy and thebandit's nose rating forward. (If you see belly you're too late on your move.) What you need to do is rollunderneath or nose counter over the top in a worm defense. The bandit wants lead so give him lag.Basically both moves are similar as you're doing an unloaded roll to change your direction of flight.As you jink it is important to keep some energy on the jet. AB is probably out of the question or you'lloffer the bandit a missile shot. So maintain mil power, flare when appropriate, and try to keep a slightdownward vector of about 10°-15°. This will help you keep about 200 kts and ensure you still have theenergy to jink. The unload at slow speed seems to take forever so really slam the stick forward and rollquickly the other direction. If your vector is slightly down then repositioning your lift vector in theopposite direction is quicker if you roll underneath. But don't try it with less than 1000' of altitude untilthe floor in case you make an error. It is best to use a combination of both to avoid predictability. It iscritical is to maintain the pull for a few seconds following each move to ensure you are getting out of thebandit's HUD.Your first goal is to give the bandit a closure problem, forcing him to reposition, and get his nose outof sync. The closure problem will develop by the bandit continuing to pull lead with each of your jinks.He will subsequently fly a shorter path than you, creating lots of closure at short range. You'll notice thisby the size of his aircraft, and a nose off reposition. If his nose is in plane, get him out of sync. If hisnose is out of plane, try to keep him in phase with you by putting lift vector on.If during your jinks you lose sight of the bandit, do not go into a single direction death spiral. If youjink and don't pick him up, then jink again. Search inside and slightly high first then high above. If notally, jink again and search the same pattern.The bottom line is, if the bandit never makes an error, or you don't capitalize on those he does make,you'll have problems.Common Errors.• Mis-timed jinks (Failure to accurately assess the bandit's range, and nose position).• Jinking up.• Loaded rolls (up and you bleed energy, down and you get your nose buried)• Lose sight.4.8.7. ReversalsWhen does the opportunity for a reversal present itself? Throughout the engagement you need toconstantly assess the bandit's range, closure, and heading crossing angle. The time to reverse is when thebandit will pass close aboard at a high line of sight and high HCA. This is purely a judgment call onyour part. But for a general rule of thumb you can assume close aboard is less than a turn radius. As forhigh LOS rate and angles, well that depends on the range and the capability of the bandit's aircraft. Thisall may sound fuzzy, but there is no clear cut formula for when to reverse. However, when the time comesand you make the decision to go for it, you have to execute quickly and decisively or you're toast. Theexecution must be violent and on the limiter. If you think of nothing but pulling for the bandit's high six,you'll do fine. The decision to reverse is made before the bandit actually passes you, but is committed tofulfill the above requirements. At that instant, select full AB and pull to the bandit's high six. This pullinitially is in the same direction that you were already turning since the bandit hasn't passed yet. As hepasses by rotate your lift vector to continue towards his six. You want turning room, so don't put your liftvector on him, it has to be behind. This move will result in a limiter barrel role around his flight path,and in essence stopping your ground track while he flies by. The rate at which you roll your lift vector issolely determined by the LOS of the bandit as he passes. If it works, put your offensive hat back on. If itdoesn't, more than likely you're now in a scissors or a stack. One word of caution—if you're having towaiver on your decision to reverse or not, don't. What you stand to lose is far greater than continuing withyour defensive game plan.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 774.9. High Aspect BFMWhen two aircraft turn toward a mutual head-on attack, they are positionally neutral; however,differences in aircraft performance, ordnance, and pilot abilities keep this from being a "neutral" fight.The assumption in high aspect BFM is both fighters have tally and have turned to point at each other.4.9.1. Objectives During High Aspect BFM• Determine your advantage.• Exploit that advantage into a positional advantage.• Use offensive BFM to achieve a kill.• Separate before becoming disadvantaged.• If unable to separate, perform your best 1 v 1 defensive BFM.4.9.2. Options At The PassYour decision to stay and fight or to separate will be based on many considerations: fuel, ordnance,energy, mission, etc. If your decision is to separate, then the initial pass is usually the best opportunity fora separation. If your decision is to stay and fight, then attempt to gain turning room laterally andvertically prior to the pass. If the bandit allows you to gain turning room prior to the pass, lead turn himto gain a position of advantage. It the bandit does not allow you turning room at the pass, your optionsare: extend, vertical up, vertical down, pitch, slice, or lateral turn.4.9.2.1. ExtendYou may extend straight through in order to gain turning room and/or energy. This will force a widerfight which will allow the use of all-aspect ordnance. If the bandit is capable of a high turn rate, it will bedifficult for you to gain sufficient turning room prior to the bandit threatening you. However, if yourenergy is low at the initial pass you may have no option but to extend.4.9.2.2. Vertical UpIf you pull straight up at the pass your turn rate will be lower and turn radius will be larger during thefirst half of the loop. As you maneuver in the vertical, you will become slower, more predictable, and bemore exposed to the look-up missile threat. As a general rule, unless the bandit does not have the abilityto maneuver in the vertical, going up at the initial pass is not advisable.4.9.2.3. Vertical DownIf you pull straight down at the pass, your turn rate will be higher and turn radius, dependent uponairspeed, may be smaller. If you are at corner plateau velocity, a limiter split-S will be the quickest way toturn 180°. The disadvantages of the split-S are that the maneuver is physically demanding, and the tallyis extremely difficult to maintain. Additionally, if you are above corner plateau velocity your turn radiuscan become very large.4.9.2.4. PitchIf you use a pitch at the pass, the effect on your turn rate and turn radius will be similar to the verticalup, but to a smaller degree. The advantages/disadvantages of a pitch are the same as the vertical up;however, a pitch may be used to control excessive airspeed and slow to corner plateau velocity prior toperforming a follow-on maneuver such as a lead turn or slice.4.9.2.5. SliceIf you use a slice at the pass, the effect on your turn rate and turn radius will be similar to the verticaldown, but to a smaller degree. Controlling airspeed to minimize turn radius is very important. A slice atthe pass is a good compromise to gain some benefits of radial G and still maintain tally. A 425 KCASmax AB slice, with approximately 10° nose low, will allow a 7 - 8 G sustained turn for the first 90° ofturn. After that, modulate G to control nose position and airspeed.

78MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 19964.9.2.6. Level TurnGenerally, a level turn does not take advantage of radial G and is inefficient BFM. However, turninglevel offers the best opportunity for maintaining tally and will help bleed off excessive airspeed (above 500KCAS) until a transition to a slightly nose low attitude is desired.4.9.3. One Circle FightA fight can be forced one circle by you or the bandit. A one circle fight will be a closer fight and denyall-aspect missile employment.Against a bandit where you have a turn rate and turn radius advantage (F-4) a one circle fight willallow you to recognize a quick positional advantage (Figure 4.42). At the pass, turn in a nose low sliceaway from the bandit to kick him across your tail. You must control your airspeed prior to the pass toavoid getting above corner plateau velocity and increasing you turn radius. With your turn rate and radiusadvantage you will recognize a positional advantage after 180° of turn. After the first 180° - 210° ofsingle circle turn, you must choose one of two immediate actions: (1) extend for energy prior to turningtoward the bandit or (2) reverse the turn direction immediately and start a lead turn inside the bandit'sturn circle. As you roll out of an initial right turn, the bandit will be at 12:30 to 1:30 with a right to leftLOS rate. Your airspeed should be 300 + 25KCAS if a maximum G turn was accomplished. The nextseveral seconds can be used to unload for energy if airspeed is low or begin a lead turn inside the bandit'sturn circle. The turn should begin prior to the pass, but with a constant airspeed pull. Maintain over thetop potential. If the bandit remains level, two to four passes may be required to align fuselages enough fora shot. If he recognizes his energy advantage, he may attempt to exploit the vertical. If the bandit zooms,immediately evaluate your energy in light of the aggressiveness of his maneuver. If his energy issignificantly greater, you may want to extend momentarily before pursuing in the vertical. From thispoint, high to low lead turns as the bandit comes down the back side of his loop will result in fuselagealignment. From this position of advantage you can employ offensive BFM to develop a shot opportunity.Figure 4.42 One Circle—Turn Rate/Radius Advantage

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 79Against a bandit where you have a sustained turn rate advantage, you may or may not achieve apositional advantage after the initial turn. If the bandit uses his instantaneous turn capability, you maymeet him at high aspect at the next pass (Figure 4.43). In this case, you will have an energy advantage atthe second pass. The key to this fight is patience. If he continues to turn hard, his turn rate will decrease.However, the bandit's turn radius will also be smaller which may allow him to turn inside your turn circle.On subsequent passes, you will realize a positional advantage if you continue to lead turn the bandit.Exercise care to not grossly lead turn out in front of the bandit. A low energy bandit will have a smallerturn radius, but will not be able to follow you into the vertical. If the bandit does not use his instantaneousturn rate capability you will have similar energy but a positional advantage after the first turn. This fightwill be similar to the discussion in paragraph (1); however, patience is still the key since the bandit has agood instantaneous turn rate capability.MCM0441Figure 4.43 One Circle—Turn Rate AdvantageAdvantages to a One Circle Fight:• Allows a quick positional advantage against a poor turning bandit.• Unpredictable move at the pass.• Keeps you inside the bandit's all aspect missile minimum range.Disadvantages to a One Circle Fight:• Forcing a one circle fight gives up the lateral turning room between you and the bandit.• Requires a very hard, energy depleting turn to be effective.• Normally doesn’t allow F-16 AIM-9 front aspect employment (inside minimum range).4.9.4. Two Circle FightIf both fighters attempt to lead turn, then a two circle fight will result. A two circle fight will be awider fight and may allow fleeting all-aspect missile shot opportunities.Against a bandit where you have a significant turn rate and turn radius advantage, a two circle fightshould allow you to achieve a positional advantage after the first turn (Figure 4.44). At the pass attempt

80MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996to have 425 - 475 KCAS, select max AB and turn using a nose low slice to increase your turn rateadvantage. You must control your airspeed to keep from increasing your turn radius but ensure youmaintain a good sustained turn rate (350 - 400 KCAS is a good airspeed range). This first turn mayprovide an all-aspect missile opportunity. Patience is important. Concentrate on lead turning the banditat every pass. As you begin to recognize a positional advantage it is important to maintain over-the-topairspeed until the bandit has lost over-the-top capability. If the bandit goes pure vertical, ensure you havesufficient airspeed (within 100 KCAS of his airspeed is highly desired) then go up and look for a low tohigh lead turn.MCM0442Figure 4.44 Two Circle—Turn Rate/Radius AdvantageAgainst a bandit where you have a sustained turn rate advantage, you may or may not achieve apositional advantage after the initial turn. If the bandit turns hard, you should pass high aspect again(Figure 4.45). At the initial pass, begin a nose low slice to increase your turn rate as described above.Upon roll out, prior to the second pass, a fleeting front aspect AIM-9 opportunity may occur. Noseposition vs energy maintainability will dictate the airspeed for both fighters at the pass. If the banditexpends all his energy to point at you, the next pass will be high aspect but you will have an energyadvantage. On subsequent passes, an energy advantage and positional advantage will result from leadturning and energy management. As you recognize an offensive position, you must control your airspeed.The bandit will be slow and may transition to a one circle fight on the second pass due to this low energystate. Additionally, be aware that the bandit's turn radius will be small due to his slow airspeed. Whenyou see the bandit's nose on the inside of your turn, but not pointing at you, he is low on energy. You nowhave exclusive use of the vertical. You can transition to the pure vertical and drive to the bandit's sixo'clock.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 81Figure 4.45 Two Circle—Sustained Turn Rate Advantage. (Energy advantage at this pass)4.9.5. High Aspect BFM Game PlanThere may not be a single best way to fight any individual bandit and fighter pilots will always berequired to make decisions in the air based on the situation. But it is important to have a sound game planthat will work in most situations before you get to the initial pass. The F-16 has an outstandinginstantaneous and sustained turn capability. Additionally, the F-16's hands-on avionics and small sizegive it an advantage in a visual fight.To put the game plan together approaching the merge, attempt to gain turning room laterally andbelow the bandit. As you enter the bandit's turn circle you will begin to see rapid movement aft on yourcanopy. Begin a low-to-high lead turn. If the bandit turns into you this will force a two circle fight. Thisalso means you are turning in the shortest direction to maintain tally. At the pass, overbank to get yournose below the horizon to take advantage of radial G. Use a maximum G pull until low corner plateauvelocity (350 - 400 KCAS is a good window). Analyze the bandit's energy by evaluating his nose rate andmovement across the horizon and transition to a sustained turn rate pull. Set up the next pass to be thelow man. At the bandit's turn circle, when you begin to recognize definition on his aircraft(approximately 3000'), begin a low-to-high lead turn, overbanking to use radial G, if possible. Do notlose tally or go belly-up. Continue this plan until you achieve a position of advantage. Take shots ofopportunity but never give up all your energy for one shot unless it guarantees a kill. It is also importantto maintain over-the-top airspeed until the bandit has given up his over-the- top capability. Even withequal performing aircraft, if you lead turn and use radial G to your advantage, you will gain a positionaladvantage. When you have the positional advantage, transition to offensive BFM and kill the bandit.

82MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Off-boresight capabilities must be taken into consideration (Figure 4.46). Even today's technologyallows air-to-air missile employment without being in pure pursuit. As technology improves (increasedoff-boresight missile capability and/or improved ACM modes and helmet-mounted sights), an adversarymay be a threat well before achieving pure pursuit.Figure 4.46 Off-Boresight Capable Adversary4.10. Air Combat Maneuvers (ACM)ACM normally involves coordinated maneuvering between two fighters employing BFM to kill,defend or separate from one or more bandits in a visual merge. The engaged phase can be the outcome ofthe intercept phase or an undetected bandit entry, and is the highest risk phase of an air-to-airengagement. Distinct roles, or an "ACM Contract," must be briefed and established between the twofighters prior to any flight with the potential for ACBT in order to assure effective ACM. This contractdefines "engaged" and "supporting" roles. Disciplined execution of these roles is critical for survivabilityand lethality. Any break down in the established "ACM Contract" can lead to undesirable and disastrousoutcomes! (i.e. Midair).4.10.1. ACM Objectives• Develop proficiency in two-ship coordinated maneuvering.• Teach specific engaged and supporting fighter roles in a visual fight.• Develop enhanced situation awareness.An F-16 is capable of rapid kills from an offensive start. Consequently, the role of the supportingfighter is not the same when his element mate is offensive as when the other F-16 is defensive. Thisadjustment in priorities resulting from the other F-16's positional advantage/disadvantage requiresfocused, concentrated training in the visual environment. There are four cornerstones to effective elementemployment: communications, formation integrity, flight discipline, and weapons employment.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 834.10.2. CommunicationsCalm, clear, and concise communications are vital for effective element employment. Each pilot mustfirmly understand MCM 3-1, Vol I brevity terms, unit standard terminology, and be able to use the correctterms at the correct moment in a fight. If the situation cannot be addressed using MCM 3-1 brevity orunit standard phrasing, use clear text to accurately describe your intentions or maneuvers. Proficiency inone’s communications skill is gained only by daily practice and constant critique. The time to startimproving your comm is not after the first "Break right" call. The planned cadence, comm procedures,and brevity terms that are expect to be used during the flight should be reviewed in the flight briefing toenhance their effectiveness. Shortening communications too much is a bad habit that fighter pilots needto avoid. Nonstandard radio terminology (i.e. lack of proper call sign), and excessive verbiage can causeconfusion and misinterpretation at a critical time. This could result be fatal. Use full call signs whenbeginning radio transmissions to gain the attention of flight members requiring the information you haveand allowing noninvolved flights to "tune out" your transmission. All missions (not just air-to-air) shouldfocus on communications discipline!As part of a fighting team, you will see situations develop quickly as you maneuver. As the banditmaneuvers you will have to communicate what you see in the most efficient way. As the wingman, youmay have to tell lead what to do if you have tally and he doesn't. If your information isn't critical, yourradio call should be descriptive and lead will use it to make decisions while maintaining control of theflight. When the flight is definitely threatened, a directive transmission is called for.4.10.2.1. Directive TransmissionsA directive call is required when a threat warrants an immediate reaction for survival. Directive radiotransmissions must be prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft being addressed, i.e., "Viper One, breakright!" After making the directive transmission "Viper One, break right," pause, look and see if lead isdoing what was directed. If not, re-transmit the directive call. The priorities need to be placed on theexecution of the directed action. All other mission tasks are secondary until the threat has been negated ordefeated. The supporting fighter may be required to make a series of directive calls due to limited time."Viper One, break right," "Viper One, jink now," "Viper One extend," if the supporting fighter has thetally and there is not time to describe the bandit's position without jeopardizing the safety of Viper One.4.10.2.2. Descriptive TransmissionDescriptive transmission are normally prefaced by the call sign of the aircraft doing the talking, (i.e."Viper One, tally bandit, left 10, 5 miles, level.") When a directive action is required the descriptivecomm must come after the directive transmission and action is taken. Then, describe why you made thedirective call. The bandit descriptive call is important for it will allow Viper One, in this example, toacquire the tally and perform the proper BFM to defend himself. The bandit call has been standardizedinto the following format, which should always be used:• Call Sign.• Type aircraft, or threat (Bandit /Bogey).• Left or Right (side of aircraft.)• Clock position.• Range.• High/ Low/ Level.• Amplifying remarks.Here’s an example of the above format: "Viper Two, bandit, right 2, 3 miles, high." A modificationof this format is used to follow up a directive call if your element mate is under attack. Here’s anexample: "Viper One, break, right," pause, as the directive action being taken, then continue with thedescriptive comm: "Bandit, right, 5, 9,000’, level." In this case, the position of the bandit is describedwith reference to the aircraft under attack. Continue descriptive comm until the engaged fighter is tally.Sometimes subsequent descriptive calls may include the word "continue." This informs all flight

84MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996members that the only reaction required is the maneuver that is being performed. For example Viper Onecalls, "Viper flight, hook right," "Viper One, bandit, right 4, 5 miles, slightly high, continue right."4.10.3. Formation IntegrityFormation integrity is an integral part of all element maneuvering. In the ACM environment,formation integrity allows both the engaged and supporting fighters to maneuver synergistically to defeatthe bandit‘s attack. Mutual support and formation integrity are critical to success. The engaged fightermust do his best one versus one BFM to kill or survive the bandit’s attack, while the supporting fightermaneuvers to kill the bandit or support the engaged fighter based on the criteria defined by the flight lead.4.10.4. Flight DisciplineFlight discipline is an important factor effecting the success of fighter employment. This requiresadherence to clearly defined responsibilities and decisions based on the flight lead’s overall game plan andphilosophy of employment. The flight contract is fulfilled by executing your duties based on the flightlead’s plan (i.e. set of assumptions and guidelines). The flight lead can assess the success of the plan orfailure and make changes to the plan. Obviously, no pilot should do anything to place himself or hiswingman in a defensive situation. However, changing or ignoring the flight lead’s directions based onpersonnel preference is unacceptable!4.10.5. Weapons EmploymentKnowledge of your weapon system capabilities and limitation will allow you to make accuratedecisions concerning weapons employment. You must apply your BFM skills to maneuver to a WeaponsEmployment Zone (WEZ) then effectively put weapons on target to kill. The status of your element mateand yourself will be affect your decision to maneuver immediately to a WEZ, defend, or reposition.4.10.6. Engaged and Supporting Fighter ContractMost units have "standards" that provide essential, clear, and unique procedures to: ensure success intraining and combat sorties, minimize briefing time, clarify ambiguities, and establish a common point ofreference. These "standards" need to be fully understood by every pilot in that unit. An effective "ACMContract" assigns responsibilities between two aircraft that are essential to take full advantage of theelement's capabilities during an air-to-air engagement. In the flight briefing it’s the flight lead’sresponsibility to ensure complete understanding of the "ACM Contract." The division of responsibilitiesserves two basic purposes: killing the bandit and ensuring element survival. The ingredients required forsuccessful execution of the "Contract" is mutual understanding of the game plan and a correct balance ofcommunication, mutual support, executions of responsibilities, and weapons employment.4.10.6.1. Engaged FighterDuring offensive maneuvering there can only be ONE actively engaged fighter (fighter that ismaneuvering in specific relationship to the bandit) at a time. While defensive, the bandit will choose whois the engaged fighter. In a dynamic environment, such as air-to-air, the roles may change rapidly fromone to the other several times. Flight members MUST fully understand their responsibilities and howthey will be handed off, (whether by radio calls or aircraft maneuvers).Engaged Fighter Responsibilities:• Maneuver to kill the bandit (offensively) or negate the bandit’s attack (defensively) in the minimumtime. Fly your best offensive/defensive BFM.• Clear the supporting fighter to engage if he is in a better position to shoot, or if defensive and theengaged fighter is not safely outside the supporting fighter’s weapons FOV or target debris would befactor, again clear the supporting fighter to shoot.• Keep the supporting fighter informed of intentions, capabilities, and future tactical plans.4.10.6.2. Supporting FighterAs the supporting fighter you may have to perform two or more tasks/ responsibilities at the sametime. Time sharing between the tasks at hand is required to effectively support the engaged fighter. Thetime allowed to perform a given set of tasks will be scenario dependent. As a rule of thumb (ROT) the

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 85supporting fighter needs to first maneuver to sanitize the area about the fight through visual (tally/visual)and electronic means (radar, GCI, RWR). Next be prepared to commit against any bandit that threatensthe element, whether offensively or defensively. Lastly, maintain a high situational awareness to directthe egress in a safe direction.Supporting Fighter Responsibilities:• Maintain visual and strive for tally.• Inform engaged fighter of posit (potential for mid-air in the ACM environment makes this extra commimportant)• Sanitize the area about the fight through visual and electronic means (check your own six).• Maneuver to avoid the fight and gain or maintain entry parameters on the bandit.• Employ ordnance if the bandit is in a WEZ, consistent with the flight leads game plan, and withoutcompromising the engaged fighter’s safety.• Engage other bandits that are a factor to the element and keep the engaged fighter informed.• Maintain overall situational awareness to include area orientation, fuel, and exit avenues.• Direct the egress.4.10.7. The Flight Lead/Wingman RelationshipThe previous discussion does not equate engaged and supporting roles with leader and wingmanpositions; this is intentional. Our tactics are designed to allow the best positioned fighter to engage thebandit offensively. While on defense, the driving factor for whom is engaged will obviously belong to thebandit. This should not imply break down within the basic flight lead/wingman responsibilities. Theflight lead still has the ultimate responsibility for mission accomplishment and flight survival. The flightlead also makes the decisions about whether or not to engage, what tactics will be used, and who will dothe engaging or separating. While the wingman is engaged, the flight lead supports him but retains theauthority to direct the engagement, to terminate the engagement, to assume the engaged role, or to reverthis wingman to the supporting role.The engaged/supporting responsibilities work effectively in most 2 v 1 situations; however, when thecontract breaks down, the flight may present a danger to itself. Confusion of roles is the most commonproblem. Two fighters, each thinking they are engaged, can easily end up occupying the same airspace.For this reason, flight and element leads will brief engaged and supporting responsibilities, maneuveringdeconfliction, role changes and desired engaged communications prior to any flight with the potential forACBT maneuvering. Element or wingman deconfliction subsequent to a blind call or planned loss ofsight tactic will be briefed for any planned intercept or ACBT flight where more than one element or morethan one fighter may be maneuvering against the same bandit or bandits. Elements/wingman will notbegin visual offensive maneuvering against an adversary unless cleared to engage by the flight/elementlead. Formal squadron/wing standards covering this requirement are adequate if all flight members arefully aware of the standards.4.10.8. 2 V 1 Offensive Visual ManeuveringThe visual phase of maneuvering is really the "meat of the mission" where ACM is concerned. Thetactical intercept gets the element to the merge, usually in an offensive position. Once there, our twoairplanes must work together in accomplishing the primary goal which is to destroy the enemy ASAP,while maintaining mutual support. There must be complete understanding between the leader andwingman of their obligations towards one another. This understanding forms the basis of the contractwhich governs two-ship visual maneuvering.The termination of the intercept phase is when the element arrives in position to begin visualmaneuvering against the bandit. It is imperative that the element establish roles ASAP. The flight leadshould transmit his intentions (i.e. "Viper 1, engaged, nose 3 miles.") This not only anchors the fight butestablishes the engaged and supporting roles. If the bandit detects your attack and maneuvers to counterit, the tactical wingman may be in a better position to engage. If so the flight lead should direct thewingman to engage, (i.e. "Viper 2, cleared to engage bandit nose 3 miles, press.")

86MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996The engaged fighter needs to perform his best one versus one BFM, place the bandit in a WEZ asquickly as possible, and employ ordnance to kill the bandit. If the bandit negates your attack, continue toperform BFM forcing the bandit to react defensively and remain predictable. If you lose the offensive (i.e.neutral), due to bandit reaction, communicate this to the supporting fighter ASAP.The supporting fighter needs to pick-up the supporting role, perform supporting fighterresponsibilities, and setup the support structure. To set up the support structure the supporting fighterneeds to off-set himself from the fight both horizontally and vertically. Fly BFM through the bandit’s TCwhile lagging the engaged fighter. Then extend past the fight. Ensure the afterburner has been selectedto maintain 450 knots or greater and extend through the fight arena quickly build needed separation. Nomatter which plane you merge with the fight, stay there and continue to split plane in that direction, tovisual constraints (i.e. if already high above the fight, stay there and not on or near the horizon).Maintain sight of the fight by placing it at your 7 - 9 o’clock or 5 - 3 o’clock whichever way is easiest tomaintain sight with the fight once to the outside of the fight. Roll out wings level and extend for about 5 -10 seconds and then check back into the fight with 4 - 6 G's. Be sure not to arc in a climbing turn sincethis will not allow you to gain the desired separation from the fight and will highlight you to the bandit.Fly straight lines and check turns to achieve your goal range of 2 to 3 miles with at least a 4000 footaltitude split between you and the fight. This range and altitude split from the fight will allow thesupporting fighter time to radar and visually sanitize, and preserve maneuvering room for a shot ofopportunity or a role change. Additionally, this position will make it hard for the bandit to acquire thesupporting fighter and threaten him. Bandit maneuvering, visual acquisition, and environmentalconditions must be taken into consideration.Never place yourself in a position where you could become defensively engaged with the bandit thatyour flight member is engaged with (i.e. allow the bandit to point at you aft of your 3/9 line). That willnot support killing the bandit and may get you killed. To avoid this put yourself in a position that willmake it hard for the bandit to acquire you (split plane). Continue to maneuver away from the fight andsanitize the area for as long as the bandit's turn rate will allow. Visually confirm that the area around thefight is free from other bandits. A good technique is to first focus on an object at range (such as amountain, or cloud). From there do a sector scan looking not for a specific aircraft, but movement. Forceyourself to search not only along the horizon but high 12 and deep 6 o'clock as well. The radar should bein ACM with Slewable selected and biased to the outside of the fight or 20-mile scope minimum, with theel-strobe biased in the direction of the expected threat. After that volume of airspace has been sanitized,you are going to have to change the el-strobe to sanitize the remainder of the airspace. Listen closely toGCI for threat calls and sanitize that avenue of approach accordingly. Do not lose sight of the fight in theprocess. Time share between the supporting tasks is a must. As the bandit's extended 3 - 9 lineapproaches your jet (beam plan form), start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or right 2-O’Clock, whichever way is easier to maintain sight. A bandit that is aware and maintains the tally onboth fighters may fight the fighter in front of him as opposed to defending against the fighter at his 6-O’Clock. As the supporting fighter, you must ensure that the bandit doesn't engage you and force you toreact defensively. The bandit's nose generally will telegraph his intent. The engaged fighter can also helpby informing the supporting fighter of bandit maneuvers. If the bandit stops turning and points at you,maneuver to deny a WEZ. The range you are from the bandit will dictate either staying in the beam orchecking into him to make it a 180 degree pass. Avoiding the engaged fighter with an altitude delta, asyou extend through the fight, cannot be overemphasized. Power should be back and you should expendchaff and flares as needed. The bandit's extension towards you should provide a shot opportunity for theengaged fighter. If not, then continue with your supporting duties. However, if the bandit continues toturn defending himself against the engaged fighter, it should, based on range and aspect, offer a shot ofopportunity, or a position from which an entry into the fight can be made if the engaged fighter needsyour help.4.10.8.1. Areas to AvoidThe supporting fighter must avoid three areas in order to fulfill his responsibilities: staying directlyabove or below, and within 2 NM of the fight.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 87Flying directly above or below the fight forces the supporting fighter to focus his attention on the fightinstead of clearing the area for other bandits. If an entry is attempted, the supporting fighter must fit histurn into an already tight and, most likely, slow turning fight. Although possible, this maneuver is verydifficult and often results in an overshoot because of the inability to slow down in a very nose low attitudeor extend away from the fight after being extremely nose high.Trying to stay inside 12,000 feet of the fight may allow the bandit opportunities to employ ordnanceagainst the supporting fighter. This range may also not provide the supporting fighter with the neededturning room to employ ordnance. This causes (at best) rushed shot opportunities and (at worst) missedshot opportunities due to minimum range.4.10.9. Break Away Turn AwayIf the bandit breaks away from the supporting fighter (Figure 4.47), the quickest way to achieve fightseparation and a supporting position is to simple check 30 degrees away and extend with afterburner.Again attempt to maintain 450 knots or greater during the extension and build needed separation.Figure 4.47 Break Away4.10.10. Break IntoIf the bandit breaks into the element (Figure 4.48 & Figure 4.49), the supporting fighter has threebasic options to option the desired fight separation; Straight Ahead Extension, Lag the fight, and Bracket.

88MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.48 Break Into (Turn Into)Figure 4.49 Break Into (Turn Away)

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 894.10.10.1. Straight Ahead ExtensionFly BFM to meet the bandit with high-aspect(Figure 4.50) and split plane to extend through the fight.Once to the outside of the fight the supporting fighter should turn in the direction that is easiest tomaintain tally/visual with the fight. Whether your turn places you Co-Flow, same turn direction as thefight, or Counter-Flow, opposite turn direction as the fight, it doesn't matter. The point is your positionaway from the fight will offer you an entry if the engaged fighter needs your help. Advantage of this is itallows the supporting fighter to unload and extend gaining knots while the bandit is bleeding down energydue to the defensive turn. Also, if the bandit blows up, the element is in a excellent position to egress thefight with good mutual support.Figure 4.50 Straight Ahead Extension4.10.10.2. Lag The FightThis option has the supporting fighter point at the lag entry window (as you did in offensive BFM) andflying behind the engaged fighter. This will place the engaged fighter and the bandit on the same side ofyour canopy and place you in lag with the fight. A high tactical airspeed is required to fly the larger circleabout the fight. Ensure to select afterburner at the beginning of the maneuver. Again attempt to splitplane in the opposite direction as the fight. This position will allow the supporting fighter to visuallycheck the six of the engaged fighter and radar sanitize the supporting fighter's soon to be six as he turns tokeep the fight on the beam. A Co-flow/Fan geometry is setup from this maneuver.4.10.10.3. BracketBracket is similar to the break away turn away initial move however, a vertical spilt is definitelyrequired. Simply check away from the fight to place the bandit between the engaged fighter and you.

90MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Once the bandit's nose rotates through you are outside the fight and can maneuver accordingly based onfight status. Advantage of this is if the engaged fighter is denied an offensive position due to effectivebandit reactions the supporting fighter is in a good position to engage quickly for a shot of opportunity oran exchange of roles. The disadvantage to this maneuver is that without a vertical split the supportingfighter can find himself in the bandit's WEZ and possibly have to defensively react to survive.4.10.11. Fight EntriesThe supporting fighter may need to engage the bandit in several situations. These can be classifiedinto two cases: (1) When the engaged fighter is defensive, and (2) When the engaged fighter is in a highaspecthence neutral fight that may take a long time to resolve. There are two types of entries, entriesfrom the vertical (above or below), or from outside the bandit's TC in the form of Co-Flow (turning in thesame direction as the fight) or Counter-Flow (turning in the opposite direction of the fight). Both entriesrequire vertical turning room to be tactically sound. During an engagement where the engaged fighter isoffensive the supporting fighter should not be primarily concerned with shots of opportunity unless theengaged fighter either requests it or survival requires it. A survival issue occurs when the engaged fighterhas lost the offensive, hence neutral, or as in a high-aspect pass, or a greater number of threats areinbound that the supporting fighter can't split to engage offensive (i.e. the motherload is 10 miles awayand heading your way). The reasonable amount of time the engaged fighter now has to maneuver toachieve a kill has been constrained and the flight needs to communicate this to each other. If the engagedfighter cannot immediately place the bandit in a WEZ and shoot, then the engaged fighter should ask forhelp and clear the supporting fighter to shoot.The supporting fighter has set up the support structure and is in a position of advantage, usually highto the inside of the fight. This out of plane position, not normally seen in the BFM phase, offers an entryfrom above. The entry from below is difficult since most turning engagements go downhill very quicklytaking away any turning room you’ve gained. If the bandit elects to take it up, an entry from below maybe available. Vertical entries are fleeting opportunities and must be accurately timed in order for anoffensive entry to achieve a WEZ on the Bandit.4.10.11.1. Outside EntryThe other type of entry is from the outside of the Bandit's TC. The supporting fighter gets to thisposition either because he is outside the Bandit's TC at the initial merge or because he passed through theTC once the fight started. There are two types of outside entries Co-Flow and the Counter-Flow.4.10.11.2. Co-Flow EntryAs the name implies both the supporting fighter and the Bandit are turning in the same direction(Figure 4.51). You can get a Co-Flow entry if you are outside the Bandit's TC and as the Bandit'sextended 3-9 line passes through your aircraft. As you make the entry it resembles the Heat portion of theHeat-To-Guns exercise. For this entry to work the supporting fighter has to be split plane with the Bandit.If the supporting fighter is in plane with the Bandit, then the potential of getting shot as the Bandit's nosepasses through you is very likely. That will probably result in the supporting fighter reacting defensivelyto the Bandit's threatening nose and does nothing to support killing the Bandit. If in the proper supportingposition 2-3 NM offset and with 4000 feet of split plane, the supporting fighter is turning in the samedirection as the fight, flying straight lines and hooks. As the bandit's turn brings his 3 - 9 line to your jet,start a turn back into the fight to place it at left 10 or right 2 O’Clock, whichever way is easier to maintainsight. Remember you’re supporting and at this moment all you should be doing is denying the Bandit aWEZ by rotating you're heat source away from the Bandit. As the Bandit's nose rotates through you itshould, based on range and aspect, it may offer a shot of opportunity, or a position from which a Co-Flowentry into the fight can be made if the engaged fighter needs your help. If the engaged fighter does notneed help, continue to sanitize with the radar and visually sanitize your 6 o'clock and the engagedfighter's. If no entry is available or required, check away from the fight by placing it at your 5 or 7o'clock. The bottom line: don't put the fight on the nose unless you are taking a shot.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 91Figure 4.51 Co-Flow Entry4.10.11.3. Counter-Flow EntryAs the name implies the supporting fighter and the Bandit's turn are opposite of each other (Figure4.52).This entry is very similar to the Co-Flow entry. The major difference between the two is thefrequency at which an entry opportunity occurs. Since the supporting fighter is flying in the oppositedirection the fight is turning, the bandit’s 3 - 9 line will pass through him more often than in a Co-Flowentry. The supporting fighter must strive for lateral and vertical offset quickly. The cues for when to turnin are similar to the Co-Flow except you can turn slightly earlier (lead turn). The geometry is similar tothe way gears mesh together. Play the turn to get a belly entry to the control zone.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 93Figure 4.53 Role ExchangeIn this case Viper One called off with “Blind”, therefor as Viper Two assumes the engaged role he hasto provide Viper One with the visual. The role change is complete only when the previously engagedfighter transmits either, “Press,” or calls “Tally/ Visual, press”, whichever was briefed as “standard.” Thepreviously engaged fighter can't simply disregard the bandit during this phase, he must still maneuver inrelation to the bandit until the bandit either blows up, or is no longer a factor (i.e. the bandit sees thesupporting fighter attacking that attack, or disregards the disengaging fighter and attempts to extend fromthe fight). The flight members must thoroughly understand these roles and, most importantly, how tochange roles, especially in a degraded communication environment or if the visual can not be maintained.The following is another example:“Viper 1, Engaged, bandit, right 2, 2 miles.”“Viper 2, Press.”“Viper 1, Neutral.”“Viper 2, Entry high from the north.”“Viper 2 Cleared-in, 1's blind.”“Viper 2, Engaged. Your visual 10 o’clock, high, 1 mile.” NOTE: In this situation, eventhough Viper 2 is now the engaged fighter, he is still responsible for element deconfliction untilViper 1 is visual. If the rapidly changing situation prevents this, call blind.“Viper 1, Press.” (Viper 1 now assumes responsibility for element deconfliction)

92MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.52 Counter-Flow Entry4.10.12. Role ExchangeRole changes must be positive, clearly communicated, and properly executed by BOTH fighters orgrave consequences will arise. The CAF continues to run aircraft into one another because two fightersare trying to offensively engage the same bandit simultaneously. The key to success is that both fightersare maneuvering in relationship to the bandit. The engaged fighter is maneuvering to employ ordnancefrom the "Classic" engaged BFM position and the other is supporting him, not actively employingordnance until called upon by the engaged fighter. Prolonged turning engagements will only decrease theflight members’ situational awareness and could jeopardize survival. The engaged fighter communicatingthe need for assistance, during offensive maneuvering, is the key for the supporting fighter to activelywork for an entry or take a shot of opportunity. The engaged fighter's proximity to the bandit, andweapon FOV, will dictate when the supporting fighter needs to maneuver for an entry or for a shot ofopportunity. The supporting fighter, when not offered a shot of opportunity, should be able to maneuverto the control position at the role exchange. If the engaged fighter asks for assistance, ("Viper One,Neutral"). The supporting fighter tells the engaged fighter where the entry will come from (i.e. "ViperTwo, entry high, from the north"). The "Standard" engaged fighter reaction should be to acknowledgethe supporting fighter's radio call immediately, (because the supporting fighter's entry is fleeting and maynot exist in 5 - 10 seconds), with either "Cleared In" or "Negative". The engaged fighter should respondwith "negative" if he is again able to maneuver to employ ordnance on the bandit. If the engaged fighterclears the supporting fighter to enter, the "standard" reaction should be for him to aggressively maneuverlow to the outside of the fight and assume the supporting role. During the exchange the supportingfighter continues to be responsible for flight path deconfliction between himself and the engaged fighteruntil the roles have been positively exchanged and the engaged fighter is visual (Figure 4.53).

94MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 19964.10.13. Shots Of OpportunityA shot of opportunity for the supporting fighter exists whenever the bandit is in a WEZ, the engagedfighter is not in the field of view (FOV) of the weapon during its entire time of flight, the bandit's debriswill not be a factor to the engaged fighter and the supporting fighter will NOT enter the engaged fightercontrol zone ( that airspace between the engaged fighter's nose to the bandit). If adequate distance is notprovided for, the bandit's debris could endanger the engaged fighter. As a ROT for a missile shot ofopportunity, the bandit's aspect to the supporting fighter should be approaching the beam. The engagedfighter should not be within the supporting fighter's HUD FOV, and the engaged fighter should beapproximately a turn radius (4-6,000 feet) from the bandit, and the supporting fighter is about 9-12,000feet away from the bandit with altitude deconfliction. This distance will change in regards to airspeedsand closure between the bandit, the engaged fighter, and the supporting fighter. To employ the gun thesupporting fighter is going to have to perform a role exchange to be allowed the engaged fighter'sairspace. Under most circumstances the gun opportunity will be fleeting and should only be attempted ifit's the only shot available due to being winchester missiles. During a shot of opportunity thesupporting fighter is always responsible for deconflicting with the engaged fighter. Shots ofopportunity support killing the bandit quickly, thus minimizing a turning engagement and allows forhigher SA (exactly what you want to do in a combat situation). It is important that flight leads brief indetail, the contract for shots of opportunity.4.10.14. EgressWhen the bandit has been destroyed, the fighter who has the highest situational awareness shouldinitiate the egress. Normally after a turning engagement this will be the supporting fighter'sresponsibility. By listening to GCI (real world) and maintaining overall situation awareness choose anavenue to egress. Getting the flight moving in the same direction away from the expect threat is thepriority (In the MOA/TRA pick a heading, any heading just get the flight moving to the egress).Remember to use directive then descriptive comm ("Viper 1 reference 180," . . .pause. . "Viper 1 visualright 3 O’Clock slightly high" ). Have the afterburner in and get low to isolate the threats above you. It isnot imperative that the element be in perfect 6-9,000 LAB formation, but at least visual and heading inthe same direction. The fastest fighter will be the one to adjust the formation to regain visual mutualsupport. Don't have the slow fighter doing excessive maneuvering close to the fireball. Wait until you are3 - 5 miles away from the fireball and then maneuver the formation to achieve line-abreast. If the slowfighter is out front, the fighter with the higher airspeed will be able close the range and simple fly intoposition. Get the radar in ACM Slewable or Range While Search (RWS) mode and visually check 6o'clock. Once you are assured there are no threats within 10 miles, then resume pre-briefed searchresponsibilities. GCI should be queried for a new picture to start building your situational awarenessoutside of 20 miles. Now continue with your mission objectives.4.11. 2 V 1 Defensive Visual ManeuveringThere are four priorities which the element must satisfy in order to survive a defensive situation. Theyare; detection, negating the threat, maintaining flight integrity/ mutual support through role execution,and lethal weapons employment against the bandit.When the flight finds itself under attack, the obvious concern is survival (negating the bandit's initialattack). Because fractions of a second are very important, the flight must have some preplanned initialmoves; actions that they are very familiar with and have thoroughly practiced. As you would expect, thesemoves will be based on defensive turns.Once the initial attack has been negated, the immediate concern of the flight should be to go offensiveor separate. Reestablish visual and positional support and maintain tally on the bandit to be sure he is outof range. If the separation is not going to achieve sufficient range, the element will need to continuedefensive maneuvering to deny the bandit weapons parameters. The element should use chaff/flares asappropriate.If it is apparent from the beginning that the flight cannot separate, we have to sandwich the bandit andkill him or force him to separate. Engaged and supporting fighter tactics are now in order. In this case,

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 95however, the bandit determines who is engaged (the one he attacks); the other fighter then maneuvers tosandwich the attacker and bring ordnance to bear.If both fighters are tally and blind, it is imperative that roles be established. Positive communicationand effective maneuvering must be accomplished by both fighters to ensure friendly flight pathdeconfliction. The flight lead is ultimately responsible for establishing these roles, element survival, andtraining rule compliance. References off the bandit and/or separate altitudes to ensure deconfliction willhelp both fighters achieve the visual while increasing SA.4.11.1. Pre-Engagement ConsiderationsYour highest chance of being engaged defensively is with loss of situational awareness. This mayoccur due performing other tasks and not realizing the fact that you're detected. Prevent this byperforming a good cross check of the radar, RWR, and visual lookout. Detecting the threat at range (outof a WEZ) is a lot better than noticing a MiG at missile or jinking at gun range reacting defensively forsurvival. The use of good formation position, visual search, on-board and off-board sensors are requiredto provide the needed detection of the threat early enough to avoid a defensive situation. As a member ofa flight you must make it a priority to maintain the briefed formation, visual and radar searchresponsibilities within the formations.Line abreast formation is desired. The formation flown will provide a common reference forcommunications, targeting, and firepower. The lateral distance between the two fighters depends onseveral factors ( turn radius of the fighters, WEZ of the fighters, and depth of visual coverage needed for"threat" detection). There are known "blind" zones and human factors that come into play here. The"blind" zone is the area at your extreme deep six that you just can't see due to cockpit field of view. Bybeing in a line abreast formation at least one of the fighters can see into the others "blind" zone andprovide the necessary warning when the "threat" is detected. Visual lookout or search must bedisciplined: the guns area, IR missiles area, and the All-Aspect Missile area. These areas must besearched using a time share approach. Start with formation position. A look at your flight mate will dothree things for the visual search right away. It will assure you are in formation position, correct your"biological" limitation of refocus, and search the area beyond the flight mate for a threat. Next check yourflight mate's deep six for a threat in guns range first, then IR missiles. Don't just look for an aircraft.Look for apparent motion, canopy glints, cons, and angel hair. Don't forget to check high 12, low (Bellychecks),and level 3 - 9 as well - a BIG TASK ! If during a look inside the cockpit a "spike" is observeddon't keep it to yourself communicate that fact to the flight ("Viper Two, Spiked, 10 o'clock). Now start adedicated search in the avenue of attack. But, don’t' forget everywhere else like inside the formation, 6,12 o’clock and outside the formation. That "spike" at 10 o'clock may be 20 or 30 miles away and the realthreat that is going to kill you is at your 3 o'clock for 2 miles attempting a silent intercept.Disciplined radar search will ensure that a specific airspace out to a specific range has been sanitized.Through overlapping of elevation and azimuth coverage early detection of the threat is permitted.However, expect the unexpected. The radar doesn't paint all targets that are out there; in any case, it can’tsee what's behind rocks and so forth. Early detection allows you the ability to prosecute the attackoffensively rather than reacting defensively to the unseen attack, thus increasing your chances for survival.When a "contact" is observed on the radar again communicate this to the flight (Viper 2, contact 5Southeast Bullseye, 15 Thousand, Head). Together all three of these, formation position, visual and radarsearch provides for immediate positional awareness of the other flight members.When the bandit is located (dependent on range and relative position), either split the element laterallyand vertically and increase your airspeed, or perform a hard turn or break turn into the bandit. Hard turnis used when the Bandit is not yet in range to employ ordnance. A "Break" turn is used when you locatethe threat and someone is in a WEZ. If you are unsure call for a "Break" turn. The directive call for abreak turn implies that on board counter measure will also be automatically employed, (i.e. chaff andflares are expended). Never do anything with two that you wouldn't do by yourself, i.e. dragging thebandit at your 6 , holding him off, using yourself as bait, - DEFEND YOURSELF NOW! Radio callswill normally initiate any move the formation takes. The key to effective communication is to spit out theinformation IN ORDER using directive then descriptive comments, as discussed earlier. Attempt toassess which fighter the bandit is trying to attack. Avoid flying too close together or level, allowing the

96MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996bandit to simultaneously detect both fighters in the formation. Adhere to the briefed formation andperform split plane maneuvering. You must negate the threat by employing sound defensive BFM. Ifyour flight mate can assist you by killing the bandit, that’s great but never depend on assistance fromthe outside to SURVIVE an attack!Maintaining Flight Integrity/Mutual Support and Role Execution: Remember what was briefed by theflight lead as "The Contract" and adhere to it. Fulfill your formation responsibilities (Formation position,Visual and radar search), Engaged and Supporting roles, and use proper radio communications. Survivefirst, then provide all the support you can. Understand the rendezvous/reform plan your flight will use ifstripped (i.e. outside of briefed formation parameters) and use them to regain mutual support as quickly aspossible.The basis of our successful two-ship defense is a system of well thought out initial moves. The movesmust effectively negate the initial attack, so they must be aggressive and designed to rotate our vulnerablecone away from the threat. There is no room for error, so the moves should be simple and easy toremember. Lastly, the moves need to become almost second nature; only practice will help here. Themain principles to follow in accomplishing initial moves when the bandit is sighted in the aft quadrantapproaching missile range are:• When defensive, avoid putting both aircraft in the same area at the same time. When possible, utilizesplit plane maneuvering• The pilot with the tally should always:• Do sound BFM by starting a hard/break turn into the bandit.• Direct the flight to turn (left or right).• Dispense chaff and flares if threatened.NOTE: Attempt should be made to accomplish all of the above items simultaneously.The pilot without the tally should:• Perform the turn directed in the direction called.• Dispense chaff and flares.• Attempt to acquire the tally.4.11.2. Lethal Weapons EmploymentIf you are the supporting fighter while your flight mate is defensive, you must maneuver immediatelyfor a shot of opportunity. Attempt to obtain a radar lock by using 10 x 40 ACM or Bore Sight. A radarlock is not required to employ an AIM-9. Ensure the range, angles, and tone are satisfied then shoot thebandit. Don't forget all the BFM skills you've learned. Remember to assess the range and aspect, andmaneuver accordingly. Remember the lessons learned in Offensive BFM regarding WEZ managementand the recognition that the Bandit is in a WEZ. Now is the time to utilize those skills.4.11.3. Execution of DutiesIf the flight is in a WEZ then "break" all flight members in the direction that will allow the bestdefensive BFM to defeat the attack (i.e. if you see the bandit break the formation so you can maintainsight). Now the task of the defensive fighter, the "engaged fighter," is to fly his best BFM to survive theattack. The supporting fighter needs to maneuver to a WEZ to employ ordnance quickly.4.11.4. Classic Sandwich (No Switch)A bandit shows up (Figure 4.54) at your flight mate's 6 O’Clock ("Viper break left"). If the banditcontinues to attack the initially engaged fighter (in this case your flight mate), the bandit should quicklybecome sandwiched by the supporting fighter. The "sandwich" is an ideal defensive maneuver and shouldallow the supporting fighter an opportunity to achieve weapon parameters and kill the bandit. Attempt toobtain a radar lock by using 10 x 40 ACM or Bore Sight. Do not allow the lack of a radar lock hinder youfrom employing the AIM-9. Ensure the range, angles, and tone are satisfied, then shoot the bandit,especially if the bandit is in close and employing ordnance against your flight mate. Flight path

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 97deconfliction with the defensively engaged fighter is the responsibility of the supporting fighter justas in an offensive engagement.Figure 4.54 Sandwich4.11.5. Early/Late SwitchIf the bandit is aware of the other fighter a "switch" is probable. The switch must be communicated sothe engaged and supporting roles can be fulfilled and deconfliction can be assured. An early switch(bandit switch prior to turn circle entry) will enable the initially defensively engaged fighter to change to aconstant turn defense or an extension since the bandit's nose will definitely come off and threaten theother fighter (Figure 4.55). The constant turn allows him to back off on the turn rate to keep the sameairspeed, keep the bandit in sight, and continue to rotate his vulnerable area away from the bandit whilehe offsets his turn circle and looks for an entry or shot of opportunity. The extension attempts to regaintactical maneuvering airspeed before attacking the bandit. A late switch (bandit switch inside the turncircle) may allow the supporting fighter to meet the bandit at high-aspect and provide the flight anopportunity to separate from the fight (Figure 4.56). This all depends on the bandit's and defenders BFM.If the supporting fighter meets the bandit close aboard and the bandit's lead turn is denied, a separationopportunity generally is available depending on energy (>300 Kts) and bandit aircraft/ordnancecapabilities. The supporting fighter needs to communicate the separation opportunity to the engagedfighter and get the flight going in the best direction (i.e. the way that maximizes the range between thefighters and the bandit.) It is imperative to keep the bandit in sight and to do your best extension. If thebandit chooses to turn and point at the fighters his range and ordnance capabilities must be assessed. If hestill appears to be in range and /or you see missiles in the air another defensive reaction is required. Ifnot, keep the tally and keep running until the tactical scenario demands you do something different.

98MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.55 Early SwitchFigure 4.56 Late Switch

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 994.11.6. Engaged Fighter Unknown/Uncommitted BanditThe bandit's position may not clearly identify the F-16 under attack. The bandit can come from anyaspect. A quick assessment of the bandit's lethality must be made based on range and nose position. Ifthe bandit has not reached a WEZ, an extension (while monitoring the bandit) may be appropriate. If thebandit is a threat, or continues to close, a prompt flight reaction is required. This discussion addresses theprinciples valid for all potential bandit attack axes. The initial move should accomplish five things: denya shot, present the bandit with maximum BFM problems, force the bandit to commit on one or the otherfighter, maximize the element's offensive potential after the initial move, and clearly establish engagedand supporting fighter roles. In the example (Figure 4.57), the bandit enjoys a unique positionalrelationship in which his offensive potential against each fighter is identical. The element has twochoices in their initial defensive reaction.Figure 4.57 Uncommitted BanditThe first option is to break the element in the same direction (Figure 4.58) This is the preferred optionif the bandit is detected outside of weapons parameters, or has not yet closed inside either fighter's turncircle. If the bandit is allowed to close to either (or both) fighter's turn circle, the possibility the banditcan take a shot on Viper Two before Viper One can threaten the bandit is increased. The bandit may be ina better position on one fighter and may not allow the other to separate.

100MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.58 Break in Same DirectionAdvantages to this option include:• Viper One is able to maintain tally throughout his turn.• The bandit must immediately commit against one fighter or the other.• His offensive potential versus each fighter is no longer identical.• Each element member can isolate the threat axis on the same side of their respective aircraft.The element is in a position to establish engaged and supporting fighter roles based on bandit reaction.Viper One can devote full attention to his best 1v1 BFM against the bandit. He does not have to beconcerned with a flight path conflict with his wingman. Viper Two starts with the bandit's nose in lagand may be able to rotate his vulnerable cone completely through the bandit before the bandit can bringhis nose to bear.Disadvantages are:• Viper Two may lose tally as he kicks the bandit across the tail.• The bandit has a possible shot opportunity as Viper Two starts his initial turn.The second option is to break the element toward each other in a cross-turn or hard-to-six turn.(Figure 4.59). This option is not the preferred one when the bandit is detected outside of weaponsparameters or when the bandit is not inside either fighter's turn circle.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 101Figure 4.59 Cross-Turn/Hard-to-SixIf the bandit is allowed to close before he is detected, the cross turn option becomes less viable (Figure4.60). At ranges approaching turn circle diameter, the bandit retains the option to employ a gun shotagainst either fighter, to meet either fighter at high aspect and separate, or switch the attack from one tothe other.Advantages are:• Each fighter maximizes the BFM problem for the bandit.• Neither fighter rotates his vulnerable cone through the bandit's position.• Both fighters have an increased probability of maintaining tally.Disadvantages are:• The bandit is not forced to commit to either fighter.• The bandit’s decision to commit can be delayed until he is closer to (and perhaps inside) both fighters'turn circles.• The bandit is able to meet one fighter at high aspect and isolate both fighters on one side of hisaircraft.• The assignment of engaged and supporting fighter roles within the element is delayed.• If both fighters perform hard turns in the bandit's plane of motion, the potential for flight path conflictincreases.• If both fighters maneuver to isolate the threat axis on one side of their aircraft, their flight path vectorsare in opposite directions.• Mutual support is difficult to maintain.

102MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.60 Cross-turn—Bandit Approaching/At Turn Circle4.11.7. Cross-CourtBandit asymmetrically positioned between the fighters. In this case, the bandit is in a morethreatening position relative to one fighter than the other, but is positioned between the fighters (Figure4.61). Considerations are similar to the engaged fighter unknown or uncommitted bandit discussion andthe options remain similar.Figure 4.61 Bandit Asymmetrically Positioned (Cross-Court)

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 103One option is to break in the same direction (Figure 4.62). The direction of break should bedetermined by the most threatened fighter. That fighter should be directed to break into the bandit. Thisoption is preferred one if the bandit is detected outside of weapons parameters, or if both fighters havetally. Advantages and disadvantages are the same as previously discussed.Figure 4.62 Break in Same Direction (Asymmetric Bandit)The second option is to break the most threatened fighter into the bandit, and to also turn the otherfighter toward the bandit (Figure 4.63). The advantages and disadvantages to this option are similar tothose in the engaged fighter unknown/uncommitted bandit discussion. However, the bandit is probablyalready committed to the most threatened fighter. This makes the determination of engaged andsupporting fighter roles easier. In the case where Viper Two is the only fighter with a tally, it may beviable for him to turn toward the bandit to maintain tally as Viper One begins his defensive turn. In thiscase, if Viper Two decides to turn into the bandit, the turn must be at a rate that will keep the banditoutside Viper Two's turn circle, if possible. Floating the turn when the bandit is at close range may allowthe bandit to switch the attack and arrive inside two's turn circle. Viper Two should direct Viper One inhis no sight defense and direct an extension if the bandit switches or is no longer a threat to Viper One.Additionally, Viper Two must default to Viper One during Viper One's defensive turn to preclude a flightpath conflict from developing. This option is viable if Viper Two is the only one with a tally, or if thebandit is already established inside Viper Two's turn circle.

104MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996Figure 4.63 Cross-turn/Hard-to-six (Asymmetric Bandit)4.11.8. Re-EntryRe-entry into a fight where a fighter is defensive is the highest priority of the supporting fighter.Place the fight at your 10 o'clock or 2 o'clock and strive to have at least a turn radius and a half of room(around 1 NM) between you and the bandit. Split plane maneuvering may allow you to get outside thebandit's FOV. If the bandit doesn't point at you and continues his turn a shot of opportunity should beavailable. Be ready to employ ordnance as soon as possible. If the fight has gravitated to a scissors youcan expect extremely slow airspeeds. The AIM-9 is the weapon of choice. Allow the fight to drift aft toabout 7 or 4 o'clock and then turn in to the fight looking for a low-aspect missile shot as the distancebetween the bandit and the engaged fighter increases and is greater then the HUD FOV. The entry is justlike a Co-Flow or Counter-Flow entry. If winchester missiles and the only ordnance available is the gunthen maintain at least over-the-top airspeed as you enter the fight and anticipate a high angle gun attackto a high reposition. You don't want to be co-airspeed with the fight and get anchored in the scissors. Butbeing greater than 400 KTAS is also not advantageous to entering a scissors. It doesn’t allow enoughtime for the shot. Refer to the section on role exchanges for additional information and comm procedures.4.12. High-Aspect ACMAn optimum entry against a high-aspect threat is the bracket. The goal is to sandwich the banditsimilar to that discussed in the defensive ACM section. The only difference is that the bandit starts outahead of the 3/9 line and with high aspect. A 2-ship spread out to 3-4 miles will allow the flight tomaintain visual mutual support and determine which fighter will have the best advantage to engageoffensively or take a shot of opportunity at the merge. Communications are critical to determine whichfighter will be the engaged fighter. A going-in position that should be briefed is that the flight lead willbe the primary engaged fighter. Here is a classic situation that allows for a pre-merge role change toallow the most offensive fighter the engaged role.

MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 1996 105As the flight lead analyzes the aspect of the bandit and continues to the merge performing a single sideoffset intercept, the wingman maneuvers away from the flight to obtain turning room. If the aspectbetween the bandit and the flight lead remains high the flight lead should clear his wingman to engage thebandit. The fighter who meets the bandit high-aspect assumes the supporting role. As he approaches themerge he should still attempt to achieve a front quarter shot and then pass the bandit as close aboard aspossible, preferably placing the bandit between himself and the engaged fighter. This should force thebandit to turn belly up to the engaged fighter. The engaged fighter maneuvers offensively to employordnance or pressure the bandit to make him predictable. Any fighter the bandit engages post mergeshould allow a shot of opportunity to the other.Off axis bandits pose additional problems. We want to avoid letting the bandit meet both of us closeaboard and then maneuvering to place both of us ahead of his three-nine line. The solution here is to haveone fighter engage and get the bandit turning while the other maneuvers to a supporting position andsubsequently into a shot of opportunity or a role swap when clearly able to be offensive.4.13. InterceptsAn intercept is the series of maneuvers, using a ground controlled intercept (GCI), Airborne Warningand Control System (AWACS), on-board systems, or dead reckoning, which places the aircraft in aposition from which a weapon may be employed, visual identification (VID) can be made, or a visualengagement can be initiated. The tactical decision to "commit" to an intercept is based on guidance andcriteria established in MCM 3-1. The type of intercept geometry utilized is based on experience,proficiency, avionics, weather/ night, ECM and tactical considerations. This manual will review interceptbasics and the baseline intercept. Some tactical considerations will also be discussed, however referenceto MCM 3-1 is necessary for a complete understanding of tactical intercepts.Figure 4.64 Intercept Basics

106MCH 11-F16 Vol 5 10 May 19964.13.1. Intercept BasicsIn the F-16, the intercept problem involves using the radar to detect a specific target, then using theintercept geometry to arrive at a position from which the target can be identified (if required) and weaponsfired. To achieve this, the fighter pilot must do these things (Figure 4.64):• Close on the target.• Establish ID (may be a continuous process).• If a beam or stern conversion is required, acquire sufficient displacement from the target (room for theconversion turn).• Go pure pursuit.• Obtain a tally.• Establish a VID if required.• Maneuver to weapons parameters.A popular technique for accomplishing these steps is the baseline intercept. This is the foundationupon which more complicated tactical game plans are built. Before discussing the baseline intercept, afew of the intercept terms will be reviewed.4.13.2. Intercept TerminologyFighter pilots should be familiar with all the terms listed in attachments 1 and 2 of this manual.Listed below is a review of a few of the terms essential to intercept geometry.Aspect Angle (AA): The angle between the longitudinal axis of the target (projected rearward) and theline-of-sight to the fighter, measured from the tail of the target. The fighter's heading is not aconsideration.Antenna Train Angle (ATA): This is the angle between the nose of the fighter and the radar line-ofsightto the target. ATA is referenced in degrees left or right of 0° azimuth on the MFD.Collision Antenna Train Angle (CATA): CATA is the azimuth of the radar antenna when tracking atarget that is on a collision course with the fighter. This is the fighter's quickest route to anintercept/collision/tally with the target. A target on a collision course drifts straight down the MFD. Itsazimuth never changes. An easy way to determine CATA for a cospeed target is to subtract aspect anglefrom 180°. For example, the CATA for a target with a 150° aspect angle is 30° (180 - 150). Figure 4.65shows these angular relationships.

2Basic FighterManeuversI fly close to my man, aim well and then of course he falls down.Captain Oswald BoelckeProbably the World's First AceGerman Air Service, WW-IBasic fighter maneuvers (BFMs) are the building blocks of fighter tactics.They may be classified as primary maneuvers, which can be performedwithout regard to an adversary (e.g., accelerations, climbs, turns), andrelative maneuvers, which must be described or performed in relation toanother aircraft. The physics and techniques involved in most primarymaneuvers are discussed in the Appendix and therefore are not coveredhere.No guts, no glory. If you are going to shoot him down, you have to get in thereand mix it up with him.Major Frederick C. "Boots" Blesse, USAF10 Victories, Korean ConflictPursuit CurvesPursuit curves were discussed previously in relation to missile trajectories;they are equally relevant to fighter maneuvering. The three forms ofpursuit—lead, pure, and lag—are technically defined by the orientation ofthe attacking aircraft's velocity vector ahead of, directly toward, or behindthe target aircraft, respectively. Since the fighter pilot does not alwayshave an indication of the precise direction of his velocity vector, his noseposition is usually substituted as a reference. In maneuvering situationsthese two references (velocity vector and nose position) vary by theamount of the attacker's angle of attack and sideslip, which are generallynot great enough to be of importance. So, what is called "pure pursuit," forinstance, may actually involve a small amount of lag.

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 63Lead PursuitA lead-pursuit path is followed by positioning the aircraft's nose ahead ofthe target, or "bogey," fighter. As discussed in the gun-employment section,the practical maximum lead when the attacker is maneuvering nearthe target's plane of turn is often limited by the attacker's over-the-nosevisibility and the requirement that he maintain sight of the bogey. "Blind"lead turns may be appropriate under some circumstances, but they areinherently dangerous, both because of the possibility of a collision andbecause of the potential for losing sight of the bogey and allowing it to gaina more threatening position or to escape. Larger amounts of lead can oftenbe generated by turning in a parallel plane with the target, so that sightmay be maintained over the side of the attacker's nose.The purpose of lead pursuit is primarily to increase closure on the targetby use of geometry. The ideal lead angle for greatest closure depends onrelative aircraft positions, relative speeds, and target maneuver. As withmissiles, a proportional-navigation course usually maximizes closure, andcan be estimated visually as the lead angle that causes the target to appearto remain stationary against the distant horizon. If the target's drift appearsto be toward the attacker's nose, more lead is called for, and vice versa.The lead-collision or lead-pursuit curve may even allow an attacker toclose on a much faster target, particularly if that target turns toward theattacker at a rate that places the attacker at a large AOT.Figure 2-1 depicts a fighter using lead pursuit to close on a faster targetfrom a rear-hemisphere position. Note that in this example the targetaircraft is turning toward the attacker, inscribing a rather large arc in thesky, while the attacker keeps his nose in front of the target's position andturns inside its flight path to close the range. The attacking fighter is notmaintaining a perfect proportional-navigation (lead-collision) track in thiscase, since the LOS to the target is rotating throughout the maneuver, butFigure 2-1. Effects of Arcing and Lead Pursuit

64 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSthe combination of its position at high AOT and lead pursuit allows it toclose the range continuously, even with inferior airspeed. In general, afighter cannot maintain a lead-collision course from a position near thetarget's beam without equal or superior speed, but lead pursuit can provideclosure at a reduced rate.Two other points are worth mentioning about this example. It illustratesthat, in using lead pursuit, the attacker must turn with a decreasingradius and increasing rate as he closes the range. Eventually he may have toturn much tighter and faster than the target in order to maintain lead pursuit.Also note that lead pursuit results in increasing AOT, thereby reducingthe attacker's angular position advantage in the target's rear hemisphere.Figure 2-2 depicts two possible defenses against a lead-pursuit maneuverperformed by an attacker still out of firing parameters, one appropriatefor a defender with a speed advantage (solid path), the other for a defenderwith a speed disadvantage (broken path). In the first case the defender turnsaway from the attacker to decrease AOT as much as practical, and thenuses his superior speed to increase range by an extension maneuver asdescribed earlier. This may allow him to disengage, or it may provideenough separation eventually to enable him to come back at the attackingfighter and meet it head-on, negating the attacker's angular positionadvantage. This option may not be appropriate against a missle-equippedattacker, since the turn-away could place the opponent within his firingenvelope.In the second case slower speed enables the defender to turn tightlyenough to prevent the detrimental effects of arcing, and he meets theFigure 2-2. Defenses against Lead Pursuit

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 65attacker with high AOT. It may not be possible for the defender to completethis option before a guns or missile defense maneuver is required,depending on the actual ranges and weapons involved. The attacker'sangular position advantage may be reduced or eliminated in this manner ifhe can be met with high AOT.Pure PursuitHolding the attacking aircraft's nose directly on the target also providesclosure, unless the target has a significant speed advantage and AOT isvery small. Although pure pursuit does not generate as much closure aslead pursuit under most conditions, neither does it cause AOT to increaseas rapidly. In addition, pure pursuit presents the minimum frontal area ofthe attacking fighter to the target pilot, increasing the defender's visualproblems.Months of preparation, one of those few opportunities, and the judgement ofa split second are what makes some pilot an ace, while others think back onwhat they could have done.Colonel Gregory "Pappy" Boyington, USMC28 Victories, WW-IILag PursuitIn lag pursuit the attacker places his nose at an angle behind the targetaircraft. This tactic is useful in slowing or stopping closure to maintain adesired separation from the target while simultaneously maintaining ordecreasing AOT. Using lag pursuit, even a faster fighter can maintain aposition in the rear hemisphere of a maneuvering target aircraft. Figure 2-3illustrates the use of lag pursuit to attain a stabilized position in the rearhemisphere of a slower opponent. In this example the attacker findsFigure 2-3. Lag Pursuit

68 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSspeed advantage often provides a maneuverability advantage (particularlybelow corner speed), and the attacker may lose maneuvering potential. Ahard turn away from the target (pulling toward its extended six o'clockregion) in the bogey's plane of turn may cause the attacker to lose sight ofthe bogey, and also may bleed off valuable energy (speed). Additionally,such a maneuver would make it unlikely that lag pursuit could be reinitiated,and it probably would result in loss of the offensive.An out-of-plane maneuver is often the best alternative in this situation.Figure 2-5 illustrates one such maneuver, called the lag roll. At point "1"the attacker, in lead pursuit at close range, levels his wings and pullsnose-up out of the defender's plane of turn. The resulting climb reducesspeed and the component of velocity in the defender's direction (reducingclosure). The attacker continues to pull up, possibly also pulling somewhattoward the bogey's flight path in a rolling-pull maneuver, to ensureFigure 2-5. Lag-Pursuit Roll

66 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERShimself on the inside of the target's turn at high AOT and presumably outof firing parameters. His turn capability will not allow him to pull enoughlead for a gun snapshot (or perhaps he is equipped with rear-quarter missilesonly). One option is to relax the turn, allowing the nose to drift to apoint behind the bogey for lag pursuit. This reduced turn rate also offers theattacker a good opportunity to increase his energy by accelerating. (See theAppendix for a discussion of energy.) Eventually this fighter approachesthe bogey's flight path and reinitiates a hard turn back toward the target,achieving a fairly stable position behind the bogey and outside its turn.This position, which affords the attacker a view of the underside of thehard-turning bogey, is termed "cold-side" lag.As long as the fighter has a speed advantage over its opponent and canachieve the same turn rate, stabilized lag pursuit is possible in the bogey'srear hemisphere. However, there are several very strict constraints oncombinations of range, relative speed, turn radii, and relative fighter positionswhich must be met for stabilized lag pursuit. All these parameters arevery difficult to meet in practice, even with a cooperative target, so lagpursuit is generally a temporary state of affairs. Nevertheless, this tacticdoes allow a fighter to maintain a speed advantage over a maneuveringtarget while remaining in its rear hemisphere.Lag also may make it very difficult for the bogey pilot to maintain sightof the attacker, particularly when the attacker is on the cold side or nearthe bogey's six o'clock (i.e., dead astern); this forces the defender to turnharder or to reverse his turn direction. If the attacker is equipped with anoff-boresight weapon, one that can be fired at a target that is not directlyahead, there may be a shot opportunity regardless of the bogey's maneuver.If the bogey pilot cannot safely reverse without giving his attacker a shotopportunity, the continued turn occupies his attention and forces him tobe predictable, making him easy pickings for a second fighter.Likewise, however, an attacker is also predictable and vulnerable whileperforming prolonged lag pursuit. When using this tactic a pilot shouldattempt to gain a position from which a shot opportunity will be presentedwith his available weapons if the bogey reverses. Unless the attacker is gunequipped, lag, particularly cold-side lag, at close range with the nose welloff the bogey may allow the bogey to reverse with impunity, possiblygaining an offensive position. At the very least this condition does notmake the bogey predictable. It also may result in a difficult position fromwhich to disengage should disengagement be necessary. Additionally,sustained lag pursuit can be very taxing physically to the attacking pilot,since his greater speed requires a higher load factor than that of hisopponent.Stabilized lag pursuit with its many constraints may not offer theoptimum offensive position for the attacker considering his weapons systemand relative maneuvering capabilities. It is usually desirable for theattacker to stabilize within the boundaries of his weapons envelope, possiblyonly having to satisfy aiming requirements for a valid shot. If theattacker can reach such a position even temporarily, especially if he is outof the defender's field of vision, the bogey pilot is forced to react in order toregain sight.

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 67Effective defense against lag pursuit involves simply changing the defender'sspeed, turn direction, or G. For hot-side lag this generally meanstightening the turn, sometimes with a gravity assist by turning nose-low.Cold-side lag is usually countered by a turn reversal, which places theattacker on the inside of the defender's turn in lead pursuit. Such a maneuverresults in a rapid decrease in range and may actually cause theattacker to fly out in front of the defender, reversing the roles. This reversalis often more effective when performed nose-high, causing a reduction inthe defender's forward velocity and increasing closure. Reversals are quiteeffective against missiles-only fighters, as these fighters will often quicklypass through the min-range missile boundary unless the lag geometry isjust right. For gun-equipped fighters, however, a bogey reversal usuallyresults in at least a snapshot opportunity for the attacker.Fighting spirit one must have. Even if a man lacks some of the other qualifications,he can often make up for it in righting spirit.Brigadier General Robin Olds, USAFLag Displacement RollsIn the lag-pursuit discussion one method was mentioned for achieving alag position from a point inside the defender's turn at medium AOT (about30° to 60° AOT), when the range is only slightly greater than that desiredfor lag. This method involves relaxing the turn and allowing the nose todrift behind the target, remaining essentially in the same maneuver planeas the target until approaching the desired lag position. When he sees thismaneuver, the bogey pilot may assume that the attacker cannot match histurn performance and is about to overshoot. Such an assumption mayinduce the defender to reverse his turn direction to gain a position advantageon the overshooting attacker—but this often presents the attackerwith a gun-shot opportunity instead.Other initial conditions require different tactics for reaching a lag position.For instance, when approaching the target at close range with highovertake and low AOT (less than about 30°), simply relaxing the turn maynot slow the closure fast enought to prevent overshooting. Should thedefender reverse in this situation, the attacker could be in real trouble.Figure 2-4 illustrates this case, which begins much like that described inFigure 2-3, except at closer range and with less AOT. Here, the attacker'shigh closure causes him to fly out in front of the target after the reversal.Technically, any time the attacker crosses behind the target an overshoothas occurred; but this is usually not dangerous unless the target is movingat a slower speed or has a tighter turn radius. Such a situation often resultswhen a missed gun shot is pressed to minimum range with high closure.Position "1" in Figure 2-4 assumes that the attacker cannot pull sufficientlead for a gun shot (or is not gun equipped) and is inside minimummissile range (or is not missile equipped). To avoid a dangerous overshootin such a situation it is necessary to stop the closure rapidly. This may beaccomplished by a speed reduction, by a hard turn away from the target(reducing the component of velocity in the direction of the target), or by anout-of-plane maneuver. A speed reduction may not be desirable since a

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 69that he passes above and behind the defender as he crosses the bogey'sflight path, A slow, continuous roll toward the bogey (here to the right)during this phase of the maneuver enables the attacker to maintain sightthroughout, and he passes above and behind the defender essentially inverted,as depicted at point "2." Trading airspeed for altitude in thismaneuver allows the attacker to maintain his total energy better than if hehad simply pulled more G in a level turn, and low-G conditions once theclimb is established may even allow energy addition. From position "2"the attacker benefits from a gravity assist in the nose-low turn, allowinghim to pull the bogey closer to the nose and position offensively in lagpursuit.Should the defender reverse at point "2," the attacker has the options(depending on speed) of performing a second lag roll in the opposite directionor continuing to roll around the bogey's flight path, passing underneathand back into lag on the other side.The displacement roll is similar to the lag roll, except that it is used inclose-range, low-closure situations to reduce AOT and increase range,rather than to prevent an overshoot. This maneuver tends to "displace"the attacker's flight path from inside the bogey's turn toward or to theother side of the defender's flight path. In such nearly co-speed situationslag pursuit is not generally advantageous, so this tactic is primarily ofvalue for positioning the attacker within a missile envelope. It allows theattacker to increase nose-tail separation with the defender (possibly tomeet min-range constraints) without reducing speed. After completion ofthe displacement roll, the attacker will usually be in lag pursuit, requiringhim to turn faster than the bogey to point at the target for a boresightmissile shot. Essentially the displacement roll trades some angular advantagefor increased nose-tail separation and possibly reduced AOT.After the foregoing description of the lag roll, the following narrative byColonel Robin Olds, USAF, should have a familiar ring.I had another [MiG] in sight at my 10 o'clock, in a left turn ... I pulled sharpleft, turned inside him, pulled my nose up about 30 [degrees] above thehorizon,... barrel rolled to the right, held my position upside down above andbehind the MIG until the proper angular deflection and range parameterswere satisfied, completed the rolling maneuver, and fell in behind and belowthe MIG-21 at his seven o'clock position at about .95 mach. Range was 4500feet, angle off 15. The MIG obligingly pulled up well above the horizon andexactly down sun. I put the pipper on his tailpipe, received a perfect [missile]growl, squeezed the trigger once, hesitated, then once again. The first Sidewinderleapt in front and within a split second, turned left in a definite andbeautiful collision course correction. . . . Suddenly the MIG-21 erupted in abrilliant flash [of] orange flame. 1Another variation of the lag roll is known as a barrel-roll attack. Thismaneuver is useful in making the transition from lead pursuit in thetarget's beam area or forward hemisphere to a rear-hemisphere position.Such a situation may develop when an attacker is performing lead pursuitagainst a bogey at fairly long range and the defender turns toward theattacker. At some point the attacker may realize that continued lead

70 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSpursuit would result in passing the bogey at very high AOT (i.e., in hisforward hemisphere). A barrel-roll attack is initiated with a wings-levelpull-up and a roll toward the bogey, as with the lag roll. Since the range tothe target is considerably greater, however, the climb established is continuedfor a longer time, resulting in a greater altitude advantage over thedefender. Again the rolling pull is timed with the target's motion so theattacker arrives at a position well above the bogey, inverted, before passingslightly behind the defender. As the attacker approaches the overheadposition his altitude advantage and gravity assist may provide the opportunityfor him to pull hard down toward the target, remaining inside thehorizontal boundaries of the bogey's turn, for a "high-side" (i.e., comingdown from above and to one side) gun-firing pass. Or, depending on relativeaircraft performance, available weapons, or bogey maneuvers, the attackercan delay and moderate his pull-down slightly to arrive at a lag-pursuitposition. An illustration of this second option would look much likeFigure 2-5, except that, because of the starting conditions, most of theinitial phases of the manuever (i.e., the pull-up and roll) would take placein the defender's forward hemisphere. Often there will be a greater headingdifference between the fighters at position "2," making lag pursuit impractical.In this case, between times "2" and "3," the attacker may turnsteeply nose-low, using lead pursuit to pull inside the bogey's turn. Thismaneuver keeps nose-tail separation from increasing greatly.One of the common mistakes made in the employment of lag rolls andbarrel-roll attacks is attempting to use them without sufficient initial leadpursuit. Returning to Figure 2-5, note that the attacking and defendingaircraft are aligned nearly parallel at time "I." Visualize what wouldhappen if the attacker's nose at time "1" were pointed at, or only slightlyahead of, the bogey. First, as the attacker started his pull-up, the bogeywould disappear beneath the nose, requiring the attacker to perform a veryquick roll just to maintain sight, and greatly reducing any altitude advantagewhich may be achieved over the bogey. Without the climb betweentimes "1" and "2," the attacker's forward velocity component may causehim to overshoot the bogey's flight path grossly, or force him to pass too farbehind the target, allowing nose-tail separation to increase greatly. Thelack of sufficient altitude advantage at time "2" also reduces the gravityassist available to the attacker for pulling his nose back toward the bogeyto maintain an angular advantage.Another common error is beginning the pull-up too late. In order for theattacker to gain the required vertical separation in this case, he must attaina rather high nose attitude. This situation may allow the defender to diveaway and gain separation before the attacker can pull back down. Or thebogey may wait until about time "2" and pull sharply up toward theattacker, meeting him on the way down with high AOT, and causing avertical overshoot.The attacking fighter may also need a speed advantage over the defenderfor lag displacement rolls (except for the barrel-roll attack) to work well. Ifthe pull-up is begun in the bogey's rear hemisphere as depicted in Figure2-5, the attacker must cover considerably more distance than the defender

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 71to arrive at position "3" and therefore needs a considerable speed advantage.But if at time "I" the attacker was closer to the target's beam or evenslightly into its forward hemisphere, as described for the barrel-roll attack,then the attacker would require less speed to complete the maneuver.One of the effective defenses against lag displacement rolls and barrelrollattacks is to dive away in an extension maneuver as the attackerapproaches his maximum climb attitude. The defender should simplyunload while maintaining his original bank angle, as though he were stillturning, during the early part of this extension. Otherwise, the attackermay recognize the tactic and pull back down before sufficient separationcan be achieved. The extension may generate enough separation forescape, or it may provide room for a hard turn back into the attacker tonegate his position advantage.Another effective tactic, especially against a barrel-roll attack, is for thedefender to execute a simultaneous barrel roll in the opposite direction,i.e., toward the attacker. If he can get his nose higher than the attacker'sbetween times "1" and "2," the defender may be able to reach a rearhemisphereposition on the attacker after completing the roll.High Yo-YoThe Yo-Yo is very difficult to explain. It was first perfected by the wellknownChinese fighter pilot Yo-Yo Noritake. He also found it difficult toexplain, being quite devoid of English.Squadron Leader K. G. Holland, RAFFighter PilotBoth the lag-roll and the barrel-roll attack may be used to preventovershooting the flight path of a maneuvering target or to reduce AOTunder various conditions. The high yo-yo is also useful for preventingovershoots and reducing AOT, and it is best suited to conditions of moderateAOT (about 30° to 60°), when the attacker is more nearly co-speed withthe defender and lacks the excess lead required for lag rolls. As with thevarious lag displacement rolls, the high yo-yo uses three-dimensionalmaneuvering rather than increased load factor to reduce horizontal turnradius, thereby allowing the attacker to retain greater energy. Figure 2-6depicts this maneuver.At position "1" the attacker is turning in the bogey's plane of maneuverin pure pursuit with rapidly increasing AOT and closure. If this course iscontinued it could result in an overshoot of the bogey's flight path and lossof the offensive. Therefore, the attacker rolls his wings level (sometimescalled a quarter roll or quarter-plane roll) and pulls up, out of the defender'splane of turn. This climb reduces the component of the attacker's velocitywhich is oriented toward the bogey, eventually stopping the closure, and ifit is begun soon enough, it will prevent an overshoot. As the closure slowsto nearly zero, the attacker should be high in the defender's rear hemispherein a nose-high attitude. At point "2" the attacker rolls toward thebogey to place his lift vector ahead of, on, or behind the defender toestablish lead, pure, or lag pursuit, respectively. The choice depends pri-

72 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSFigure 2-6. High Yo-Yomarily on the present nose-tail separation and the desired range once theattacker's nose is pointed back toward the defender. In the case depictedthe attacker wishes to close the range for a guns pass at point "3," so hepulls for a point ahead of the target's position at point "2" and keeps hisnose ahead of the defender throughout the remainder of the rolling, noselowturn toward point "3."The lead-pursuit option depicted generally results in the attackerreaching a higher peak altitude, losing more airspeed, and approaching thebogey in a rather steep dive across the circle at point "3." Choosing lagpursuit at point "2" usually will result in the attacker maintaining greaterspeed but scooping out below the bogey's altitude. The result of this optionis usually a hot-side lag-pursuit position looking up at the defender acrossthe circle.A common error in most out-of-plane offensive maneuvers which havebeen discussed is to generate excessive pitch attitudes relative to thedefender, either nose-up or nose-down. Excessive nose-high pitch mayresult from beginning a high yo-yo too late. The short range then requiresgreater pitch attitude to avoid a horizontal overshoot. Once the attacker isvery nose-high in the bogey's rear hemisphere, range begins to open veryrapidly, affording the defender an opportunity to dive away and gainseparation in an extension maneuver.The excessive nose-down situation usually results from greed on thepart of the attacker, when he chooses the lead-pursuit option from the topof a high yo-yo or barrel-roll attack in an attempt for a quick gun shot. If thedefender pulls hard up into the plane of this high-side attack after theattacker is committed to being excessively nose-low, the bogey can oftengenerate a vertical overshoot, with the atacker losing the offensive after hepasses through the target's altitude. It is important to note that theseout-of-plane maneuvers generally will prevent an overshoot and often will

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 73improve the attacker's offensive position; but without a significant turnperformanceadvantage the attacker should not expect an immediatelethal firing position with a boresight weapon.The lead Messerschmitt suddenly stopped smoking. It was a completegiveaway; I knew that at this instant he'd cut power. I chopped the throttle toprevent overrunning the enemy fighter. I skidded up to my right, half rolled tomy left, wings vertical. He turned sharply to the left; perfect! Now—stickhard back, rudder pedals co-ordinating smoothly. The Thunderbolt whirledaround, slicing inside the Messerschmitt. I saw the pilot look up behind him,gasping, as the Thunderbolt loomed inside of his turn, both wings flamingwith all eight guns. This boy had never seen a Thunderbolt really roll; he wasconvinced I'd turned inside him. 2Low Yo-YoThe out-of-plane maneuvers so far discussed have been designed to slowclosure and decrease AOT by pulling the attacker's nose (velocity vector)away from and behind the target in the initial phases. The purpose of thelow yo-yo is to increase closure and angular advantage with a lead-pursuitout-of-plane maneuver.A typical scenario for use of this tactic is represented by a fairly longrange(i.e., probably hot-side) lag-pursuit situation, where the attacker doesnot have the turn capability to pull his nose to the target quickly for a shot,or where doing so would cause excessive speed loss. Figure 2-7 depicts thissituation. Here the attacker would like to pull his nose to the bogey for agun shot, but he lacks the turn capability to accomplish this rapidly in thehorizontal plane. The attacker can increase the horizontal component ofhis turn rate by pulling the nose down toward the inside of the turn. Thegravity assist and the ability to generate a horizontal turning componentby rolling the aircraft once it is established in a nose-low attitude allow theattacker to position his nose well in front of, but considerably below, thebogey's position. Ideally, the attacker should generate excess lead at point"2" so that he can level his wings, pull up, and fly essentially a straightpath to intercept the bogey at the desired range. At point "3" the attackerapproaches the bogey's altitude from below and reestablishes his turn inthe defender's plane of maneuver as gun-firing range and lead are reachedsimultaneously.Obviously, in practice, it is very difficult to make all these events occurat the same time, at point "3." The greater the nose-tail distance at point" 1," the more lead will be necessary at point "2" in order to close the range.But the larger the lead angle, the greater the AOT will be at intercept, sothere is obviously a practical limit to the available lead angle. At excessiverange the attacker can make up all the distance with one low yo-yo only byflying out in front of the defender. Generally, it is more prudent to close therange a little at a time in several steps. The first low yo-yo can close therange somewhat and can be followed by a high yo-yo or barrel-roll attackfrom position "2" to reduce excess AOT. This sequence can be repeatedas necessary. In general, two small yo-yos (high or low) are safer than onebig one.An attempt to make up too much range in one maneuver leaves the

74 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSFigure 2-7. Low Yo-Yoattacker vulnerable to counterrnoves by the defender. Generally, anattempt to generate large amounts of lead in the low yo-yo results in anexcessively nose-low attitude. With sufficient range, greater AOT, and agravity assist, the defender may be able to pull nose-low down toward theattacker and meet him nearly head-on, neutralizing the attacker's positionadvantage. Or, if the defender has sufficient energy, he may choose to pullup as the attacker commits his nose too low, and by performing a rollingpulltoward the attacker (essentially a barrel-roll attack) actually achieve aposition advantage high in the attacker's rear hemisphere.The winner (of an air battle) may have been determined by the amount oftime, energy, thought and training an individual has previously accomplishedin an effort to increase his ability as a fighter pilot.Commander Randy "Duke" Cunningham, USNLead TurnThe lead turn was discussed in the gun-employment section of Chapter 1in connection with preparing for a snapshot. In this section "lead" turn isdefined as an "early" turn that is started by the attacker before he passesthe opponent in a forward-hemisphere approach situation. It does notnecessarily connote lead pursuit, and in fact it may be a lag maneuver.Figure 2-8 depicts a lead-turn scenario.At point" 1" the aircraft are converging on opposite headings with offsetflight paths. Before the two fighters pass abeam, one of them begins a leadturn toward the flight path of the other (solid tracks), while its opponent

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 75Figure 2-8. Lead Turncontinues straight ahead to point "2." At point "2" the early-turningfighter has a considerable advantage over its opponent. This position mayallow a high-angle gun snapshot. At time "2" the defender turns towardthe attacker, who then overshoots the defender's six o'clock at time "3"and assumes a temporary lag-pursuit position deep in the defender's rearhemisphere.For comparison, the broken track shows the result if both pilots waituntil they pass abeam before beginning to turn (points "2" and "2"'). Attime "3"-"3'," the fighters are still abeam, essentially neutral.Although the lead turn can be a very effective offensive maneuver, it isnot without limitations. The earlier the turn is begun, the greater thepotential rewards, but obviously if it is started too soon the attacker willpass in front of the defender's nose. This can be dangerous if the defender isequipped with a short-range, all-aspect weapon such as a gun. It also resultsin the other blind-lead-turn problems mentioned in the previous chapter.One possible solution to this problem is a slightly out-of-plane lead turn,so that the attacker passes above or below the defender's nose, avoiding aboresight weapons-firing solution.Another danger of the lead turn is the overshoot potential. In Figure 2-8the attacker delayed his turn to pass behind the defender, but he overshotthe bogey's extended six o'clock position at long range with a trackcrossingangle (TCA) of about 90°. TCA is defined as the angular differencein velocity vectors at any instant. As long as turn radii and speed are aboutequal between the opponents, there is little danger in such an overshoot. Ifthe defender reverses near point "3," he places the attacker on the inside ofhis turn in lead pursuit and subjects himself to a guns pass. If, however, thedefender has a tighter turn-radius capability or slower speed at the time ofthe overshoot, a reversal may place him inside the attacker's turn, on theoffensive, as depicted in Figure 2-4.

76 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSThe potential danger of an overshoot situation is dependent on manyfactors, including range, relative turn performance, TCA, and relativespeeds. In general, the greatest danger exists for the attacker when overshootsresult at close range and low TCAs against a slower bogey with atighter turn radius, as in Figure 2-4. Against a slower or tighter-turningopponent, the attacker should use caution in employment of the lead turn.The earlier a lead turn is started, assuming the attacker passes behindthe defender, the closer the resulting range and the smaller the TCA atovershoot; both of these conditions can increase the attacker's risk. If theattacker is at a slower speed or has a smaller turn radius, the overshoot riskis reduced and the lead turn may be begun sooner, resulting in greateroffensive advantage.A further consideration in lead turns is a factor called flight-path separation.As shown in Figure 2-9, this is the perpendicular distance from theattacker to the extended flight path of the defender at any moment. In bothcases depicted in this figure, the attacker and the defender are co-speed andapproaching on opposite courses with each fighter having the same flightpathseparation relative to its opponent. In case 1, the attacker's turnradius (R A ) is approximately half the flight-path separation, while in case 2the attacker's turn radius is doubled, about equalling the flight-pathseparation. In each case the attacker begins a lead turn (time "1") againstthe nonmaneuvering defender so as to arrive on his flight path withidentical nose-tail separation (time "2"). Note that in case 1 the attackerachieves about a 180° angular advantage, while in case 2 (larger turn radius)he gains only about a 90° advantage. In general, the potential angularadvantage of a lead turn against a nonmaneuvering opponent is proportionalto the ratio of flight-path separation to attacker turn radius when theturn is commenced. The effect of greater attacker turn rate is to allow thelead turn to be started at closer range, while the attacker still achievesmaximum angular advantage. This allows less time for the opponent'sdefensive counter, which usually involves turning toward the attacker toreduce flight-path separation.Because of these principles, fighters with tight turn radii stand to benefitmost from a given flight-path separation. It therefore behooves lessmaneuverablefighters to reduce flight-path separation to a minimum byattempting to pass as closely as possible to an opponent in forward-quarterFigure 2-9. Effects of Flight-Path Separation

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 77approach situations. Such flight-path separation may be vertical, lateral, ora combination of both (oblique). This principle is particularly importantwhen one fighter is diving toward a forward-quarter pass with a climbingadversary. The initial portion of the climbing fighter's lead turn will have agravity assist, giving it a reduced turn radius when compared with thediving fighter, which must oppose gravity in its pull-up. In such situationsthe pilot of the diving fighter normally should attempt to pass as closely asis feasible above his opponent to preclude an in-plane gravity-assisted leadturn. Unless he is purely vertical; the climbing opponent met with thistactic is forced to turn out-of-plane to receive a gravity assist, to perform ablind lead turn downward, or to complete a purely vertical lead turn,opposing gravity until he is in a vertical attitude.Although of great benefit, flight-path separation is not essential for alead turn. A fighter can early-turn its opponent even when the two fightersare meeting head-on on a collision course. In doing so, however, thelead-turning fighter is actually giving its opponent flight-path separation.If the attacker performs a lead turn at too great a range (based on relativespeeds and turn performance) the defender may use this separation to gainadvantage. Therefore, such a maneuver must be delayed, reducing separationso that the defender will overshoot if he attempts to turn on theattacker. A further consideration of this tactic is the possibility that theattacker may lose sight of the defender, since this is essentially a blind leadturn. Figure 2-10 shows the possible results of this early turn performedproperly (case 1) and started too early (case 2). Because of the risks involved,fighters with inferior turn performance (larger radius) or greater speedgenerally should not attempt this maneuver, since the advantage to begained seldom justifies the possible consequences. In this case the leadturn should be delayed until the opponent's reaction time does not allowhim to counter before the pass has occurred.Nose-to-Nose and Nose-to-Tail TurnsNose-to-nose and nose-to-tail turns are two options of fighters meeting inforward-quarter passes. Figure 2-11 graphically defines these maneuvers.As can be seen from this illustration, the names are fairly descriptive. Inthe first case, one fighter turns left, across the tail of its opponent, whileFigure 2-10. Lead Turns without Flight-Path Separation

78 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSFigure 2-11. Turn Optionsthe other turns right, away from its adversary, so that the two fightersagain approach in a nose-to-nose fashion. In the second, each pilot choosesto cross the other's tail, resulting in a nose-to-tail relationship.In choosing the nose-to-nose turn, one pilot turns away from his opponentat the pass. In nearly parallel approach situations with considerableflight-path separation, such as that shown in Figure 2-11, this choice mayresult in a short blind period when the adversary is out of sight behind andbeneath the attacker's aircraft. Such a situation could lead to loss of sight ifthe bogey does something unexpected during this time, but with a fairlyclose pass this is unlikely. The nose-to-nose option also tends to keep theopponents relatively close together throughout the maneuver, so thatmaintaining sight is easier. This is to the advantage of the pilot of a larger,easier-to-see fighter, since reduced separation makes it less likely that hewill lose sight of an opponent in a smaller aircraft.The pilot choosing to turn nose-to-nose is giving up any flight-pathseparation in the plane of his intended maneuver. For this reason, as well asto decrease the blind period in the initial phase of the turn, the attackershould attempt to minimize in-plane flight-path separation at the pass, butsome out-of-plane separation may be beneficial. For instance, if he isplanning a level nose-to-nose turn, the attacker may make a fairly closepass directly beneath or above the bogey. This tactic eliminates all horizontalflight-path separation (useful to the opponent) and also reduces theblind period.Figure 2-12 shows the effects of turn-performance variation on nose-tonoseturns. In case 1 the two fighters have the same turn rates, but theattacker has a tighter radius and slower speed. This smaller radius allowsthe attacker to stay inside the defender's turn, generating flight-pathseparation that the defender is unable to take away by pointing his aircraftat the attacker. The attacker then uses this separation by reversing at point"3" (lead turn) to arrive at point "4" with good position advantage. Case 2depicts the same situation, except in this case the fighter with the largerradius also has a much faster turn rate. This turn-rate advantage, however,does the defender very little good. The attacker generates nearly the sameflight-path separation, which results in almost the same angular advantageafter the lead turn. In practice, relative turn radius largely determines

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 79Figure 2-12. Turn-Performance Effects on Nose-to-Nose Turnspotential angular advantage, and turn-rate capability has only a minoreffect in nose-to-nose turn situations.Actually, both turn radius and speed play significant roles in generatingadvantage in nose-to-nose turns; their relative importance is a function ofmaximum separation between opponents. This maximum separationoccurs as the two fighters reach parallel headings in the maneuver, whichin Figure 2-12 (case 1) happens at time "2." Figure 2-13 illustrates thesignificance of this factor in nose-to-nose geometry.In each case the attacker (in the fighter nearer the bottom of the figure attime "I") is slower and therefore has a tighter turn radius than the bogeyfighter, but about the same turn rate. In case 1 the engagement begins withthe fighters side by side and separated by a distance less than the turnradius of either aircraft. Note that very little turning is required by theattacker for him to gain a very good angular advantage at time "3," as thefaster bogey essentially just flies out in front of its opponent. When maximumseparation (time "1") is less than the larger of the two turn radii,relative speed is the primary factor in determining advantage.Figure 2-13. Effects of Flight-Path Separation on Nose-to-Nose Turns

80 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSIn case 2 the fighters again start abeam, but initial separation in thisinstance is considerably greater than the larger of the two turn radii, andless than the larger turn diameter. (This is also the situation in Figure 2-12.)Here more turning is required, but still the tighter-turning attacker gains anice bite by time "3." In this situation both radius and relative speeds playa role, but radius is the dominant factor.Case 3 begins with even greater initial separation, this time exceedingthe larger turn diameter. Here the tighter-turning fighter is unable togenerate significant flight-path separation and can gain only a very smallangular advantage at time "3." Relative speeds contribute essentiallynothing in this situation, and a fighter must have a tighter radius to gainany advantage at all.Figure 2-14 illustrates the effects of turn performance on nose-to-tailmaneuvers. In case 1 the two aircraft have identical turn rates, but theattacker has a much smaller radius of turn. From a neutral start at time"1," the fighters maintain their neutrality throughout the maneuver totime "3," and if their paths were continued, the opponents would meetagain at their original positions. In this situation a turn-radius advantagedid not benefit the attacker, as it did in the nose-to-nose case. The attackercould have gained an advantage, however, if he had chosen to employ a leadturn prior to meeting at time "1," as discussed earlier.In case 2 the two fighters have the same turn radii, but the attacker has aconsiderable turn-rate advantage. Note that this situation results in anoffensive position advantage by time "3." It is, therefore, primarily turnrate that produces advantage in nose-to-tail maneuvers; however, a radiusadvantage is also of some benefit as flight-path separation at the passincreases. With greater flight-path separation at the pass, a reduced radiuscan result in a larger advantage because of lead-turn possibilities.When planning to use a nose-to-tail turn, the pilot of the better-turningfighter should try to gain some flight-path separation with the bogey, in theCASE 1 CASE 2DEFENDERFigure 2-14. Turn-Performance Effects on Nose-to-Tail Turns

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 81plane of the intended turn, before the pass. Generally, this may be achievedby making a small turn away from the bogey before meeting it in forwardquarterapproach situations. This separation has considerable impact onthe success potential of an early turn, as shown, and it also may reduce oreliminate the blind period occurring at the pass. A very close pass canresult in a considerable blind period for the attacker if the bogey crosses theattacker's tail and flies toward his belly-side during the nose-to-tail maneuver.Passing slightly above or below the opponent is not as effective inreducing this blind period as it is with nose-to-nose turns.Nose-to-tail turns, in general, result in greater separation between opponentsduring the maneuver, increasing the possibility of losing sight of anopponent in a smaller aircraft, and offering the opponent a better opportunityto escape if he desires. The greater resulting separation may, however,facilitate satisfying weapons minimum-range constraints.So far this discussion has been limited to nose-to-nose and nose-to-tailturns in the near-horizontal plane. Obviously these maneuvers may occurin any plane, and the near-vertical case is interesting, particularly fornose-to-nose situations. Figure 2-15 illustrates this case. Here the fightersmeet essentially head-on and both immediately pull straight up vertically,creating a nose-to-nose condition. Both fighters have similar turn rates,but one has a considerably smaller radius because of less airspeed. Fromthe previous discussion it would be expected that the tighter-turningfighter would gain an advantage from this maneuver, and indeed it does attime "3," where it has generated some flight-path separation.If the tighter-turning fighter is equipped with a weapon that can be firedeffectively from position "3," this may be the end of the story. Thisgenerally is not a good gun snapshot opportunity, however, unless the highfighter is very slow and separation is minimal. Likewise, the rather closerange and high aspect involved would cause minimum-range problems formost missiles.If he is unable to fire, the attacker must reverse for a lead turn toFigure 2-15. Nose-to-Nose in the Vertical Plane

82 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERScapitalize on his flight-path separation. In this case, however, the aircraftdoes not have sufficient energy performance to execute a second verticalmaneuver at the top of the first. Unable to press his advantage, the pilot ofthe lower fighter is forced to level off or to dive to regain airspeed. This mayallow the high-energy fighter to employ its gravity assist, taking fulladvantage of the resulting separation to convert to an effective offensiveposition at time "4." The moral of this story is: Flight-path separation is oflittle value if it can't be used.Flat ScissorsThe flat scissors is actually a series of nose-to-nose turns and overshootsperformed by two fighters essentially in the same maneuver plane, eachpilot attempting to get behind the other. Figure 2-16 illustrates a flatscissorsseries. In this scenario both fighters have about the same turn-ratecapability, but the fighter near the bottom of the figure at time "1" isslower and therefore has a tighter radius of turn. At time "1" the fightersbegin side by side, neither having an advantage, and each pilot turnstoward the other in an attempt to get behind his opponent. The shorterturn radius of the slower fighter allows it to remain inside its opponent'sturn approaching time "2." In this way lateral separation that can be usedfor a lead turn is created between the two flight paths. This flight-pathseparation cannot be used by the faster fighter, since it is already turning ashard as possible to the right and would have to turn even harder to performa lead turn. The slower fighter, however, can reverse its turn direction priorto passing its opponent and gain an angular advantage at the first pass.Although the lead-turning fighter overshoots its opponent's flight path atabout time "2," there is little danger because of the opponent's fasterspeed. Noting this overshoot, the pilot of the faster fighter reverses at time"2" in order to maintain sight of his adversary. This reinitiates a nose-tonosesituation, and by time "3" the slower fighter has a significant angularadvantage. At this time another reversal allows the slower fighter tomaintain its angular advantage while closing to gun-firing parameters attime "4." The segment of the attacker's turn from time "3" to time "4" issaid to be "in phase" with his opponent (i.e., both are turning in the sameFigure 2-16. Flat Scissors

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 83direction). Although the engagement was determined rather quickly herebecause of the large disparity in speed, in more evenly matched situationsthe crisscrossing of the flat scissors may continue for several cycles beforeone fighter gains a significant advantage.This maneuver is best analyzed in phases: the nose-to-nose turn, thereversal, and the lead turn. Each of these phases normally is repeated inorder during each cycle of the flat scissors.During the nose-to-nose phase each pilot attempts to get the nose of hisaircraft pointed at the opponent first to produce flight-path separationinside the other's turn which cannot be taken away. In general, the sloweror tighter-turning fighter will win this phase, as illustrated in Figure 2-13.The flat scissors tends to draw fighters closer and closer together, so speedusually remains the determining factor in the nose-to-nose phase as long asthe scissors maneuver continues. To gain advantage during this phase, afighter should decelerate as quickly as possible.After one fighter has generated some separation, it must reverse andlead-turn its opponent in order to gain further advantage. Reversal techniqueand timing are critical to success in the scissors. First, the rollingreversal should be as rapid as possible. This usually involves unloading theaircraft and applying full roll controls, as described in the Appendix. Eachfraction of a second during the reversal the aircraft is traveling essentiallyin a straight line, wasting valuable turning time and decreasing hard-wonseparation. A significant roll-performance advantage can negate a substantialspeed differential.The timing of the reversal determines the TCA at the overshoot, withan early reversal resulting in lower TCA and subsequently greater angularadvantage (lower AOT) later in the maneuver. The reversal point alsocontrols the nose-tail separation at the overshoot, however. The longer thereversal is delayed, the greater the separation will be when the overshootoccurs. Assuming the opponent reverses at the overshoot, setting upanother nose-to-nose situation and continuation of the scissors, the nosetailseparation at overshoot is directly related to the range and AOT thenext time the attacker's nose is pointed toward the target. Figure 2-17illustrates this relationship.In case 1 the two fighters are in the initial nose-to-nose phase of a flatscissors at time "I." Both fighters here have about the same turn rate, butFigure 2-17. Effects of Reversal Timing

84 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSone (the attacker) is slower, with a tighter radius, and has gained someadvantage. Recognizing this advantage (i.e., recognizing that he can pointat his opponent first), the attacker reverses immediately, while his nose isstill pointed well ahead of the defender. Turning away from the opponentat this point actually gives away the flight-path separation the attacker hasdeveloped, by allowing the defender to point his aircraft at the attackerfirst. In effect, the attacker has traded this separation for an early lead turn.Realizing the attacker is going to fly across his nose, the defender alsoreverses at time "2." If the defender is gun equipped he may have asnapshot opportunity here, but in this case his higher speed causes him toovershoot with little nose-tail separation and low TCA, flying out in frontof the attacker. At time "3," the attacker has his nose on the defender atvery close range and small AOT. Against an opponent with a gun, or amissile with a short min-range, this tactic (passing ahead of the target) isnot recommended. Otherwise, as long as the attacker is slower, the earlylead turn can result in a very lethal position advantage for him. Up to apoint, the earlier the lead turn, the greater the final advantage. The"point," of course, is when the final nose-tail separation is reduced to zero.Any earlier lead turn than this may result in at least a temporary bogeyposition advantage. The slower the attacker's speed relative to the defender,the earlier he can reverse, and;"in general, the greater advantage hecan achieve without taking this risk.In case 2 the same fighters are at the same starting conditions at time"1." This time the attacker delays his reversal until time "2," causing himto pass directly above or below the defender at point "3." At this time thedefender reverses, again setting up a nose-to-nose condition, and theattacker brings his nose to bear on the bogey at time "4." The attacker'sresulting position is at longer range and greater AOT than that in case 1.Such a position may be preferable if the attacker is not gun equipped, as thegreater separation may satisfy missile min-range requirements.In case 3 the setup, once again, is the same, but the attacker delays hisreversal even longer, in this instance until he is pointed at the defender attime "2." This causes the attacker to cross some distance behind thedefender at time "3," as the bogey reverses, and results in further increasesin range and AOT at time "4."This sequence of examples serves to highlight the importance of reversaltiming in execution of the flat scissors. In general, an early reversalreduces final separation and AOT. The optimum timing depends largelyon the range and AOT constraints of the attacker's firing envelope. Relativespeeds, turn-radius capabilities, and defender's weapons also play arole. In general, however, the earliest possible reversals lead to the earliestadvantage for a gun-equipped fighter.In such a highly dynamic situation, reversal timing is very subjective.Practice, experience, and an ability to judge relative motion are the determiningfactors in the outcome of this maneuver, particularly when theaircraft are equally matched.The lead-turn phase of the flat scissors begins at the attacker's reversaland ends when the defender reverses. The dynamics of this phase are

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 85essentially the same as for any lead turn, as previously detailed, and so arenot discussed further here. In general, as one fighter begins to gain anadvantage in the flat scissors the nose-to-nose phase will become shorterand the lead-turn portion will last longer. In this way the winning fighterbegins to get "in phase" with the defender's maneuvers, and eventually theattacker will not overshoot during the lead turn. This event will terminatethe scissors.For obvious reasons, the flat scissors is a very desirable maneuver forfighters that enjoy a low-speed turn-performance advantage (i.e., fighterswith lower wing loading, as explained in the Appendix). Less maneuverable,high-speed fighters should avoid this situation like the plague.The scissors is avoided by maintaining sufficient speed for vertical maneuveringand by simply refusing to engage in a co-planar nose-to-noseturn with a slower, better-turning opponent. If a pilot is trapped in such asituation, the sooner he recognizes his disadvantage, the better his chancesare for escape. If the defender has an energy advantage, he may be able topull up at the overshoot and gain separation in the vertical. Figure 2-18illustrates a means of disengaging in slow-speed situations.The initial conditions of this setup are the same as those in case 2 ofFigure 2-17. This time when the attacker reverses and overshoots at point"2," the defender does not reverse, but continues his hard right nose-to-tailturn until he regains sight of the attacker deep in the rear quarter at time"3." At this point the defender begins an extension maneuver to gain speedand separation, continuing to turn only enough to maintain sight. By time"4" the attacker is beginning to bring his nose around to point at thedefender. If the attacker is equipped with only guns or short-range missiles,the extension may already have created enough separation to exceed theattacker's maximum firing range. In this case the defender may continueFigure 2-18. Disengaging from a Flat Scissors

86 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERShis extension to escape, provided he can maintain a speed advantage. If theseparation is not sufficient (time "4"), the defender can begin a hard turnback toward the attacker to defend against a possible weapons firing. If heis placed out of firing parameters by this turn, the attacker may be expectedto use lead-, pure-, and lag-pursuit techniques to close the range andreattempt to get inside the defender's flight path. The defender's intentshould be to get his nose back on the attacker to take out any flight-pathseparation and to maximize the TCA at the next pass. This he accomplishesat point "7," meeting the attacker with close to a 180° TCA. Fromthis position the defender can engage from a neutral start, or he can repeathis extension maneuver, gain even more separation, and probably escape.Still another option exists for fighters that have a climb-rate advantageat slow speeds. This involves continuing the flat scissors, but simultaneouslyclimbing at a steeper and steeper angle. A lower-powered opponentwill not be able to match this climb angle and must remain in a morehorizontal maneuver plane. The defender's greater climb angle reduces theforward component of velocity relative to that of the attacker, possiblyleading to a position advantage for the high fighter, assuming speed differentialis small.Vertical and Oblique TurnsThe Appendix discusses gravity effects on turn performance. Gravityeffects are investigated here to determine how they may be used to advantagein air combat.Turn performance is dependent on radial acceleration (G R ), which is thevector sum of load factor and gravity. This vector sum is determined by theaircraft's roll and pitch attitude, as shown in the Appendix and in FiguresA-18 and A-19. At a given speed, turn performance is directly proportionalto GR, resulting in improved performance when the lift vector is below thehorizon, and vice versa. A further consideration is the orientation of the liftvector relative to the gravity (weight) vector. When these two vectorsremain in the same plane (i.e., during purely vertical maneuvering) thegravity effect is maximized, both positively and negatively, and the entirelift vector contributes to GR. From a purely geometrical viewpoint, theserelationships mean that for a 360° turn, the vertical plane maximizes turnperformance, while a horizontal turn produces the poorest average performance.Performance in oblique turns will vary between these twoextremes according to the steepness of the maneuver plane. In a purelyvertical maneuver the adverse effects of gravity on turn performancethrough the bottom half of the loop are offset by the gravity assist over thetop, while in a level turn the aircraft must fight gravity throughout.As a practical matter, however, this phenomenon is of much less importancethan average aircraft speed during the maneuver. Turn performance(both radius and rate) is optimized near corner speed; therefore, themaneuver plane that allows the fighter to remain closest to its corner speedfor the duration of the maneuver generally will optimize turn performance.If an aircraft is at or below its corner speed, a nose-low vertical oroblique turn may allow a power-limited fighter to remain near optimum

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 87speed for maximum performance. Conversely, a nose-high maneuvertends to reduce excess speed.Since many fighters are unable to maintain corner speed at maximum G(i.e., they are power limited under these conditions), nose-low spirals oftenmaximize turn performance for them. The optimum descent angle dependson many factors, even for the same aircraft with the same power.These factors include weight, configuration, and altitude; greater weight,increased drag, and higher altitude usually require steeper descents.The fighter pilot is concerned not only with optimizing absolute turnperformance, however, but also with his performance relative to that of hisopponent. Maximum performance is of little value if the aircraft is turningin the wrong direction. For instance, if a defender wishes only to maximizeAOT for an attacker in the rear hemisphere, the defender generally shouldturn toward the attacker in the plane of the attack, assuming his aircraft isphysically able to maneuver in this plane. This usually is accomplished inhigh-G situations by rolling to place the opponent near the verticallongitudinalplane (i.e., perpendicular to the wings) so that all the radialacceleration is working in the right direction. If both fighters are using thesame technique this results in co-planar maneuvering.Placement of the radial-acceleration vector, which for simplicity can becalled the lift vector, may be compared with placement of the velocityvector in performing lead, pure, or lag pursuit. Since these two vectorsdefine the maneuver plane, the velocity vector will follow where the liftvector pulls it. Placing the lift vector ahead of or behind the target inout-of-plane maneuvers is essentially lead or lag pursuit, respectively, andis used for the same reasons lead or lag pursuit are used, as demonstrated bythe lag displacement rolls and yo-yos.It has been shown that turn radius is important in many maneuvers,such as nose-to-nose turns. The fighter pilot is concerned primarily withthe projection of his radius in the maneuver plane of his opponent. Figure2-19 illustrates this principle.In this example the opposing fighters meet on opposite headings, andone (the defender) chooses to turn horizontally while the other (the attacker)pulls straight up vertically. At time "2" each has completed about90° of turn in its respective plane, and neither has any great advantage. Atthis point the attacker is in a near-vertical attitude and rolls to point his liftvector ahead of his opponent's position in a lead-pursuit maneuver, predictingthe bogey's future position across the circle. As the attacker peaksout at the top of his "pitch-back" maneuver, his nose is oriented toward apoint almost directly above the defender at time "3." Looking at the topview of this maneuver (i.e., looking straight down from above) reveals thatthe change of vertical maneuver planes in the nose-high pitch-back hasessentially had the effect of reducing the attacker's turn radius in thehorizontal plane, which is the plane of the opponent's maneuver. As withother nose-to-nose maneuvers, this smaller radius has given the attackerflight-path separation, this time both vertically and horizontally. He alsohas an angular advantage, largely because of his tighter horizontal turnradius and the nose-to-nose geometry.

88 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSFigure 2-19. Vertical versus Horizontal ManeuveringAt time "3" the attacker could pull down inverted to point at the targetfor a boresight, forward-hemisphere missile shot, if he is so equipped; but,as was explained, the look-down involved may not be optimum for missileseeker performance. In this case the attacker chooses to fly essentially astraight path along the top of his maneuver, accelerating to improve histurn capability. During this period his nose drifts into a lag position as thedefender passes underneath. At time "4" the attacker begins a pull-down,using the increased turn rate and decreased radius provided by the obliqueturngeometry and the gravity assist to gain a very advantageous offensiveposition in the defender's rear hemisphere at time "5."A lead-pursuit roll at time "2" usually results in a steeper dive andsomewhat greater potential angular advantage for the attacker than do thepure- or lag-pursuit options; but the cautions mentioned in the high yo-yoand barrel-roll attack discussions also apply here.The effects of vertical and oblique maneuvers on an aircraft's energystate can also influence the outcome of an engagement. Possibly the bestway to approach this concept is to determine the fighter's sustained-Gcapabilities (level, constant speed) at its given conditions of weight, power,configuration, and altitude. If a fighter is in a descending or climbingmaneuver, this same load factor cannot be exceeded without loss of energy.For instance, in a nose-low oblique turn the rate of descent is equivalentto negative specific excess power (P s ). (See the energy-maneuverabilitydiscussion in the Appendix for an explanation of P s .) If the pilotadjusts load factor to maintain constant speed, he is losing energy in

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 89proportion to his descent rate, but he is also increasing his turn rate. Inorder to maintain energy in such a maneuver he must reduce G andconstantly accelerate, which would result in approximately the same turnrate in this oblique maneuver plane that he could achieve in a level,constant-speed turn at his altitude. However, if speed is allowed to increaseto a value higher than that best for sustained maneuvering, allowableG for maintaining energy will decrease further. Likewise, even unloadeddives at speeds higher than maximum level airspeed may reducetotal energy, even if the aircraft continues to accelerate.Rolling ScissorsWhile a flat scissors often follows a slow-speed, horizontal overshoot, therolling scissors more often results from a high-speed overshoot or anovershoot resulting from a high-to-low attack. In this situation, the defenderpulls up to reduce both speed and the forward component of hisvelocity, further adding to the attacker's overshoot problems; then he rollstoward his opponent, continuing to pull the nose directly toward theattacker's constantly changing position. If the attacker continues to pulldirectly toward the defender, the fighters begin to develop twin spiralingflight paths as each performs barrel rolls around the other. Figure 2-20depicts this scenario.Here the attacking fighter (MiG-21) overshoots the defender (F-5E) withhigh TCA in a nose-down attitude at time "2." Recognizing the impendingovershoot, the defender rolls 90° away from the direction of the initialattack (quarter rolls away) and begins to pull up into the vertical. As theovershoot occurs the defender rolls to keep his lift vector pointed towardFigure 2-20. Rolling Scissors

90 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSthe bogey and continues to pull to maximize the overshoot. Simultaneouslythe attacker is rolling to keep his lift vector on the defender in anattempt to point at his target. The defender's reduced airspeed and highernose attitude approaching time "3" provide what appears to be a muchimprovedposition at time "4," well above and slightly behind his opponent.The fighters continue to pull toward each other, with the MiGnose-high and the F-5E nose-low until point "5." At this time the advantageappears to have reversed. As long as the scissors is fairly neutral, thefighter at the top of its rolling maneuver will appear to have a positionadvantage but will lose it again on the bottom.Success in this maneuver, as in most others, depends on both relativeaircraft performance and pilot technique. Unlike the flat scissors, therolling variety is not a contest determined by which fighter can fly slower.Although the forward component of velocity is still the deciding factor, thehelix angle (i.e., the steepness of the climbs and dives) usually has moreimpact on this velocity component than does absolute speed, assumingspeed differentials are not excessive. The rolling scissors is, therefore, acontest of energy management, a trade-off of airspeed and position inwhich slow-speed sustained turn performance is a critical factor, withslow-speed acceleration and controllability also very important. Figure2-21 illustrates the techniques involved in winning the rolling scissors.The initial setup in this scenario is the same as that in the last example.Both aircraft have about equal energy and performance, and the MiG (theFigure 2-21. Rolling-Scissors Technique

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 91attacker) will use the same tactics as before—that is, continuously pullingtoward the defender. But this time, rather than rolling toward the attackerbetween times "2" and "3," the defender continues to pull straight up intothe vertical. Once vertical, this fighter rolls quickly, placing its lift vectorahead of the attacker's position (lead pursuit), just as shown in Figure 2-19.Unlike the example in Figure 2-19, however, the opponent (i.e., the attacker)here is not restricted to horizontal maneuvering, and so he pulls upobliquely toward the high fighter, reducing the flight-path separationgenerated by the vertical maneuver of the defender.The direction chosen by the defender to stop his roll at time "3" iscalculated so that the inverted, wings-level pull-down will place him atpoint "4," the peak of the maneuver, with his nose aimed at a point almostdirectly above the bogey's predicted position at that time. Again returningto Figure 2-19, this situation is analogous to time "3" in that example. Thehorizontal depictions (i.e., top views) of both these examples show thateach is essentially a nose-to-nose maneuver to this point. The highfighter's vertical move has created vertical separation, and pointing itsnose directly at the opponent (as viewed from above) as quickly as possiblehas maximized its angular advantage. The next phase of the high fighter'smaneuver will be designed to take advantage of its separation, by use ofnose-to-tail geometry and a gravity assist, and to convert to the greatestposition advantage.In Figure 2-21, the F-5E passes directly over the MiG at time "4" andpulls down vertically into the MiG's rear hemisphere. This maneuvercauses the MiG pilot to reverse his turn, rolling to the left in order to keephis lift vector on the high fighter and also to help maintain sight. Theserequirements deny him the opportunity to go purely vertical, and he isforced to keep his flight path in an oblique plane, which increases hisforward speed across the ground relative to that of his opponent.The important thing in [tactics] is to suppress the enemy's useful actions butallow his useless actions. However, doing this alone is defensive.Miyamoto Musashi (1584-1645)Japanese Samurai and PhilosopherMore Than 60 Victories in Hand-to-Hand CombatBy selecting a lead roll at time "3" and maintaining a constant maneuverplane until time "5," the high fighter has in effect "averaged out" theopponent's position during that time. Lead pursuit is being employedduring the first half of the inverted pull-down, and lag pursuit resultsduring the last half, which has nearly the same effect as pure pursuit (i.e.,keeping the lift vector on the bogey) throughout the pull-down. Thistechnique maximizes the angular gain as well as the energy efficiency ofthe high fighter.Approaching position "5," the F-5E pilot determines that insufficientseparation has been generated to avoid an overshoot. Therefore, in a purelyvertical dive, he performs another lead roll and pulls wings-level throughthe bottom of his maneuver, passing as closely as possible behind thebogey. This portion of the maneuver is analogous to the reversal and

92 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSsubsequent overshoot described in the flat scissors. The more aggressivethe lead roll at time "5," the smaller the high fighter's nose-tail separationand TCA will be at the overshoot. If this lead is overdone, it is possible tosquirt out in front of the bogey at the overshoot and lose the offensive. Ifinsufficient lead is taken, the high fighter will pass well behind the MiG atthe bottom of the maneuver, giving away valuable separation that theopponent can use to turn around and bring his nose to bear as the F-5Eapproaches the top of its next vertical move.An extremely important further consideration in this phase is the highfighter's airspeed as he begins his pull-out. Since another vertical move isplanned after the impending overshoot, the pilot must ensure adequateairspeed at the bottom of the loop to enable him to complete the maneuverwith good control over the top. This airspeed should be gained as quickly aspossible in an unloaded dive at about time "5." The pull-out can begin asthe required airspeed is approached, using a load factor near sustained-Gcapability for that particular airspeed/altitude condition. With twofighters closely matched in energy performance this will usually result inthe diving fighter bottoming out below the altitude of its opponent at theovershoot. This situation is acceptable as long as the altitude differential isnot so great as to allow the bogey to pull down for a gun snapshot as thediving fighter passes underneath. On the other hand, it is not advantageousfor the pilot of the diving fighter to delay the pull-out after reaching hisdesired speed, since it is preferable to pass above the bogey if possible.After the overshoot the F-5E continues to pull to the pure vertical attime "6" and rolls as before to aim at a point calculated to be directly abovehis opponent's position when the F-5E reaches the top of the loop. Pullingover the top of each vertical maneuver it is important that the pilot of thehigh fighter not hesitate or "float" in an unloaded condition, but continueto apply G to get his nose back down expeditiously. Any delay coming overthe top allows the bogey time to get its nose higher, slowing its forwardvelocity and also reducing flight-path separation. The proper amount of Gto be used across the top of each loop is generally small (in the range of 1 to2 Gs), since most fighters will be slow and unable to pull much more at thispoint. (If the fighter is not slow on top, excessive speed was probablyattained in the preceding pull-out.) Added to the 1 G of gravity, however,this load factor can produce substantial turn performance at slow speeds.Maximum-attainable G should be used over the top of each loop, unlike inthe bottom of the maneuver, when sustained-G levels are appropriate.One further note about coming over the top of the loop: It is notnecessary for the attacker to cross over the bogey's flight path at this point(as shown in Figure 2-21) for the rolling scissors to work. Depending onhow hard the bogey turns, it may be necessary to delay the pull-down inorder to ensure crossing its flight path. This is not advantageous, as anydelay reduces subsequent advantage. In this situation it is better to pulldown inside the opponent's horizontal flight path, as illustrated in Figure2-19. Unless it is determined that an overshoot can be avoided at thebottom of the maneuver, however, care should be taken to ensure that thepull-down is continued to a vertical attitude.

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 93At position "7" in this example the high fighter has the necessaryseparation to avoid another overshoot, so rather than the lead roll andwings-level pull-out as before, it performs a rolling pull-out to arrive at anoffensive lag-pursuit position at time "8."In case things do not work out quite as smoothly as he would wish, thedefender (in the F-5E) may wish to disengage from the rolling scissors andexit the fight. The time to make this decision is during the pull-down tothe vertical dives, positions "5" and "7" in this example. If things do notlook rosy at such times, the pilot of the high fighter should modify hispull-out to minimize separation and maximize TCA at the next pass.Ideally he would like to pass directly over the bogey on an exactly oppositeheading (180° TCA) and dive away in an extension as described in Figure2-18.To get ability you need good training.Colonel Erich "Bubi" Hartmann, GAPTo recap, the most efficient technique in the rolling scissors limits allturning to vertical planes (i.e., wings-level pull-ups and pull-downs) untilpurely vertical attitudes are reached. All heading changes (horizontalturns) are performed by rolling in the vertical attitude. Lead rolls arenormally employed in both the climbs and the dives. Max-G should beused over the top of each loop, and sustained-G levels are maintained alongthe bottom. Speed control is very important, particularly in the pull-out.Returning to Figure 2-21 for a moment, consider that the condition thatprecipitated the rolling scissors, and the eventual loss of the offensive forthe attacker, was the overshoot that occurred between times "I" and "2."If the attacker had recognized the situation earlier he could have rolled hiswings level (performed a quarter roll) at time "1," pulled up vertically tominimize his overshoot (as with the high yo-yo), and probably retained theoffensive even if a rolling scissors had resulted.When both fighters are fairly evenly matched in performance and usethe tactics outlined here, the rolling scissors often evolves into a co-planartail-chase in the vertical plane. The same techniques still apply, exceptthat no rolls are required. The successful pilot must control speed, modulateload factor with airspeed for best sustained performance, and pulllead (i.e., use max-G) across the top of the loop and lag (use sustained G)along the bottom.The most important thing for a fighter pilot is to get his first victory withouttoo much shock.Colonel Werner Moelders, Luftwaffe115 Victories, WW-II and Spanish Civil WarDefensive SpiralThe defensive spiral is essentially a very tight rolling scissors goingstraight down. It quite often results when one fighter has achieved aclose-in, rear-hemisphere position against a slow-speed opponent. Figure2-22 depicts an example of this maneuver.In order to generate some AOT to spoil a guns-tracking solution, the

94 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSFigure 2-22. Defensive Spiral

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 95slow-speed defender may roll nearly inverted and pull down sharply, usinghis gravity assist. To maintain his lead for a gun shot, the attacker followsthe target into the nose-low spiral, as shown at time "2." At this time bothfighters have rolled to place their lift vectors on the other, and they haveentered a vertical, descending rolling scissors or defensive spiral. Therolling maneuver is quite effective for spoiling guns-tracking solutions,since the maneuver plane is constantly changing, but obviously there is avery real limit to the duration of this tactic—that is, terra firma.As with the rolling scissors, success in the defensive spiral dependslargely on forward, or in this case downward, velocity. The descent rate isthe product of airspeed and steepness of the dive. The typically close rangeat which this maneuver is performed requires the fighters to roll rapidly tokeep the opponent in sight, above the plane of the wings. This continuousroll tends to keep the lift vector horizontal, preventing a pull-out andprolonging the steep descent angle.Most aircraft tend to accelerate rather rapidly when commencing a diveat a slow airspeed. With the two fighters approximately co-speed in thespiral, it is the relative acceleration that will change nose-tail separation.Minimum acceleration is the desirable factor, so idle power, speed brakes,reverse thrust, drag chutes, or almost any action that reduces forwardthrust and increases drag is appropriate. At slow speeds, the largest componentof maximum total drag is usually induced drag, which is generallymaximized by maintaining the highest controllable angle of attack. (Seethe Appendix for a discussion of aerodynamic drag.) Normally any configurationthat increases maximum lift at a given airspeed, such as extendedflaps and slats, also increases induced drag. One exception to thisrule may be fighters with swing-wing designs. Although maximum lift isusually attained with wings spread for the greatest wing span, this configurationalso tends to make the wing more efficient from a lift-to-dragstandpoint, and induced drag may be reduced under these conditions.Returning to the example in Figure 2-22, the defender has reduced hisacceleration to a minimum, allowing the attacker's increasingly greaterspeed to reduce altitude separation to zero (time "3"} ; he will be flushedout below by time "4." At this point the original defender is back in thedriver's seat and can modulate his power and configuration as necessary tostabilize and maintain the desired nose-tail separation while holding hisposition in the spiral, waiting for the bogey to begin a pull-out. When thisoccurs the low fighter should present an excellent, stabilized gunstrackingtarget. Likewise, "4" would also be a good time for the high fighterto exit the fight if he desires. He can roll to place his lift vector on thebogey, initiate a pull-out, generate maximum TCA crossing over thebogey, and extend for separation.This decelerating tactic (actually minimum acceleration) can be particularlyeffective for fighters that are able to generate a great amount ofinduced drag, as well as for those that are equipped for reverse thrust. Onecaution is required, however. If the decision is made to press the offensivegained by this technique, the high fighter had better not miss his firingopportunity as the bogey performs a pull-out, since the lower fighter

BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERS 97When it is performed properly, the defensive spiral may offer a hardpresseddefender an escape opportunity or even a temporary close-in gunshot. Unless the attacker loses sight or blunders badly, however, it isunlikely that this maneuver would produce a good missile-firing opportunityor result in a lasting offensive position for the defender.If one of the fighters stops its rolling maneuver at any point and begins awings-level pull-out, the defensive spiral has ended, and deceleration tacticsare no longer appropriate. The first fighter to commence a pull-outoffers his opponent the opportunity to continue the spiral to a rearhemisphereor belly-side position and probably will lose sight temporarily.If the opponent has generated a vertical advantage at this point and is gunequipped, he may have a shot opportunity. Otherwise, it is probablyprudent for the opponent to use this chance for escape. Escape may beexecuted by rolling for the bogey's blind spot, then pulling-out directlyaway from the bogey at full power and max-lift conditions. If the bogey ismissile equipped, it probably will be necessary for the escaping opponentto turn slightly back toward the bogey after reaching an approximatelylevel attitude in order to reacquire it visually and watch for a possiblemissile launch during the extension maneuver.As long as the spiral is fairly even, exiting the maneuver usually can beaccomplished by simply leveling the wings and pulling-out at max-powerand max-lift AOA. The first fighter to attempt this exit from a neutralposition should bottom-out above an opponent with similar performanceand should have greater energy. Although the opponent will probably be inthe rear hemisphere, it will take him some time to get his nose back up fora gun shot, if, indeed, he has sufficient energy to accomplish this at all.This delay is often enough for the higher fighter to extend beyond effectiveguns range or to position offensively above the lower-energy opponent.Extending from a missile-equipped bogey, however, may be hazardous.You fight like you train.Motto, U.S. Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN)Notes1. Gordon Nelson et al., eds., Air War: Vietnam, p. 245.2. Robert S. Johnson, Thunderbolt! p. 191.

96 BASIC FIGHTER MANEUVERSusually will complete its level-off with superior energy, which then maybe used to regain the advantage.As the defensive spiral progresses, most fighters tend to accelerate tosome degree. If maximum-controllable AOA is maintained, this increasedspeed will result in greater load factor and turn-rate capability (belowcorner speed). At steep dive angles, most of the heading change required tokeep the opponent in sight above the plane of the wings is accomplished byroll rate. Greater speed allows more of this heading change to be achievedby turn rate and results in gradually reducing dive angles with increasingairspeed. Although further increases in airspeed would reduce the diveangle even more, at angles steeper than about 40° the added speed usuallymore than offsets the reduced dive angle attained, resulting in greaterdescent rate. If, as a result of aerodynamic design, one fighter can maintainan equal or slower speed than its opponent while still generating greaterturn rate, it will have a shallower dive angle and a reduced descent rate.Should dive angle decrease to less than about 30°, it will become thedominant factor in descent rate. In this case, maximum power, minimumdrag, and maximum-lift configuration should be used to improve turn rate,shallowing the dive angle and reducing descent rate. If speed ever increasesto above corner velocity in the spiral, deceleration is in order regardless ofdescent angle.Returning for a moment to the beginning of this maneuver, success inthe defensive spiral rests largely in the ability to induce the opponent intofollowing the initial nose-down move. This reaction is likely if the attackeris attempting to achieve a guns-tracking solution on the defender bymatching his bank angle at position "I" in Figure 2-22. The defensivespiral can, therefore, be a very effective guns-defense tactic, but it maysubject the defender to a close-range snapshot as the spiral begins. Thedefender should generally enter the spiral by rolling just fast enough to stayahead of the attacker's bank angle. As the attacker attempts to match thetarget's attitude, he suddenly finds himself in the spiral at position "2,"with the defender already having begun deceleration tactics. By easing intothe maneuver in this manner, the defender may avoid "scaring off" theattacker. A snap roll into the spiral immediately informs the attacker ofthe defender's intentions, allowing the attacker to counter effectively bydelaying his pull-down. Although this technique (i.e., a snap roll) wouldremove the target from immediate guns-tracking danger and temporarilyincrease nose-tail separation, it would leave the defender open to a rearquartermissile shot, probably cause loss of visual with the attacker, andusually allow the attacker to maintain the offensive.One of the most effective counters to the defensive spiral, when it isrecognized early, is for the attacker to continue his level turn at time " 1" topass directly over the target's position and then begin the pull-down. Thistactic makes it extremely difficult for the defender to maintain sight, andgenerates enough separation to preclude immediate loss of the offensive bya vertical overshoot.Success flourishes only in perserverance—ceaseless, restless perserverance.Baron Manfred von Richthofen

3One-versus-OneManeuvering,Similar AircraftFight to fly, fly to fight, fight to win.Motto, U.S. Navy Fighter Weapons School (TOPGUN)For purposes of this work, similar aircraft denotes fighters having essentiallyequal performance capabilities in all areas. Because of the humaninfluence on the performance of manned fighters, similar aircraft are notnecessarily exactly equivalent in performance, since on any given day,even with the same pilot, an aircraft is unlikely to duplicate consistently agiven maneuver so that all parameters are within tolerances much closerthan 5 or 10 percent. For this reason it is logical to consider performancewithin 10 percent to be similar in most cases. However, considering themultitude of possible design variations and the influences of each variationon the many performance parameters, obtaining similarity in allperformance areas almost requires that the aircraft be of the same type.Even among fighters of the same type, fuel loads and ordnance loads andconfigurations can alter weight and drag enough to create performancevariations well in excess of 10 percent.In most cases combat endurance plays an important role in the significanceof performance variations. The longer the combat endurance of theopposing fighters, the more telling a small performance differential can be.Available combat time for many modern fighters is on the order of fiveminutes or even less, so larger performance variations may be consideredwithin the bounds of similarity.In the present world, which contains a limited number of large armsexporters and constantly shifting political loyalties, combat between similarfighters is very likely. The fact is, performance similarity enhances theimportance of soundly conceived and executed tactics for a quick anddecisive victory. For this reason alone the study of ACM between similaraircraft is exceedingly valuable.In this, and in most of the following chapters, the discussion of ACM

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 99does not consider external environmental factors that may affect tacticaldecisions. In this "sterile" environment there is no concern for weather,ECM, additional unseen hostile aircraft, groundflre, or anything else thatcan force profound tactical changes. Except as noted, the effects of suchrealistic factors are covered in other chapters.Likewise, there is obviously an infinite number of possible startingconditions for any ACM engagement. Limitations in the scope of this workrequire that essentially one initial setup—a roughly neutral, co-energy,forward-quarter approach scenario—be covered in detail. The tactics recommendedin this chapter and in following chapters cannot be optimizedfor every conceivable air combat scenario, but they are selected to present abroad range of tactical concepts and principles which may be appliedeffectively in many commonly encountered situations. This is not toimply that other techniques might not be superior in some cases; but themethods presented here are based on sound tactical principles and shouldbe quite effective within the limitations imposed. Caution: Even minordeviations from the stated assumptions may invalidate an entire tacticalconcept.In deriving tactics for use against a similar aircraft, two basic approachesare available: the "angles" fight and the "energy" fight. These labels referto the first obiective of the engagement. In the angles fight the tacticianfirst seeks to gain a position advantage (angles), even at the expense ofrelative energy, and then he attempts to maintain or improve on thisadvantage until he achieves his required firing parameters. The purpose ofthe energy fight is to gain an energy advantage over the opponent while notyielding a decisive position advantage. Once a sufficient energy advantagehas been attained, it must be converted to a lethal position advantage,usually without surrendering the entire energy margin. In the case ofsimilar aircraft, each of these tactical theories has benefits and drawbacks,depending in large measure on the weapons involved. Therefore bothangles fights and energy fights are discussed.The guy who wins is the guy who makes the fewer gross mistakes.Lieutenant Jim "Huck" Harris, USNU.S. Navy Fighter Weapons School InstructorGuns OnlyAs long as a fighter has altitude and flying speed for maneuvering, and itspilot has reasonable tactical knowledge, awareness of his situation, andthe will to survive, the pilot can deny a guns-tracking solution to anadversary in a similar aircraft. For this reason it is usually more practical tomaneuver for the snapshot envelope; then if the opponent makes a mistake,a tracking opportunity still may be available. A reasonable snapshotenvelope, as described in Chapter 1, is located in the target's rear hemisphereat close range, requires excess lead, and is enhanced by the attackermaneuvering in the same plane as the target. Attaining this envelope is theultimate goal of the tactics described in this section.

100 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTEverything I had ever learned about air fighting taught me that the man whois aggressive, who pushes a fight, is the pilot who is successful in combat andwho has the best opportunity for surviving battle and coming home.Major Robert S. Johnson, USAAFThe Angles FightIn attempting to gain a position advantage against a similar adversary, theangles tactician has essentially two choices: He can turn harder or he canturn smarter. Although the primary objective for the angles fighter is toachieve a position advantage, energy considerations cannot be ignoredwith impunity. An angles fighter that races around the sky with its pilotpulling on the pole as hard as he can normally will lose energy in theprocess. Since potential energy (altitude) is limited, this energy loss eventuallywill mean loss of speed. If the angles fighter becomes too slow, itsmaneuverability suffers, so that eventually it reaches a point where it hasinsufficient performance remaining to gain further position advantage, oreven to maintain previous gains. The prudent angles tactician must, therefore,achieve his angular gains as efficiently as possible, so that he candefeat his opponent before his own aircraft reaches the point of criticalmaneuverability loss.In nearly all cases where machines have been downed, it was during a fightwhich had been very short, and the successful burst of fire had occurredwithin the space of a minute after the beginning of actual hostilities.Lt. Colonel W. A. "Billy" Bishop, RAFIn the last chapter two types of turns were defined: nose-to-tail andnose-to-nose. The discussion there brought out the fact that gaining advantagein nose-to-tail turns requires excess turn rate, while reduced turnradius and slower speed bring success in the nose-to-nose case. Sincesustained turn radius is usually more sensitive to speed reduction than issustained turn rate (see the Appendix discussion of sustained turn performance),nose-to-nose turns generally provide the greatest angular gainper knot of speed loss. In other words, nose-to-nose geometry is moreenergy efficient. For this reason, the angles tactics recommended here arebased primarily on the nose-to-nose turn.Fly with the head and not with the muscles. That is the way to long life for afighter pilot. The fighter pilot who is all muscle and no head will never livelong enough for a pension.Colonel Willie Batz, GAP237 Victories, WW-IIBesides direction of turn, another consideration of the angles fight is planeof turn. Earlier discussions showed how oblique turns reduce a fighter'shorizontal turn radius, so, assuming the opponent turns level, the anglesfighter can use oblique turns to increase angular gains during nose-to-nosemaneuvering. Now this leaves the question, "Should the oblique turn bemade nose-high or nose-low?" When two similar fighters meet nearly

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 101head-on, the maximum separation that will result from a subsequentimmediate nose-to-nose turn is about one turn diameter. As pointed out inthe last chapter, at this range turn radius is the primary factor in gaining anangular advantage. Turn radius is minimized, as a rule, by pulling max-Gat or below corner speed. Most fighters, however, will decelerate rapidlyduring such a maneuver, causing the angles fighter to lose excessive energybefore a similar opponent can be dispatched with a rear-hemisphereweapon. Allowing the opponent too great an energy advantage can spell bigtrouble (this is discussed later in this chapter).One answer to this dilemma is to turn nose-low, trading altitude forangles, rather than bleeding excessive airspeed. Figure 3-1 shows how thismight work. At time "1" the two fighters approach head-on at roughlyequal altitude and speed. Since energy nearly always seems to be a veryprecious and hard-to-get commodity during an engagement, both pilotsshould be trying to grab all they can at this point. The angles tactician hasset his best energy-rate climb speed, and he is climbing with full power atthat speed to gain energy (altitude) as quickly as possible. (See the discussionof climb performance in the Appendix.) Since the angles tacticianwould like to engage at corner speed, however, and he is currently faster, hestarts a zoom climb at time "1." This zoom reduces airspeed withoutincurring a loss of total energy, and it also generates vertical flight-pathseparation, which will be useful for a lead turn.This zoom-climb tactic is appropriate for most jet fighters at medium tolow altitudes, since best climb speed normally exceeds corner speed underthese conditions. Prop fighters and subsonic jets at high altitudes, how-Figure 3-1. Guns-Only Angles Fight: First Phase

102 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTever, usually climb best at speeds below the corner. If this is the case, theangles fighter should accelerate to corner speed, or as close to it as possible,and climb at that speed, even at a reduced rate. When there is no airspeed inexcess of corner velocity to dissipate approaching the first pass, the zoomclimb is unnecessary.The angles tactician levels off when he reaches corner speed and turnshard right at time "2" to build additional flight-path separation laterally.As the bogey approaches, the angles fighter pilot reverses his turn andbegins an aggressive, nose-low lead turn on the opponent. The objects ofthis initial turn are to force the bogey pilot's reaction, put him in adefensive frame of mind immediately, and generally see what he's made of.In this case the opponent is made of "the right stuff," because he counterswith a hard turn of his own up toward the attack, taking away all theflight-path separation with a close pass at time "3."A good fighter pilot must have one outstanding trait—aggressiveness.Major John T. Godfrey, USAAFIf he is able to grab substantial angles on the first pass, the anglestactician should take advantage of the gift and continue his nose-low leftturn in the nose-to-tail direction. In this case, however, the pilot reversesto set up a nose-to-nose condition. He should still be very near cornerspeed, and immediately after the reversal he pulls max-G in his nose-lowright turn to minimize turn radius. The nose-low turn reduces decelerationat high G and also adds a little benefit from out-of-plane geometry.This max-G turn is normally performed with the lift vector pointed at, orslightly below, the bogey, causing the angles fighter to descend somewhatbelow the bogey's altitude while maintaining enough airspeed for verticalmaneuvering. After a few seconds of this, the G is relaxed a little and thenose is started back up toward a level attitude; the maneuver is timed sothat the angles fighter can be climbing up toward the bogey at the nextpass.The initial maximum-performance turn after the reversal (time "3")should place the angles fighter inside the turn radius of a bogey turning in anearly level plane. Another reversal and a lead turn approaching the nextpass (time "4") should convert the resulting flight-path separation intoangular advantage. After the initial portion of the nose-to-nose turn,however, G should be relaxed to allow the angles fighter to regain some ofits lost altitude and conserve airspeed. As a rule of thumb, the guns-onlyangles fighter should stay within about one-quarter of a turn radius orone-half of an effective guns range, whichever is less, of the bogey's altitude,and its pilot should not allow airspeed to decrease below that requiredto get the nose up purely vertical if necessary. These precautionsadd a measure of safety to angles tactics and still should enable the fighterto gain between 20° and 30° on a similar opponent on the first turn. Theangles tactician cannot afford to get too greedy when he is facing a wellflownopponent in a similar aircraft.Throughout this angles-tactics sequence, except for possibly the initialpass at time "3," the angles fighter should meet the bogey from below

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 103coming up at each pass. This tactic encourages the opponent to turnnose-low in response, which allows the angles fighter to continue noselowon the following turn without losing so much altitude relative to thebogey. Attacking from below also discourages the bogey pilot from makinga steep pull-up prior to the pass to make use of his excess energy, since sucha pull-up would, at least temporarily, increase the attacker's angularadvantage. In addition, overshooting the bogey's flight path from low tohigh is considerably less dangerous than overshooting from above, whichinvites the opponent to initiate a rolling scissors. Since the bogey willprobably have an energy advantage after the first pass, the angles tacticianshould avoid participating in a rolling scissors. If the defender pulls upsharply at an overshoot and the angles fighter pilot judges he cannot get hisaircraft's nose on the bogey quickly for a gun shot, a diving extension iscalled for to gain separation for an escape or a return under more favorablecircumstances.Passing the bogey at time "4" with a good bite may offer the attacker aforward-quarter gun snapshot opportunity, which he should take. Beingshot at places the opponent more deeply on the psychological defensiveand should force a defensive reaction, which will bleed his aircraft's energyand possibly give the angles fighter greater advantage. The shooter mayeven get lucky and score some hits. An angular advantage at the pass alsowill likely cause the defender to lose sight temporarily as the angles fighterovershoots at six o'clock and flies toward the bogey's belly-side. In thissituation there is a very strong tendency for the bogey pilot to reverse histurn direction to regain sight, which is exactly what the angles tacticianwould like. Such a reversal reinitiates a nose-to-nose condition in whichthe tighter turn radius and slower speed of the angles fighter should bringfurther gains at the next pass.If the bogey does not reverse at time "4," the angles fighter pilot shouldcontinue to press his advantage in the nose-to-tail direction, using alternatelow and high yo-yos (Figures 2-7 and 2-6) to make repeated low-tohighgun passes on the bogey, while making small angular gains on eachpass. If this sequence continues, the attacker should eventually eitherscore hits or force the defender into a reversal or zoom climb.Once at the enemy, you should not aspire just to strike him, but to cling afterthe attack.Miyamoto MusashiIn Figure 3-2 (a continuation of the engagement begun in Figure 3-1), thebogey reverses and zooms at time "4" in a climbing oblique right turn. Theangles fighter also pulls up sharply inside the opponent's turn andthreatens a gun shot as the defender tops out at time "5." Because theangles fighter normally has less energy, it probably will not be able to reachthe defender's altitude at time "5," but all that is required for a gun shot isthat the shooter draw within effective guns range with lead. Withoutsufficient energy to zoom out of range, the bogey is forced into a defensivepull back down toward the attacker. Figure 3-3 shows the end-game of thisengagement.

104 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTFigure 3-2. Guns-Only Angles Fight: Mid-GameFrom his position of advantage below and behind the bogey, the anglestactician at this point puts everything he's got into a lead turn to positionfor a snapshot as the target dives by at point-blank range and too slow todefend against the shot, time "6." An in-plane, "blind" lead turn is mosteffective for this purpose, but, as discussed previously, this tactic takesmuch practice and can be risky. Normally little is lost by turning slightlyout-of-plane so that the target can be kept in view over one side of theangles fighter's nose.In the situation just described at time "6," the bogey should soon be coldmeat. If the shot is missed, however, the situation could change ratherrapidly. The angles fighter most likely will overshoot vertically at a lowerenergy level than that of the bogey. This may allow the bogey to escape orto force a rolling scissors, which would be to its advantage. Although thereis probably not much that can be done at this point to prevent the bogey'sescape, the angles tactician does need to be wary of the rolling scissors. Atmin-range he should perform a quarter roll away from the bogey andcontinue his pull-out. After safe separation has been gained, he can eitherreengage on neutral terms or escape.There's no kill like a guns kill.Lt. Commander Joe "Hoser" Satrapa, USNGunnery InstructorThe Energy FightThis tactic involves building an energy advantage and then converting thatenergy to a snapshot position. Figure 2-15 depicts one method by which anenergy advantage may be used to generate vertical separation and a possi-

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 105Figure 3-3. Guns-Only Angles Fight: End-Gameble firing opportunity. Against a similar adversary, however, it may bedifficult for the energy tactician to gain enough energy margin over hisopponent to avoid being menaced at the top of a zoom climb.The rolling scissors (also described in Chapter 2) provides another,probably more practical, tactic by which an energy advantage can result inmultiple firing opportunities and disengagement opportunities whileenabling the energy fighter to remain on the offensive throughout. Becauseof these advantages, the rolling scissors, as depicted in Figure 2-21, will bethe end-game goal of this section. Given a reasonable initial energy advantageand good technique, the rolling scissors should result in a snapshotopportunity against a similar fighter within one or two turns. These firingopportunities are ordinarily achieved at the bottom of the vertical maneuvers,but before he initiates such a guns pass it is important that thepilot of the energy fighter attain the speed his aircraft requires for verticalmaneuvering. This ensures the ability to continue the rolling scissors,retain the offensive, and generate further shot opportunities if the first shotis unsuccessful.The outcome of the rolling scissors with similar fighters is highlydependent on relative energy states at initiation of the maneuver. Figure3-4 illustrates a method by which the energy tactician can ensure that hehas an energy advantage over his opponent before the two fighters beginthe scissors. Prior to time "1" the fighters are in a forward-quarterapproach situation. A fancy radar may allow some insight into the oppo-

106 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTPigure 3-4. Energy Fight: First Phasenent's speed during this period. As with the angles fight, the energytactician should not be satisfied with a neutral start. Flight-path separationshould be generated prior to the pass for a lead turn, as described in Figure3-1. In this case, however, the energy fighter pilot is not looking for cornerspeed at the pass, so the break-aw ay and lead turn will probably be made ina level plane. The energy tactician should also avoid bleeding airspeedduring this maneuver to below best sustained-turn-rate speed or verticalmaneuveringspeed, whichever is greater. The lead turn, therefore, maynot be quite as aggressive as it is with angles tactics. If the bogey allows theenergy fighter a good bite on the first pass, the lead turn should be continuedin the same direction to press the advantage. The pilot of the energyfighter might consider making the transition to angles tactics in this case,since these methods are usually more effective against a nonaggressiveopponent. In this example, however, it is assumed that the bogey turnsinto the fighter's attack, taking away all flight-path separation and generatinga neutral pass at time "1."Aggressiveness was fundamental to success in air-to-air combat and if youever caught a fighter pilot in a defensive mood you had him licked before youstarted shooting.Captain David McCampbell, USNLeading U.S. Navy Ace, WW-II34 Victories (9 on One Mission)After determining the bogey's turn direction at the pass, this energyfighter pilot begins a level, sustained turn in the nose-to-nose direction. Ifspeed is greater than that required for vertical-maneuvering potential, theinitial turn should be at max-G, and then G should be relaxed to maintainvertical-maneuvering speed. Since the energy tactician plans to maneuverhorizontally, any vertical separation he may allow (up to about a quarter ofa turn radius) at the pass is of little value to the bogey, so if the energyfighter can gain an altitude advantage at the first pass, this height should bemaintained.Once the series of nose-to-nose turns commences, the energy fighter

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 107pilot should monitor his adversary's turn performance carefully, using hisown performance as a standard. By maintaining the slowest possible speedconsistent with vertical-maneuvering potential, the energy fighter willkeep its turn radius tight, minimizing any angular advantage that thebogey may gain in the nose-to-nose turns. Even if the bogey is faster, it maystill be able to gain a good bite on the energy fighter during the first turn byusing max-G; but further significant improvement in the bogey's positionduring successive nose-to-nose turns will require its pilot to reduce thebogey's airspeed to below that of the energy fighter.Once the bogey has gained a position advantage by pulling high G in thenose-to-nose turn, there is a very strong temptation for its pilot to continuethis tactic to increase his advantage, resulting in rapid deceleration. Theenergy tactician can monitor this process by noting the bogey's angularadvantage at each pass. In general, the larger the bogey's angular positiongain at each pass, the greater the speed differential between the fighterswill be. Large bogey gains (20° to 30°) indicate a substantial speed advantagefor the energy fighter. Smaller angular gains (10° or less), however,could mean only minimal speed differential. In this case the adversary isdisplaying sound tactical judgment, hoping eventually to achieve a snapshotposition or to force the energy fiighter up with only a small energyadvantage, as described in the angles-fight discussion. In such a case thepilot of the energy fighter might consider exiting the fight by use of anose-to-tail type extension (Figure 2-18) before his opponent has gained toogreat a position advantage. It doesn't pay to pick on the "Red Baron."The smallest amount of vanity is fatal in aeroplane fighting. Self-distrustrather is the quality to which many a pilot owes his protracted existence.Captain Edward V. "Eddie" Rickenbacker, USASLeading U.S. Ace, WW-I26 VictoriesAssessment of the opponent's angular advantage is a matter of comparingrelative nose positions. The easiest time to do this is when the bogey ispointed at the energy fighter. At this time the angle off the bogey's nose(AON) is zero, and its angular advantage is equal to the energy fighter'sAON. So if, after the first nose-to-nose turn, the pilot of the energy fighterlooks at his one o'clock or eleven o'clock position and sees the bogey's nosepointed directly at him, the opponent has about a 30° advantage. Theenergy tactician should continue to turn toward his opponent (althoughnot precisely in-plane while the bogey has sufficient snapshot lead) untilthe bogey approaches the six o'clock region. An earlier reversal gives awayflight-path separation, resulting in an increased angular gain for the bogeyon the next pass without attendant speed reduction.Assuming the bogey is improving its position rapidly with each turn,the pilot of the energy fighter should continue the nose-to-nose processuntil his opponent achieves between 60° and 90° of angular advantage, afterwhich time a wings-level pull-up is initiated as the bogey crosses behindthe energy fighter. If the bogey continues in a fairly level maneuver, theenergy tactician then can force a rolling scissors with advantage, since his

108 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTadversary should be well below vertical-maneuvering speed. If the bogeypulls sharply up in response, the energy fighter pilot should continue azoom climb. In this case his greater energy should allow him to top outhigher than his opponent, providing vertical separation for an attack as thebogey pilot is forced to level off or to dive (Figure 2-15).When your opponent lunges at you . . . feign weakness. When the opponenthas come in quite close, suddenly increase the distance by backing . . . away.Come in forcibly . . . and win as the opponent shows signs of slacking.Miyamoto MusashiA nose-to-nose turn series was described here because this maneuvermakes it easier to keep sight of the opponent. Particularly as the bogeygains more angular advantage, nose-to-tail turns can result in lengthyblind periods after each pass. Another complication with nose-to-tail turns(illustrated in Figure 3-5) is that a faster-turning opponent will completehis turn, time "3" (i.e., point his nose in the general direction of the energyfighter again), at greater range. This separation allows him to acceleratewithout turning for some time before he is required to begin a lead turn toachieve maximum angular advantage over the energy fighter at the nextpass. The period of acceleration and greater aircraft separation distancesmake it more difficult to judge the bogey's relative energy.In cases where maintaining sight of the opponent is not considered to bea problem, a nose-to-tail turn series is actually superior to the nose-to-nosetechnique for the purposes of bleeding the bogey's energy. Once the bogeypilot has reduced his speed and turn radius slightly by making an initialhard nose-to-nose turn, he can attain further angular gains without pullingso hard on subsequent turns—and reduced bogey G results in less energybleed. Nose-to-tail turns, however, require the bogey to continue at agreater turn rate throughout the maneuver, turning hard and bleedingenergy for every degree of advantage. Even if the bogey pulls the same loadFigure 3-5. Nose-to-Tail Turn Complications

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 109factor in each situation, nose-to-nose dynamics result in its gaining a givenangular advantage in about half the time required for it to do so bynose-to-tail turns. Obviously, less time spent at high G means less energybleed and less speed differential when the pilot of the energy fighterdecides to zoom.The greater time involved in use of the nose-to-tail method raises otherpoints. More time spent in this predictable maneuver subjects bothfighters to more danger in a hostile environment. Combat endurance isalso a factor. Neither fighter may have the fuel necessary to gain a substantialadvantage with nose-to-tail turns. Maintaining visual contact with theopponent, however, is the most important consideration here. If thiscannot be done comfortably during a nose-to-tail turn, the energy tacticianmay be forced to the nose-to-nose technique, and he will just have toaccept the inefficiencies involved.Although a level turn has been specified for this portion of the energyfight, this is certainly not a requirement. In fact, there are some valuableadvantages to slightly oblique diving or climbing turns, particularly in thenose-to-tail case. For instance, a diving spiral may allow the energy fighterto maintain speed while pulling its maximum structural-G limit. Since hecannot safely pull higher load factor in a similar aircraft, the bogey pilotcan gain angles in a nose-to-tail turn only at a limited rate. If the energyfighter stays near corner speed, the opponent may be completely stalematedas long as altitude allows the descending spiral to continue. Thistechnique can be very valuable, particularly when the energy fighter pilotfinds himself at an initial position disadvantage. The bogey might be heldoutside firing parameters in this manner until its pilot loses interest orruns out of fuel and is forced to disengage. Such a stalemated nose-to-tailturn has come to be called a "Lufbery," after the American ace RaoulLufbery, who fought with the French Lafayette Escadrille and the U.S. AirService during World War I.Although the nose-low method slows the rate of angular gain for thebogey in both nose-to-nose and nose-to-tail situations, a tradeoff is involved.Because of the energy fighter's higher G, the bogey is likely to pullless excess G during the maneuver, resulting in more efficient angulargains. This can mean less speed differential between the fighters when theenergy fighter zooms.The opposite is true, however, for nose-high turns. An energy fighter in aclimbing turn must pull less G if it is to maintain a given airspeed. Thisleaves the opponent more G margin to play with, and he typically will useit to gain angles at a faster rate, bleeding relatively more energy in theprocess. A nose-high spiral tends to reduce the time necessary to bleed thebogey's energy by a desired amount in a nose-to-tail turn. This is seldom arequirement with nose-to-nose turns, however, and use of the nose-hightechnique in a nose-to-nose situation may allow the bogey to grab a lethalposition advantage before the energy fighter pilot realizes it.For the energy fight, of equal importance with reducing required engagementtime is limiting the number of nose-to-tail turns necessary to bleedthe bogey's energy by the desired amount. For example, if in a level or

110 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTnose-low sustained turn it takes three passes before the bogey gains about90° of angular advantage, each pass subjects the energy fighter to a possiblegun snapshot. Additionally, as the nose-to-tail fight progresses, the bogeytypically overshoots at a greater angle, which results in longer blindperiods and an increased chance that the pilot of the energy fighter will losesight. By employing the nose-high-turn technique, the energy tacticianmay be able to reduce the number of passes required (ideally to one),thereby limiting his exposure to these hazards.From the standpoint of energy performance, the optimum speed for anenergy fighter engaged in nose-to-tail turns is about the speed for maximumsustained turn rate, assuming, of course, that this value is greaterthan minimum vertical-maneuvering speed. Load factor, however, shouldbe held to only about two-thirds of the maximum sustained-G capability atthis speed, and the remaining PS should be used for climbing. Dependingon the rate at which the bogey gains angles early in the first turn, this climbangle and G may need to be modified. For example, if the bogey does notturn aggressively, the energy tactician might reduce G and increase climbangle somewhat so that the bogey will make angles faster and reduce thenumber of passes required. On the contrary, should the opponent turn veryhard, or refuse to follow the energy fighter up in its climb, it may benecessary for the pilot of the energy fighter to increase G and return to alevel or even nose-low turn. The bogey cannot be allowed to gain muchmore than 90°, nor can it be allowed to build excessive vertical separation(such as would occur if it didn't climb while the energy fighter did), sinceeither of these factors facilitates its ability to point at the energy fighterwhen the zoom occurs.Another aspect of this energy fight which deserves attention is gunsdefensetechnique. With each pass the energy fighter is subjected to aforward-hemisphere snapshot by the bogey. Because of the high closureinvolved with the forward-hemisphere approach, the adversary has verylittle time for careful aiming, but he still may be successful unless theenergy fighter performs a good defensive jink. Assuming the attacker isapproaching at about co-altitude, the defender can quickly roll wingslevel,either upright or inverted, just as the bogey approaches firing rangewith lead. One quick, hard, out-of-plane pull, followed by a 180° roll andanother pull, or a hard negative-G maneuver, is usually sufficient to spoilthe shot. On the final pass of the fight, the one after which the energytactician plans to zoom, a pull-down early in the guns defense may haveother benefits. If the attacker pulls down to continue his guns pass, theenergy fighter's subsequent pull-up into a zoom may result in a nose-low,vertical overshoot by the bogey, which should give the zooming fightergreater advantage in the ensuing rolling scissors.Although energy tactics often allow the opponent to gain an angularadvantage in return for an energy margin, these tactics do not have to bedefensive in nature. If the energy fighter can get a good angular advantageon the opponent (on the order of 90°), lag pursuit may be used in a nose-totailturn to bleed the bogey's energy. The energy fighter maintains its bestsustained turn rate, forcing the defender to turn harder to maintain sight

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 111and to neutralize the attacker's position advantage. Once the bogey hasregained angular neutrality, the energy fighter should have generatedenough energy margin to begin vertical maneuvering, as depicted in Figures2-15 and 2-19. This technique is much safer than allowing the opponentan angular advantage.In contests of [tactics] it is bad to be led about by the enemy. You must alwaysbe able to lead the enemy about.Miyamoto MusashiSo far the assumption has been made that the opponent will maneuvernear horizontally; but what if he instead pulls up steeply after the firstpass? By maneuvering out-of-plane, the bogey may be able to make ahigh-side attack on the level-turning energy fighter, forcing a defensivepull-up and immediate entry into a rolling scissors. If the bogey has anenergy advantage at the pass (a factor that may be difficult to determine), arolling scissors could be to its benefit early in the engagement. When thebogey makes an oblique nose-high turn at the first pass, the energy fightercan counter with a nose-to-tail turn, which should prevent the anglesfighter from making gains without incurring an energy penalty. For nearverticalbogey maneuvers, the energy tactician should turn only enough togain sight of the bogey ; then he should continue a climb at optimum-climbairspeed to gain separation. As the bogey approaches the top of its zoom,the energy fighter can begin an oblique turn back toward the bogey in thenose-to-tail direction. During his come-back turn the pilot of the energyfighter should keep his lift vector on or slightly below the bogey to reducevertical separation to within a quarter of a turn radius by the next pass, andhe should pull hard enough to limit the bogey's angular gains to 90° or less.If possible, the energy tactician should not allow his speed to bleed belowthat required for vertical maneuvering.If you are thoroughly conversant with [tactics], you will recognize theenemy's intentions and thus have many opportunities to win.Miyamoto MusashiComparison of Angles and Energy TacticsIn the guns-only scenario, the angles and the energy techniques discussedmay both be effective. Angles tactics are inherently more aggressive,placing the opponent in a defensive position early in the engagement, andthey can have considerable psychological impact, particularly on an inexperiencedadversary. This technique is also generally quicker than energytactics, an important consideration when a fighter is limited by very shortcombat endurance.Energy tactics, on the other hand, require more patience and training.Speed control is very important, as is the ability to judge the bogey's energystate accurately. This technique also demands proficiency in the rollingscissors, which is a difficult maneuver to master. On the positive side,except for the possibility of a forward-hemisphere snapshot, which normallycan be defeated by a small jink on each pass, the energy technique

112 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTdiscussed here is inherently safer than angles tactics. As long as the bogey'sangular advantage is limited to approximately 90°, and a vertical move isnot initiated with insufficient energy advantage, separation and terminationof the engagement are possible throughout the fight.By comparison, the angles technique does not afford sufficient opportunityto assess the opponent's energy. Once the vertical move is begun,the pilot of the angles fighter is "betting the farm" on his ability to forcethe bogey back down first. If he is unable to accomplish this because ofinsufficient energy or because of adept maneuvering by the adversary, theangles tactician may find himself at the top of his zoom, out of airspeed andideas with nowhere to go but down, and with an angry enemy above. Someinsurance against this condition is provided by the angles fighter maintainingat least enough airspeed for a vertical zoom climb.With any of the tactics outlined here, whenever the opponent makes aforward-quarter approach, consideration should be given to attempting ashort gun burst at the pass. Although this is generally not a highpercentageshot, it is useful in establishing offensive and defensive psychologicalsets between the opponents, and it may disrupt the adversary'sgame plan. The pilot should assess the possible value of this shot againstits effect on his own maneuvering requirements and ammunition supply.Every time your opponent attempts to dive at you or attack you in any way,the best thing to do is to turn on him, pull the nose of your machine up, andfire.Lt. Colonel W. A. "Billy" Bishop, RAFUnless a pilot has extensive training in energy methods, the cautioususe of angles tactics is probably preferable in this scenario. With similaraircraft, however, it is often necessary to take what the opponent willallow. For instance, if the enemy appears tentative in the first turn, theexperienced fighter pilot will generally "go for the throat" with aggressivebut controlled angles tactics. On the other hand, faced with an aggressiveopponent, the best course might be to "finesse" him with energy tactics.In the one-versus-one-similar scenario, it quite often becomes advantageousto switch tactics during the engagement. For example, if the fightis begun using aggressive angles tactics and the opponent matches anglefor-anglethrough one or two turns, odds are very good that the engagementwill quickly degenerate into a dangerous slow-speed flat scissors at lowaltitude. The outcome of such an engagement often rests on which pilotfirst loses control and crashes or runs out of fuel. Normally the anglestactician should not allow the engagement to reach such a stalemate; heshould make the transition to an energy fight instead. This is usuallyaccomplished by converting to a nose-to-tail turn at the next pass andrelaxing the G to the minimum value required to keep sight of the bogey.This turn is continued, allowing the aircraft to accelerate toward bestsustained-turn-rate speed (or climbing in the low-G turn if the aircraft isabove this speed), adjusting G and climb/dive angle so that the enemygains about 90° by the next pass. At this point excess airspeed is traded foran altitude advantage by the methods detailed previously. If a fighter is

114 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTwith a large AON that must be reduced to zero in order to satisfy aimingconstraints. Before this can be achieved, a target with comparable turn ratewill probably have increased AOT beyond firing limits once more. Thissituation highlights the value of missile off-boresight capability.A further difficulty arises from the min-range boundary in conjunctionwith an AOT limit and a maneuvering target. Figure 3-6 illustrates the"envelope rotation effect." This figure depicts a maneuvering target attimes "I" and "2" along with the missile-firing envelopes appropriate toits positions at those times. Although depicted here in two dimensions,the envelopes are actually three-dimensional cone segments rather thanflat planes. The centers (hearts) of these envelopes are also shown, as wellas the track required if the attacker is to maintain position at the center ofthe firing envelope. Normally an attacker is not required to maintain sucha rigid position, but this example serves to illustrate the movement of theRQ missile-firing envelope and the effects of target turn rate and range onthat movement. In addition to the velocity of the target itself, the enveloperotates at a speed proportional to target turn rate times range. The fasterthe target's speed and turn rate, and the greater the missile's min-rangelimit, the more difficult it is for the attacker to maneuver into, and remaininside of, the firing envelope for any length of time.Because of the combined effects of the flight path-nose position interrelationshipand the envelope rotation effect, tactics designed for the use ofRQ missiles against similar aircraft usually focus on reducing target turnratecapability to a minimum while retaining a performance advantage forthe attacker. Energy tactics are uniquely suited to this purpose. SinceFigure 3-6. Envelope-Rotation Effect

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 115conventional aircraft generate turn-performance capability by maintainingspeed within certain limits and by sacrificing altitude to gain a gravityassist, total energy (speed and altitude) must be considered in achieving aturn-performance advantage. Unless one fighter is able to generate a significantenergy advantage, the usual loss of energy during the engagementoften results in something resembling a slow-speed flat scissors or a stalematednose-to-tail turn at tree-top level.I never went into the air thinking I would lose.Commander Randy "Duke" Cunningham, USNThe Angles FightThe angles tactics outlined for the guns-only scenario are not as well suitedfor the RQ missiles case, but they maybe successful with minor modifications.Referring to Figure 3 -1, the angles fighter no longer has the threat of agun snapshot at time "4" to force the bogey up, out-of-plane, in a nose-highmove. This gives the bogey pilot freedom to continue a level or nose-lowturn, leaving the angles fighter temporarily in an offensive, rearhemisphereposition; but with an energy deficit, and probably a turnperformancedisadvantage, the pilot of the angles fighter may have adifficult time improving on or maintaining his position. In such a case, theangles tactician might perform a low yo-yo after the overshoot to continuepressure on the bogey.Faced with an overshooting situation at time "4," it is likely that thebogey will attempt to capitalize by reversing nose-high, as shown in Figure3-7. If so, the angles fighter pilot should pull sharply up to point at the^C*jjg'^^ R „Figure 3-7. Angles Fight (RQ Missiles): Mid-Game

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 113very slow when the pilot commences using energy tactics, it may benecessary to dive the aircraft in the turn to pick up minimum verticalmaneuveringspeed before starting the zoom. Care must be taken not todelay the transition to energy tactics so long (i.e., until the fight is too lowand slow) that insufficient height is available for such a maneuver.When reaching a stalemate, win with a technique the enemy does not expect.Miyamoto MusashiThe converse case, when the opponent refuses to take the angularadvantage offered by the energy fighter, may also arise. This situationshould become apparent before completion of the first nose-to-tail turn,and it invites the energy tactician to begin angles tactics, normally bystarting a low yo-yo from across the circle.Recognizing the need for, and making, tactical transitions such as theseare signs of great experience in a fighter pilot. Usually, once implementinga tactical plan a less-experienced pilot will continue it to its conclusion.Rear-Quarter Missiles OnlyRear-quarter (RQ) AAMs, as discussed in the weapons chapter, are mostoften heat seekers. As with other missiles, they can be expected to haveminimum- and maximum-range limits and aiming requirements in additionto their AOT boundaries. Although this firing envelope (min-range,max-range, and AOT) varies greatly with fighter and target speeds, altitudes,maneuvers, and other factors, for simplicity in this section it will beassumed to be fixed and to have constant min- and max-range limits andAOT boundaries of plus or minus 45°. Even though this envelope is usuallymuch larger than that required for a gun snapshot, it is not necessarilyeasier to satisfy. This is partly because of the relationship between anattacking fighter's nose position (aiming) and its resulting maneuver (position).In order to reach a certain position in space (e.g., the firing envelope)conventional fighters must attain strictly defined nose positions; but thenose position required for the fighter to reach the firing envelope may notsatisfy the missile's aiming requirements. The aiming requirements forthis section of the discussion are boresight, i.e., the fighter's nose must bepointed directly at the target (AON equals zero).With guns, maximum range is one of the most severe limitations, but itcan often be satisfied by use of lead-pursuit techniques. Fortunately forthis weapons system, lead pursuit is compatible with the lead-aimingrequirement. In addition, the other envelope constraints, min-range andAOT, are sufficiently nonrestrictive for the snapshot so that they too maybe satisfied simultaneously.For RQ missiles, min-range and AOT are usually the toughest envelopeconstraints to meet. Unfortunately, pure pursuit, which is compatiblewith the assumed aiming requirements, results in decreasing range andincreasing AOT against a maneuvering target. This is exactly opposite tothe desired effect. Lag pursuit, which tends to increase range and decreaseAOT, is much more compatible with RQ missile requirements; however,once a firing position is attained, this technique usually leaves the fighter

116 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTbogey and threaten it as quickly as possible. If he is unable to point at thetarget and force it back down, the attacker should pull for a position behindand below the bogey, as shown at time "5." The angles fighter shouldclimb as close to the bogey's altitude as possible at time "5," whileretaining enough speed for maneuvering. The desired position at time "6"is slightly behind and beneath the bogey, with minimum nose-tail separationand the angles fighter's fuselage aligned as closely as possible with thebogey's.At time "6" both fighters will be near minimum-controllable airspeed.The angles fighter's position forces the pilot of the high fighter into asteeply banked turn, or a series of turn reversals similar to a flat scissors, inorder to maintain sight of his opponent behind and below. The anglestactician should maneuver as necessary to remain out of sight on thebogey's belly-side. Concern over his opponent's position should eventuallycause the bogey pilot to pull his aircraft's nose sharply down in order toincrease his turn performance. Figure 3-8 depicts the end-game.After the bogey pilot has committed his nose steeply down, the anglesfighter should continue a level turn until the bogey approaches co-altitude.At that point the pilot of the angles fighter can roll inverted and pull hisnose sharply down toward vertical (time "7"). After overshooting thealtitude of the angles fighter, the bogey pilot will usually begin a pull-outto increase AOT and maintain sight. If his turns are properly timed, theangles fighter pilot may be able to pull his nose to the target and fire (timeFigure 3-8. Angles Fight (RQ Missiles): End-Game

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 117"8") before AOT increases beyond limits. Should the attacker begin hispull-down too early, he will have insufficient nose-tail separation andprobably will induce a defensive spiral. If the pull-down is performed toolate, the target may generate enough AOT in its pull-out to preclude a validshot.Timing is very critical to this end-game, and the shot opportunity willbe missed quite often. When timing the pull-down at point "7," it isusually preferable to err on the late side, rather than be early. Too muchnose-tail separation resulting from a late vertical pull normally allows theangles fighter to maintain an offensive position; but too little separationoften results in a defensive spiral, from which either fighter may gainadvantage.If it is obvious at about time "7" that a shot will not be forthcoming, theattacker has the option of disengaging or continuing the fight. Disengagementmay be accomplished by rolling opposite to the direction shown inFigure 3-8 and extending away from the bogey. When a pilot is separatingfrom a missile fighter, however, it is imperative that it be kept in sightuntil maximum firing range has been exceeded. Accelerating to maximumspeed and diving to low altitude usually aid disengagement by reducing themaximum firing range of a hostile missile.If the angles tactician chooses to pursue the bogey after a missed shot, hecan expect his opponent either to extend for separation or to come back in anose-high maneuver, which often results in a rolling scissors. Thereforethe attacker should be careful to attain his vertical-maneuvering airspeedbefore pulling out of his dive, even if this requires overshooting the bogeyvertically. The threat of the angles fighter deep in his rear hemisphere mayinduce the bogey pilot to pull out at too slow an airspeed, giving the anglesfighter an advantage in the ensuing rolling scissors.The Energy FightThe energy tactics described in the guns-only section are almost entirelyrelevant to the RQ missile scenario. Although this scenario eliminates thethreat of a forward-hemisphere gun shot with each pass, there are otherdangers inherent in the use of energy tactics with these weapons. Forinstance, although these missiles are termed "rear quarter," a very slowtarget with little G capability is unable to present a high LOS rate to themissile in its terminal phase and therefore may be vulnerable at muchgreater AOT than a highly maneuverable target would be. The energyfighter will be slow and vulnerable at the top of its vertical maneuvers.Going vertical without sufficient energy advantage, allowing the bogey togain more than 90° of position advantage, or pulling-up substantiallybefore the bogey crosses six o'clock may allow the opponent to get his noseon the energy fighter for a beautiful look-up shot. Although these errorscan also cause trouble in the guns-only scenario, they are even more deadlyhere since increased range of the missile can offset a considerable targetheight advantage over the shooter.It can be expected that more turns in the rolling scissors will be requiredto satisfy RQ missile parameters than to reach the gun snapshot envelope.

118 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTAs the energy fighter gains advantage in the rolling scissors, it will soon beable to point at its opponent for a short period of time during the bogey'spull-out. The sooner a missile can be pointed at the target, the earlier thebogey pilot will be required to begin his pull-out in order to increase AOTbeyond the missile's limits. This threat may induce the defender to starthis pull-out before he achieves his desired speed, and it often leads toincreased advantage for the energy fighter on the next loop of the scissors.The energy tactician can hasten this process by performing an earlier, moreaggressive lead turn over the top of his loop. Each cycle of the scissors willgenerally result in less AOT as the energy fighter points down at the bogey.Figure 3-9 shows the end-game of this scenario. At time "1" the energyfighter is in a very advantageous offensive lag-pursuit position at thebottom of its rolling-scissors maneuver. As the bogey continues its obliqueloop, the energy fighter pulls up vertically. Approaching the vertical attitude,the pilot of the energy fighter projects the bogey's future flight pathand rolls to place the lift vector ahead of the bogey's position (time "2"). Hethen pulls down smartly toward a nose-down vertical attitude once more,but not before the bogey pilot has committed his nose down. Ideally, as theenergy tactician begins to pull down over the top of his loop, he would liketo be directly above his opponent. The nose should then be pointed at thetarget as quickly as possible, and the shot taken (time "3") before the bogeycan generate too many angles.In the guns-only energy fight, a vertical pull-up was prescribed for entryinto the rolling scissors. The vertical pull-up is the most energy-efficientmethod for converting excess airspeed to altitude; but this luxury may notbe always available to the pilot of the energy fighter, especially against amissile-equipped opponent. The increased range and relaxed aiming requirementsof these weapons may allow the angles fighter to pop its noseup, point, and fire even before the energy fighter can complete its zoom.One technique for preventing this involves substituting a spiral pull-up,illustrated in Figure 3-10, for the wings-level one. After the bogey's energyhas been bled, and the decision to trade airspeed for altitude advantage hasbeen made (time "1"), the energy tactician should begin to pull his fighter'snose higher and higher, in a positive manner, while still continuing to turnin the nose-to-tail direction. This forces the angles fighter (bogey) to turnconsiderably farther to point at its target. The energy fighter pilot mustwatch the bogey carefully over the inside shoulder, and monitor its noseposition closely. Initially the bogey pilot can be expected to attempt tofollow the energy fighter up into the spiral, continuously pulling his nosedirectly upward and around toward his target, and he may appear to begaining angles. Eventually, though, as the spiral steepens, the bogey'sangular gains will slow, and then its climb angle will appear to stabilize(time "2"). This is an indication that the bogey no longer has the airspeednecessary to get its nose up to point at its target, and it is the energytactician's clue that it is now safe for him to steepen his climb to nearvertical, seeking a position above and behind the bogey. This is done byleveling the wings and pulling toward pure vertical. The bogey then can bereacquired over the opposite shoulder, and the roll and flight-path angle

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 119can be readjusted to bring the energy fighter to a position above and behindthe opponent (time "3"). Such a position makes it extremely difficult forthe bogey pilot to maintain sight. Should the bogey hold its nose up andcontinue to turn during this time, the energy fighter can continue its zoomto achieve maximum height advantage, remaining unloaded as much asTOP VIEWFigure 3-9. Energy Fight: End-Game

120 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTFigure 3-10. Modified-Zoom Maneuverpossible. Approaching the peak of his zoom, the pilot of the energy fighterdrops his nose, points at the target, and fires (time "4"). Even if the shotavailable at this point is a high-angle one, the bogey should be very slow,unable to break upward toward the missile, and too slow to present the

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 121missile with a tracking-rate problem, even at 90° off the tail. As long as themissile can acquire the target, probability of a hit is usually high. In anycase, the bogey's defensive maneuver undoubtedly will put it in a vulnerableposition for a follow-on shot.The timing of the energy fighter's vertical reversal depends on manyfactors, including missile min- and max-range, probability of missile targetacquisition as angle-off increases, and aircraft turn radius. The last of thesefactors involves the possibility of a dangerous vertical overshoot in casethe target is not destroyed, so at least one minimum-turn-radius separationis desirable before committing the nose down. Should such an overshootoccur, it will be necessary for the energy tactician to perform anose-to-tail extension to disengage or to recommence energy tactics. If atany time during the zoom the bogey's nose falls, it is often necessary toterminate the zoom, point, and fire quickly before the target exceedsmax-range. Vertical-reversal technique is quite dependent on aircrafthandling qualities (vertical-reversal technique is covered in greater detailin the next chapter).This actual combat example of the spiral-zoom technique is found inThunderbolt! by Major Robert S. Johnson.Habit brought my head swiveling around to look behind me. I was just intime to see a Focke-Wulf bouncing, nose twinkling from the .30-calibers. Myleft hand slammed forward on the throttle, my right hand hauled back andleft on the stick, my heart went to the top of my head and the Thunderboltleaped upward. I racked the Jug into a tight left climbing turn, staying justabove and in front of the pursuing Focke-Wulf. . . . To get any strikes on methe [German] first had to turn inside me, and then haul his nose up steeply toplace his bullets ahead of me. The Focke-Wulf just didn't have it. At 8,000feet he stalled out while the Thunderbolt roared smoothly; I kicked over intoa roll and locked onto his tail. 1Comparison of Angles and Energy TacticsAgain, most of the comments made in the guns-only section apply to thiscase, except that energy techniques are more dangerous in this environment.Although they are more difficult in this scenario, angles tactics arestill effective, and they offer the added advantage of an offensive positionthroughout the engagement.It should not be taken that one must always be the first one to attackregardless of the situation or circumstances, but at the same time, it isgenerally desirable to be the one to initiate the attack and thereby put theopponent in the defensive position.Miyamoto MusashiAll-Aspect Missiles OnlyAs discussed in the chapter on weapons, all-aspect missiles generallyemploy radar or IR guidance and can be fired at a target from any direction.The performance of both of these guidance systems usually is enhancedwhen the weapon is looking up at the target with a clear-sky background.Although technically all-aspect capable, most of these weapons are betterin some situations than in others, with beam aspects often causing the

122 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTmost difficulty. As with other missiles, these also have maximum- andminimum-range limits and aiming requirements. Although many allaspectmissiles are also off-boresight capable, guidance is usually optimizedwhen the missile is fired within a few degrees of the target LOS(often with a small amount of lead); so for the purposes of this sectionall-aspect missiles will be assumed to be limited to a boresight launch.Inherent in all-aspect capability is the opportunity for a forward-quartershot before the first pass of the engagement, possibly even beyond visualrange. Assuming such an opportunity is available, this shot should not bepassed up, particularly since a similarly equipped opponent may not hesitate.A missile in the air prior to the pass establishes a psychological setbetween the combatants, placing the pilot of the target fighter immediatelyin a defensive frame of mind. Moreover, such a shot must be honoredby a defensive maneuver that almost surely disrupts the defender's gameplan, and it usually places the firing aircraft in an offensive position and athigher energy than its opponent even before the maneuvering begins. Sincemaneuvering is the prime concern of this section, however, it will beassumed that neither aircraft has a firing opportunity prior to the first pass.In a visual engagement with all-aspect missiles, minimum-range andaiming constraints are usually the most difficult to meet. Again, theserestrictions oppose each other, since the usual boresight or lead-angleaiming requirement tends to reduce separation.The Angles FightThe tactics described for the rear-quarter AAM, simply a less capableversion of the weapon in this scenario, are largely applicable and will resultin rear-hemisphere firing positions, as before. Improved aspect capability,however, makes the firing envelope much easier to reach and results infewer missed shot opportunities.Referring to Figure 3-1, the first phase of the angles fight recommendedfor both guns and RQ missiles, an all-aspect missile shot may be availablebetween times "3" and "4." Aircraft separation at this point can be expectedto be about one fighter turn radius, which might satisfy the minrangerequirements of some missiles when they are employed by certainfighters.The mid-game of this angles fight, as shown in Figure 3-7, may also offera firing opportunity at time "5." Although the aircraft separation at thispoint is likely to be less than nominal missile min-range, the typical slowspeed and lack of maneuverability of the high fighter in this situation canmake it vulnerable.The end-game of this engagement, Figure 3-8, remains the same as forthe RQ missile case, except that greater AOT is allowed for the shot. Itshould be noted here that the final firing position produced by these tacticsis a look-down shot, probably with negative closure (i.e., increasing range).Such parameters can cause problems for many all-aspect missiles, particularlythose with radar guidance.Although these tactics may be effective, they do not take full advantageof all-aspect missile capabilities. Figure 3-11 illustrates a somewhat clean-

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 123er approach. Here the nose-to-tail turn is used to generate the aircraftseparation necessary to satisfy missile min-range constraints. At time " 1"the fighters meet in the standard forward-quarter approach. Minimumlateral separation and an angular advantage at the pass are optimum forthis method. As the aircraft pass each other, the angles fighter begins anose-to-tail turn across the bogey's six o'clock. Between times "I" and"2," the opponent's aspect should be monitored closely, and the anglesfighter should turn just hard enough for it to match the bogey's turn rate.On reaching time "2," a neutral position with about 90° of target aspect,the angles fighter pilot begins a maximum-performance turn to point atthe target as quickly as possible. The segment of the maneuver betweentimes "2" and "3" may be performed obliquely nose-low to provide alook-up shot at time "3," if such a shot is desired.At time "2" in this maneuver, the angles fighter requires the airspeedthat will maximize its average turn rate (i.e., minimize the time required)between that time and time "3." Although corner velocity yields maximuminstantaneous turn rate, many fighters cannot sustain this speed formore than a very few degrees of turn. Usually for this reason a somewhathigher speed is desirable. The typical arc from time "2" to time "3" isabout 135°, so the best speed at time "2" can be determined either byengineers or by experimentation as that initial speed which minimizes thetime for a level turn of this magnitude. The optimim speed should beknown by the fighter pilot for a representative combat weight, configuration,and altitude at full power. Generally, an increase in weight, drag, oraltitude requires a higher initial speed.Arriving at time "2" with optimum airspeed is not a simple matter,since speed at that point is dependent on initial velocity at the pass (time"1") and the maneuver between times "1" and "2." Because fighters canslow down more easily than they can accelerate during heavy maneuvering,it is normally advisable for the angles fighter to carry excess airspeed atthe initial pass. If the bogey's turn rate cannot be matched between times"1" and "2" at this higher speed, a power reduction, speedbrakes, or aFigure 3-11. All-Aspect-Missile Separation Maneuver

124 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTclimb can be employed to reduce speed and increase turn performance. It isessential that the angles fighter arrive at time "2" with at least neutralangles.The choice of maneuver planes from time "2" to time "3" is largelydependent on the fighter's speed at time "2." Any excess speed should havebeen eliminated by this point, but sometimes hard bogey maneuveringresults in the angles fighter arriving at time "2" with less than the desiredairspeed. This deficit may be partially offset by a nose-low oblique turn,but a couple of cautions should be recognized. Any altitude differentialgenerated by such a maneuver results in greater turn requirement forplacing the nose on the target, delays the shot, and reduces aircraft separation.Another factor is the difficulty in maintaining the plane of maneuver.Just as the shortest distance between two points is a straight line, theshortest turn between times "2" and "3" is a constant-plane maneuver.When his aircraft is turning out of the target's maneuver plane, it isdifficult for the pilot to predict the final plane of the attack at time "3," andtherefore that maneuver plane cannot be established reliably at time "2."Any miscalculation results in greater required turn and reduced separationat the shot. Because of these complications it is usually best to keep the liftvector on the bogey throughout the maneuver from time "I" to time "3,"regardless of the target's maneuver selection. At time "2" a small differentialmay be established in maneuver planes to compensate for lower thandesired speed or to provide a bit of look-up for the shot.The procedure just described typically provides aircraft separations ofabout two fighter turn radii. The actual separation at the shot is largelydependent on the level of bogey maneuver, however. If the opponent turnsat his maximum capability throughout the engagement, and the anglesfighter matches this performance as prescribed, separation will be minimalor nonexistent. Off-boresight capability is valuable for increasinglaunch separation in this maneuver, since the missile may be fired beforethe angles fighter completes the turn.If the missile misses at time "3," the angles fighter could be at aconsiderable energy disadvantage, depending on the target's defensivemaneuver. If the pilot of the angles fighter does not have an offensiveposition following such a missed shot, he should pass the bogey withminimum flight-path separation and then should commence a nose-to-tailextension maneuver to gain separation for escape. Returning to re-engage abogey with all-aspect missile capability is not recommended.Another viable angles tactic for all-aspect missiles involves the nose-tonosetechnique described for other weapons scenarios, whereby the anglestactician attempts to gain a small angular advantage with each pass. Alongwith the angular gain on each turn, aircraft separation at the instant thetarget is boresighted also tends to increase during the nose-to-nose turnseries. Once about 90° angular advantage has been achieved, aircraftseparation at boresighting should be equivalent to about one fighter turnradius. This method is generally inferior to the nose-to-tail tactic, since ittakes longer and usually generates less separation for the shot. It does,

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 125however, facilitate maintaining sight of the opponent, since maximumseparation is reduced, and it also makes bogey escape more difficult.Whichever method is chosen, unless the weapon has a very short minrangerequirement or the fighters have very large turn radii, separation forthe shot is likely to be pushing min-range limits at the boresight point. Ifthere are weapons system functions that must be accomplished prior tolaunch (such as radar acquisition, lock, and firing delays), some meansmust usually be found to complete these functions prior to the boresightpoint. Any delay after this time may result in a missed firing opportunity.With long min-range limits, small fighter turn radii, or unavoidableweapons-system delays, the angles tactician may be forced to use the moreconventional angles tactics recommended for rear-quarter-limitedweapons. If so, the full capability of the all-aspect missile may be usable inthis scenario only in forward-quarter approach situations (prior to the firstpass) or when the angles fighter begins the engagement with a positionadvantage.The Energy FightThe energy techniques described for the previous scenarios offer the opponenta temporary angular position advantage in exchange for a reduction inhis airspeed. Although the nose-to-tail turn is ideal for this process, allaspectmissiles may render this tactic unusable because the greater aircraftseparations involved may allow the opponent to satisfy his min-rangerequirements, as shown in Figure 3-11. Therefore, the energy tacticianmay be forced to use the less efficient nose-to-nose procedure (Figure 3-4).In some cases, even the separation allowed by this method may not beacceptable. While a forward-hemisphere gun shot can usually be defeatedwith a quick out-of-plane jink of very short duration, an all-aspect missilemust be honored with a radical defensive maneuver that must be continuedas long as the weapon appears to have even the most remotepossibility of guidance. Such a maneuver almost invariably places theenergy fighter in a defensive position and makes it highly vulnerable to asecond shot by the bogey. In addition, once an adversary has a substantialposition advantage (and this advantage must usually be allowed to ensurean adequate speed advantage for the energy fighter), the maximum-rangeand all-aspect capability of these weapons make escape by use of nose-totailextensions almost impossible for a similar fighter.Assuming that the min-range capabilities of the missiles involved precludeshot opportunities during nose-to-nose turns, energy tactics may bea viable option in this scenario. As in the RQ missile scenario, the energyfighter's zoom maneuver may have to be modified to a climbing spiral, asshown in Figure 3-10. Because of the energy inefficiencies inherent in thenose-to-nose turns and the spiral zoom maneuver, it is difficult to gainsufficient height advantage against a similar fighter to avoid a verticalovershoot in the event of a missed shot. With all-aspect missiles, the pilotof the energy fighter cannot afford the luxury of a rolling scissors after suchan overshoot, since the opponent could have a sizable angular advantage.

126 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTInstead, the energy tactician normally should attempt to escape after amissed shot by use of a nose-to-tail extension, as depicted in Figure 3-12.This can be done by diving toward the bogey's six o'clock position (time"2"), then beginning a gradual rolling pull-out while turning slightly in thenose-to-tail direction in an attempt to reach a heading approximately 180°from that of the bogey (time "3"). During the pull-out, care should be takennot to cross the bogey's tail, since this would encourage the bogey pilot toreverse his turn direction. If the bogey does reverse, the energy fighter mustalso reverse to reinitiate the nose-to-tail condition, and then continue theextension. The gradual pull-out is continued until the energy fighterreaches a shallow diving attitude, at which time the pilot should concentrateon accelerating rapidly to gain separation, while he turns only enoughto keep the bogey in sight deep in the rear quarter. This diving accelerationshould be continued to gain maximum speed at the lowest possible altitudeto shrink the opponent's missile envelope. The extending pilot mustattempt to keep the opponent in sight as long as possible and only turnback if a missile shot is observed within apparent range limits. Thistechnique forces the bogey pilot to turn greater than 180° (after time "2") toplace his aircraft's nose on the energy fighter, often providing sufficienttime for separation beyond max-range limits.Comparison of Angles and Energy TacticsThe firing opportunities offered by energy tactics usually involve lookdownconditions. To the contrary, those presented to the opponent aremore often look-up shots, more desirable for many weapons. Off-boresightweapons present even greater danger for an energy fighter. Considering allthe hazards and disadvantages of energy tactics in this scenario, they areFigure 3-12. Disengagement Maneuver

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 127not recommended, since angles tactics offer a much greater probability ofsuccess.Multiple-Weapons ScenariosQuite often, modern fighters are equipped with more than one class ofweapon, most usually a gun in combination with either RQ or all-aspectmissiles. This weapons situation forces the tactician to decide whichenvelope he wishes to satisfy; that is, which will be his primary weapon.Guns and Rear-Quarter MissilesAs discussed in the RQ missile section, the gun snapshot envelope isconsiderably easier to satisfy once a fighter is engaged against a similaropponent. For this reason it is recommended that the gun be considered theprimary weapon in this scenario, with the long-range capabilities of themissile serving to preclude the opponent's separation and escape.Both the angles and the energy methods detailed in the guns-onlysection can be effective, with angles tactics probably preferable unless thepilot has extensive training in energy techniques. In many cases, relativeadvantage at the first pass will determine the best choice of tactics. Oncethe fighter has achieved a reasonable snapshot position, the bogey pilotmust be concerned with maneuvering to defeat the opponent's weaponrather than with his aircraft, which usually leads to further offensive gainsby the attacking fighter. After the fighter has a substantial position advantage,it becomes very difficult for the bogey to gain enough separation in anescape attempt to preclude a missile shot. Such a shot then forces thebogey pilot to turn hard back toward the attacker to defeat the missile,bringing him back into the attacker's gun range. This process continuesuntil the bogey no longer has the energy to defeat the gun shot or to escapethe missile.Guns and All-Aspect MissilesIn this case the choice of the primary weapon largely depends on thequality of the missile in the maneuvering environment, or its "dogfightcompatibility." A dogfight-compatible missile has a short min-range inrelation to fighter turn radius (i.e., less than two turn radii against maneuveringtargets in the forward quarter), little or no weapons system delayonce the envelope is satisfied, and off-boresight capability that is usable inhighly dynamic maneuvering situations. Such missiles are usually preferableto guns, primarily because of higher lethality. Unless the missile hasat least two of these three qualities, however, the gun snapshot envelopemay be easier to satisfy than the missile envelope. In this case the gunshould be the primary weapon, and the missile can deter escape, as withthe RQ weapon.When the all-aspect missile is compatible with the maneuvering environment,it becomes the weapon of choice. Angles tactics should beemployed in this case, preferably the nose-to-tail procedure illustrated inFigure 3-11. Regardless of whether this method or one of the nose-to-nose

128 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTtechniques is chosen, a missile should be launched at the first opportunity,even if separation is marginal. Such a shot could be successful, but even ifit is not, the target's defensive maneuver usually places it in a veryvulnerable position for a follow-up gun shot.Dissimilar WeaponsSo far in this chapter it has been assumed that the opposing fighters haveidentical weapons. Although this is a very likely situation with similaraircraft, it does not always hold true. Supply problems, ordnance expenditure,or weapons system malfunction, for instance, quite conceivablycould result in dissimilar weapon capabilities. In this section the morecommon weapons mixes are investigated.Guns versus Rear-Quarter MissilesSince the gun is a close-range weapon and the missile generally a longerrangeweapon, it is to the advantage of the pilot of the guns-only fighter toremain as close to his missile-equipped opponent as possible. The anglestactics outlined in the guns-only section serve this purpose better than theenergy methods described there. Since gun snapshot parameters are usuallyeasier to satisfy than those of the RQ missile, the guns-only fightermay have some advantage in this scenario. The missile-equipped fighter,however, will have the better chance of safely disengaging from defensivesituations. The gunfighter may have a more difficult time with separation,unless it disengages from a position of advantage.For defensive purposes, on the other hand, the pilot of the missile fighterwould like to maintain his speed and separation from the gunfighter.Energy tactics are ideal for this purpose. The pilot of the missile fightertherefore should attempt to deplete his opponent's energy, and then heshould initiate a zoom maneuver to gain advantage.In the case where the missile fighter is also gun equipped, its pilotshould still employ energy tactics because of the added measure of safetyinherent in greater speed, more separation from the opponent's weapon,and better disengagement opportunities. The gun, however, should be hisprimary weapon, since its parameters are easier to satisfy. The missile thenbecomes the means of preventing the opponent's escape.Guns versus All-Aspect MissilesAgain in this scenario, the gunfighter pilot would like to stay close to hismissile-equipped opponent to deny him min-range separation. Anglestactics and nose-to-nose maneuvers should be used exclusively for thispurpose. If the missile-equipped fighter reverses at the pass to set up anose-to-tail situation as depicted in Figure 3-11, the gunfighter pilot mustmake a rapid decision. His choices are to extend and disengage, continue inthe nose-to-tail maneuver, or reverse to reinitiate a nose-to-nose condition.The best choice depends primarily on when the bogey reverses and onthe capabilities of its weapons system in the maneuvering environment.The disengagement option is usually available if the pass occurs with highTCA and the gunfighter has good speed. By turning only far enough to keep

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 129the bogey in sight, diving to low altitude, and accelerating to maximumspeed, the gunfighter pilot usually can exceed missile max-range limits.The direction he happens to be heading at the time may have some bearing,since the pilot of the gunfighter may not wish to risk having to turn aroundand fly back past the missile fighter to return home.Continuation of the nose-to-tail turn may also be an option for thegunfighter pilot in this situation. By turning at maximum rate, the gunfighterpilot normally can reduce separation to below min-range limitsbefore the missile fighter can point at him. But when the bogey's weaponis highly compatible with the maneuvering environment (as defined previously),and particularly if it has a usable off-boresight capability, thiscan be a dangerous option. Even an immediate reversal by the gunfighter,reinitiating a nose-to-nose condition, may allow the opponent a shotwith such a weapon. Disengagement may be the preferable option here.A short delay in the missile fighter's reversal, or a second reversal, altersthe situation considerably. Once it is well established in one turn direction,the gunfighter should disengage or continue in that direction, even ifthis results in a nose-to-tail condition. A delayed nose-to-nose turn by thegunfighter can generate a great amount of separation, allowing the missilefighter to meet its min-range requirements.As for the missile-fighter tactics in this scenario, either angles or energytactics are viable. The angles method of Figure 3-11 is probably preferable,since it is quicker, subjects the missile fighter to fewer snapshots by thegunfighter, and makes full use of the available all-aspect capability.Obviously, the missile fighter should shoot the bogey in the face prior tothe first pass if possible.Since the gunfighter pilot is likely to attempt a nose-to-nose maneuverat the pass, allowing him some lateral separation (up to about a quarter of aturn radius) may encourage a nose-to-tail turn instead, since a turn awaymight give the missile fighter angular advantage. Another ploy that may beuseful in this situation is a "feint" turn. The pilot of the missile fighter canbank sharply toward the gunfighter approaching the pass, using top rudderto hold the nose level, but turning very little if at all. On seeing this, thegunfighter pilot is likely to turn away from the missile fighter to set up anose-to-nose condition. In this case, just as the pass occurs and the missilefighter is out of sight on its opponent's belly-side, its pilot can reverse toestablish a nose-to-tail turn, as desired. Quite often this tactic will result inthe gunfighter pilot losing sight altogether. In any event, by the time herealizes the situation it is usually too late for the gunfighter pilot to reversenose-to-nose without increasing separation even farther.The pilot of the missile fighter may also use energy tactics in thisscenario, since his opponent presents a reduced threat without a missilecapability. The techniques involved are those described in the sections onguns only and rear-quarter missiles only. In this case, however, the missilefighter has the added possibility of forward-hemisphere shots from oppositepositions in the rolling scissors. These are most likely to occur as themissile fighter comes over the top of its vertical maneuvers and pointsdown at the gunfighter just starting up.

130 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTThe foregoing discussion is relevant to other weapons mixes as well. Forinstance, if the gunfighter also has RQ missiles, tactics would remainessentially unchanged, but the missiles would tend to restrict the opponent'sdisengagement possibilities. Likewise, inclusion of guns and RQmissiles in the arsenal of the all-aspect missile fighter probably would notalter its pilot's tactics as long as his all-aspect weapon is dogfight compatible.With a less capable all-aspect missile, however, the gun may be themost effective weapon in this environment. Such a situation would biasoptimum tactics in favor of those described in the guns-only section.Defensive ManeuveringIf you think "Here is a master of . . . [tactics]," then you will surely lose.Miyamoto MusashiAll the scenarios considered to this point have assumed essentiallyequal starts, both in angles and in energy, for both fighters. Obviously thiswill not always be the case. When starting with an advantage on theopponent, the course of action is fairly simple: The advantage should bepressed, using either angles or energy tactics as appropriate, until the fightis won, the advantage is lost, or a disengagement is called for, possibly forfuel considerations. When one pilot recognizes he has an advantage andthen he loses that advantage, he is losing the fight even though he and hisopponent may still be neutral. This is the best time for him to realize thathe is overmatched and immediately execute a "bugout" (escape). Once atrend is established in one-versus-one ACM, it is seldom reversed withouta serious mistake on the part of the winning pilot. It is not healthy to bet allyour marbles on an opponent's future mistakes. It is much wiser to admitthat this guy may be the Red Baron, disengage while the opportunity stillexists, and return another day, when he can be surprised and shot in theback. The days of white horses and chivalry went out with King Arthur.My system was to always attack the [enemy] at his disadvantage if possible,and if I were attacked at my disadvantage I usually broke off the combat, forin my opinion the [Germans] in the air must be beaten at [their] own game,which is cunning. I think that the correct way to wage war is to down as manyas possible of the enemy at the least risk, expense and casualties to one's ownside. ... I hate to shoot a [victim] down without him seeing me, for althoughthis method is in accordance with my doctrine, it is against what littlesporting instincts I have left. ... At the same time, when one is taken at hisadvantage and one has to fight, one always has ... to fight him like anything,for, as far as fighting the [Germans] in the air is concerned, nothing succeedslike boldness, and the [enemy] is usually taken aback when boldness isdisplayed. 2Major James T. B. McCudden, RAF57 Victories, WW-IAlthough no true fighter pilot will admit it, it is also possible to start afight at a disadvantage, or to find yourself in such a predicament during anengagement. This is the situation that "separates the men from the boys,"and it calls for the greatest possible skill and cunning.

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 131After a pilot recognizes that he is at a disadvantage (and the successfulfighter pilot must be able to recognize this situation), he must assess thetype and magnitude of that disadvantage. An angular advantage is prettyeasy to see: The fighter that has its nose pointed closer to its opponent hasthe angular advantage. The magnitude of this advantage is simply thedifference in the turns required by each fighter to point at the other. Asexplained earlier, the magnitude of this angular advantage is most easilyassessed when one fighter is pointing directly at the other (its AON equalszero), since that leaves only one angle to estimate.An energy advantage can be much more difficult to recognize and assessthan an angular advantage. An energy advantage can be in the form ofexcess speed, altitude, or both. An altitude advantage is easy to see, butdetermining a total energy advantage can be difficult because of possiblespeed differences between fighters. Particularly in slow-speed situations,however, the higher aircraft must be assumed to have an energy marginunless the pilot of the lower fighter has some reason to believe his aircraftis significantly faster. Speed differences can be very difficult to determine.Probably the most effective method of assessment is for the pilot toobserve the bogey's maneuvers in relation to his own, as explained inconjunction with energy tactics. With similar aircraft, the one that turnshardest bleeds the most airspeed, etc. When the fighters are below cornerspeed, instantaneous turn rate can be a good indication, since the fasterfighter will generally turn faster. Nose-to-nose turns provide perhaps thebest measure of relative speed. In this situation, unless one fighter has asignificant angular advantage, a faster opponent will appear to move forwardalong the horizon, and vice versa. In addition, when similar fightersare maneuvering at near their maximum capabilities, the slower one willnormally remain inside the flight path of the faster aircraft in nose-to-noseturns.Unfortunately, when he is taken by surprise, the pilot may not have theluxury of making a safe, quick energy comparison. Probably the surestmethod is an immediate zoom climb to zero airspeed. Then, assuming thebogey does likewise, the fighter that tops out highest has the most energy(i.e., all energy is converted to altitude, where differences are readilyapparent). A zooming contest is not wise, however, if a pilot is unsure ofhis relative energy state, since he will be in serious trouble at the top if hefalls off first.A MiG at your six is better than no MiG at all.Unknown U.S. Fighter PilotManeuvering with an Angular DisadvantageThe first point for a pilot to remember when he is at a disadvantage of anykind is to avoid panicking. It's never too late for a fighter pilot until he'sdead, and then he won't care anyway. Very few good moves are generatedin panic, so careful, deliberate maneuvering is in order. Secondly, thedefensive pilot should not attempt to go directly from the defense to theoffense. The first goal should be to regain neutrality without being shot. At

132 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTthat point the pilot can decide to terminate the engagement and escape, orto continue from a neutral position as discussed in detail previously. Toooften the overeager pilot will expend excessive energy in a maximum effortto go from angular defensive to angular offensive, only to discover that heis now energy defensive and cannot maintain his angular advantage.There is wide range in the degree of angular disadvantage, from almostneutral to weapons in the air. The situation needs to be evaluated instantaneouslyand only the necessary reaction made. A break turn is wastefulwhen a hard turn will suffice.Starting with the easiest situation first, when a bogey with an angularadvantage is detected in the forward hemisphere, the reaction dependslargely on the range and the weapons involved. If the enemy is gunequipped but is outside firing range or lacks proper lead, an in-plane turn iscalled for. This turn should be hard enough to pull the bogey to the nose bythe time maximum effective firing range is reached, so that the defenderhas an equal firing opportunity. If the bogey has already satisfied snapshotparameters, a guns defense is in order. The techniques involved here havealready been discussed in detail. Should the bogey's initial angular advantagebe judged too great for the defender to meet the attacker head-on, butguns parameters have not yet been satisfied, the defender can perform anin-plane turn just hard enough to stabilize the angular situation and watchfor the opponent's next move. If the attacker begins to satisfy guns parameters(i.e., pulls lead as he closes), the defender can start guns-defensemaneuvering. The attacker's other likely responses are to drift toward alag-pursuit position or to initiate an out-of-plane maneuver, such as a highyo-yo or barrel-roll attack. In either case the immediate danger has passed,and the defender can begin to work toward regaining angular neutrality.If the attacker chooses lag pursuit, the defender should continue to pulltoward him just hard enough to prevent the bogey from reaching the blindspot at six o'clock. In some cases this may require using max-G and ashallow nose-low turn to maintain speed and turn rate. If it becomesobvious, however, that such a nose-low turn must be steeper than 10° to15° in order to maintain sight, a quick turn reversal is usually the bestmove. A reversal can be dangerous against a gun-equipped bogey with anangular advantage, as explained previously, but it is normally preferable tolosing sight or giving the opponent an excess altitude advantage at thispoint. If a reversal is executed it should be level or slightly nose-low. Anose-high reversal often results in a zooming contest or a rolling scissors,neither of which is recommended until the defender has had a chance toevaluate the bogey's energy. After the reversal the defender should try tomeet the bogey head-on to neutralize its angular advantage. Normally thedefender should remain level with or below the opponent, at or belowcorner speed, during this nose-to-nose turn. Angles tactics are appropriatehere since the defender's goal is to gain angles, from defensive to neutral.Altitude differential should be limited to about a quarter-turn-radiusequivalent, however, even if several repetitions of this process arerequired to neutralize the opponent's advantage completely.

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 133Returning to the initial defensive turn, if sight can be maintained in alevel or slightly nose-low nose-to-tail turn, this maneuver should be continuedas hard as necessary until there is no longer any danger of the bogeyreaching the blind spot. At this point the defender might continue anose-to-tail extension maneuver and escape. If this is not practical, heshould initiate a low yo-yo, pulling hard enough to make a definite gain inangles evident (i.e., bogey moves forward along the canopy). This rate ofangular gain should be adjusted so that the defender will meet the bogeyhead-on at the next pass.If the opponent's response to the initial defensive turn is an out-of-planemaneuver, the immediate pressure is once again taken off the defender.When maneuvering out-of-plane the attacker is no longer gaining angles,so the defensive turn should be terminated quickly and a nose-low unloadedextension commenced. The defender should maintain his originalbank angle, however, to avoid revealing his intentions to the opponent.This extension maneuver gains both energy and separation for the defenderwhich can later be traded for angles. Once the attacker's climb anglepeaks and he begins to pull in-plane again, the defender needs to decidewhether he has enough separation to make a safe escape. If so, this isprobably the prudent move. One mistake has already been made in allowingthe opponent to gain the initial offensive; another error could easily befatal. Assuming an escape is not practical, however, the defender shouldpull back into the attacker in the closest direction, keeping the lift vectoron or slightly below the bogey. This technique ensures that the defenderwill meet the bogey level or slightly below. Once again, altitude differentialshould be limited to about a quarter of a turn radius. This turn shouldbe just hard enough to take away the opponent's angular advantage in thehorizontal plane, and it should be completed with the minimum necessaryaltitude differential. If this cannot be achieved on the first attempt, thedefender can repeat the entire process again, this time probably starting atless angular disadvantage, until neutrality can be achieved.When an attacker begins with a large angular advantage on the defender,possibly greater than 90°, the initial defensive reaction is again dependenton the enemy's weapons and his range. It might be possible, for instance, tooutrun a guns-only bogey in the rear hemisphere, depending on relativespeeds and closure. Such a large angular advantage, however, often placesthe attacker very near his firing parameters, so defense against his weaponsis normally first priority. For guns this is a hard in-plane turn toward thebogey until it approaches firing parameters, then some sort of out-of-planemaneuver to spoil the attacker's aim. When the attacker is expected tohave missile armament, an in-plane break turn should be started towardthe threat (a missile may already be on the way), keeping the lift vectorslightly below the bogey. This technique should quickly begin reducingthe attacker's angular advantage, possibly holding him outside RQ missileparameters, while generating a look-down situation for the bogey's missileand maintaining speed for a subsequent missile-defense maneuver. If atany point a missile comes off the rail, the defender must immediately

134 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTbegin missile-defense tactics as discussed earlier. Unless a missile is in theair, the initial break turn is usually continued until the bogey's advantageis reduced to about 90°, then it can be relaxed to stabilize the situationwhile reducing energy bleed. An exception to this rule might arise when anattacker is equipped with all-aspect heat seekers, in which case the breakturn might be continued until the bogey penetrates min-range.Once he is inside missile min-range or outside angular parameters, thegun-equipped attacker can either continue to press for a shot, begin to lag,or start an out-of-plane maneuver, as before. In the first case a guns-defensemaneuver should be performed at the appropriate time. An attempt by theattacker at a high-deflection gun shot will usually lead to an overshootwith high closure and little nose-tail separation—the ideal set-up for thedefender to perform a nose-to-nose reversal. Again, such a reversal shouldbe made level or slightly nose-low in an attempt to force a flat scissors.This maneuver should be to the defender's advantage, since he is likely tobe at slower speed and inside the attacker's turn radius. If the bogey beginsa rolling scissors or a zoom after the overshoot, the defender shouldnormally attempt a diving, nose-to-tail extension to escape, unless he ismissile equipped and able to meet firing parameters quickly. Going verticalwith the bogey is usually not wise, since the attacker is likely to havegreater energy.If the attacker chooses the lag option, a level or slightly nose-low turnshould be continued in an attempt to reduce the attacker's advantage toabout 90° or less as he crosses six o'clock. With such a high TCA it isunlikely that the defender will be able to maintain sight of the bogey in acontinued nose-to-tail turn, however, so a reversal should be started as theattacker crosses six. This hard nose-low, nose-to-nose turn should be madeat or below corner speed in an attempt to reduce the bogey's angularadvantage as much as possible by the next pass while limiting altitudedifferential to about a quarter of a turn radius. A guns-defense maneuvermay be required at the next meeting, but the attacker should have only aforward-hemisphere snapshot. After the second pass the defender canrevert to the techniques outlined earlier in this section for defendingagainst opponents with a smaller angular advantage.An attacker who selects an out-of-plane repositioning maneuver on thefirst pass can be countered as though he had less angular advantage, i.e.,with an unloaded extension. In this case, however, the attacker's out-ofplanemaneuver is likely not to be so radical, allowing less extension timeand forcing the defender to come back sooner. The same come-back techniqueas before is still appropriate; namely, make a hard turn in the closestdirection holding the lift vector on or slightly below the bogey. This shouldreduce the attacker's angular advantage at the next pass, and the cycle canbe repeated, depending on the attacker's reaction.After the first pass, essentially the same defensive techniques applyregardless of the attacker's weapons. Defensive turn reversals, however,are much safer against bogeys without guns, and escape is more difficultfrom a missile-equipped enemy.In addition to an initial angular bite, the opponent may also have an

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 135energy advantage. In general, the angular disparity should be correctedfirst, since this is normally the more dangerous of the two. After drawingneutral on angles it is much easier to redress the energy balance.Maneuvering with an Energy DisadvantageAt the beginning of an engagement the pilot may suspect that the enemyhas an energy advantage, with or without an angular advantage. Also, if hehas had to regain angular parity, the defender must assume that he is at anenergy disadvantage. After all, energy bleed has probably been necessary tonullify the attacker's initial angular advantage. With this in mind, thedefender's next goal is either to escape, an option that is often availablefrom a neutral angular position, or to regain energy parity. Even though thetrend may have been in the defender's favor, he must recognize that he isstill at a disadvantage, so escaping to return another day is certainly anhonorable choice. On the other hand, the opponent has failed to capitalizeon any initial angular advantage, and the only way to win with an energyadvantage alone is to run the opponent into the ground. Therefore, thedefender has reason to be positive about his chances of success at thispoint.Just as recovery from an angles disadvantage requires angles tactics,correcting an energy deficit calls for energy tactics. The nose-to-nose turnis the defender's primary tool for bleeding the energy of a faster opponent.When two fighters meet essentially head-on and perform co-planar noseto-noseturns, it is the fighter with the smaller turn radius that gainsadvantage at the next pass. In order to match turn radius, a faster fightermust pull substantially more G and bleed energy at a much faster rate thana slower opponent. Figure 3-13 illustrates an example of this process.At time " 1" in this example the fighters meet nearly head-on and aboutco-altitude, but the bogey is substantially faster. At the pass, assuming thedefender wants to engage, he checks the bogey's direction of turn andquickly begins a level sustained turn in the nose-to-nose direction. Thebogey's greater airspeed results in its having a larger turn radius than thatDEFENDER8OGEYFigure 3-13. Maneuvering with a Speed Deficit

136 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTof the defending fighter, so the bogey is forced to pull harder in order tolimit the defender's angular gain at the next pass. Meanwhile the defenderjust maintains his sustained turn and reverses at time "2," taking whateverangular advantage the bogey allows, and possibly attempting a gunsnapshot. In this case the bogey has turned hard, taking away most of thedefender's angular advantage, but consequently bleeding excess airspeedwhile the defender has been maintaining speed. After this second pass thebogey pilot reverses to maintain sight, generating another nose-to-noseturn. The defending fighter simply continues its sustained turn. Approachingthe third pass, time "3," the defender's angular gain has not increasednoticeably since the previous pass. This is an indication that the twoaircraft are now approximately co-speed. The defending fighter has succeededin neutralizing the bogey's energy advantage while maintaining, orpossibly even gaining, angles. The defending pilot can now continue witheither angles or energy tactics as he chooses, from a neutral start.Returning to time "2" in the previous example, what if the bogey pilotrefused to reverse his turn at this point, but instead continued to the right,nose-to-tail? In this case, because of its angular advantage at the pass, thedefending fighter is still at an advantage. First of all there is a good chancethat the bogey pilot could lose sight during this turn. Secondly, the bogeymust turn farther than the defending fighter to generate a head-on pass atthe next meeting, giving the defender another excellent escape opportunity.Because slower speed does not offer the defender an inherent advantageunder nose-to-tail conditions, he should take this opportunity toaccelerate. The nose-to-tail turn should be continued (assuming the defenderchooses to remain engaged), but only hard enough to ensure ahead-on meeting at the next pass. In doing so the defender trades hisangular advantage at time "2" for additional speed, while the attackermust turn farther, leaving him with little chance to build energy. At thenext pass, if the defender is still unsure of his relative energy, the noseto-nosetechnique can be tried again. If the defending fighter is able toaccelerate up to its best sustained-turn-rate speed, however, it is time tobegin offensive angles or energy tactics.An even more efficient technique for this situation (i.e., continuedbogey nose-to-tail turn at time "2") from an energy standpoint is anunloaded acceleration just after the pass (time "2") until the bogey hasregained the angles lost in the first nose-to-nose turn. When the bogeyreaches a heading exactly opposite that of the defender, the defender canresume his sustained nose-to-tail turn at his new higher airspeed. Either ofthese techniques can be dangerous against an all-aspect-missile-equippedopponent, however, since he still may be able to bring his nose to bear first,with sufficient separation to satisfy his min-range parameters.The techniques outlined in conjunction with Figure 3-13 should workwell against a bogey that remains roughly co-altitude, but what if it has asubstantial altitude advantage at the first pass, or climbs steeply during theengagement? The general rule here is to work below the bogey, make itcome down to engage, and try to confine the fight to the horizontal plane.A higher-energy opponent with an altitude advantage can be either faster

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFT 137or slower than the defender, and it may not be readily apparent which is thecase. Since the nose-to-nose turn technique just described is predicated onthe defender having a smaller turn radius, it may not be effective against ahigher, slower opponent. One means of correcting this situation is for thedefender to climb up toward the bogey, either approaching the first pass orduring the first turn, allowing speed to bleed down to the range for minimumsustained turn radius. For most jet fighters under normal combatconditions this speed will be roughly 1.5 times power-on stall speed for itsweight, configuration, power, and altitude (usually somewhat slower forprop fighters). This speed will vary somewhat among different fightertypes, and it is often faster at very high altitudes, so performance chartsshould be consulted. In general, use of any configuration (e.g., flaps, slats)which lowers power-on stall speed is advantageous for this tactic. If theyare employed, however, use of any devices that increase unloaded drag ordecrease forward thrust should be discontinued before periods of acceleration.By operating in this speed range, the defender can be assured that asimilar bogey cannot outperform him in nose-to-nose turns regardless ofthe opponent's speed. The nose-to-nose turn tactic should then allow thedefender to put angular pressure on the attacker, forcing him to expend hisenergy advantage in response.It must be cautioned, however, that minimum sustained-turn-radiusspeed will be well below corner speed for the defender, and this may not bea healthy condition in a hostile combat environment where the possibilityof SAMs or additional threat fighters exists. In addition, if after the defenderclimbs to obtain optimum maneuvering speed the bogey still has asubstantial altitude advantage, the attacker may be able to make an overheadattack and force a weapons-defense maneuver. Such a defense may bedifficult at slow speed.As an alternative to this tactic, the defender can maintain speed andaltitude and perform a sustained nose-to-tail turn instead. In response tothis move the bogey is likely to make a nose-low turn, possibly gainingsome angles by the next pass, but expending some of its energy margin inthe process. Once the altitude advantage is reduced, the defender canreturn to the nose-to-nose technique or to the previously described tacticsappropriate for opponents with speed or angles advantage.An oppoqent who maneuvers vertically or steeply oblique after a headonpass may be able to use his vertical geometry to offset the defender'ssmaller turn radius in level nose-to-nose turns. This may enable the bogeypilot to maintain his energy advantage while making repeated attacks onthe defender. The response to this tactic is much like that recommendedagainst the high yo-yo ; namely, an unloaded acceleration after the passuntil the bogey's climb angle peaks, then a hard come-back in the closestdirection, keeping the lift vector on or slightly below the bogey. Thistechnique should limit the bogey's angular gains while forcing the attackerto expend his energy advantage. An all-aspect-missile-equipped opponentmay be able to satisfy firing parameters with such vertical maneuvers, sothe defender may prefer an escape attempt immediately if the bogeyzooms. A shot from well above the target, however, may be severely

138 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, SIMILAR AIRCRAFTlimited by look-down as well as marginal with respect to min-range, andthe defender should be well positioned for a defensive maneuver. Whenevermeeting the bogey from well below, as may be the case after amaneuver such as that just described, the defender should normally makeevery effort to reduce the opponent's vertical separation just prior to thepass. A zoom climb to within about a quarter of a turn radius of the bogey'saltitude at the pass should limit the attacker's opportunity for a lead turnand an effective overhead attack.SummaryIn the similar-aircraft, one-versus-one environment, pilot ability is thesingle most critical factor in determining success or failure. Tactics areselected primarily on the basis of the available weapons capabilities of theopponents, and they are designed to optimize aircraft performance toachieve firing parameters before the adversary reaches his parameters.Depending on the initial conditions and weapons mixes, either angles orenergy tactics may be preferable. Victory depends on having a tactical planprior to the engagement and executing that plan aggressively.The aggressive spirit, the offensive, is the chief thing everywhere in war, andthe air is no exception.Baron Manfred von RichthofenNotes1. Robert S. Johnson, Thunderbolt! p. 204.2. James T. B. McCudden, Flying Fury, pp. 264, 280.

One-versus-OneManeuvering,Dissimilar AircraftDissimilar fighters are fighters that have some performance characteristicswhich differ from those of the opponent by more than about 10percent. The performance measures of most interest are turn performance(both instantaneous and sustained) and energy performance (climb, acceleration,and speed). Of course there are many other ways in which fightersmay differ (e.g., roll and pitch performance, size, pilot visibility limits,combat endurance, and radar capabilities). The influence of some of thesefactors is also discussed when appropriate.As explained in the Appendix, instantaneous turn performance is determinedprimarily by the ratio of aerodynamic lift to aircraft weight at lowspeeds (i.e., below corner velocity) and by the ratio of structural strength toaircraft weight at high speeds. Except in cases of extreme disparity instructural strength between fighters (i.e., on the order of a 50 percentadvantage in maximum structural G for one aircraft), this limit is notusually as important in air combat as the aerodynamic limit. When afighter pilot finds himself in a serious defensive situation, and to someextent when he is very near a lethal offensive position, he will use whateverG is required to save himself or to get the shot. A few popped rivets orsome wrinkled skin is a small price to pay for the pilot's life or for a downedenemy aircraft. Since World War I there have been very few instances whena pilot has actually pulled the wings off his own fighter. Limits of structuralstrength must be adhered to in peacetime, however, since overstressesresult in additional maintenance time, expense, and lost training.Therefore, ways must be found of winning within the design limits of theaircraft.The relative low-speed instantaneous-turn-performance capabilities oftwo fighters can be determined by comparing their velocity-load factor(V-n) diagrams (see the Appendix). The aircraft with the greatest usable Gcapability at a given speed has superior instantaneous turn performance(i.e., faster turn rate and smaller radius) at that speed. This G capability

140 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTreflects the maximum lift-to-weight ratio of the fighter, which depends toa great extent on the ratio of aircraft weight to total wing area, commonlycalled the "wing loading." As explained in the Appendix, wing loadingalone can be misleading in this regard if one fighter has a more efficientwing for producing lift, possibly as a result of maneuvering slats or flaps.The way in which wing loading is calculated provides a further complication,as illustrated in Figure 4-1. The wing loading of the F-14 fightershown here might be stated conventionally as 97 Ibs/sq ft, based on theshaded area in the left-hand silhouette. The very broad fuselage of thisaircraft, however, provides a large proportion of the total lift, particularlyat very high AOA, so a more realistic value of wing loading (54 Ibs/sq ft)might be based on the area shaded in the right-hand silhouette.Because of these complications it will be necessary to make someassumptions to simplify maneuver discussions. Therefore, the term lowwing loaded is assumed to denote superior instantaneous turn performanceand slower minimum speed.Sustained turn performance is a little more complex. The Appendixexplains that sustairied-G capability is the result of a fighter's thrust-toweightratio (T/W) in combination with its aerodynamic efficiency, whichmay be expressed as its lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) at the particular maneuveringconditions. But G alone does not make turn performance, as turn rateand radius are also dependent on airspeed. Lower airspeed at a given G levelimproves both turn rate and turn radius. All else being equal, low-wingloadedaircraft tend to achieve their best sustained G at a lower speed, andtherefore they often have a sustained-turn advantage. It is possible, however,for a high-wing-loaded fighter to have better sustained turn rate at ahigher airspeed by sustaining much greater G, which, in the case of aerodynamicallysimilar aircraft, could be achieved with greater T/W. Sustainedturn radius, however, is such a strong function of airspeed that the lowwing-loadedfighter nearly always has the advantage here, regardless ofT/W. In this chapter a low-wing-loaded fighter is assumed, unless other-Figure 4-1. Calculation of Wing Loading

142 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTassumed to be good instantaneous turn performance, slow minimumspeed, and a tight sustained turn radius. In some cases this aircraft alsomight have a significant sustained-turn-rate advantage. Its weaknessesinclude inferior climb and acceleration performance under low-G conditions,and slower "top-end" speed.These characteristics are ideally suited to the use of angles tactics asdescribed in the last chapter. One of the problems of the pilot of a lowwing-loadedfighter is how to get close to an opponent who has greaterspeed capability. This may be accomplished with geometry by use of pureand lead pursuit. High and low yo-yos and barrel-roll attacks also may beuseful. Since the high-T/W opponent has better climb capability andvertical potential, the pilot of the low-wing-loaded fighter should attemptto constrain the fight to the horizontal plane as much as possible. Nose-tonoseturns make best use of a turn-radius advantage, and lead turns can bedevastating because of instantaneous-turn superiority. A flat scissorsshould be lethal to the high-T/W fighter since it suffers from both aturn-performance and a minimum-speed disadvantage. The low-wingloadedaircraft might also have some advantage in a rolling scissors becauseof better slow-speed controllability, but usually not so great anadvantage as in the flat scissors. In cases where the high-T/W enemy has asustained-turn-rate advantage, the rolling scissors generally should beavoided.On the other hand, the pilot of a high-T/W fighter should concentrate onenergy tactics when he is engaging a low-wing-loaded opponent. Lag pursuitand vertical/oblique maneuvers are necessary ingredients. Nose-totailgeometry is usually preferable because of the assumed disparity in turnradii.The defensive spiral might be handy if the pilot of the high-T/W fighterfinds himself at a serious disadvantage, A high-wing-loaded aircraft oftencan generate much greater induced drag than a low-wing-loaded adversary,which may lead to a rapid vertical overshoot and subsequent positionadvantage for the high-T/W fighter. If this advantage cannot be capitalizedon quickly, however, the low-wing-loaded bogey may use its superiorlow-speed turn performance to shallow out its spiral and regain the upperhand as the maneuver continues.The Angles Fight: Guns OnlyThe angles tactics recommended in the similar-aircraft guns-only scenarioare almost all relevant to the low-wing-loaded fighter in this case. Thereare a few slight differences in detail, however. For instance, in the similaraircraftcase each fighter attempted to gain an energy advantage over theother by climbing or accelerating before the first pass. In this case thebogey's higher T/W may allow it to win this preengagement race andachieve a speed and/or height advantage. To reduce this factor to a minimum,the pilot of the angles fighter might choose to cruise at an altitudewell above that at which bogeys might be expected, so that his initialheight advantage may offset the bogey's preengagement performance andprovide the low-T/W fighter with an energy advantage, or at least make it

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 143nearly equal in energy to the high-T/W fighter at the beginning of the fight.Since the low-wing-loaded fighter is likely to have lower maximum speedcapability, some height advantage is desirable at the pass to help ensureenergy parity. Practical considerations such as visibility and weaponssystemperformance, however, may prevent use of this technique.Another consideration is the performance superiority of the low-wingloadedfighter at slow speeds. For example, its best climb speed, bestsustained-turn speeds, and minimum vertical-maneuvering speed all areprobably lower than those of its high-wing-loaded adversary. This slowspeedefficiency improves relative performance in nose-to-nose turn situations.The angles fighter also may have some sustained-turn-rate advantage,which would enable it to make angular gains in nose-to-tail turnswith little relative energy sacrifice, but this process would be very slowand is definitely inferior to the nose-to-nose technique.On individual combat tactics, aggressiveness is the keynote of success.. . . The enemy on the defensive gives you the advantage, as he is trying toevade you, and not to shoot you down.Major Thomas B. "Tommy" McGuire, USAAFIn approaching the initial pass, the angles fighter should attempt togenerate some flight-path separation for a lead turn, as shown in Figure 3-1.Turn-performance superiority should provide the low-wing-loaded fighterwith some angular advantage at the pass. If the bogey continues straightahead or turns away from the attack to set up a nose-to-nose condition, theangles fighter should continue in the original turn direction. Should thebogey turn toward the attack, however, a turn reversal is called for, asdepicted in Figure 3-1. Since the pilot of the low-wing-loaded fighter doesnot have to optimize his turn performance to gain an advantage on theopponent, best sustained-turn-rate speed, rather than corner velocity, isnormally the best engagement airspeed. Because energy is so critical forthis fighter, the pilot should maneuver only as hard as necessary. Quiteoften small angular gains can be made in nose-to-nose situations simply byusing level sustained turns.This should be an initial attack which on the surface is very forceful and fast,but which leaves you some reserve. Do not spend all your energy on your firstattack.Miyamoto MusashiThe rest of the angles-fight sequence shown in Figures 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3,and the discussion of these figures, applies here, as well. The high-T/Wfighter may, however, achieve higher zoom-altitude advantage, preventingthe angles fighter from threatening a gun shot at time "5" of Figure 3-2. Inthis case the tactic of hiding beneath the bogey, as shown in Figure 3-7,may be useful. Instantaneous turn performance should give the pilot of theangles fighter a sweeter snapshot, or even a tracking shot in the end-game(Figure 3-3).If the shot is missed, the bogey can usually dive away and escape eveneasier than it could in the similar-aircraft case, since it now has higher

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 141wise stated, to have an equal or better sustained turn rate and a tightersustained turn radius than its high-wing-loaded opponent.Energy performance reflects a fighter's P s under specified flight conditions.PS at a given airspeed is a function of the ratio of excess thrust toaircraft weight, as shown by Equation 4 in the Appendix, and is a measureof the aircraft's ability to climb or accelerate under those conditions. Afighter's T/W is a fairly good indicator of its energy performance. This ratiois usually stated in terms of static sea-level thrust and a representativecombat weight. For piston-engine aircraft a parameter known as "powerloading," the ratio of aircraft weight to brake horsepower (normally maximumsea-level power), is used rather than T/W. Both these measures maybe misleading, however, since operating conditions of altitude and airspeedcan affect two fighters in different ways. For example, a fighter with arelatively powerful normally aspirated piston engine may have lowerpower loading and better performance than a turbocharged fighter at lowaltitudes; but the turbocharged fighter would retain its power better ataltitude and could have superior energy performance at higher levels.Likewise with jet engines, performance can vary greatly with inlet design,therefore a fighter may have higher T/W and better performance at slowspeeds but be inferior at faster speeds.A fighter's aerodynamic efficiency, in particular its lift-to-drag ratio, isalso vitally important to energy performance, especially at high G or highspeed. In order to simplify this discussion, however, the term high T/Winfers greater climb rate, faster acceleration, and higher maximum speedcapability relative to the opponent.Obviously fighter performance can be a complex subject, and the numbersalone don't always tell the whole story. Development of effectivetactics against dissimilar aircraft is, however, highly dependent on intimateknowledge of all aspects of relative fighter performance and design,as well as total familiarity by the pilot with his own aircraft and weaponssystem. Comparison testing, in which enemy aircraft are flown againstfriendly fighters, is undeniably the best method of gathering this crucialinformation.One of our achievements at this period was the "Rosarius Traveling Circus."This was a flight comprised of all air-worthy captured planes we could find.They traveled through the West from unit to unit in order to familiarize ourpilots with enemy technique. The leaders could fly these enemy types themselves.In this way we found out that we had usually overrated their performance.The circus proved a great success.Lt. General Adolph Galland, LuftwaffeLow Wing Loading versus High Thrust-to-WeightEncounters between a low-wing-loaded fighter and an enemy fighter withgreater T/W are quite common. In this case each fighter has performanceadvantages and disadvantages relative to its opponent. The engagementstrategy is for the pilot to exploit the opponent's most serious weaknesseswhile taking full advantage of his own fighter's greatest strengths.The low-wing-loaded fighter's greatest performance advantages are

144 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTacceleration and max-speed performance. If the bogey pilot decides to stayand fight by pulling back up steeply vertical, however, the pilot of theangles fighter should ensure he has minimum vertical-maneuvering speedbefore following the bogey up. Such a maneuver should result either in arepeat of the sequence of Figure 3-2 or in a rolling scissors. In the latter casethe low-wing-loaded fighter normally has an advantage because of betterslow-speed controllability.Throughout the fight, the pilot of the angles fighter can be somewhatless concerned with overshoots than he would be in the case of similarfighters, since the bogey's larger turn radius and higher speed make it moredifficult for its pilot to gain advantage after an overshoot by the anglesfighter. Gross vertical overshoots still should be avoided, however, sincethey may allow the bogey at least a temporary advantage, and possibly asnapshot, after one turn of a rolling scissors. Minimum verticalmaneuveringspeed should be observed whenever the angles fighter is inclose proximity with the bogey to guard against zoom maneuvers. Greed isthe angles fighter pilot's greatest enemy. He should avoid trying to grabangles faster than his aircraft's performance permits. Once further angulargains can no longer be made at speeds greater than that required for verticalmaneuvering, the high-wing-loaded fighter must have bled its speed downto or below that of the angles fighter, so the bogey should have littlevertical potential remaining. In this case the pilot of the angles fighter cansafely bleed to slower speeds and finish off his opponent.Don't let the [enemy] trick you into pulling up or turning until you lose yourspeed.Major Thomas B. "Tommy" McGuire, USAAFIn the case of dissimilar fighters, the high-wing-loaded bogey pilot is lesslikely to allow the angles fighter the advantages of nose-to-nose geometry.By being uncooperative, the bogey pilot can make things more difficult.For instance, he may choose to reverse his turn direction after the firstpass, reinitiating a nose-to-tail condition, as shown in Figure 4-2.The reaction (reversal) of the pilot of the high-T/W bogey depicted hereis likely to occur at some time after the first pass, when he observes theangles fighter's nose-to-nose reversal. A reversal at this time requires thebogey pilot to "kick his opponent across the tail" and usually results in aprotracted blind period when the angles fighter is out of sight. Such amaneuver performed well after the pass may cause the bogey pilot to losesight of the angles fighter altogether, particularly when small, high-speedfighters are involved, so it is not without risk. The pilot of the anglesfighter can increase his chances of being lost at this point by making aradical change in his maneuver plane (i.e., zooming or diving). Figure 4-3shows one possible mid-game approach in this situation.In this top view the fighters are initially positioned at time "3" as inFigure 4-2. Because of the bogey's late reversal and the low-wing-loadedfighter's better turn performance, the angles fighter already has a significantangular advantage at this point, but it is probably well outside effectiveguns range. The task of the angles fighter pilot in this nose-to-tail

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 145Figure 4-2. First Pass: Case 2situation is to get inside the bogey's turn, build some flight-path separation,and lead-turn the opponent at the next pass. The farther the anglesfighter can get inside the bogey's flight path during the lead turn, themore separation will be attained and the more effective the early turnwill be. The pilot of the angles fighter, therefore, should "bend itaround" in a tight, high-G turn to aim as quickly as possible at a pointestimated to be the center of the bogey's turn, as depictd in Figure 4-3. Inthis particular illustration, the resultant heading initially places the anglesfighter nearly in pure pursuit (i.e., pointed at the bogey); but depending onthe geometry, lead pursuit, or in some cases even lag pursuit, may result. Aprecise visual determination of the bogey's center-of-turn is almost impossible,but it can be estimated accurately enough by noting that it will lievery nearly along a line perpendicular to the bogey's fuselage axis and atsome distance from the bogey itself. Pulling a few degrees of lead on aFigure 4-3. Dissimilar-Aircraft Angles Fight: Mid-Game

146 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFThard-turning bogey showing its full planform (i.e., 90° aspect) is aboutoptimum.Once he is established on the proper heading, the pilot of the anglesfighter should try to reach his goal (i.e., the early-turn point) as quicklyas possible. This generally is accomplished by an unloaded accelerationto retain any speed lost in the first turn. Airspeed should not beincreased indiscriminately, however. Once his aircraft reaches the leadturnpoint, the pilot should use a minimum-radius turn in order to take fulladvantage of the available separation. Minimum turn radius, averaged overa short period of time, usually is attained by commencing the turn at aboutcorner speed, pulling maximum available G, and allowing speed to decayas the turn is completed. The pilot of the angles fighter, therefore, shouldattempt to accelerate between times "4" and "5" until his aircraft reachescorner speed. If the early-turn point has not been reached by this time, aconstant-speed climb can be commenced to build additional separation inthe vertical and to provide a gravity assist for the subsequent lead turn.Determination of the early-turn point, time "5," is, as always, a matterof judgment and experience in assessing relative motion. Ideally the leadturn is conducted at near maximum G and results in passing almostdirectly over, under, or slightly behind the bogey for greatest advantage.This geometry is also ideally suited for a gun snapshot at the pass. Onceagain, however, care should be taken not to allow speed to bleed too farbelow that required for vertical maneuvering, just in case the bogey zoomsat the overshoot. Nose-to-tail geometry makes judging the bogey's energylevel even more difficult.Figure 4-3 depicts only a very small angular advantage for the anglesfighter at the pass (time "6"), and this is often the case in practice. In fact,the geometry and relative turn performance may be such that the bogey isable to achieve another neutral head-on pass. In most cases, however,doing this will require it to expend a great amount of energy, which willeventually lead to trouble for the high-wing-loaded bogey.Time "6" in Figure 4-3 is essentially the same as time "3" in Figure 3-1and time "2" in Figure 4-2 (except that both fighters are probably slower),so the angles fighter pilot can repeat the same reversal in an attempt toestablish the more advantageous nose-to-nose condition. Depending onthe advantage gained at the pass, however, it may be preferable for him justto continue nose-to-tail. Generally speaking, once the angles fighter hasgained about 60° to 70° angular advantage, it is probably better for it tocontinue nose-to-tail. Doing so results in a considerable blind period forthe bogey pilot, during which he may lose sight altogether or get nervousand pull harder, further bleeding his aircraft's energy. A reversal underthese conditions causes a blind period for the pilot of the angles fighterinstead, and because of the time wasted during the reversal, results in littleincrease in position advantage. As with nose-to-nose tactics, continuednose-to-tail turns may eventually yield a lethal position for the low-wingloadedfighter, but arriving at this point will almost surely take longer.Once again, the angles fighter should take only what his turn-performanceadvantage will allow, chipping away a few degrees at a time while maintainingat least vertical-maneuvering speed.

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 147So far in this discussion it has been assumed that the pilot of thehigh-T/W bogey will maneuver in the near-horizontal. He does, however,have the steeply vertical option. Figure 4-4 shows how the angles fighterpilot can cope with this situation. This illustration begins, as before, withthe head-on approach. The angles fighter pilot attempts to gain flight-pathseparation for a lead turn, as in the previous examples; but this time, ratherthan taking out this separation with a close head-on pass, the high-T/Wbogey immediately pulls up in the vertical. Because of the co-energyassumption of this section, the angles fighter could zoom with the bogey atthis point. Even with a co-energy start, however, the greater P s of thehigh-T/W bogey during the zoom would ordinarily allow it to reach ahigher altitude. In cases where the P s disparity is not too great, the anglesfighter may be able to zoom high enough to threaten a gun shot at the top,forcing the bogey back down for a lead turn. In practice, however, there isusually no assurance of being co-energy at the initial pass. If instead thebogey should have a considerable energy advantage at this point, attemptingto zoom with it could be disastrous. If unable to threaten the bogey ontop, the pilot of the angles fighter may find himself too slow to defendagainst the bogey diving from above. Later in the engagement, after theangles fighter pilot has had time to ensure energy parity, zooming with thebogey can be attempted more safely. In that case a maneuver sequencesimilar to that described by Figures 3-2 and 3-3 might force the bogey backdown for a lead turn. If he is too low on energy to threaten a gun shot on top,the pilot of the angles fighter can resort to the tactic illustrated by Figure3-7 (i.e., hiding beneath the bogey to force it down).Figure 4-4. Angles Fight: Case 3

148 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTWhenever he is engaging in a zooming contest, the angles fighter pilotmust take care not to allow his speed to bleed below that required forcontrol in level flight (i.e., power-on stall speed). Once the nose is parkednear vertical, it is all too easy to let the airspeed fall below this value, evento zero, in an attempt to get a few more feet of altitude out of the zoom. Ifthis is allowed to happen, the nose of the airplane will soon become an"earth seeker," falling to a near-vertical nose-down attitude. Even if thepilot can maintain control during this maneuver, he will have very little Gavailable with which to fend off an attack by the higher bogey, which nowhas been placed astutely in the rear quarter.If it becomes apparent during a zoom that the bogey will top out muchhigher, the angles fighter pilot should immediately pull the nose backdown to near a level attitude in a direction as far from the bogey as possiblewhile he maintains sight of his opponent. This tactic generates separationand provides time for the angles fighter to build up some speed for defensivemaneuvering.The tactic illustrated in Figure 4-4 is more conservative and probablymore appropriate early in the engagement than zooming with the bogey onthe first pass. Here, on observing the bogey's zoom, the angles fighter pilotsimply levels his wings and climbs. An unloaded acceleration might alsobe appropriate during this segment if his speed is substantially below thatrequired for best climb performance. The climb allows the low-wingloadedfighter to build energy at near maximum rate, while the high-T/Wbogey remains at high G in its vertical pull-up, gaining little or no energy inthe process. Simultaneously, the angles fighter is creating horizontalseparation and reducing the bogey's altitude advantage.The angles fighter should continue in a straight line until the bogeyapproaches the top of its loop. Any horizontal turning during this periodmerely wastes valuable energy, since the bogey can nullify any such turnsimply by rolling while in a near-vertical attitude.As the bogey approaches the top of the loop (time "3"), the pilot of theangles fighter rolls to place the bogey perpendicular to the wings (i.e.,points the lift vector at it), and bends his aircraft around to generate about a90° AOT (time "4"}. At that time he can relax the G but continue to turnobliquely up toward the bogey just hard enough to hold it about 90° off thetail.This tactic has several positive benefits for the angles fighter. Theco-planar turn holding the bogey at 90° AOT presents the bogey with thehighest possible horizontal LOS rate, forcing it to turn mainly in thehorizontal to gain a position advantage. The bogey's shallow oblique turnat slow airspeed prevents it from gaining any great amount of energy. Theangles fighter meanwhile is turning at fairly low G near optimum maneuveringspeed and usually can maintain or even add energy during thissegment. In addition, by allowing the bogey to remain very near theangular limits of a gun envelope, the angles fighter pilot is encouraging theopponent to continue his maneuver with hopes of success.This "baiting" tactic is continued until the bogey approaches firingparameters of range and lead. At that point (time "5 ") the pilot of the angles

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 149fighter performs an out-of-plane guns-defense maneuver, nose-down inthis case (essentially a high-G barrel roll underneath). Once the bogey'snose is observed to fall behind a proper lead position, the angles fighterpilot can reverse, forcing an overshoot at close range (time "6"). Such anovershoot, with the bogey co-energy or below, should provide the lowwing-loadedangles fighter with a valuable offensive position advantage. Itremains only to press this advantage to a lethal position, as discussedearlier.Now that several likely angles-fight scenarios have been presented,some attention needs to be paid to the end-game. When faced with animpending gun shot by a low-wing-loaded opponent, the pilot of a high-T/W bogey will often attempt to defend in the vertical. If he feels he canout-zoom his opponent, he is likely to try it. As discussed in the lastexample, when the angles fighter pilot feels he has energy parity, zoomingwith the bogey might be appropriate. Otherwise, the tactics illustrated byFigure 4-4 are safer.When he is caught at slow speed with some altitude available, the pilotof a high-wing-loaded bogey is more likely to attempt a defensive spiral. Asdiscussed in Chapter 3, this can be a very effective guns defense, andskillful use of decelerating tactics may even gain an offensive position forthe bogey, particularly if the angles fighter pilot attempts to press for a gunshot as the spiral develops. If the angles fighter pilot allows the bogey someinitial vertical separation, however, he can maintain an offensive position(above the bogey). The pilot of the angles fighter then simply waits andnails the bogey during its pull-out. Judging when to pull down after thebogey can be a very close call, since following too closely can result in avertical overshoot, and excessive delay may allow the defender to dive outof range.Should a vertical overshoot occur, however, and the angles fighter pilotfind himself level with or below the bogey in the spiral, decelerating tacticsshould not be attempted. Instead, the low-wing-loaded fighter pilot cancontinue the spiral to defeat any guns solution while slowly pulling out ofthe dive at full power and maximum lift. The turn-performance advantageof the low-wing-loaded fighter should allow the pilot to shallow his diveangle more quickly, causing the high-wing-loaded bogey to overshootvertically, again becoming defensive.The Energy Fight: Guns OnlyEverything in the air that is beneath me, especially if it is a one-seater ... islost, for it cannot shoot to the rear.Baron Manfred von RichthofenThe preceding scenarios of angles tactics should make the task of theenergy fighter pilot evident. The pilot of the high-T/W fighter must avoidgetting shot until he can build a large energy margin, allowing him to zoomwell above his opponent and position for a high-to-low gun attack. A steepapproach to a high-side gun pass helps the high-wing-loaded fighter compensatefor his turn-performance deficiency. Roll rate can be substituted

150 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTfor turn rate to accomplish much of the heading change required in maneuveringto a gun-firing envelope, and in a steep diving attitude the energyfighter has to oppose less gravity than it would when performing a levelturn. It should be noted, however, that while the guns approach may be asteep dive, the firing pass itself usually is more successful if it can beshallowed somewhat, as discussed later. Even with these advantages,however, the pilot of the energy fighter should not expect a lengthy trackinggun shot against a well-flown low-wing-loaded fighter with a substantialinstantaneous-turn advantage, since this bogey nearly always cangenerate enough turn performance to keep the energy fighter out of steadytracking parameters. The major exceptions to this rule occur when thebogey pilot loses sight of his attacker or the bogey is near stall speed attree-top altitudes. Although the energy fighter pilot can work at creatingthese conditions, a lethal snapshot opportunity often will be achieved first.Obviously, an energy fighter must have a substantial altitude advantageover its opponent immediately preceding an effective high-side or overheadgun pass. The exact amount of this required advantage depends onmany factors, but in general the altitude advantage should be about equivalentto the minimum instantaneous turn radius of the energy fighter. Thatis, a fighter that can generate a minimum horizontal turn radius of 2,000 ftat engagement altitude and optimum speed (i.e., below corner speed)would require about a 2,000-ft altitude advantage for an effective overheador steep high-side gun attack. A well-flown angles fighter can be expectedto deny such an altitude advantage, if possible, whenever the energy fighteris near guns range. The bogey pilot may do this by zooming with the energyfighter or by saving enough airspeed to allow a vertical pull-up, if necessary,to meet the diving attacker nearly head-on.The pilot of the high-T/W fighter, therefore, needs to build an energyadvantage sufficient to allow him to zoom higher than the low-wingloadedbogey by the required amount. Then if the bogey pilot engages in azooming contest, the energy fighter pilot simply waits for his opponent totop out in the climb, and then pounces on him from above before the bogeycan dive and gain sufficient airspeed for effective defensive maneuvering.This sequence was discussed in conjunction with Figure 2-15.There are at least two pitfalls in this tactic, however. The most seriousof these is the possibility that the zooming contest will occur before thehigh-T/W fighter has a great enough energy advantage. The results of thiserror were described under guns-only angles tactics in this and the precedingchapter and are depicted in Figures 3-3 and 3-8. The other possibility isthat the bogey pilot will refuse to join in a zooming contest, but rather willuse his free time during the energy fighter's pull-up to build energy for alater defensive move or a "baiting" tactic like the one shown in Figure 4-4.These are just two of the factors that make this energy fight a very difficultone.Engaging with an Initial Energy Advantage. Depending on relative performance,the energy fighter pilot may be able to assure the desired energyadvantage at the first pass by attaining a speed that is well above themaximum capability of the low-T/W bogey. This is common when a

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 151supersonic fighter engages a bogey that is limited to subsonic speeds. Justhow much excess speed is required can be estimated using an altitude-Mach (H-M) diagram or Equation 3 in the Appendix before the engagement.Assuming an engagement altitude, the bogey's maximum attainableenergy level can be located on the chart. Adding the desired energy(altitude) advantage to the bogey's energy level determines the approximateenergy level required of the high-T/W fighter. The speed at whichthis desired energy level intersects the engagement altitude represents thenecessary airspeed of the energy fighter.The speed advantage necessary to provide a given zoom-altitude advantageis highly dependent on the bogey's airspeed. For example, a 2,000-ftzoom advantage over a bogey traveling at 100 knots true airspeed (KTAS)would require the energy fighter to have about 130 knots of excess airspeed(230 KTAS total). But with the bogey at 500 KTAS, the energy fighterwould need about 540 KTAS (only a 40-knot advantage). Although fasterbogeys require less speed advantage for the energy fighter to attain a givenzoom-altitude margin, this phenomenon is offset to a large degree becausefaster fighters generally need more altitude margin. The figures given hereare only gross estimates, since they do not consider possible energychanges during the zoom maneuver.Assuming this energy advantage can be attained at the first pass, thepilot of the high-T/W fighter may choose to zoom immediately, as shownin Figure 4-5. The major difference between this scenario and that of Figure4-4 comes from the great energy advantage of the high-T/W fighter in thiscase, which enables the energy fighter to remain well above its opponent,and facilitates its maneuvering in the vertical plane.In this scenario the energy fighter has a substantial speed advantageapproaching the pass (time "1") as well as slightly greater altitude.Together this speed and altitude advantage form the high-T/W fighter'sdesired energy margin. The purpose of the height advantage in this case isnot only to provide extra energy margin, but also to induce the bogey pilotinto a sharply nose-high maneuver. Allowing some vertical separation(i.e., passing almost directly over the bogey) gives the bogey room for a leadturn, but the pilot must turn almost purely in the vertical to take advantageof it. Too much separation here may provide the low-wing-loadedopponent a reasonable snapshot at the pass, while too little vertical advantageoffers him little incentive to zoom. An altitude advantage at the passequal to about one-quarter of the bogey's best turn radius is usually a goodcompromise.In Figure 4-5 the angles fighter begins a near-vertical lead turn at time"1," while the energy fighter continues straight ahead for a few seconds.Here the pilot of the energy fighter must assess whether the bogey pilot hastimed his pull-up properly to gain lead for a gun snapshot at the pass. If so, aquick out-of-plane (level) jink is in order to spoil the shot before he starts apull-up of his own. This slight delay in the energy fighter's zoom also helpsthe pilot keep sight of the bogey underneath. The energy fighter shouldbegin its pull-up, at sustained-G levels, as the bogey begins to approacheffective guns range. Turning up and away from the bogey at this point

152 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTincreases the LOS rate seen by the bogey pilot, and consequently increaseshis lead requirement, forcing him to pull harder and reach a higher climbingattitude. If the bogey pilot keeps pulling for a shot, he should becommittd to a very steep climb by the pass (time "2"). Mild jinks left andright during the pull-up complicate the aiming problem of the bogey pilotand may also facilitate keeping sight of the bogey.During the next segment of this maneuver the energy fighter pilotshould continue a wings-level, sustained-G pull-up, and reacquire theFigure 4-5. Energy Fight with Initial Energy Advantage

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 153bogey visually. Once he reaches a vertical attitude, the pilot of the high-T/W fighter can roll slightly one way or the other if necessary to align hisaircraft's wings perpendicular to the bogey's position, then pull slightlypast the vertical toward the bogey. During the remainder of the zoomtoward time "3," the energy fighter pilot should ease to a zero-G or slightlynegative-G condition in order to achieve the highest possible zoom altitude.Simultaneously, he should begin to drift toward a position almostdirectly above the bogey. Care should be taken, however, not to positiondirectly above and in front of the opponent too early. If altitude separationat time "3" does not exceed the bogey's effective guns range the opponentmay squirt out some lead at this point, force a defensive maneuver, andseize the offensive. When its maneuver is timed properly, the energyfighter will drift over the bogey near the top of the zoom, with maximumvertical separation, just as the bogey pilot is becoming more concernedwith controlling his aircraft at slow airspeed and less concerned withaiming his guns.After establishing the proper zoom attitude and beginning the drifttoward the bogey, the energy fighter pilot may choose to roll his aircraft inthe unloaded condition to point either wingtip at the bogey. This tactic,known as "profiling," reduces the presented area of the energy fighter asviewed by the bogey pilot, making it more likely that the enemy will losesight. It also may facilitate the task of the energy fighter pilot in watchingthe bogey, and reduce the possibility of his flying out in front of theopponent's guns.At time "3" the bogey runs out of airspeed and its nose begins to falltoward the horizon. Allowing the bogey to begin its pull-up first alsoensures that it will top out first. Once he reaches a slightly nose-downattitude, the bogey pilot rolls upright to regain sight of the energy fighterabove, and begins a nose-low, unloaded acceleration. On seeing the bogey'snose start to fall through, the pilot of the energy fighter needs to assesswhether sufficient vertical separation exists for a successful gun attack. Ifnot, the zoom can be continued until the required separation is available.Once this separation has been created, the energy fighter pilot should gethis nose pointed down at the bogey very quickly to cut his opponent'sacceleration time to a minimum. This may be accomplished by configuringfor greatest lift (flaps, slats, etc.) and using maximum available G todrop down into the bogey's rear hemisphere for a diving gun attack.When flying at very slow airspeeds the energy fighter pilot may chooseinstead to push over the top or to employ a "rudder reversal" at the peak ofhis zoom. Also sometimes called a "hammerhead turn," the latter maneuvercauses the aircraft to rotate about its vertical axis, pivoting sidewaysfrom a nose-high to a nose-low attitude. In most aircraft the rudderreversal is performed in an unloaded condition by applying full rudder inthe direction the pilot wishes the nose to fall.This technique apparently was first used in combat by Max Immelmann,a World War I German flyer who was one of the world's first fighteraces. (He won his fifth victory within a few days of Oswald Boelcke's,another great German air fighter and tactician.) One of Immelmann's

154 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTfavorite tactics was to make a high-speed diving attack on his victim, thenpull up vertically, perform a rudder reversal, and dive back down foranother attack, and so on, until the target was destroyed. This tactic soconfounded his Allied opponents that they dubbed it the "ImmelmannTurn" and were convinced it defied the laws of aerodynamics. Once it wasfigured out, the technique was widely copied by both sides. Today there is aprecision aerobatic maneuver known as an "Immelmann," but it variesconsiderably from the original. The modern Immelmann begins with thefirst half of a loop to the inverted position, followed by a roll to the uprightattitude at the top.The Immelmann Turn was very successful. . . . But later, when more powerfulengines became available, it was a dangerous move, for the lower pilotcould climb after the Fokker and attack when it hung almost motionless inthe vertical position, not under full control, and presenting an easy shot.Air Vice-Marshal J. E. "Johnnie" Johnson, RAFPassing directly over the bogey and then pulling down toward its sixo'clock almost ensures that the opponent will lose sight of the energyfighter temporarily. Faced with these tactics, the bogey pilot essentiallyhas only two options. He can begin to turn almost immediately in a level orslightly oblique plane, attempting to regain sight and to hamper the attacker'simpending gun shot, or he can continue an unloaded diving acceleration.In the first case his guns defense is not likely to be successfulbecause of low G available at his slow airspeed. In the second option healmost surely will not regain sight of the attacker and will be forced toguess when to perform his guns break. If he guesses correctly the gunsdefense should be more effective at the resulting higher airspeed. Anincorrect guess should terminate the engagement.In the event that the energy fighter pilot misses the shot at time "4," avertical overshoot is probable. At min-range the attacker can unload or rollaway from the target aircraft (quarter roll away) and continue to dive forseparation. Generally his speed advantage in the dive will carry himbeyond guns range before the opponent can reverse and threaten a shot.This separation and speed advantage then can be used to exit the fight or toreturn for another head-on pass. If the vertical overshoot is not great andthe energy fighter has attained at least vertical-maneuvering speed at theovershoot, the pilot may choose to pull immediately up into anothervertical pitch-back and repeat his overhead attack. However, if the overshootcarries the attacker substantially below the bogey's altitude (i.e.,approaching the equivalent of one attacker turn radius), the energy fighterpilot first should climb back up near the bogey's altitude before beginning asecond vertical maneuver. Otherwise the altitude advantage on the top ofthe second pitch-back may be less than required, resulting in an evengreater overshoot on the next pass.Some modification may be required in these tactics if the energy fighteris subject to restrictions against prolonged zero or negative G. The fuel oroil systems of many power plants may cause temporary engine stoppage oreven permanent damage when engines are subjected to these operating

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 155conditions. However, the pilot of the energy fighter still may be able tomake use of this tactic under these conditions by relaxing the G after theinitial pull-up to a slightly positive load factor for the duration of thevertical zoom maneuver.A well-flown bogey can counter these tactics effectively in severalways. One method is not to zoom with the energy fighter at the first pass,but instead to counter with the maneuver described by Figure 4-4. Evenafter he is committed to a zoom the bogey pilot can complicate matters ifhe recognizes his situation soon enough. In this case he can break off thezoom early, before he runs out of airspeed, by leveling-off on a headingaway from the energy fighter, regaining maneuvering speed, and thencoming back again, as in Figure 4-4, or attempting an escape. Normally inthis situation it is not advantageous for the energy fighter pilot to continuehis zoom to low airspeeds in order to maximize zoom altitude. Instead heshould roll as necessary to place the bogey on the lift line and continue topull over the top of the loop at sustained-G levels. This situation isdepicted in Figure 4-6.In this example both fighters begin a zoom at the pass, as in Figure 4-5.This time, however, the pilot of the low-T/W fighter recognizes his opponent'sgreat energy advantage and terminates the zoom, leveling off toestablish a sustainable climb angle at time "3." Once he reaches a verticalzoom attitude at time "3," the energy fighter pilot sees that his opponent isleveling off, and so he continues to pull over the top of the loop atFigure 4-6. Energy Counter When Bogey Refuses to Zoom

156 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTsustained-G levels. As the energy fighter comes over the top at time "4,"the bogey pilot begins a slightly climbing left turn to reengage. The energyfighter pilot continues to pull his nose down near pure vertical (time "5"},then rolls completely around to reacquire the bogey visually and to pointthe lift vector ahead of the bogey's current position (i.e., performs a leadroll). Once pointed downward, the energy fighter is unloaded and acceleratingwhile performing the lead roll. The pilot continues this accelerationuntil approaching vertical-maneuvering speed, adjusting roll angleas necessary so that a wings-level pull-out will result in a close pass withthe bogey at the next meeting. At time "6" the energy fighter pilot hasbegun his sustained-G wings-level pull-out. This pull-out should not bedelayed any longer than necessary to achieve vertical-maneuvering speedat the bottom, since any delay can give the bogey vertical separation for alead turn at the pass. The energy fighter pilot should resist any temptationto perform a rolling pull-out, as this wastes energy.Approaching the pass at time "6," the bogey pilot decides to pull sharplyup for vertical separation and a barrel-roll attack. If the energy fighter'spull-out has been executed properly the bogey pilot will have to do a lot ofhard, energy-bleeding maneuvering to gain any substantial position advantageat the pass. In such a case the bogey is unlikely to have any verticalpotential remaining. The opponent is merely attempting to intimidate theenergy fighter pilot, hoping to bluff him into some energy-bleeding defensivemaneuvering.In response, the pilot of the energy fighter should be aware that his bestdefense is an altitude sanctuary. Defensive maneuvering should be limitedto perhaps one quick out-of-plane jink, appropriately timed, followed byanother pull-up (time "7"). Depending on the dynamics of the situation,this second pull-up may not have to be continued to the pure vertical. Oncethe energy fighter pilot determines that sufficient altitude separation willbe generated by the climb and (possibly) the bogey's dive, he shouldterminate the pull-up immediately with a quick roll and a pull-down for agun attack.In the case of Figure 4-6, the energy fighter pilot was unable to avoidpulling out below his opponent at the second pass if vertical-maneuveringspeed was to be reached. When possible, however, it is more advantageousto remain above the bogey's altitude throughout, so that the opponent isforced to make his attack nose-high, fighting gravity and losing moreairspeed. Bottoming-out below the bogey allows it to attain a greaterangular advantage at the pass and makes the enemy's bluff more believable.Except for very gross altitude overshoots by the energy fighter,however, the bogey's attack still can be adequately defeated by a quickout-of-plane jink.Defense against [Japanese] fighters is resolved around the superior speed ofour fighters. . . . Offensive measures go according to the number of theenemy, but they are always hit-and-run because the [Zeros] can outmaneuverus about two to one.Major Richard I. "Dick" Bong, USAAFLeading U.S. Ace, WW-II40 Victories

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 157Engaging without an Initial Energy Advantage. All the foregoing tacticsare predicated on the high-T/W fighter having a significant energy advantageat the first pass. If this cannot be assured, other methods will berequired to gain this energy margin during the engagement. In order toaccomplish this, it is necessary that energy performance (P s ) be optimizedrelative to that of the opponent. Higher T/W normally confers a P s advantageto the energy fighter during low-G conditions, especially during unloadedaccelerations and climbs. This is not necessarily so for hard-turningconditions, when the assumed larger wing or greater efficiency of theangles fighter may actually provide this aircraft with better energy performance(i.e., higher PS for a given load factor, turn rate, or radius).Therefore, in order to optimize relative energy performance, the pilot ofthe high-T/W fighter needs to minimize turning and maximize low-Gaccelerations and climbs. Any necessary turning should be done asefficiently as possible from an energy standpoint, which usually meansvertical maneuvering. Figure 4-7 illustrates how these generalities can beput into practice.In this example the opponents approach head-on at time "I." As inprevious engagements, the pilot of the low-wing-loaded bogey can beexpected to attempt to generate some flight-path separation for a lead turnbefore the pass. The energy fighter pilot counters by turning toward thebogey to reduce lateral separation and in this way reduce the bogey'spotential angular advantage at the pass (time "2").Figure 4-7. Extension/Pitch-Back Tactics

158 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTAny angles you give the bogey on the first pass will haunt you for the rest ofthe fight.Lieutenant Jim "Huck" Harris, USNUnlike in the previous example, the fighters here are assumed to haveapproximately equal energy (co-speed and co-altitude) at the first pass.Because of his aircraft's greater T/W the energy fighter pilot could pull upimmediately and out-zoom his adversary, but this generally is not advisable.One reason for this is that the bogey may be faster than assumed.Another is the timing involved in a zooming contest. The first fighter tobegin a zoom normally will peak first. Even if the low-T/W fighter cannotquite reach the same altitude, it will be considerably more maneuverablein approaching the top of its climb than the first-zooming energy fighter,which may have already peaked. At this time the energy fighter will bevery slow and vulnerable as it begins to accelerate or starts back down. Ifthe angles fighter can get close enough to threaten an attack at this point,the high-wing-loaded fighter could be in serious trouble.To avoid this situation the energy fighter pilot accelerates to best climbspeed (or, if he is faster than that, he glows by climbing steeply) and climbsstraight ahead at full power. Turning during this segment should be limitedto the minimum required to keep sight of the bogey. In this way theenergy fighter gains separation from the bogey to preclude being menacedat the top of a subsequent zoom and also builds an energy advantage whilethe bogey is turning and most likely bleeding energy.Once the bogey completes its turn and is pointed back in the generaldirection of its opponent (time "3"), the energy fighter pilot begins awings-level, sustained-G pull-up to gain further vertical separation. Beforeits pilot commences this pull-up, the energy fighter must have at leastvertical-maneuvering speed. If this value is faster than best climb speed,the climb between times "2" and "3" may have to be eliminated or cutshort to allow for acceleration to the required pull-up speed. As airspeeddecays in the zoom, the energy fighter pilot should constantly be reducingG to approximate the sustained-G capability of his aircraft at that speed,otherwise valuable energy will be lost in the vertical maneuver. Approachingthe top of the climb (time "4") the energy fighter should be slightlyfaster than 1-G stall speed and be pulling only about 1 positive G whileinverted.The separation between the fighters at time "3" and the vertical maneuverof the energy fighter give the bogey pilot some breathing room betweentimes "3" and "4." He can be expected to use this period to regain some ofhis energy deficit by accelerating or climbing. But since it has lower T/W,the angles fighter cannot offset all the energy margin gained by the high-T/W fighter during the earlier climbing extension. Assuming the energyfighter does not bleed energy in the zoom, it should arrive at time "4" witha significant energy advantage.Approaching the purely vertical attitude in his pull-up between times"3" and "4," the energy fighter pilot needs to study the bogey's positionand maneuver. The object is to arrive at the peak of the zoom, time "4," as

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 159near directly overhead the bogey as possible. If the bogey is still somedistance away horizontally as the energy fighter reaches the vertical, itmay be desirable to delay the completion of the pitch-back for a fewseconds to allow the bogey to drive closer. This may be done by unloadingin a near-vertical attitude and continuing the zoom. This tactic may beaccompanied by profiling, as explained earlier. In this way extra altitudeand time may be gained by zooming to a very slow airspeed, and thenperforming a rudder reversal or a pull-down at the appropriate moment.In the case depicted, however, the bogey is near enough that the pitchbackcan be continued. Therefore the pilot of the energy fighter rolls toplace the bogey perpendicular to the wings, and continues to pull in anattempt to pass directly over the bogey without any horizontal maneuvering.The bogey pilot may defeat this effort by turning horizontally after theenergy fighter's rolling maneuver, but this should have little effect otherthan further reducing the bogey's energy.In the engagement depicted in Figure 4-7 the bogey begins a climbingoblique turn to the right at time "4." After crossing above the bogey, theenergy fighter pulls steeply down toward its opponent's rear hemisphere,During the first part of this descent (between times "4" and "5") the energyfighter pilot uses lag pursuit, keeping his aircraft's nose pointed slightlybehind the bogey, driving toward its extended six o'clock region. Thistechnique results in a spiraling flight path, with most of the requiredheading changes accomplished by rolling the aircraft. During this periodload factor should be minimized to permit greater acceleration.This lag-pursuit technique should force the bogey pilot to turn hard andclimb more steeply in order to keep sight of the diving energy fighter,thereby bleeding even more energy. At time "5" the energy fighter pilotdetermines that separation and angular advantage are such that an effectivehigh-side gun attack can be initiated. Therefore he begins to turnharder, shallowing the dive angle, and pulling inside the bogey's turn bymaking the transition to pure, and then lead, pursuit. At time "6" theenergy fighter has achieved a fairly high AOT, but it is in an effective firingposition against the relatively slow and less maneuverable bogey.In this example the high-T/W fighter's energy-performance advantagewas sufficient to provide an attack opportunity after only one verticalmove, but this may not always be the case. Coming over the top of thepitch-back (time "4"), the energy fighter pilot may discover that the bogeyhas turned early and is already near position "5," offset from directly belowand much higher than before. In this situation an attack still may bepossible by pulling directly into lead pursuit, turning nose-to-nose withthe bogey when the maneuver is viewed from above, and reversing for theshot as firing range is approached. Usually, however, this technique resultsin a very steep diving approach and a high-AOT firing position that maynot be effective. The steep approach also results in a large vertical overshootafter the firing pass, which could cause problems later on. Therefore,this nose-to-nose tactic is most appropriate when the energy fighter pilotintends only to take whatever shot is available at the first opportunity andthen exit the fight in a high-speed diving extension.

160 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTIf instead the pilot of the energy fighter intends to continue to work foran effective firing position, he still should employ lag pursuit, forcing thebogey to turn horizontally while the energy fighter is accelerating tovertical-maneuvering speed for another wings-level pitch-back. Figure 4-8shows this tactic. In this example the energy fighter pilot comes over thetop of the pitch-back at time "4" to find the bogey offset below, performinga climbing lead turn. Realizing that insufficient altitude advantage isavailable and too many angles have developed for an effective guns attack,the energy fighter pilot pulls vertically downward and rolls into lag pursuit,pointing the lift vector slightly behind the bogey. A rolling pull-out iscontinued until the aircraft has accelerated to vertical-maneuvering speed,and the roll is timed to place the energy fighter approximately opposite thecourse of the bogey at level-off. This technique forces the bogey to turncompletely around again to pursue, and prevents it from gaining anyappreciable energy. At time "5" the energy fighter can go immediatelyback up into a second extension and pitch-back, this time resulting ingreater altitude advantage and better attack possibilities. This process canbe repeated until an effective firing position is achieved or disengagementis desired.In the descent from times "4" to "5" in Figure 4-8, it is desirable tocomplete the pull-out above the bogey's altitude. This keeps the bogeyturning nose-high, keeps it loaded-up, and does not permit it to turn moreefficiently nose-down after a vertical overshoot. Of much greater importance,however, is the attainment of vertical-maneuvering speed beforethe energy fighter pilot begins his next pitch-back. Scooping-out slightlybelow the bogey's altitude generally does not present a problem. Largevertical separations can, however, allow the bogey pilot to perform anose-low lead turn and reach a temporary firing position during the pullout.If forced to pull out quickly to avoid this situation, the energy fighterpilot should perform an unloaded level or diving acceleration after thepull-out to gain vertical-maneuvering speed before he attempts anotherpitch-back. It may be necessary to lower one wing or turn slightly to keepsight of the bogey during this extension.One viable alternative to the climbing-extension energy tactics justdiscussed is the energy technique recommended for similar aircraft in thelast chapter, namely, the nose-to-nose turn series at near minimum vertical-maneuveringspeed, as depicted in Figure 3-4. In the case of an overlyaggressive bogey, or whenever the turn-performance advantage of theangles fighter is not overwhelming, this technique may succeed in bleedingthe bogey's airspeed sufficiently to permit the energy fighter to zoomsafely and begin high-side guns passes.One advantage of this method is that it facilitates keeping sight of asmaller opponent, since separations during the engagement are greatlyreduced. The major drawback is that it may not be effective in the case of adissimilar fighter. A low-wing-loaded fighter generally sustains its turnperformance at a slower speed than its opponent, resulting in a smallerturn radius. This smaller radius can result in angular gains against theopponent in nose-to-nose maneuvers without bleeding energy. In addition,

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 161Figure 4-8. Energy Fight: Continued

162 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTthe low-wing-loaded fighter's vertical-maneuvering speed is generallylower than that of its high-wing-loaded adversary, so a reduced speed canbe accepted without total loss of vertical potential. Therefore, if he ispatient, the angles fighter pilot can make small angular gains on eachnose-to-nose turn until the energy fighter zooms with only a small speedadvantage. The angles fighter pilot then may be able to zoom with hisopponent and surprise him at the top of the maneuver.The energy fighter's defense against this technique is careful observationof the bogey's maneuvering during the first few nose-to-nose turns. Ifafter the first two turns in the series the bogey is not approaching a 90°angular advantage, the energy fighter pilot should use his superior speed toexecute a nose-to-tail extension to exit the fight or to gain sufficientseparation to come back, meet the bogey on neutral terms, and try somethingelse.Probably a better option for the energy fighter in this scenario is asustained nose-to-tail turn. This procedure was discussed in the previouschapter; its advantages are even greater in this case. Since the low-T/Wfighter seldom has a substantial sustained-turn-rate superiority, such amaneuver forces it to turn harder than sustained-G levels to gain a rapidangular advantage. The energy fighter pilot should maintain best sustained-turn-rateairspeed, or vertical-maneuvering speed, whichever isgreater, in a level or climbing turn, and watch the bogey's turn performance.A shallow, climbing turn is usually preferable, since this generallyinduces the bogey into bleeding energy more rapidly. If it appears that thebogey will gain more than 90° advantage on the first turn, a slightlynose-low turn can be started to maintain speed while limiting the opponent'sangular advantage at the pass to about 90°. In this case the energyfighter should have adequate airspeed margin at the overshoot to begin apitch-back safely. Should the angles fighter gain substantially less than 90°after about two turns, however, the energy fighter's airspeed advantagemay be inadequate. In that situation the energy fighter pilot probablyshould consider disengaging, since it may be better to come back the nextday and hope for an easier opponent. Otherwise a nose-to-tail extensionmay be used to gain enough separation to come back and meet the bogeyagain on neutral terms. From that point extension/pitch-back tactics canbe commenced.It should be recognized that, as with economics, there is no free lunch intactics. The tradeoffs for using the more efficient nose-to-tail turn technique,as discussed previously, include added difficulty in judging thebogey's energy and increased problems in maintaining sight. In any case, ifthe bogey's turn-performance advantage is very great, the energy fighterpilot may find it necessary to employ the modified spiraling pitch-back(Figure 3-10) to avoid being shot during the pull-up.Actual combat accounts of the successful use of energy tactics are ratherrare, but the following example is a beauty. Here John Godfrey's P-51BMustang has probably 20 percent lower wing loading than the GermanFocke-Wulf 190D-9 opponent, and Godfrey increases his turn advantage

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 163further by skillful use of flaps. The Focke-Wulf, however, may have 20percent better power loading. Here are two masters at work:A plane was approaching, and because of its long nose I thought it was aMustang. Turning into it I received a shock; it was neither a Mustang nor anME-109, but a new Focke-Wulf; its long nose was the latest improvement ofthe famed FW. These planes with the longer noses were rumored to havemore horsepower than their predecessors, and were capable of giving aMustang a rough time. We met practically head-on and both of us banked ourplanes in preparation for a dogfight.Around and around we went. Sometimes the FW got in close, and othertimes, when I'd drop my flap to tighten my turn, I was in a position to nre ; butthe German, sensing my superior position, kept swinging down in his turn,gaining speed and quickly pulling up, and with the advantage in height hewould then pour down on my tail. Time was in his favor, he could fight thatway for an hour and still have enough fuel to land anywhere below him. I stillhad 400 miles of enemy territory to fly over before I could land. Somethinghad to be done. Throwing caution to the wind I lifted a flap, dove and pulledup in a steep turn, at the same time dropping a little flap. The G was terrific,but it worked, and I had the ferry nailed for sure. Pressing the tit I waited, butnothing happened, not a damned thing. My guns weren't firing.By taking this last gamble I had lost altitude but had been able to bring myguns to bear while flying below the FW. With his advantage of height he camedown, pulled up sharp, and was smack-dab on my tail again. The 20 mm.cannons belched and I could see what looked like golf balls streaming by me.A little less deflection and those seemingly harmless golf balls would haveexploded instantly upon contact with my plane. "Never turn your back on anenemy" was a byword with us, but I had no choice. Turning the plane over onits back I yanked the stick to my gut. My throttle was wide open and I left itthere as I dove. The needle stopped at 600 miles per—that was as far as itcould go on the dial. Pulling out I expected at any minute to have the wingsrip off, the plane was bucking so much. The last part of my pull-up broughtme up into clouds. I was thankful to have evaded the long-nosed FW, for thatpilot was undoubtedly the best that I had ever met. 1Practical Aspects of the Energy Fight. Although the foregoing tacticsare academically sound in a sterile environment, there are some practicalconsiderations which complicate matters in actual combat. One of these isthe difficulty of maintaining sight of the opponent. Extension/pitch-backtactics result in great distances being generated between fighter and bogey.Additionally, the pilot of the energy fighter spends much of his timelooking over his shoulder at the bogey, making visual tracking even moredifficult. A very small bogey may force the energy fighter pilot into reducinghis extension times, thereby achieving less energy advantage duringeach extension. Looking over his shoulder also complicates aircraft controlfor the pilot of the energy fighter. For example, it is difficult to judge awings-level attitude for commencing a pitch-back while looking backward.The aircraft's speed and altitude also may have to be judged by feel,since the pilot may not be able to afford to take his eyes off the bogey for apeek at the gauges. This can be especially hazardous during low-altitude

164 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTengagements, as more than one pilot has extended himself right into theground while looking back over his shoulder. A second crew member isvery useful for these tactics, since workload can be divided between watchingthe bogey and monitoring aircraft performance.Aircraft design is another factor which must be considered. Poor rearwardvisibility, very high vertical-maneuvering speed (i.e., well above bestclimb speed), poor slow-speed control qualities, or low-G power plantlimitations can make these tactics impractical. Even a cloud layer canprevent offensive use of the pitch-back.Another consideration is the possibility of other hostile fighters in thearea, or even a surface-to-air missile threat. The energy fighter is exceedinglyvulnerable to such threats while at slow speed near the top of apitch-back. Also, since pilots tend to concentrate their lookout along thehorizon, the pilot of an aircraft maneuvering vertically almost assures hewill be seen by nearby fighters in a wide altitude band, making attack by anunseen enemy even more likely.All these practical considerations present severe limitations to the useof energy tactics and make their employment even in sterile situationsvery difficult; they require much training for proficiency. The alternativeswhen a pilot is armed with an aircraft having inferior turn capabilitiesinclude "hit-and-run" tactics. These usually involve stalking an unsuspectingbogey, pouncing on it in one high-speed gun attack, and exiting thearea. Unlike the low-T/W angles fighter, the high-speed energy fighterusually has the option of engaging and disengaging at will, especially in theguns-only environment. Another possibility is to "gang-up" on the betterturningbogey using multiple-aircraft tactics, which is the subject of laterdiscussions.There is a big difference if you are in actual war or if you are playing war.Colonel Erich "Bubi" Hartmann, GAPThe Angles Fight: Rear-Quarter Missiles OnlyThe pilot of a low-wing-loaded fighter equipped only with RQ weapons canemploy essentially the same tactics as for the guns-only scenario. As amatter of fact, it may be necessary for this fighter to pass through thegun-firing envelope in order to reach missile parameters, which demonstratesthe value of a gun even for a missile fighter. Because of the envelope-rotationeffect, as explained in the last chapter, and the superiorspeed of the high-T/W bogey, the angles fighter generally is unable to drivedirectly toward the RQ missile envelope of its opponent. As long as thebogey is faster, the angles fighter pilot must employ lead or pure pursuit inorder to close the range, but both these options lead to increasing AOTagainst a defensively maneuvering target. Once the high-wing-loadedbogey has been bled down in energy to the point where the angles fighter isactually as fast or faster, then lag pursuit can be used to reach the missileenvelope.The angles tactics already described are designed to make use of thelow-wing-loaded fighter's turn-performance superiority to gain an angular

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 165advantage steadily while inducing the bogey to bleed its energy with harddefensive maneuvering. If the pilot of a high-wing-loaded bogey allows thisprocess to continue for too long, the patient angles fighter pilot shouldeventually reach a lethal missile-firing position unless the opponentmakes skillful and timely use of the vertical or exits the fight. Because ofits much greater range the missile can create serious limitations for theenergy fighter in both vertical maneuvering and disengagement.As an example, consider the scenario depicted in Figure 4-4, where theenergy fighter zooms on the first pass. When his aircraft is equipped with amissile, the pilot of the angles fighter can be much less hesitant to zoomwith his opponent. He can pull up behind the bogey and fire before theenergy fighter ever reaches the top of its zoom. Just the threat of such a shotusually will cause the bogey pilot to pull too quickly over the top of hismaneuver in order to increase AOT before the missile can be fired. Withouteven firing a missile the pilot of the angles fighter can bleed the bogey'senergy and reduce its zoom altitude, forcing it back down for a lead turn.Even if the bogey succeeds in generating AOT in excess of nominalmissile-firing parameters, a weapon that has adequate guidance information(usually the target's exhaust heat) still may be successful, since thetarget will be slow and unable to maneuver effectively in defense.One probable ploy a high-T/W bogey may use involves climbing towardthe sun. By placing his aircraft between the sun and the angles fighter, thebogey pilot may be able to avoid a hostile heat-seeking missile shot, sincesuch a weapon most likely would be decoyed by the sun's heat. It can alsobecome very difficult to keep sight of the opponent when a pilot is forced tolook very near the sun. A dark-colored helmet visor is useful in thesesituations, especially one that can be flipped down into position at criticalmoments and removed quickly from view when not needed. Generallyvisors (even "clear" ones) are not recommended in the air-combat environment,since anything extra between the pilot's eyes and his adversarymakes visual acquisition and tracking more difficult.Another useful technique for watching a bogey close to the sun is toclose one eye and block out the sun's disc with the palm of the hand, athumb, or a fingertip. This technique usually is effective unless the bogeypilot positions his aircraft perfectly in the sun, which is quite difficult toaccomplish.I closed one eye, holding the tip of my little finger up in front of the open orb,blocking out just the fiery ball of the sun in front of my opened eye. I foundthat it was impossible for an enemy to come down from out of the sun on amoving target without showing up somewhere outside of my fingertip if Icontinuously kept the fiery part from my vision.Colonel Gregory "Pappy" Boyington, USMCA radar also is quite helpful in these situations for fighters so equipped.As soon as the angles fighter pilot recognizes the opponent's intention toseek sun masking, a radar lock should be established. Then, if the bogeysubsequently is lost in the sun, the radar may provide valuable clues as towhere to look to reacquire it visually. One dirty, rotten trick to watch for

166 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTin these cases is a reversal in the sun. For instance, the bogey may appear tofly into the sun from the left side, reverse directly in the sun, when it is notvisible, and come out unexpectedly on the left side.The angles fighter pilot also can maneuver to complicate the bogey'sattempts at sun masking. For instance, if the bogey begins a near-verticalzoom toward the sun, the angles fighter pilot can fly left or right, perpendicularto the opponent's flight path. Likewise, if the bogey is well aboveand approaches the sun from one side, the angles fighter pilot can flyhorizontally toward or away from the sun with the same effect, or he canperform steep climbs or dives.The missile's range greatly complicates the energy fighter pilot'sattempts to disengage. When the bogey attempts to run, the angles fighteroften can turn hard, point, and shoot before the target can exceed maximumrange. This is especially true when the energy fighter pilot is mostlikely to disengage, that is, when he begins to feel defensive with his speedreduced and his opponent at an angular advantage. Once a missile has beenfired the target usually will perform a defensive break turn, further reducingits energy. Continued defensive turning against the missile, or anattempt to preclude a firing by turning to hold the attacker at high AOT,results in arcing. The angles fighter pilot then can use lead pursuit to closethe range once more and force continuation of the engagement. Firing amissile "for effect," even when the target is out of range, often will inducea defensive turn and preclude the bogey's escape.I started shooting when I was much too far away. That was merely a trick ofmine. I did not mean so much to hit him as to frighten him, and I succeeded incatching him. He began flying curves and this enabled me to draw near.Baron Manfred von RichthofenOnce angles tactics have succeeded in placing the low-wing-loadedfighter in gun-firing parameters, it may be too close and at too great anAOT for a RQ missile shot. Figure 4-9 shows how the desired position maybe attained. At time "1" in this example, the angles fighter is in purepursuit inside the bogey's turn and in its rear hemisphere, but it is too faroff the target's tail for an effective RQ missile shot. (The nominal firingenvelope is shown behind the target at positions "1" and "4.") The geometryof the situation is such that continued pure pursuit on the part of theangles fighter would allow it to close, but it would remain outside anglesparameters until it was inside minimum firing range. The bogey is forcedto continue its arcing defensive turn, since any relaxation in G allows theattacker to drift deeper into the rear hemisphere.To begin the transition to RQ missile parameters, the attacker first pullssome lead (time "2") to increase closure. Once he is established in leadpursuit the attacker relaxes his turn, allowing the bogey to drift towardhis nose at close range, then continues a lead turn to pass as closely as practicalbehind the bogey (time "3"). A maximum instantaneous turn isthen performed to bring the nose to bear on the target before maxrangeis exceeded or the envelope rotates away (time "4"). By passingas close to the bogey as practical at time "3," the attacker makes

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 167Figure 4-9. Transition to Rear-Quarter Missile Envelopemore time available for the shot before the target can open to max-range.The optimum speed for the angles fighter at time "3" is somewhat abovecorner speed, as this maximizes its average turn-rate capability during theturn from time "3" to time "4." Time "2" is also a good opportunity for alag displacement roll, which may be equally effective. Note that theattacker probably passes through an effective gun snapshot envelope betweentimes "2" and "3," and he can take advantage of it should he be soequipped.At time "3" in this scenario, the bogey pilot may decide to reverse,probably spoiling the shot. This should only delay the inevitable, however,since the attacker can retain the offensive and repeat his transitionattempt from the other side. Each time the bogey pilot performs such ahard reversal he further bleeds his energy.Another option for the bogey at time "3" is a vertical pull-up. In thiscase the attacker must decide whether his performance will allow himto pull up behind the bogey and get off a shot. Obviously, verticalmaneuveringspeed would be desirable at this point, but it may not berequired. The angles fighter only has to get its nose high enough to point atthe target and fire before running out of airspeed. This is a risky proposition,however, since if the shot is missed for some reason, the angles fighteris left in a very vulnerable position. The safer option is to extend away, asshown in Figure 4-4, and return on better terms.The Energy Fight: Rear-Quarter Missiles OnlyAs difficult as the energy fight is in the guns-only environment, thesubstitution of RQ missiles further complicates matters, both offensivelyand defensively. Although the energy tactics described offer reasonableprospects of attaining a lethal gun snapshot against a low-wing-loadedadversary, this generally is not the case when the fighters are limited to RQmissile parameters. A more maneuverable fighter nearly always seems tohave the turn performance necessary to rotate its lethal cone away from anopponent at just the critical moment. The exception to this is when thelow-T/W bogey is very slow and is unable to create a tracking-rate problem

168 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTfor the missile. In such cases "RQ only" missiles can assume all-aspectcapabilities. Against a well-flown bogey, however, this situation is quitedifficult to generate, and even if it was possible it might take longer thancombat endurance or prudence in the combat environment would allow.Against a bogey of known limited combat endurance, however, energytactics do offer a means of remaining neutrally engaged until the bogeypilot is forced to retire for fuel considerations. At that time he becomesquite vulnerable. Running the opponent out of gas is as good as shootinghim.Because of the constraints of the weapon, the immediate goal of energytactics in the RQ missile scenario might well be causing the opponent tolose sight. Use of extension/pitch-back tactics, as shown in Figure 4-7, canbe quite effective for this purpose, especially against a larger bogey. Theextension from time "2" to time "3" in this example presents the bogeypilot with a tail-aspect view of the rapidly retreating energy fighter. Thisreduced presented area and extended range while the bogey is in a high-Gturn (which reduces the pilot's visual acuity by lowering blood pressure tohis eyes) enhances the probability that the bogey pilot will lose sightduring this segment.You can't fight what you can't see.UnknownAnother factor of prime concern to the energy fighter pilot is sunposition. Whenever practical, each extension and pitch-back should bemade in the direction of the sun, forcing the opponent to look up-sun asmuch as possible. This is particularly important in the RQ missile scenario,since maintaining sight is more difficult for the bogey pilot in suchsituations, and the presence of the sun also may preclude a heat-seekingmissile shot during the extension or subsequent pitch-back. Both thesefactors are so critical in this scenario that some preengagement considerationand maneuvering, or even a level nose-to-tail turn after the first pass,may be justified so that the extension and pitch-back can be made towardthe sun.During the pitch-back itself, profiling should be used whenever practicalto make visual acquisition even more difficult. Arriving at the top ofthe pitch-back (time "4" in Figure 4-7), the pilot of the energy fightershould attempt to pass directly over the bogey and use lag pursuit, asdepicted, to spiral down toward the firing envelope. Great attention shouldbe paid to remaining in the bogey's hard-to-watch high six o'clock regionduring this approach so that the energy fighter is more difficult to reacquireif the bogey pilot has lost sight. Although reaching the RQ firing envelopemay be difficult, the prospects are greatly enhanced if the bogey pilot haslost sight, since the usual tendency is for him to relax his turn noticeablyunder these conditions. If this process does not cause the opponent to losesight, further extension/pitch-back attempts can be made as combat endurancepermits.If during a diving attack it becomes apparent that the bogey pilot has notlost sight, the energy fighter can continue hot-side lag pursuit, forcing the

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 169opponent to continue his hard turn and discouraging a reversal. The energyfighter should maintain a respectful distance from its opponent duringthis maneuver, within missile-firing limits, while building speed. Anovershoot and subsequent bogey reversal during this period can placethe energy fighter in a hazardous position. Once he regains verticalmaneuveringspeed, the pilot of the energy fighter has the option of continuinga level turn in lag pursuit until his nose is pointed toward the sun,which is normally the optimum moment for another extension. Or theenergy fighter can employ the nose-to-tail extension maneuver depicted inFigure 3-12.Along with the techniques already discussed, there are some otherpractical points worth mentioning about becoming invisible and stayingthat way during a pitch-back. For instance, the energy fighter pilot shouldbe aware of the contrail level. Depending on air temperature and humidity,the water vapor in the exhaust of both jet and reciprocating engines maycondense to form a vapor trail that can turn a small invisible fighter into anairliner, visible for a hundred miles. This is generally a high-altitudephenomenon that can be predicted fairly accurately by meteorologists. Amore accurate determination of the contrail level can be made prior toengaging by checking for a contrail during a climb. It should be recognized,however, that the contrail level also is sensitive to exhaust temperature, sothis check should be made at combat power when practical. For instance,jet contrails may appear at different altitudes depending on whether or notthe fighter is using afterburner. The contrail most often becomes a factorapproaching the top of a pitch-back in a high-altitude fight. The contraillevel may require completing the vertical maneuver as quickly as possiblerather than continuing a zoom to the highest attainable altitude.Another consideration is known as the "burner puff." Many jet engineswill exhaust a considerable amount of unburned fuel whenever afterburneris selected and/or deselected. This fuel may leave a puffy "cloud" orshort contrail, calling attention to the fighter's position. If this is known tobe a problem, the energy fighter pilot should select afterburner early in theengagement and resist the temptation to change power settings if there isany possibility that the bogey pilot has lost sight. Such changes can bemade when the energy fighter is passing close to the opponent, obviouslyin plain view, or when it is positioned in the bogey's blind zone.It's the little things that cost you victories.Group Captain Reade Tilley, RAF"Vortex trails" also may cause problems for the energy fighter. Theseare condensation trails that are formed when air pressure is suddenlyreduced as the air passes over an aerodynamic surface. Particularly prevalentin humid conditions, these condensation trails may stream considerabledistances behind wingtips or other high-lift areas of the aircraft,especially when a vortex is present. Under given conditions of humidity,vortex trails may appear at a predictable G level. If the offending load factoris determined before the engagement, the energy fighter pilot might be ableto reduce or eliminate vortex trails by holding G below this level during

1 70 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTcritical portions of vertical maneuvers. Under some conditions, however,vortex trails may be produced at such low G that they are unavoidable.A natural phenomenon that actually can aid the energy fighter pilot inpositioning his aircraft properly between the bogey and the sun is knownas the "pilot's halo." This effect, which is caused by diffraction of sunlightaround the body of an aircraft, often produces a ring of light which is visibleagainst the terrain or clouds below. In hazy or humid conditions, this circleof light may appear to be suspended in the air and drift along beneath theaircraft that produces it. When the aircraft's shadow is visible, it willappear in the center of the halo. Therefore, when the bogey also appears inthe halo its pilot must look directly at the sun to see his opponent. With alittle practice the energy fighter pilot can learn to "fly" his halo over thebogey to complicate visual acquisition and tracking.One further consideration in the energy fighter's attempt to disappear iselectromagnetic emission. As mentioned earlier, many fighters areequipped with radar-warning receivers that serve to detect radar signalsfrom enemy aircraft and display the direction of the threat to the pilot.Since the RQ heat-seeking missile generally is not dependent on radarinput, the energy fighter might consider turning off his radar transmitterduring an engagement with an RWR-equipped adversary. If practical, thisprocedure might conceal the attacker's position at a critical moment.Because of the importance of the energy fighter's disappearing act in theRQ missile scenario, extension tactics may be more productive than thenose-to-nose or nose-to-tail options described, particularly when there aregreat performance differences between the aircraft. When the sun is veryhigh and bright, when performance does not vary too widely betweenfighters, or when a large energy fighter is engaging a much smaller anglesfighter, however, these tactics may be more useful. The greater turnperformance of the angles fighter in this scenario almost necessitates useof the modified spiraling pitch-back by the energy fighter, as depicted inFigure 3-10. Special emphasis is required on pitch-back timing and use ofthe sun. Starting a pitch-back before the bogey is committed to an overshoot,allowing the opponent to gain too much angular advantage, failingto pull up into the sun, or misjudging the bogey's energy can be fatal.If things do not appear to be going well, the energy fighter pilot shouldconsider disengaging before becoming decidedly defensive. Disengagingfrom a missile fighter, however, can be more difficult than in the guns-onlyscenario. The energy fighter pilot should attempt to maintain high speed,and he should pass the bogey with minimum flight-path separation asclose to head-on as practical. He can then perform an extension whileturning in the nose-to-tail direction only enough to maintain sight of thebogey. It is very important to watch the opponent throughout the disengagementto observe any possible missile firing. The bogey should be heldvery near the rear visibility limits of the energy fighter to increase theopening velocity component. Maintaining approximately a 90° angle ofbank during this extension may allow the energy fighter pilot to keep sightand reduce the requirement for turning. The nose of the aircraft can beallowed to fall, producing a ballistic flight path, which will increase accel-

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 171eration and decrease altitude, both of which will reduce the bogey's maximumfiring range. Viable alternatives include pulling up and extendingaway toward the sun, as well as ducking into a cloud, either of whichshould preclude a heat-seeking missile shot.The retreating energy fighter pilot should not attempt to avoid a missilefiring by turning to increase AOT, as this results in arcing, which mayallow even a slower opponent to close the range and force reengagement. Ifa missile is fired at what appears to be near max-range, the target pilotshould employ all available defensive countermeasures short of maneuvering(flares, chaff, power reduction, etc.) first, while watching the progressof the missile. A defensive break turn should be made only when thetarget pilot cannot stand to wait any longer. Even then, such a turn shouldbe continued only as long as absolutely necessary before resuming theextension. If the break is delayed, the missile may run out of poop. The firstindication of this is often oscillations of increasing magnitude in themissile's flight path.The Angles Fight: All-Aspect Missiles OnlyEssentially all the comments pertaining to the angles fight between similarfighters equipped with all-aspect missiles are relevant in this dissimilar-fighterscenario. The tactics discussed in relation to Figure 3-11 areparticularly effective in this case because of the turn-performance advantageof the low-wing-loaded fighter. One complication might be the loss ofenergy resulting from the hard prefiring turn (between times "2" and "3"in Figure 3-11). After firing the missile, or if he does not take the shot forsome reason at time "3," the pilot of the angles fighter should relax histurn and accelerate to regain some of this lost energy before the next pass.The subsequent maneuvering might resemble that depicted in Figure 3-3,and it could be followed by another nose-to-tail turn attempt.The Energy Fight: All-Aspect Missiles OnlyThis is a very unenviable scenario for a high-wing-loaded fighter. Theextension/pitch-back technique may be workable against a heat-seekingmissile, provided the pitch-back is made into a high sun. The shot providedthe .energy fighter pilot by this tactic generally will be forward-quarter,looking almost straight down on his target, as he comes over the top of hisvertical maneuver. Without proper sun protection, the energy fighter willbe vulnerable to the bogey's missile during the pitch-back, as the lowwing-loadedfighter will reach a firing envelope first. Against a radarmissile-equippedopponent, this tactic is probably suicidal. Essentially thesame comments apply to engaging with an initial energy advantage, asdepicted in Figure 4-5, except that this method may be safer than extension/pitch-backtactics when the sun is extremely high.Level nose-to-tail turns should be avoided, since these result in preciselythe situation shown to be optimum for the angles fighter in thisscenario. The nose-to-nose series introduced in the last chapter (Figure 3-4)and amplified in the discussion of energy tactics earlier in this chapter maybe viable here. Nose-to-nose geometry keeps aircraft separation to a mini-

172 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTmum and may "trap" the angles fighter inside its min-range firing requirements.If the bogey's energy can be bled sufficiently in this manner to denyit any vertical potential, a spiraling pitch-back (Figure 3-10) may result in ashot opportunity for the energy fighter. This may be the only viable tacticagainst a dogfight-capable radar missile, but it is still exceedingly dangerous.A competent pilot in a low-wing-loaded fighter usually can preserveenough vertical potential to get his nose up for the shot before the energyfighter can complete its pitch-back.Coming over the top of the vertical pitch-back, the pilot of the energyfighter should attempt to fire at his first opportunity and then assume lagpursuit. Continuing in pure pursuit while diving, such as when the attackeris pressing for a better shot as min-range is approached, may resultin an overshoot, with dire consequences. If the bogey is equipped with aheat-seeking all-aspect weapon, skillful use of the sun may allow multiplepitch-backs and diving attacks. Ordinarily, however, a second pitch-backafter a lag-pursuit maneuver will be commenced with considerable lateralseparation, possibly allowing the bogey to reach firing parameters moreeasily. If the energy fighter survives one pitch-back in this scenario, thepilot should probably consider himself fortunate and follow his attackwith a nose-to-tail extension and disengagement as shown in Figure 3-12.In this very difficult scenario, probably the best tactic for the high-wingloadedfighter is to shoot first, head-on, before the first pass, and exit thefight regardless of the results of the shot. An even better alternative, whenpossible, is to sneak up on the enemy and shoot him in the back—unlesspoints would be deducted for sportsmanship!Multiple- Weapons Considers, tionsAs discussed in the last chapter, modern fighters often carry a combinationof air-to-air weapons, generally guns together with either RQ or all-aspectmissiles. This offers the pilot some choice as to which weapons envelopehe should attempt to satisfy first.In the case of the low-wing-loaded fighter, the addition of the RQmissile to his arsenal has little effect on the pilot's tactics in the sterileone-versus-one environment, except to make his task somewhat easier.He should still consider the gun to be his primary weapon, but, as explainedin the RQ-missile-angles-fight section of this chapter, the missileserves to deny the high-T/W bogey the option of disengaging at will. Themissile also allows the angles fighter pilot to threaten his high-T/W opponentmore seriously from a position of greater energy disadvantage andoffers a more potent offense against the bogey's energy tactics. The gun andthe rear-quarter AAM are very complementary weapons systems for thelow-wing-loaded fighter.For the high-wing-loaded fighter, however, this is not nearly so true. Aspreviously explained, such a fighter has little chance of achieving a RQmissile envelope against a low-wing-loaded opponent who can maintainvisual contact. In general, this scenario offers the high-T/W fighter twooptions. The high-risk option is to employ guns tactics in an effort toachieve a snapshot. More attention must be paid to sun position and

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 173pitch-back technique, however, because of the bogey's missile threat. Thegreatest elements of risk in this option involve the possibility of a missedgun shot and the almost inevitable low-TCA, close-range overshoot,which may allow the bogey to reverse for a missile shot. The more conservativeapproach is to use RQ missile tactics, firing high-angle shotsdown at the bogey from above, and concentrating on causing the opponentto lose sight. This approach offers better escape opportunities. A note ofcaution is in order here, however. Although the second option may be saferin the sterile environment, it may take more time, thereby exposing theenergy fighter pilot to greater risk in a hazardous combat arena. Furthermore,the added time may not be available if combat endurance islimited.When both aircraft are equipped with guns and all-aspect missiles, thepilot of a low-wing-loaded fighter is faced with a similar choice. Here thequick and dirty solution is the nose-to-tail turn and forward-quarter missiletactic depicted in Figure 3-11. The risk here again is that of a missedshot, possibly because of sun position, weapons-system malfunction, ormissile misfire, since this tactic leaves the angles fighter open to a retaliatoryshot from the bogey. The more conservative option in this case is toemploy guns tactics, attempting to stay close to the bogey (by nose-to-noseturns, etc.), trapping its missile inside min-range limits. The angles fighterpilot should exercise caution, however, not to expend so much energy inattempting a gun shot that he cannot get his nose up for a missile shot if thebogey zooms. In this scenario the gun should be used more as a threat thanas a primary weapon. Its function is to cause the high-T/W bogey to bleedenergy and then to attempt an escape, either by zooming or diving, both ofwhich should be fatal. The angles fighter pilot should employ guns tacticsconservatively, taking any shot that is offered, but the all-aspect AAM inmost cases still will be the lethal weapon. The greatest disadvantage ofguns tactics is the increased time involved. In the case of a small bogey,however, this factor may be outweighed by the reduced separation distances,which facilitate maintaining visual contact.Unfortunately for the energy fighter, the dismal prospects just describedare about as good as they get in this scenario. The combination of thedogfight-capable all-aspect missile and the turn-performance superiorityof the low-wing-loaded bogey is extremely dangerous. As discussed in theall-aspect-missile-energy-fight section of this chapter, nose-to-nose turnscan be used to bleed the energy of an overly aggressive opponent; but theaddition of the gun in this scenario makes this tactic even more hazardousand difficult. An extension and pitch-back into a high sun may be workablein the case of heat-seeking AAMs; lots of luck is required against a radarmissile. One possibility, especially against a larger bogey, is a diving,nose-to-tail extension after the first head-on pass. This tactic may causethe bogey pilot to lose sight, allowing the energy fighter to come back for ashot. Even if the opponent maintains visual contact, the extension mayexceed his maximum firing range until the energy fighter begins its comeback.A level or nose-low turn by the energy fighter to reengage can placethe bogey in a look-down situation, possibly reducing the effectiveness of

1 74 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTits missiles, while the energy fighter has optimum look-up. Off-boresightfiring capability can be quite valuable here in the attempt to get off the firstshot. It may be necessary to reduce power during the reengagement turn todelay the bogey's heat-seeking missile-firing opportunity, if it is soequipped. Full power can be reapplied after the bogey reaches min-range ;but even so, this defensive tactic will result in great loss of energy, leavingthe high-wing-loaded fighter very vulnerable if the bogey is not destroyed.Dissimilar WeaponsJust as the performance of the two opposing fighters may be dissimilar,their weapons capabilities also may vary. In addition to the similarweaponsscenarios for the aircraft-performance pair already discussed,there are at least twenty possible combinations of aircraft performance andweapons loads. Obviously, covering all these possibilities would becomerather tedious and is probably unnecessary. Instead, only a couple of themore likely combinations are addressed.Until the 1950s, guns and unguided rockets were essentially the onlyair-to-air weapons available. At about that time the RQ heat-seeking AAMbecame operational. Some existing fighters were retrofitted to carry thisweapon, and other new fighters were designed for its employment. Manyof the new designs stressed high T/W for supersonic speed capability at theexpense of wing loading and turn performance. It was theorized that thegreat speeds of these new fighters would preclude the classic turningdogfight, so turn performance was no longer important. Likewise, the gunwould not be an effective weapon in this environment, so it was eliminatedfrom some new designs in favor of missiles. These trends eventuallyresulted in combat between older, low-wing-loaded fighters equipped onlywith guns, and newer high-T/W fighters having guns and missiles or onlymissile armament.The addition of RQ missiles for the high-T/W fighters has little effect inthe sterile one-versus-one guns-only scenario already discussed. In actualcombat, however, the AAM provides several important benefits. The mostlikely time for satisfying RQ missile-firing parameters remains thoseinstances when the low-wing-loaded bogey pilot does not have sight of theattacker, loses sight, or attempts to escape. Under these conditions themissile affords greater lethality than the gun and usually enables a quickerkill since it does not require running the bogey down. Firing the missilealso requires less time and concentration than gun shots do. All of thesefactors combine to make the high-T/W fighter less predictable and lessvulnerable in a hostile environment. Whether or not the high-T/W missilefighter has a gun, energy tactics are considerably safer and more workableagainst a guns-only bogey, as the inherent high speeds and greater aircraftseparation common with these methods make the opponent's task moredifficult. The missile shot may be more difficult for the energy fighter toobtain, but attempting it is less risky. A missed gun shot against a lowwing-loadedopponent can leave the energy fighter slow and very defensive.For this reason (endurance and environment permitting) it may bemore prudent for the energy fighter pilot to wait for the missile shot ratherthan to attempt a quick guns kill.

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 175Enemy RQ missiles cause two serious problems for the low-wingloadedgunfighter. Since an attacker can fire at much greater range withthese weapons, initial visual detection of an attack is more difficult. Inaddition, the missile further complicates the chances of this fighter beingable to escape once it is engaged. Tactics for the gunfighter would notchange appreciably, however, with angles tactics still being appropriate.Maintaining an angular advantage at close range with angles tactics effectivelyremoves the RQ missile threat. When the high-T/W bogey is not alsoequipped with a gun, the pilot of the low-wing-loaded gunfighter can beeven more aggressive. Lack of a short-range, all-aspect weapon leaves thebogey defenseless against radical lead turns, and makes it more difficult forthe bogey pilot to capitalize on an overshoot by the gunfighter.A fighter without a gun ... is like an airplane without a wing.Brigadier General Robin Olds, USAFDuring the early years of the Vietnam conflict the low-wing-loaded,low-T/W MiG-17 Fresco opposed the U.S. F-4 Phantom. With nearly aten-year technology advantage, a powerful air-to-air radar, semi-activeradar-guided Sparrow missiles, RQ heat-seeking Sidewinders / and supersonicspeed capability, the Phantom might have been considered morethan a match for the subsonic, guns-only MiG-17. Several extenuatingcircumstances, however, greatly altered the balance. The long-range, allaspectSparrow missile, for instance, often could not be used, since it wasusually impossible to identify the target as hostile except visually at closerange. By that time the MiG-17 was probably inside the weapon's minrangecapabilities and tended to remain there during subsequent maneuvering.Since this missile was not "dogfight compatible," and thePhantoms generally lacked gun armament, only the RQ Sidewinder remainedviable against the more maneuverable MiG. Even so, energy tacticsshould have allowed the F-4 to escape or to remain neutrally engageduntil the MiG pilot lost sight or had to retire. Unfortunately for theAmericans, the Phantom crews often were poorly trained in energy techniques,were faced with a much smaller enemy aircraft that was hard to trackvisually, and sometimes lacked the combat endurance for extended engagementsfar from their bases. These circumstances often led to hardturningengagements, to the advantage of the MiGs. The MiGs also weregenerally blessed with better ground-based radar control and could spotand identify the Phantoms at long distances because the F-4 enginessmoked badly. Therefore, the MiGs often reached a firing position, or atleast gained substantial advantage, before being detected. The Vietnamesepilots, however, generally lacked the proficiency necessary to take fulladvantage of their many opportunities, and they lost somewhat morefighters than they downed in air combat.Late in the war, U.S. Navy pilots reaped the benefits of improved aircombat training provided by the newly formed Navy Fighter WeaponsSchool (TOPGUN) at Miramar Naval Air Station in California. The followingexcerpt is found in Fox Two by Commander Randy "Duke" Cunningham.In this engagement Cunningham and his backseat Radar InterceptOfficer, "Willie" Driscoll (sometimes called "Irish"), bagged their fifth

1 76 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTvictory (third on this mission) to become the first U.S. aces in Vietnam.They were flying a F-4J Phantom with semi-active radar Sparrow andheat-seeking Sidewinder missiles (no guns); their opponent was a battlewiseVietnamese ace in a MiG-17 Fresco that was probably equipped onlywith guns (although at the time some were rumored to be carrying heatseekingAtoll missiles). Under these combat conditions the F-4 is estimatedto have a T/W advantage of about 20 percent, but a wing loading 80percent greater than that of the MiG. Cunningham attempted to employenergy tactics in this fight and met with little success against the wellflownbogey. Frustrated, Duke finally pulled a desperate gamble and won.Incidentally, "Fox Two" is a radio call used to warn other friendly aircraftin the area of an impending Sidewinder missile launch.As we headed for the coast at 10,000 feet, I spotted another airplane on thenose, slightly low, heading straight for us. It was a MiG-17. I told Irish towatch how close we could pass the MiG to take out as much lateral separationas possible so he could not convert as easily to our six o'clock. We used todo the same thing against the A-4s back at Miramar since the two aircraftwere virtually identical in performance. This proved to be my first near-fatalmistake. . . . A-4s don't have guns in the nose.The MiG's entire nose lit up like a Christmas tree! Pumpkin-sized BBswent sailing by our F-4.1 pulled sharply into the pure vertical to destroy the[enemy's] tracking solution. As I came out of the six-G pull-up I strained tosee the MiG below as my F-4 went straight up. I was sure it would go into ahorizontal turn, or just run as most had done in the past. As I looked back overmy ejection seat I got the surprise of my life: there was the MiG, canopy tocanopy with me, barely 300 feet away! ... I began to feel numb. My stomachgrabbed at me in knots. There was no fear in this guy's eyes as we zoomedsome 8,000 feet straight up.I lit the afterburners and started to outclimb my adversary, but this excessperformance placed me above him. As I started to pull over the top, he beganshooting. My second near-fatal mistake—I had given him a predictable flightpath, and he had taken advantage of it. I was forced to roll and pull to the otherside. He pulled in right behind me.Not wanting to admit this guy was beating me, I blurted to Willie, "ThatS.O.B. is really lucky! All right, we'll get this guy now!" I pulled down toaccelerate with the MiG at my four o'clock. I watched and waited until hecommitted his nose down, then pulled up into him and rolled over the top,placing me at his five o'clock. Even though I was too close with too muchangle-off his tail to fire a missile, the maneuver placed me in an advantageousposition. I thought I had outflown him—overconfidence replaced fear.I pulled down, holding top rudder, to press for a shot, and he pulled up intome, shooting! I thought, "Oh, no maybe this guy isn't just lucky after all!" Heused the same maneuver I had attempted, pulling up into me and forcing anovershoot—we were in the classic rolling scissors. As his nose committed Ipulled up into him.In training I had fought in the same situation. I learned if my opponent hadhis nose too high, I could snap down, using the one G to advantage, then runout to his six o'clock before he could get turned around and get in range.As we slowed to 200 knots, I knew it was time to bug out. . . . TheMiG's superior turn radius, coupled with higher available G at that speed,

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 1 77started giving him a constant advantage. When he raised his nose just a bit toohigh, I pulled into him. Placing my aircraft nearly 180° to follow, Willie and Iwere two miles ahead of him, out of his missile range, at 600 knots airspeed.With our energy back, I made a 60° nose-up vertical turn back into thepressing MiG. He climbed right after us, and, again, with the Phantom'ssuperior climbing ability, I outzoomed him as he squirted BBs in our direction.It was a carbon copy of the first engagement seconds earlier as we wentinto another rolling scissors.Again we were forced to disengage as advantage and disadvantage tradedsides. As we blasted away to regain energy for the second time, Irish came upon the [intercom], "Hey, Duke, how ya doin' up there? This guy really knowswhat he's doin'. Maybe we ought to call it a day."This almost put me into a blind rage. To think some [bogey] had not onlystood off my attacks but had gained an advantage on me twice!"Hang on, Willie. We're gonna get this guy!""Go get him, Duke. I'm right behind you!"Irish was all over the cockpit, straining to keep sight of the MiG as Ipitched back toward him for the third time. Man, it felt good to have thatsecond pair of eyes back there, especially with an adversary who knew whatair fighting was all about. Very seldom did U.S. fighter pilots find a MiG thatfought in the vertical. The enemy liked to fight in the horizontal for the mostpart, or just to run, if he didn't have the advantage.Once again I met the MiG-17 head-on, this time with an offset so hecouldn't use his guns. As I pulled up into the pure vertical I could again seethis determined pilot a few feet away. Winston Churchill once wrote, "Inwar, if you are not able to beat your enemy at his own game, it is nearlyalways better to adopt some striking variant." My mind simply came up witha last-ditch idea. I pulled hard toward his aircraft and yanked the throttlesback to idle, popping the speed brakes at the same time.The MiG shot out in front of me for the first time! The Phantom's nosewas 60° above the horizon with airspeed down to 150 knots in no time. I hadto go to full burner to hold my position. The surprised enemy pilot attemptedto roll up on his back above me. Using only rudder to avoid stalling the F-4with the spoilers on the wings, I rolled to the MiG's blind side. He attemptedto reverse his roll, but as his wings banked sharply he must have stalled theaircraft momentarily and his nose fell through, placing me at his six but stilltoo close for a shot. "This is no place to be with a MiG-17,"I thought, "at 150knots . . . this slow, he can take it right away from you."But he had stayed too long. We later found out that this superb fighterpilot, later identified as "Colonel Tomb" of the North Vietnamese Air Force,had refused to disengage when his GCI [ground-controlled intercept] controllerordered him to return to base. After the war we found out that "Tomb,"presumably with 13 American aircraft to his credit, had to run for it if he weregoing to get down before flaming out.He pitched over the top and started straight down. I pulled hard over andfollowed. Though I didn't think a Sidewinder would guide straight down,with the heat of the ground to look at, I called "Fox Two" and squeezed oneoff. The missile came off the rail and went straight to the MiG. There was justa little flash and I thought it had missed him. As I started to fire my lastSidewinder, there was an abrupt burst of flame. Black smoke erupted fromthe 17. He didn't seem to go out of control . . . the fighter simply keptdescending, crashing into the ground at about a 45° angle. 2

1 78 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTAfter the RQ missile, the next revolution in air combat was the developmentof truly dogfight-compatible all-aspect AAMs. Although all-aspectradar-guided missiles have been operational since the mid-1950s, it wasnot until the mid-1970s that these weapons had been perfected to the pointwhere they were a factor to be reckoned with after the first pass of a visualdogfight. At about the same time there appeared all-aspect-capable heatseekingAAMs. By this period most fighters, with or without guns, carriedRQ missiles, and the more advanced fighters were sometimes adapted to(or were already compatible with) the new weapons. Thus, encountersbetween high-T/W fighters armed with all-aspect AAMs and low-wingloadedaircraft having guns and RQ missiles are now possible.For the high-T/W, high-wing-loaded fighter, the addition of all-aspectweapons greatly improves offensive potential. It is very difficult to obtain agood RQ shot against a better-turning target using the almost obligatoryenergy tactics, but these methods do allow a high-T/W fighter to generatehigh-aspect firing opportunities consistently. Unfortunately, these shotsare most often of the look-down variety, which may limit their usefulnessunder many conditions.Defensively, the high-T/W fighter pilot's job is made considerably moredifficult by the inclusion of RQ missile armament in the opponent'sarsenal. Zooms must be timed and performed more precisely, and theusual escape option of the energy fighter may no longer be available.The pilot of a low-wing-loaded fighter in this case must be more carefulof his energy state during the engagement. He can no longer afford theluxury of allowing the energy fighter to zoom with impunity to gainseparation. Whenever the bogey zooms, the angles fighter pilot must eitherput a weapon in the air, even if only for effect, or immediately attempt anescape beyond visual range. It is even more critical in this scenario for thelow-wing-loaded fighter pilot to follow the guidelines of angles tacticsstrictly; he must use nose-to-nose geometry to stay inside the bogey'smin-range parameters, and he must remain below the opponent's altitudewhenever he is positioned in the opponent's forward hemisphere.At this time there do not seem to be any valid examples available ofactual combat engagements in this scenario, although the potential certainlyexists. There have been several conflicts in which these weaponsmixes were matched, including the Gulf of Sidra incident (1981), theFalklands Conflict (1982), the Bekaa Valley encounters in Lebanon (1982),and the ongoing Iran-Iraq War. In all these cases, however, the high-T/Wfighters equipped with all-aspect weapons also had at least parity in turnperformance, if not outright superiority in instantaneous or sustainedturn, or even in both. This scenario is covered in the next section.Single-Dissimilarity EngagementsSo far this chapter has discussed situations in which a low-T/W, low-wingloadedfighter was pitted against a high-T/W, high-wing-loaded aircraft.This pairing might be termed "double dissimilarity," since there are significantdifferences in both of the critical performance parameters.Another likely situation is that the two fighters will be similar in one of

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 1 79these parameters but one aircraft will have a significant advantage in theother. For instance, both aircraft may have similar T/W, while one fighterhas a significant wing-loading advantage; or both may have similar wingloading, but there is T/W disparity. These are examples of "singledissimilarity"conditions.Low versus High Wing Loading with Similar T/WIn this situation the low-wing-loaded fighter should enjoy a considerableinstantaneous-turn-performance advantage, and also probably a significantsustained-turn superiority. Therefore, the pilot of such a fighterusually should base his tactics on this turn advantage and conduct anangles fight. Although T/W parity makes this an easier fight than thatpreviously described for the low-T/W aircraft, it is not without danger. Thelow-wing-loaded fighter pilot still must be conscious of energy and notattempt to grab angles faster than his turn-performance advantage willallow. More aggressiveness is allowable because of the T/W similarity, butgreed on the part of the angles fighter pilot will permit the opponent to useenergy-based countertactics effectively. A good rule of thumb for theangles fighter pilot is to maintain at least vertical-maneuvering speed ateach pass as protection against the opponent's possible zoom. Lowerspeeds are acceptable once the bogey has obviously bled its speed tothe point where it lacks any significant vertical potential. Verticalmaneuveringspeed for the low-wing-loaded fighter should be somewhatslower than for the high-wing-loaded adversary.On the other side of this coin, the pilot of the high-wing-loaded fighterhas a serious problem; namely, he has no performance advantage to exploit.In this case he usually should choose energy tactics, since there is atleast parity in that area. He should recognize, however, that the opponentpossesses the superior dogfighter and should win a one-versus-one fight,assuming the skills of the two pilots are equal. With this in mind, theenergy fighter pilot should engage with the intention of evaluating theopponent's technique quickly, and then disengaging if he proves to be theRed Baron.Because of the T/W equivalence, the climbing extension/pitch-backtactics described earlier generally are not viable. This method is based onexploiting a climb-rate superiority, which does not exist in this scenario.In order for the high-wing-loaded fighter pilot to gain an energy advantagewhere one does not exist initially, he must either increase energy fasterthan the opponent (which may be done by exploiting superior divingacceleration and high-speed energy addition rate in a diving extension), orinduce the bogey to bleed energy at a faster rate (which may be accomplishedby sustained-turn techniques). The latter method allows evaluationof the bogey's turn performance based on its known sustained capabilitiesrelative to those of the high-wing-loaded aircraft.For instance, assume that at optimum speed the high-wing-loadedfighter can sustain a 10°/sec turn rate, so that a 360° turn would requireabout 36 seconds to complete. If the bogey can sustain ll°/sec at itsoptimum speed (a 10 percent advantage, which would be considered sig-

180 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTnificant), it could gain about 30° in one nose-to-tail turn without losing asingle knot of airspeed relative to the opponent. Grabbing greater anglesadvantages than this with each turn, however, requires the bogey to paydearly with energy. Armed with this knowledge, the pilot of the highwing-loadedenergy fighter can assess his opponent's energy managementby observing the bogey's angular gains. The energy fighter pilot should setup a nose-to-tail turn at maximum sustained-turn-rate speed (or verticalmaneuveringspeed, if that is higher), either level or slightly nose-high. Thebogey's nose position is closely monitored, and climb angle is adjusted toallow the bogey about a 90° angular advantage at the completion of oneturn. If the bogey appears to be making angles too fast, the energy fighterpilot makes the transition to a nose-low turn, maintaining speed, to slowthe opponent's angular gains. When, on the other hand, a bogey appears tobe gaining little angular advantage in the turn, the climb angle can besteepened, reducing G to maintain speed, to allow the opponent to gainangles more rapidly.If the bogey is pulling lead approaching the second pass (i.e., at the end ofthe first turn), the energy fighter pilot may be required to perform a quickout-of-plane guns-defense maneuver before beginning a vertical pull-up totrade his energy advantage for altitude separation at the overshoot. Whenan opponent uses lag pursuit approaching the pass, preserving nose-tailseparation to minimize his overshoot, the spiral zoom will probably benecessary to deny the bogey a shot during the pull-up.Against an all-aspect-missile-equipped adversary, the nose-to-tail turntechnique may be unusable, since it can allow the bogey to satisfy minrangeparameters during the first turn. In this case the energy fighter pilotmay have to employ a less efficient nose-to-nose turn instead, using essentiallythe same procedures but reducing speed to the slowest value consistentwith vertical-maneuvering potential. This slower speed keeps turnradius low, forcing the opponent to bleed more energy for angular gains.The nose-to-nose technique should help to hold separation inside thebogey's min-range limits, while bleeding its energy nicely. The pilot of theenergy fighter should not allow this maneuver to continue into a repetitiveflat scissors, however, since the low-wing-loaded opponent can makefurther small gains on each turn without bleeding additional energy.An opponent who refuses to accept a large angular advantage on the firstturn either is very nonaggressive or is playing it smart by using his turnperformancesuperiority to nibble away a few degrees at a time withoutbleeding energy. It may be difficult for the energy fighter pilot to determinewhich bogey is which, but "You pays your money and you takes yourchances." The nonaggressive bogey can be beaten with angles tactics, sothe usual procedure is to put one aggressive move on the bogey and checkits reaction. A bogey that counters this move effectively should be leftalone, and the pilot of the energy fighter should employ a nose-to-tailextension to separate and disengage. If the bogey's defense is inept, theattacking pilot should jump right into its knickers. Normally a rollingscissors should be avoided against a well-flown bogey, since the opponentwill usually be better in this maneuver unless he is at a considerably lowerenergy state.

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 181High versus Low T/W with Similar Wing LoadingIn this scenario the high-T/W fighter should have an acceleration andclimb-rate advantage as well as better sustained turn rate and faster topspeed. Instantaneous-turn capability, however, should be similar. Thepilot of a high-T/W fighter in this case can employ either angles or energytactics, but angles methods are probably preferable since they are quicker,less complex, and more offensive. The angles fighter pilot can be quiteaggressive in such a fight, since his T/W advantage offers insurance againstan opponent's possible energy tactics.If the high-T/W fighter pilot chooses the energy fight, climbing extension/pitch-backtactics are normally very effective, but other methodsshould also be useful. The energy fighter pilot can try to grab an initialangular advantage, then use lag pursuit and allow his sustained-turn superiorityto bleed the bogey's energy in nose-to-tail turns. Once the opponenthas neutralized the angular advantage, or gained a small one of his own, theenergy fighter pilot can begin vertical maneuvering. The initial verticalmove is generally a climbing spiral begun across the circle from the bogey.A wings-level vertical pull-up might also be workable, provided the bogeyis equipped with guns only. Otherwise the wide lateral separation at themoment of the pull-up may allow the bogey to pull its nose up, point, andshoot as the energy fighter nears the top of its zoom.Bleeding the bogey's energy by using offensive lag pursuit may takeseveral turns, since it is up to the low-T/W opponent in this case to decidehow fast he wishes to trade energy for angles. The bogey can prolong thisfight considerably by turning nose-low, trading altitude for turn rate whilemaintaining speed. In this case the energy fighter pilot generally shouldfollow the bogey down, maintaining a small altitude advantage, since theopponent can use the vertical separation for a zooming lead turn and asnapshot if the altitude differential is allowed to build too far. Likewise,diving on the bogey from a considerable height advantage tends to giveback any energy margin gained, and may result in a vertical overshoot anda rolling scissors. Since the lower bogey has maintained speed and now hasenergy equivalence, it may gain a temporary advantage in this maneuver.Therefore, it is preferable simply to follow the bogey down from slightlyabove until it reaches low altitude and is forced to begin trading speed forturn rate. Once the bogey has been bled to a slow speed it will be mucheasier to handle.A beautiful example of this process is found in an engagement betweenBaron Manfred von Richthofen (ten victories at the time) and the firstBritish ace, Major Lanoe Hawker (nine victories), on 23 November 1916.The German was flying an Albatros D-II against the British de HavillandDH-2. The fighters were roughly equivalent in turn performance, but theAlbatros had a significant climb and top-speed advantage. This is the wayvon Richthofen described the fight in his book The Red Air Fighter. (Nodissenting version is available!)The Englishman tried to catch me up in the rear while I tried to get behindhim. So we circled round and round like madmen after one another at analtitude of about 10,000 feet.

182 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTFirst we circled twenty times to the left, and then thirty times to the right.Each tried to get behind and above the other.Soon I discovered that I was not meeting a beginner. He had not theslightest intention to break off the fight. He was travelling in a box whichturned beautifully. However, my packing case was better at climbing thanhis. But I succeeded at last in getting above and beyond my English waltzingpartner.When we had got down to about 6,000 feet without having achievedanything particular, my opponent ought to have discovered that it was timefor him to take his leave. The wind was favourable to me, for it drove us moreand more towards the German position. At last we were above Bapaume,about half a mile behind the German front. The gallant fellow was full ofpluck, and when we had got down to about 3,000 feet he merrily waved to meas if he would say, Well, how do you do?The circles which we made around one another were so narrow that theirdiameter was probably no more than 250 or 300 feet. I had time to take a goodlook at my opponent. I looked down into his carriage and could see everymovement of his head. If he had not had his cap on I would have noticed whatkind of a face he was making.My Englishman was a good sportsman, but by and by the thing became alittle too hot for him. He had to decide whether he would land on Germanground or whether he would fly back to the English lines. Of course he triedthe latter, after having endeavoured in vain to escape me by loopings and suchtricks. At that time his first bullets were flying around me, for so far neither ofus had been able to do any shooting.When he had come down to about 300 feet he tried to escape by flying in azig-zag course, which makes it difficult for an observer on the ground toshoot. That was my most favourable moment. I followed him at an altitude offrom 250 feet to 150 feet, firing all the time. The Englishman could not helpfalling. But the jamming of my gun nearly robbed me of my success. 3The pilot of a low-T/W fighter in such a scenario has definitely got hishands full, since he really has no performance advantage to exploit. He willhave a very difficult time winning an energy fight against a pilot of similarability, and an angles fight will be no picnic, either. However, his turnperformanceequivalence (in instantaneous turns) favors angles tactics.This needs to be a fairly patient angles fight, using nose-to-nose turns andworking below the bogey, as explained previously. If the opponent is ableto gain too great an altitude advantage in a zoom to be threatened, theangles fighter pilot can attempt to gain separation by diving away and thencoming back hard to meet the bogey nearly head-on to begin the fightanew. Escape is generally not available to the pilot of the slower fighter,unless he can cause his opponent to lose sight. Probably the most usefulpiece of equipment the low-T/W fighter pilot can have in such an engagementis a radio with which to call for help.Double-Superior and Double-Inferior ConditionsThe quality of the box matters little. Success depends upon the man who sitsin it.Baron Manfred von Richthofen

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 1 83A "double-superior" condition occurs when one fighter has both significantlyhigher T/W and lower wing loading than its opponent. Obviouslythe unlucky adversary in this situation is "double inferior."Only the spirit of attack borne in a brave heart will bring success to anyfighter aircraft, no matter how highly developed it may be.Lt. General Adolph Galland, LuftwaffeDouble superiority is a condition for which a fighter pilot would gladlytrade several semi-essential parts of his anatomy. A double-superiorfighter has the speed and acceleration to force an opponent to fight, and themaneuverability to win the fight. In such a situation the superior fightergenerally should choose angles tactics, for a variety of reasons. Thismethod is generally quicker and easier, and it facilitates maintaining sightand allows the opponent fewer weapons-firing opportunities and lesschance of escape. The pilot of the superior fighter can be quite aggressive inthis scenario, using his turn performance to gain advantage and relying onhis power to keep him out of trouble. Lower minimum verticalmaneuveringspeed and higher PS provide a measure of safety against thebogey's possible energy tactics, but the angles fighter pilot can still losethis fight if he tries hard enough. If he races around with fangs out and hairon fire, with total disregard for energy, he may allow even an inferioropponent to gain a substantial energy advantage and convert this to atemporary but lethal position advantage. This usually can be avoided byallowing the superior aircraft to do the job at its own pace, which normallywill be fast enough. Aside from overaggressiveness on the part of the pilot,speed control is the superior fighter's greatest problem. Excess power oftenresults in excess speed and a tendency to overrun or overshoot the adversary.Under the best of circumstances such overshoots prolong the fight,which, particularly when missiles are involved, may be fatal. Judicious useof power is the key here. In the sterile, one-versus-one engagement, thepilot of the superior fighter normally should attempt to keep his speed thesame as or slightly below that of his opponent.The pilot of the inferior fighter in this scenario has real problems. Hemay not be able to avoid engagement, and he may not be able to escapeonce he is engaged. These problems may be alleviated, however, by a verythorough aircraft preflight inspection, followed by a decision to spend theday in the bar. If this luxury is not available, high-speed hit-and-run tacticsor multiple-aircraft engagements may offer some relief; otherwise theinferior fighter must be very good and very lucky.If he is superior then I would go home, for another day that is better.Colonel Erich "Bubi" Hartmann, GAPWith an inferior aircraft, victory in one-versus-one combat must comethrough superior tactics and better technique. Because energy tactics areso much more complex than angles tactics, they tend to magnify variationsin pilot ability. This is one reason energy tactics are recommendedfor this scenario. Another factor is the increased time involved. Besidesprolonging the agony, energy techniques may allow the pilot of the inferior

184 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTfighter to hold the opponent off until he loses interest or is forced towithdraw for fuel considerations. The high-G descending nose-to-tail turnis ideal for this purpose. If the opponent is equipped with RQ missiles, thistactic may allow the pilot of the inferior fighter to hold the bogey just farenough off the tail to prevent a weapons firing while he unexpectedlyreduces power or uses speedbrakes to slow down and thereby generaterapid closure with the opponent. Then at the critical moment he can makea break turn toward the bogey to produce an overshoot. If the bogey pilotdoes not recognize this ploy soon enough and immediately quarter rollaway and pull up, the inferior fighter may be able to reverse for a cheapshot. If the bogey does pull up nearly vertically, the defender may have achance to unload and accelerate down and away, generating separation toprolong the fight, or even causing the bogey pilot to lose sight. When thebogey is gun equipped, the defender should expect a snapshot prior to theovershoot and be prepared to defeat it with a sharp, out-of-plane jink.Climbing extension/pitch-back tactics cannot be expected to work forthe inferior fighter in this scenario, since the opponent has a P s advantage.The other energy tactics discussed, which are intended to bleed the bogey'senergy with a nose-to-tail turn (or nose-to-nose in the case of a very smallbogey or one equipped with all-aspect missiles), can still be effectiveagainst an inexperienced or a careless opponent.The following episode, found in Thunderbolt! by the World War IIUSAAF ace Robert S. Johnson, is one of the best examples available of theuse of energy tactics (diving extension/pitch-back) to defeat a doublesuperioropponent. The encounter described is a mock combat engagementover England between Johnson (P-47C) and an unidentified RAF pilotin a new Spitfire IX. The Spitfire had about a 25 percent better powerloading and nearly a 25 percent lower wing loading. The Thunderbolt'sonly performance advantages were faster top speed, greater acceleration ina dive (because of the P-47's heavier weight and higher density), and betterroll performance. (See the Appendix for a discussion of roll and accelerationperformance.) Johnson, undoubtedly one of the greatest naturalfighter pilots of all time, used his roll performance defensively to allowhimself the chance to build an energy advantage in a diving extension.We flew together in formation, and then I decided to see just what thisairplane had to its credit.I opened the throttle full and the Thunderbolt forged ahead. A momentlater exhaust smoke poured from the Spit as the pilot came after me. Hecouldn't make it; the big Jug had a definite speed advantage. I grinnedhappily; I'd heard so much about this airplane that I really wanted to show offthe Thunderbolt to her pilot. The Jug kept pulling away from the Spitfire;suddenly I hauled back on the stick and lifted the nose. The Thunderboltzoomed upward, soaring into the cloud-flecked sky. I looked out and back;the Spit was straining to match me, and barely able to hold his position.But my advantage was only the zoom—once in steady climb, he had me. Igaped as smoke poured from the exhausts and the Spitfire shot past me as ifI were standing still. Could that plane climb! He tore upward in a climb Icouldn't match in the Jug. Now it was his turn; the broad elliptical wingsrolled, swung around, and the Spit screamed in, hell-bent on chewing me up.

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 185This was going to be fun. I knew he could turn inside the heavy Thunderbolt;if I attempted to hold a tight turn the Spitfire would slip right inside me.I knew, also, that he could easily outclimb my fighter. I stayed out of thosesucker traps. First rule in this kind of a fight: don't fight the way youropponent fights best. No sharp turns; don't climb; keep him at your ownlevel.We were at 5,000 feet, the Spitfire skidding around hard and coming in onmy tail. No use turning; he'd whip right inside me as if I were a truck loadedwith cement, and snap out in firing position. Well, I had a few tricks, too. TheP-47 was faster, and I threw the ship into a roll. Right here I had him. The Jugcould outroll any plane in the air, bar none. With my speed, roll was my onlyadvantage, and I made full use of the manner in which the Thunderbolt couldwhirl. I kicked the Jug into a wicked left roll, horizon spinning crazily, once,twice, into a third. As he turned to the left to follow, I tramped down on theright rudder, banged the stick over to the right. Around and around we went,left, right, left, right. I could whip through better than two rolls before theSpitfire even completed his first. And this killed his ability to turn inside me.I just refused to turn. Every time he tried to follow me in a roll, I flashed awayto the opposite side, opening the gap between our two planes.Then I played the trump. The Spitfire was clawing wildly through the air,trying to follow me in a roll, when I dropped the nose. The Thunderbolthowled and ran for earth. Barely had the Spitfire started to follow—and I was along way ahead of him by now—when I j erked back on the stick and threw theJug into a zoom climb. In a straight or turning climb, the British ship had theadvantage. But coming out of a dive, there's not a British or a German fighterthat can come close to a Thunderbolt rushing upward in a zoom. Before theSpit pilot knew what had happened, I was high above him, the Thunderbolthammering around. And that was it—for in the next few moments theSpitfire flier was amazed to see a less maneuverable, slower-climbing Thunderboltrushing straight at him, eight guns pointed ominously at his cockpit. 4V/STOL and Helicopter Tactical ConsiderationsProgress in aviation and weapons technology has begun to result in severaltypes of "unconventional" fighter aircraft. Among these are vertical/short -takeoff and -landing (V/STOL) fighters, and helicopters.V/STOL versus Conventional FightersThere are currently two distinct variations in V/STOL design. The first ofthese to be considered is the thrust-vector type, typified by the BritishHarrier. This design has four jet exhaust nozzles that can be pivoted todirect the exhaust directly astern, or downward, or even slightly forward.Two nozzles are located behind and two forward of the CG, so that theaircraft can be supported in a hover by the four downward columns of jetexhaust, much like the legs of a four-poster bed. The Harrier has only asingle engine, but fighters of this type with multiple engines could follow.While it is at very slow speeds the fighter's attitude is controlled by smallreaction jets of engine bleed air located in the nose and/or tail and on thewing tips.In order to takeoff and land vertically, this fighter must have a T/W ofgreater than 1. When the aircraft is heavily loaded with fuel and ordnance,

186 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFThowever, weight may exceed thrust; in this case the aircraft requires ashort horizontal run and assistance from the wings to get airborne or toland safely. Also, since jet thrust is diminished by high altitude or hottemperatures, horizontal takeoff and landing runs may be required undersome operating conditions, even at low weights. Still, the short-takeoffand -landing capability allows operations to take place from short,makeshift airfields in forward battle areas, from battle-damaged runways,and from the decks of ships.The second type of V/STOL fighter is the lift-fan design, such as theRussian Yak-36 Forger. This type incorporates one or more (two in theForger) lift jets that exhaust only downward; these are used in conjunctionwith the main engine(s). The primary engine of the Forger has two pivotingexhausts located in the rear, much like the Harrier, to vector the thrustdownward or aft. The lift jets support the front of the aircraft and the mainengine supports the rear during a hover.The added capabilities of V/STOL fighters are not achieved withoutpenalties. The primary limitations of these designs are short range and lowordnance-carrying capability in comparison to conventional fighters ofsimilar technological level. The requirement for high thrust and lowweight leaves little margin for large structures, great amounts of fuel, orlarge ordnance loads. Such fighters, therefore, are usually small, lightlyarmed, and lightly armored, with limited radius of action and combatendurance. Although T/W and wing loading must be compared to those ofan opposing aircraft for them to have much relevance to fighter performance,some generalizations can be made. Since improved landing andtakeoff performance is provided by a vertical thrust component, largewings are unnecessary. In addition, large wings reduce high-speed performanceand add weight, so V/STOL fighters tend to have relatively smallwings and high wing loading, which can degrade turn performance. Evenso, inherent high T/W generally keeps sustained turn performance ratherhigh. Instantaneous turn performance, however, is likely to suffer becauseof high wing loading.Some V/STOL fighters can improve their instantaneous turn performancethrough a technique known as "VIFFing" (vectoring in forwardflight), in which thrust vectoring can be used to assist the wings. Bypointing the exhaust downward (relative to the aircraft), thrust vectoringincreases instantaneous load factor by about 1 G. Under slow-speed, low-Gconditions this feature might double instantaneous turn performance, butat high speed and high G its effect would be minimal. This increased turnperformance also must be paid for, however. Since essentially all the thrustis directed downward, there is no forward component to oppose drag, andtherefore the aircraft will decelerate even faster than a conventionalfighter performing a similar maneuver. The V/STOL fighter operating inthis way needs all that good T/W to accelerate out of its energy hole afterthe turn.Not all V/STOLs have the option of using thrust vectoring in thismanner. In particular, the lift-jet designs often have intake covers thatopen outwardly to deflect air into the lift fans. These deflectors may have

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 187airspeed limitations, and if not, they would certainly act as speedbrakes,further increasing deceleration. Another problem with the lift-fan/lift-jetdesign is fuel flow. Cranking up those jets for a magic turn can double totalfuel flow and greatly decrease combat endurance. The lift jets usually areintended for use during takeoff and landing, and they must be carried asdead weight during the rest of the mission. This feature generally increasesaircraft weight and decreases fuel storage space, and it also may result ininstallation of a smaller main engine. All these handicaps tend to reduceT/W and the combat endurance of the lift-jet V/STOL variety, which isusually inferior to the pure thrust-vector type.The unique characteristics of the V/STOL fighters make them wellsuited to energy tactics. Their good sustained turn, acceleration, and zoomcapabilities can be capitalized on by energy methods. Some models are ableto vector exhaust nozzles well forward for use as airborne thrust reversers.This feature provides very rapid deceleration and, possibly in conjunctionwith increased instantaneous turn performance, may be useful in preventingor causing overshoots. Rapid deceleration is also invaluable in the earlystages of a flat scissors or a defensive spiral. Normally, VIFFing should bereserved for such defensive or terminal-offensive situations.One glaring exception to this rule, however, is the vertical reversal aftera zoom climb. If the rear nozzles can be deflected downward (toward thebelly of the aircraft) while the fighter is near vertical in a slow-speed zoomclimb, the aircraft can be made to pitch forward and "swap ends" veryquickly to point down at the bogey. Alternatively, thrust vectoring may beused to increase G over the top of a more conventional looping maneuver.This capability, as well as the usually fine sustained turn performance andgood slow-speed control, also can make this a very mean opponent in arolling scissors. All these attributes, and small size, often result in a veryfine energy fighter; but energy tactics and the added complexity of operatingthis type of aircraft require highly skilled pilots and extraordinaryair-to-air training.The ability to swivel rear-mounted exhaust nozzles of a fighter upwardrelative to the aircraft makes a V/STOL or other thrust-vector fighter morecompatible with angles tactics. When combined with an airframe that iswell behaved at a high angle of attack, VIFFing, much like the thrustvectorcontrol system discussed earlier for missiles, can cause a fighter topivot about its CG and literally swap ends at virtually any airspeed. Theability to point quickly in any direction can be extremely valuable, particularlywhen the aircraft is equipped with all-aspect missiles. Again,however, such thrust-vector maneuvers should be used judiciously becauseof the rapid energy dissipation that results.The hover capability of the V/STOL is often highly overrated in theair-to-air environment. First of all, most V/STOLs lack hover capability atrealistic operating weights and altitudes. Even if these aircraft could stopin midair, attitude control is usually not adequate for aiming boresightweapons at an enemy fighter unless the bogey flies in front of the weapon.Off-boresight weapons may make this tactic slightly more feasible; butstill, a motionless aircraft presents an all-aspect heat source and is a sitting

188 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTduck for nearly any weapon in the enemy's arsenal, either air-to-air orsurface-to-air. (The Doppler radar-guided AAM is a notable exception tothis rule.)For a conventional fighter opposing a V/STOL, angles tactics usuallywill be more appropriate. The angles fighter pilot must be mindful of theV/STOL bogey's ability to generate overshoots and be ready to quarter rollaway and pitch off high in case the V/STOL slaps on a "bat-turn." In such acase the bogey pilot has most likely forfeited his vertical capability forincreased turn performance, so the angles fighter pilot should find a safesanctuary at higher altitude, provided he has practiced good energy managementhimself. If the pilot of the angles fighter allows himself to get wellbelow vertical-maneuvering speed, such an overshoot probably will resultin a flat scissors, placing him in deep and serious kimchi. The rollingscissors also should be avoided unless the V/STOL bogey is obviously lowon energy, like after a magic turn ; and a defensive spiral must be rejected atany cost. In short, the pilot of the conventional fighter often will obtain thebest results from the early use of careful angles tactics to keep pressure onthe V/STOL bogey and deplete its energy. Then, when the V/STOL pilotdecides to use his VIFFing ability for slow fighting, the angles fighter pilotcan revert to energy tactics. If the engagement cannot be ended quickly,and the bogey is allowed to regain its energy, it may be necessary for thepilot of the conventional fighter to resume angles tactics once more.Helicopters versus Conventional FightersAlthough helicopters generally have not been considered air-to-airmachines in the past, many current attack helos are heavily armed and canoffer some interesting problems to fixed-wing fighters. When comparedwith conventional jet fighters, helos are so slow they can't get out of theirown way, so they simply do not have the capability to seek out andoffensively engage faster aircraft. Therefore, engagements are most likelyto occur while the helo is out minding its own business, or making lifemiserable for enemy ground forces. Although the helo probably will be theattackee rather than the attacker at the start of the engagement, a wellflownhelicopter is far from defenseless.The primitive can also be a weapon.Lt. General Adolph Galland, LuftwaffeOne of the helo pilot's first defensive actions when he is faced with afixed-wing attack is to dive to as low an altitude as possible and accelerateto max-speed while turning toward the attacker. This reaction servesmany purposes. Very low altitude operation degrades the bogey's weaponssystems by denying its pilot the look-up necessary to optimize radaroperation and the guidance capabilities of heat-seeking and radar-guidedmissiles. Simply flying at low level is sufficient to defeat most pulse-typeradars, which cannot distinguish the target from the ground return (clutter).Although sophisticated pulse-Doppler (PD) radars are theoreticallycapable of detecting and tracking a low-flying target, their operation usuallywill be degraded by a "jamming" effect inherent to the helicopter

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 189rotor. Since the PD radar sees only moving objects, the real target willappear to be surrounded by many other "targets," as each of the rotorblades alternately increases and decreases its speed over the ground withevery revolution. A Doppler radar and missile normally will have greatdifficulty maintaining a steady track on the helo itself with all this distraction,which can result in erratic guidance, increasing miss distance, andpossibly missile-ground impact. This phenomenon also plays havoc withmost Doppler-rate fuzes, causing early fuzing and warhead detonation.Active fuzes have problems in this environment, too, as they are susceptibleto detonation on ground return before detecting the target. When theattacker's primary weapon is known to be a Doppler-type radar missile, thehelo pilot may choose to fly at roughly right angles to the bogey's approach,which (as described in Chapter 1) should eliminate the primary radarreturn completely, or at least hide it in the ground clutter. This tacticleaves only the rotor blades as radar targets and further complicates themissile's task. Hovering motionless would serve the same purpose, butthat tends to make the helo highly vulnerable to other weapons.Flying toward the attacker has other benefits. The increased closurereduces the bogey's firing time for either guns or missiles, and if theattacker attempts to track the helo visually to fire a boresight weapon, themoving target causes the shooter to steepen his dive angle rapidly. This is avery uncomfortable maneuver for the pilot of a high-speed fighter close tothe ground, and it often causes the attacker to break off a firing pass beforereaching his most effective range. Pointing at the attacker also tends tohide the helo's jet exhaust from a heat-seeking missile.Low-level flying is the bread and butter of most helo drivers, and theyare very comfortable in this environment. Not so with the average fighterjock, who is likely to be quite uncomfortable attempting to bring weaponsto bear against a moving, highly maneuverable, low-level target. Thisfactor is of great advantage to the helo. The helo pilot also should be awareof the background he is presenting to his opponent and use any availableopportunity to make things as difficult as possible for the bogey. This canbe done by positioning over variegated terrain, which blends most closelywith the helo's color scheme. Dark camouflage over dark terrain worksbest, since shadows may tend to highlight the low-flying helo on sunnydays over a light-colored surface. Mottled terrain is usually more effectivethan uniform colors, unless the aircraft camouflage matches the terrainvery closely. Trees, shadows, and hills can also be very useful hidingplaces. Water, tall grass, and dusty areas usually should be avoided becauseof rotor effects on these surfaces. At best, low-flying aircraft are verydifficult to spot and track visually. With a little effort they can be madealmost invisible.The helo pilot should also attempt IR masking when he is faced with aheat-seeking missile threat. Visual masking and IR masking are oftenmutually exclusive, however, since hot, usually light-colored desert backgroundsoffer the greatest problems for IR missiles. Such unlikely surfacesas water and snow can also be quite effective reflectors of IR energy,particularly if the bogey is attacking toward a bright sun.

190 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTAs a fighter, the helicopter is the very epitome of a low-T/W, low-wingloadedaircraft, being blessed with exceptional turning capability but verypoor energy performance when compared with fixed-wing fighters. Thereforeangles tactics, as described earlier in this chapter and in Chapter 3, canbe applied by the helo in their purest form. Helo weapons useful in theair-to-air arena most often include flexible guns, manually aimed or turretmounted;fixed, forward-firing guns ; unguided rockets; and heat-seekingAAMs. A helo's gunsights, however, are seldom optimized for the air-toairarena, so unguided weapons require lots of Kentucky windage for useagainst high-speed fighters.Once the immediate priorities of getting to low altitude and turningtoward the attacker have been accomplished, the helo is faced with defeatingany possible firing attempt made by the bogey prior to the first pass.The attacker's job is made more difficult if the helo is not flown directlytoward the bogey, but at an angle of 30° to 45° instead. This tactic forces theattacker to turn in order to establish lead for a gun shot, unguided rockets,or bombs (that's right, bombs!), or to track with a boresight missile. Oncethe bogey is established on the proper heading for releasing its weapon andis approaching firing range, the helo should turn sharply toward the attackerand pull him across the nose to the opposite side. This forces thebogey to turn in order to reestablish the proper lead or boresight heading.As the attacker approaches the proper heading again, the helo can pull himacross the nose once more, keeping the attacker's nose out of phase andspoiling the shot. One or two of these jinks should be all that are requiredbefore the bogey reaches minimum firing range. Helos equipped withforward-firing, turret-mounted guns may be able to bring the attackerunder fire during much of his approach, even during this jinking process.The opportunity to fire an all-aspect missile head-on should not be passedup either, probably as the bogey crosses the nose during a jink. The helo'slook-up angle should provide better target discrimination, making thisshot more effective than the similar, but look-down, firing by the attacker.A few dozen unguided rockets thrown up in front of the attacker prior tothe pass can also have a startling effect on his marksmanship.Being under fire is bad for the nervous system.Captain Willy CoppensLeading Belgian Air Force Ace, WW-I37 Victories (36 of Which Were Tethered Balloons)Although no self-respecting fighter pilot would carry a bomb, there is notelling what kind of low-life may be met over a battlefield, so such anattack must be considered. Should some sort of ballistic projectile be seenfalling from the enemy aircraft, the helo should immediately turn awayfrom the predicted impact point and make tracks to gain separation asrapidly as possible. The chances of actually being hit by such a bomb aresmall (especially when it is dropped by a fighter pilot), but the fragmentsfrom typical bombs can be lethal more than 2,000 ft from the point ofdetonation.Approaching the pass, the helo pilot should try to generate some flight-

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 191path separation and lead-turn the bogey, as recommended for the anglesfighter in previous scenarios. Because of the helo's very tight turn radius,even minimal lateral separation can be converted to large angular gains atthe pass. If the bogey continues straight or pulls up after the pass, the helodriver can continue to pull the nose around for a shot before the targetextends out of range. Should a shot at this point be unsuccessful, and thebogey exceeds max-range, the helo pilot might think of making a break forsome protected area or hiding place. If such a safe haven is not available, orif the helo driver begins to like playing fighter pilot, he may choose topursue the bogey, wait for it to turn around, and repeat the head-on passtactics. Unless the helo pilot has considerable air-to-air experience,however, this is probably a mistake.If the bogey pulls sharply vertical at the pass and the helo pilot cannotmake a shot, he should follow the attacker at low altitude and attempt toget beneath the bogey as it completes the vertical maneuver. This ploymakes a second attack by the bogey more difficult, since it would necessitatea steep dive angle. Pilots usually will avoid steep dives at low altitudefor fear of misjudging the pull-out and hitting the ground. As the bogeyapproaches overhead, the helo can pull up in an oblique climbing turnbeneath the attacker for a look-up, RQ weapons firing, or it can at leasthide beneath the opponent, forcing him to turn hard to regain sight.Returning to the first pass for a moment, if the fixed-wing bogey turnshard toward the helo, taking out most of the lateral separation and preventingan effective lead turn, the helo might have trouble turning around fastenough to get a shot. If this happens, the helo can continue the classicangles tactics illustrated by Figure 3-1 ; that is, reverse nose-to-nose. In thiscase, however, there is such a large disparity in speed and turn radius that asimple reversal and a level nose-to-nose turn should quickly place the heloinside the opponent's flight path, making it impossible for the pilot of thefixed-wing fighter to get his nose pointed at the helo for another attack.The helo pilot should continue the turn for at least 90°, then straightenout or reverse into a gradual lead turn, maintaining 20°-30° of lead on thebogey. Care should be taken not to turn so hard in the lead turn that thehelo flies out in front of the bogey. This situation can be anticipated bywatching the bogey's drift against the far horizon, and ensuring that thisapparent motion is always forward. Ultimately, if the bogey continues itsturn, the helo pilot can play his lead turn to arrive at a close-range gunfiringposition or within RQ missile parameters. An all-aspect-missilefiringopportunity may be available soon after completion of thenose-to-nose turn, provided min-range parameters can be met.Now for the other side of this coin. How does a fixed-wing fighter attacka helo? It has been shown that a helo can be a very difficult opponent, butthe fixed-wing fighter does have some advantages that can be exploited.For one thing, odds are the helo driver has very little air-to-air experience,so he may not be as serious a threat as the foregoing discussion mightsuggest. Still, caution and deviousness form the best policy.First there is the matter of what weapons to use, given the fighter pilothas a choice. The gun can be very effective against helos, particularly when

192 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTthe attack is unseen; but, as discussed, scoring against an evasive helo canbe quite difficult and may subject the fighter to return fire. In addition,most radar lead-computing gunsights are more than worthless in thisenvironment because of ground clutter and rotor-blade effects. The attackermay find a simple fixed sight more effective, especially at lowaltitudes. Stories are told of an Israeli fighter pilot who made eight gunpasses on a helo before switching to a fixed gunsight for the kill. Unguidedrockets, fired in large salvos, can be lethal weapons, since greater dispersionincreases the probability of a hit, and increased firing range can keepthe attacker outside the helo's effective guns range. The helo pilot's notlikely to do much shooting anyway once he sees a flock of rockets headedhis way! Rockets fired singly, however, offer little chance of success.Although any real fighter pilot hates to admit it, bombs may be the bestlow-altitude anti-helo weapon. The kill mechanism here is not necessarilya direct hit, which would be very difficult to achieve against an evasivetarget, but the rather large fragmentation pattern. With a typical 500-lbbomb, a 500-ft miss would probably be sufficient to do some damage to alow-flyrng (i.e., below 1,000 ft) helicopter. Even this degree of accuracy isnot easy to achieve, however, against a moving, evasive target that must beled considerably when the bomb is released. Retarded bombs are usuallybest for this purpose. (Retarded does not relate to the bomb's intelligencelevel, but refers to high-drag devices that retard the bomb's speed after itsrelease, allowing the bomber greater separation from the frag patternbefore weapon impact.) Retarded weapons allow the bomber to releasemuch lower and closer to the target for improved accuracy, and theirshorter time of fall (because of a closer release) allows the target less timefor evasive action. Although such close releases may bring the fighterwithin the target's gun range, the helo pilot is likely to lose all offensiveintentions once the bomb is in the air.One notable exception to this technique occurs when the helo isequipped with all-aspect heat-seeking missiles. In this case a low-altitudebomb run at high speed and power setting may allow the helo a forwardquarter,look-up missile shot before the fighter reaches the bomb-releasepoint. A better method of attack would be to approach the helo at highaltitude and low power setting, well above its missile's max-range, thenmake a steep dive-bombing run at idle power, at least until inside thethreat missile's min-range. After release of the bomb or bombs the fightershould make a low-altitude pull-out and extend at high speed and low levelout the bogey's extended six o'clock. Afterburners, which increase thefighter's IR signature by an order of magnitude, should not be required aftera dive from high altitude and should not be used. Low-drag (unretarded)bombs are generally best for this tactic because of reduced time of fall froma high release. With either retarded or low-drag bombs, fuzes set to explodeinstantaneously on ground impact, or even slightly before, are optimumbecause of the resulting frag-pattern increase.Cluster bombs (bombs that dispense large numbers of small "bomblets"after release) can also be effective against helos, but they are usuallyinferior to general purpose bombs for this mission because of the greatly

ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFT 193reduced frag pattern of the cluster weapon. Although this "shotgun"weapon makes a direct hit more likely, a direct hit would probably berequired to destroy the target, and it would still be quite difficult to achieveagainst an evasive helo. The cluster bomb would be better than generalpurpose bombs against a helo at high altitude, but other air-to-air weaponswould probably be more appropriate in that case.AAMs may also be viable weapons against the helo. The radar-guidedweapons, however, have serious problems, as noted earlier, and probablywould be rather ineffective, especially against a low-altitude target. ADoppler-guided missile might have a chance if it was employed in alow-level, head-on attack, so that the helo's closing speed would aid themissile in distinguishing the target from ground clutter. Side-lobe clutter,as described in Chapter 1, is the problem with RQ attacks with thisweapon, and it may necessitate a higher-altitude, shoot-down launch.Heat seekers are much better suited to this scenario, but they still arenot without problems. Helicopters often have exhaust shields that reducetheir IR signatures, and hot exhaust gases may be dispersed by the rotorwash. In a look-down environment, especially over hot desert terrain,RQ-only heat seekers may be more effective than their all-aspect counterpartsbecause they are less sensitive to background IR radiation. RQ heatseekingmissiles should be fired whenever the target heat source can bedetected, regardless of aspect. Even "RQ" AAMs may have all-aspectcapabilities against slow aircraft that are unable to generate high speed or ahigh load factor.If all else fails, a high-speed pass very low over the top of the helo is verylikely to disrupt airflow through the rotor blades sufficiently to cause a lossof control, and can drive a low-altitude helo into the ground.Probably the best tactic to employ against a helicopter is to sneak up onit and attack with bombs, guns, unguided rockets, or IR missiles. If detectedby the target, about the best the pilot of a fixed-wing fighter canhope for is a head-on pass. Turning with a helo is fruitless and can bedownright dangerous. If the first attack is not successful and multiple runsare necessary, a variation of extension tactics can be used. On each pass thefighter pilot should turn hard toward the helo to reduce lateral separationto a minimum, then extend at low altitude and high speed, turning in thenose-to-tail direction only as necessary to keep sight of the helo behind. Ifthe helo is missile equipped it is important both to stay low to avoid givingthe bogey any look-up and to cease use of afterburners before the bogey cancomplete its turn and fire. The combination of high fighter speed, lowaltitude, and the slow speed of the helo all work to reduce the helomissile's max-range to probably half that advertised for fighter engagementsat higher altitudes. Against non-missile-equipped helos, a gradualclimb may be more comfortable during the extension.The extension should be continued until the fighter is well outside thehelo's missile range, and until the fighter can make a reversal to meet thehelo again head-on and still have sufficient separation for gun, missile, orbomb-sight tracking. A power reduction and a nose-high oblique reversalmay allow the fighter pilot to tighten his turn and get the nose around

194 ONE-VERSUS-ONE MANEUVERING, DISSIMILAR AIRCRAFTquicker. The length of the extension may be reduced by the requirement tokeep sight of the helo, and tracking times may be short as a result. If twofighters are available, one can orbit around the fight high, keeping track ofthe helo and directing the engaged fighter pilot in case he loses sight of thebogey. Or both fighters can engage the helo simultaneously from differentdirections. Caution is required, however, when the fighters are droppingbombs, as the frag pattern from one bomb must be given time to dissipatebefore the second fighter enters the area.In general, except for the comments on rotor-blade effects, the tacticsand considerations outlined here are relevant to most low-altitude engagementsbetween fighters with very great disparity in performance.Notes1. John T. Godfrey, The Look of Eagles, pp. 98-99.2. Randy Cunningham, Fox Two, pp. 104, 106-8.3. Manfred F. von Richthofen, The Red Air Fighter, pp. 84-85.4. Robert S. Johnson, Thunderbolt! pp. 148-49.

'\ ~;::.. ITHE BANDIT'SCaptain Thomas K. MascotCaptain Mark G. Beesley442 TESNellis A.::B, Nevada 89191.5000f)~,::1;;1;~'~, : ":,,~,E Very smart fighter pilot knows that being able to controla fight is essential to victory. Without a solidgrasp of fundamentals, few fighter pilots will last long in thehigh intensity environment of modern air combat. The abilityto quickly assess the tactical sitUation and act is crucial.The objective is to kill the bandit prior to the merge with allaspect ordnance or to arrive at the merge with a positionaland/or energy advantage that facilitates a rapid kill.Improvements in radars, radar warning receivers (RWR), airborneand ground-controlled intercept (GCI), and air-to-airtraining have enhanced the fighter aircrew's ability to deteCtopponents beyond visual range (BVR). In addition, theimproved performance of new generation fighters allows relativelylate visual pickups to be tUrned into high aspect passes.The result is fewer engagements begun with one playerhaving an overwhelming offensive advantage. Consequentl)7,the skill and proficiency required to turn a high aspect entryinto an advantage -and obtain a quick kill -are essential tosuccess in today's tactical arena.Basically, fighting tactics can be broken into four phasesdetection, interception, engagement, and separation.DETECTIONBefore the bandit can be engaged and killed, he must first bedetected. Detection ranges can vary from close visual pickupsto radar contacts in excess of 40 miles.The objective of the detection phase is to analyze the bandit'sflight parameters and maneuvers so that an intelligentengagement decision can be made. The quality of that analysisis time and distance dependent. A long range radarcontact will provide altitude, true airspeed, mach, heading,aspect angle, range -and most important -the time tointerpret this information. Short range contacts do not providemuch time to assess the sitUation; however, line-ofsight(LOS) rate, closure, nose position, and flight maneuverscan provide an estimate of the bandit's energy level andawareness of our presence. Other visual cues such as enginesmoke, afterburner plumes, and wing sweep angles can alsoupdate this analysis. A visual identification (VID) of thebandit aircraft will provide his performance, avionics, andweapons capabilities.Observing changes in an adversary's parameters and maneuversmay provide answers to some or all of four importantquestions:1. Is the bandit aware of our presence?2. What are the bandit's intentions?3. What are our relative energy states?4. What is the bandit's level of competence?t))~USAFFIGHTERWEAPONSREVIEW

.fINTERCEPTIONllSne

2-~./Time permitting, radar sort, target, and lock-on tothe bandit.AThis depicts one of the classic2. Gain tUrning room so that an advantageous entry errors in BFM. A is attempting tois attained at the merge.lead turn B, but is actually turningin front of B by flying in lead pursuit3 Manage energy so that a full range of options is and showing B the belly of hisaircraft. The result is, of course, B 1 ~ /available at the merge.turning inside A's turning circle to apOsition of offensive advantagebehind A's 3-9 line. /4. Take all shot opportunities. Never fly throughweapons parameters. The most successful engagementoccurs when the enemv is destroyed fourmiles away and a turning fight .never devel~ps.ENGAGEMENTUnfortunately, despite valiant efforts, bandits sometimes surviveto reach the merge. This sitUation demands proficientBFM. If the intercept has provided tUrning room, andengagement \vith the bandit is desired, a properly executedlead tUrn can rapidly provide an offensive advantage, Beforecontinuing this discussion, however, a lead tUrn needs to bedefined. A lead tUrn is one that is started in front of theenemy's 3-9 line, placing the attacker in a pure to slight lagpursuit CUT\'e on the bandit. The objective is to end upbehind the enemy's 3-9 line with an angular advantage -notto tUrn in front of him (see Figure 1). In the F-15, a goodrule of thumb is to start the lead turn when the bandit is onthe canopy bow. The more tUrning room that has beenestablished, the further out the lead tUrn can be started.Generally speaking, do not show the aircraft belly to theadversary. Doing so is a good way of \\'inding up in front ofthe bandit. An opponent of similar, or superior, tUrn performanceis capable of turning inside the attacker's tUrningcircle and it then becomes questionable as to who is leadtUrning whom (see Figure 2). The exception to the ruleoccurs where the bandit is incapable of generating a goodtUrn rate due to excessive speed or vastly inferior tUrn capability.In the case of a high speed opponent, it may benecessary to fly lead pursuit (showing him the belly) inorder to get an opening V c shot from the rear quadrant.A/ + 2Aircraft A executes a lead turn onaircraft 8. The turn starts while Ais still in front of 8's wingline in apure to slight lag pursuit curve.The result, if not countered, is thatA ends UP in a position of advantagebehind 8's 3-9 line.,B~Figure 1While tUrning room is available in all planes, the vertical leadtUrn can provide a rapid advantage provided the banditallows the opponent to gain vertical maneuvering room anddoes not counter the lead tUrn at the merge. Turning in thevertical against a bandit who fails to recognize the developingadvantage and defends only in the horizontal, or nearly horizontalplane, provides the opportUnity to tUrn inside anadversary's circle and behind his 3-9 line. Assuming the banditdoes not counter the vertical lead tUrn early, it will be2~1---'-S-""'--/Figure 2relatively easy to pirouette and roll into an offensive position.Proper power and airspeed management are essential tothe success of this maneuver. Too little airspeed and powergoing up will result in insufficient energy to maintain theadvantage. Too much airspeed going down will reduce thetUrn rate and increase the tUrn radius to a point that maynegate any initial advantage of vertical tUrning room (seeFigure 3). Often, two opponents will approach the mergewith each attempting to lead tUrn the other -one in thehorizontal and one in the vertical. Provided that the aircraftare of equal performance and similar energy states, theattacker that uses the vertical should have an initial noseposition advantage. This is due to the radial G that is availablegoing over the top. If unrecognized by the banditmaneuvering in the horizontal, the nose position advantagecan intimidate and cause errors leading to a sustained offensiveposition by the attacker. When engaging bandits with alower thrust-to-weight ratio, this option is especially effective.Accordingly, when facing equal or superior performingadversaries, do not allow them to gain and use verticaltUrning room to their advantage.~//"'-""~-;:-~B Figure 3This figure illustrates the advantageof the venical lead turn. Against adefender in the horizontal, theattacker in the venical is able toturn up inside the defenders turningcircle from the outset. In this case,aircraft A has been able to achievean almost immediate advantage.Once established in the verticalinside the opponent's turning circleand behind his 3-9 line, theattacker can now roll off behindhim in a position of advantage.As noted in the discussion of tUrning room, an aware, competentenemy can deny the lead tUrn if he has sufficientenergy to generate the required tUrn rate. In the final analysis,a lead turn can only work on someone who fails tocounter the maneuver. Remember, if the opponent hasacquired vertical tUrning room and is attempting a verticallead tUrn, counter and deny his attempt.2f~IIt;4USAFFIGHTERWEAPONSREVIEW

..Rarely does a single lead turn result in a sufficientadvantage to achieve a kill. In Figure 4, aircraft Aexecutes a lead turn against B at position 1. Theadvantage is clearly with A, but the lead turn cost Aenergy to achieve the nOse position behind B.Attacker A must then low yo.yo down across B'scircle losing some of his positional advantage toregain lost energy. Another lead turn is executed byA with vertical turning room below the bandit B atposition 2. Each successive :ead turn gives A a greateradvantage until he is able to achieve weapons parameters.Patience and energy management are the keysto success.J2Figure4Rarely does a single tUrn result in an immediate kill.Patience is a must. Several successive lead tUrns may berequired to achieve the position necessary to eliminate thebandit -especially when employing stern-only ordnance.This is where the balance between energy and nose positionis most graphically illustrated. An initial lead tUrn may give apositional advantage to the attacker; however, energy is dissipatedduring the turn (see Figure 4).In order to continue to pressure the bandit, the attacker mayhave to relinquish some nose position in order to regain lostenergy. At the same time, the attacker plans his next leadturn. Each lead turn, in sequence, enhances positional advantageuntil weapons parameters can be achieved.3Figure 5 illustrates the entry into a one circle fight.For the sake of simplicity, a horizontal fight isdepicted. Keel" in mind that this can occur in anyplane, or combv,ation of planes. A1~1L ", ""-12The greater the disparity in aircraft performance and ordnance,the quicker the kill. However, when facing a proficientpilot in an equal airplane, the outcome will depend onpilot skill and will usually take much longer to determine. Ifthe bandit denies turning room and the lead turn, a high aspectpass will result. The choice then becomes a one circlefight, a two circle fight, or a separation. Each option presentsadvantages, disadvantages, and opportunities in varioussituations.ONE CI RCLEHow does a one circle fight occur? As two fighters merge ona left to left pass, both aircraft tUrn into each other. Onefighter then reserves his tUrn and generates a single circlefight (see Figure 5). The result is similar to an offensivefighter committing a flight path overshoot after which thedefender reverses. The magnitUde of the overshoot is suchthat the reversal initially keeps the opponent neutral.The objective of a one circle fight is to gain an offensive positionbehind the bandit's 3-9 line in minimum time. Toaccomplish this, it is preferable to fight against an enemywho has inferior tUrn performance and a lower thrust-toweightratio. For example, an F-15 tUrning against a hardwingF-4 would like to force a one circle fight. The F-l 5'ssuperior tUrn performance will allow the pilot to rapidlyestablish a position behind the F-4's 3-9 line. By so doing,the Eagle driver can shoot the Phantom, while denying thePhantom a shot opportUnity.WINTER1985Figure 5What are the advantages of a one circle fight? Although_thetUrn initially maneuvers the bandit across the six o'clockarea, the op'ponent is kept relatively close during subsequentmaneuvering. Small adversaries are difficult to see when theyget more than a couple of miles away. Lose sight, lose fight!When maneuvering against bandits with inferior tUrn performanceand all aspect ordnance, the one circle fight denies theuse of the ordnance and allows the better tUrning aircraft toachieve a quick kill with relatively little ener~' loss. Also,because the one circle fight is usually small, it is difficult foradditional bandits to enter the engagement.What, then, are the disadvantages of the one circle fight?The bottom line is this: if maneuvering against a competentenemy with a better tUrning airplane, it will be difficult tosurvive the encounter! Against equal or similar performingaircraft, the fight can take a long time to win; all the while,the fight anchors in one spot making it easy for new opponentsto find the fight. In addition, the fight tends to getslow, ending in some type of a vertical rolling or flat scissors.Surviving the one circle fight results in a low energy state,poor SA, and an easy prey for additional bandits hawking thefight. Finally, mutUal support may be degraded because it isdifficult for a \\ingman to enter a tight, slo\\ fight, or toeffect an element separation.25

TWO CI RCLEHow, then, does a two circle fight occur? As two fightersmerge on the same left to left pass, both aircraft turn intoeach other. This time, however, no one reverses. The turnscontinue and establish what resembles a figure-eight pattern(see Figure 6). If both aircraft were to maintain constantairspeed and "G," the figure-eight pattern would continueindefinitely.B~BFigure 6 shows the entry into the classical two circle fight. Thegeometry of the fight may not necessarily be established on thefirst turn. but may go through a feint by one or both players inattempts to establish the type of fight that each desires.Figure 6The obj,ectives of the two circle fight are to kill the bandit byemploYIng all aspect ordnance or to lead turn him at thenext merge in order to maneuver behind his 3-9 line. Thetwo circle fight presents excellent opportunities againstbandits that do not have an all aspect capability. Forexample: if an F-5 commits against an F-15 and the Eaglecan force a two circle fight, the superior turn capability ofthe F-15 enables the pilot to bring his nose to bear on theF-5 and, thus, employ an AIM-7 or AIM-9L/M. Once again,the Eagle driver is in a position to shoot all aspect ordnanceat a target that cannot shoot back. If the front quarter shotis unavailable or unsuccessful, the opportunity remains tolead turn the adversary at the next merge; or, to disengageand separate.Tactically, it is not sound to engage a bandit with superiorturn performance, avionics, and weapons in any type of aturning fight. However, the two circle fight does provide theoption of engaging a superior turning aircraft successfully fora limited time period by maintaining a high energy fight.This negates the bandit's better turn capability. To be successful,it is essential to deny the lead turn at each merge,keep the airspeed high, and employ front quarter ordnance(see Figure 7).What are the advantages of the two circle fight? Generally,the fight is kept larger and the airspeed is kept higher.Avionics and weapons that provide a rapid off-boresightlaunch capability offer a tremendous advantage in this situation.Initially, the fight is not slow and small; thus, SA andenergy are easier to maintain. In addition, the wingmanshould be able to support the fight or effect an elementseparation. Finally, when fighting a high energy, two circlefight, the option to separate is more readily available.A disadvantage of the two circle fight is the difficulty inkeeping sight of small targets. This can be a significant factorsince the turn at the merge maneuvers the bandit to sixo'clock. Another disadvantage occurs when engaging a ba~-1AA2FOXFigure 7 shows aircraft A engagingin the high energy, two circle fight.At the merge, B attempts to forcethe hard turning fight. To denyturning room, A checks into Bandwhile keeping his energy level high.This creates enough range to turnback at position 2 and employ allaspect ordnance at position 3.3A ~ ""---Figure 7dit with all aspect ordnance. Having survived the merge, itmay not be prudent to allow the bandit room to maneuver tofront aspect parameters -especially if you are flying a superiorperforming aircraft that could deny any shots by maneuveringbehind the adversary's 3-9 line.The choice between a one circle or a two circle fight dependsupon the type of fight that the participants desire. The problemoccurs when each participant opts for a different fight.A feint at the merge that forces the bandit into his initialturn may then allow a reversal and the establishment of a onecircle fight. The main point of the discussion is that thedecision should be based on the type of adversary and thetactical situation. Whether to take the fight up or downwill be a function of relative energy states and aircraftperformance capabilities. When energy and aircraft performanceare superior to that of the adversary, taking the fightup can provide a rapid advantage. If at an energy deficit,taking the fight down can generate energy and offset theenemy's current advantage. The keys to success are in properlyassessing relative energy states and in knowing wherethe energy maneuverability (EM) advantages/disadvantagesare against various bandit types. Select the fight thatpresents the best opportunity for a quick kill and then forcethe desired fight. Do not let the opponent dictate the termsof the engagement!SEPARATIONHow is a successful separation accomplished? First, the needto disengage and separate must be anticipated. High airspeedand denial of the enemy's turning room are important factors.Separating from the initial merge is not a particularlydifficult task. A full afterburner acceleration, while denyinga bandit turning room, should allow supersonic airspeed atthe merge with a large heading crossing angle (HCA). Theproblem becomes more difficult, however, when the fight hasprogressed through several tUrns and energy states aredepleted. This sitUation requires anticipation and planning inorder to accomplish a successful separation.232Bf)t:)""6 USAFFIGHTERWEAPONSREVIEW

':!Jfmore than 1800; thus, providing the time to accelerate andseparate. Additionally, any lead tUrn is denied, maximum There it is -the collective ideas of two Eagle drivers on howHCA is created, and possibly, the bandit may lose visual con- to gain and maintain the advantage. Remember, control thetact. Remember, if energy becomes depleted during a battle and fight aggressively. Good luck, and good hunting!tUrning fight, it may be impossible to separate.Captain Thomas K. MascotCaptain Mark G. Beesley422 TESNellis AFB, Nevada..WINTER19857

, ~:??l ~~-~::~ ,=~..:;;;..~;:: :£~,.JJI""-.",----~~,~'e::-~~,~~;~,.,..~Editor's Note: This article discusses tactical situations relevantto the air-to-air arena. The author has drawn upon hisexperiences as an Aggressor pilot to highlight situations ofIncreased vulnerability and discusses effective counters.Although the article is oriented toward combating a sternonlythreat, the discussion relates to fighting any airborneadversary." cenario: A four-ship of Eagle jets on a lane combat air~ patrol (CAP) has been committed by an air \veaponscontroller (AWC) against "many" bogeys. Everything workswell as the Eagles sort and target four separate entities \\;ththe four radars. At 5 nautical miles (N\.i), clearance isreceived to fire. Four radar missiles come off the rails and,as advertised, each one scores a kill. Things are going great,right? Maybe. There are another four (or more) bandits whohave just merged with the Eagles and are all tally-ho thanksto the missile trails. Can the Eagles fight their way out withno losses? This presents a difficult situation. Consider this:have you ever merged on a 4vX dissimilar air combat tactics(DACT) mission with no radar locks/tally-hos and survivedunscathed? If the bandit has a tally and you don't, then heclearly has the advantage and it's skill and training that willkeep you alive. Therefore, now is the time to build the skillsnecessary to survive the merge plot, no-tally situation.The purpose of this article is to emphasize sitUations where aflight is susceptible to the unobserved shot and discuss techniquesto minimize those occurrences.First, here are some situations when a flight is vulnerable toattack.(;~Situation One: An obvious predicament occurs when afighter pilot is padlocked on the bandit he is trying to kill.Two fighter pilots maneuvering in a basic fighter maneuver(BFM) engagement are predictable and, therefore, vulnerable.Both pilots are devoting most of their time to the bandit thatposes the greatest threat -as well they should! However,how often do pilots perform belly checks during a prolongedlvl engagement? Are belly checks accomplished ~ timea conversion is begun on another aircraft? This can be difficultsince the maneuvers might impact the intercept geometryand can cause a lost tally.SitUation Two: Another vulnerable sitUation occurs whenthe supporting fighter is observing the engaged fightermaneuver. The only thing more predictable than aircraft ina maneuvering engagement is the support fighter doing a 2 to3 'G' "bogey gathering" tUrn while watching a prolongedBFM engagement.Situation Three: In that first engagement of the next war,what will happen after the missile leaves the rail? Some willfly at one 'G' and watch the missile during the entire timeof flight. If self preservation takes over, some will do a high'G' tUrn and check six for bandits and missile trails. In combat,a missile shot will highlight the flight's position andincrease its vulnerability.e2USAFFIGHTERWEAPONSREVIEW

All of these situations have a few common denominators.They all center around target/task fixation and becomingpredictable. Learning to divide time and attention amongthe numerous tasks at hand is difficult and takes much practiceand discipline. However, the results will be habitformingpatterns that enhance survival.Having highlighted situations where a flight is vulnerable,consider now techniques to avoid trouble. This list is not thebottom line on tactical employment, but it does detail sevenkey areas that deserve additional emphasis. Not necessarilyin priority, these are:()(t~., ~SPRING19863

0 "YOU FIGHT LIKE YOU TRAIN." Fl\ing to themerge at medium altitude and reduced airspeed '--to-get intoa turning fight" is the wrong employment philosophy. BFM8 aining is important, but should be conducted during dediatedBFM mission~ Multi-bogey scenarios are not the placetor this training. Effective tactics and habit patterns areneeded.0 PERFORM DEDICATED BELLY CHECKS.Although part of the visual lookout plan, the belly check ismentioned separately since it involves interrupting a maneuverto roll the aircraft in an effort to clear the future 6o'clock area. Belly checks are particularly appropriate duringa conversion turn, during or immediately follo\ving BF .\t, oranytime lookout has been limited to one sector for anv reason.Belly checks might have some unexpected and undesirableresults -perhaps losing tally/visual or ruining the conversion.Again, it takes practice and planning to effectivelyincorporate belly checks into a fight without adverselyaffecting the outcome.0 LISTEN TO RADAR WARNING RECEIVER (RWR).Learn to use the RWR as a tool to enhance situational a\vareness(SA). Have a plan ready in the event the RWR tonesounds. If an unobsen,.ed shot was taken, debrief \vith thetape and see if the RWR \,as sounding a warning. If there\vas a warning and it was overlooked, take positive steps(turn it up?) to preclude a reoccurence.0 TRAIN THE AIR WEAPONS CONTROLLERS. TheAWC is another tool to employ. Include the controllers inthe flight briefing and detail the objectives, the plan, and theextent of their participation. Should the controller acknowlallthe flight's radar contacts? Should controllersremain quiet if they see the same picture as the flight andonly talk \vhen they see something different? Should theydescribe enemy formations or only give bearing and range tothe nearest threat? There is much to consider. After themission, the controllers should contribute to the debrief.Explain \vhat \vorked and \vhat did not -and~. Emphasizethe effectiveness of their communications, since concise,correct communications are essential to mission Success.0 THE 'TOO HARD TO DO' FACTOR. Often, the mostdifficult -yet most significant -skill to develop is theabilityto differentiate betWeen situations that can be successfullyexploited and those that offer no chance for success.Developing the judgment to look at a situation, recognizepotential trouble, and then avoid it, is the challenge. If theproblem is becoming too difficult to solve, it is time tostroke it up and leave the arena. Experience and maturityweigh heavily in this judgment.SUMMARYThis article has presented rules of thumb for recognizing andavoiding vulnerable sitUations in the air-to-air arena. The listis by no means complete, but does provide factors to includein a training program. The secret to success is maintainingcontrol of the sitUation -and that requires judgment anddiscipline. Developing this judgment and discipline should,therefore, become an integral element of an effective air-toairtraining program.Captain Ted Ell65th Aggressor SqdnNellis AF8, NV4USAFFIGHTERWEAPONSREVIEW

Counter-Offensive BFM – The ScissorsAir Combat Basics: The Scissors ManeuverThis article is about the maneuver known as the scissors. The format will be similar to our previousdiscussions. We’ll begin with an academic dissection of the scissors maneuver and then finish up with somerecommendations on how to fly the maneuver in our sims. But, before we get into the meat of the matter, weneed to set one thing straight.For the purpose of this article, the scissors is a defensive BFM maneuver. There is no such thing as anoffensive scissors. When flown as a defensive maneuver, the scissors is a response to an attacker’sposition…the scissors is a result of an attacker’s failure to control overtake and/or angle off.Why the emphasis? Simply because some folks seem to think that a scissors is a maneuver that you caninitiate against an opponent. It’s the old "what came first…the chicken or the egg?" In this case…in ourdiscussion…the answer is clear. The bandit’s position and maneuvering potential comes first…the scissorsis only a counter to that bandit’s BFM error.Our discussion will look at four questions. One, what is a scissors? Two, how does the defender begin thescissors? Three, how does the defender stay in the scissors? And, four, how does the defender get out ofthe scissors, if necessary?Oh…and one more thing. Please be clear about one thing. When you commit yourself to a scissors, youhave just jumped into the phone booth for a knife fight. Be ready for that. If you aren’t, then don’tscissors…it’s as simple as that.Part One – Scissors AcademicsIn this section, we’ll lay out the background for the scissors maneuver. The scissors is far from the simplemaneuver that some may see it as. In some respects, the scissors is a "last ditch" gambit. When entering ascissors, you are betting the ranch on your abilities in a slow speed fight. If that’s your game plan, then let’sdo it armed with as much intel as we can absorb. Part One is that intel.Section One - What Is A Scissors?A scissors is a situation where two adversaries are attempting to gain an offensive advantage by turning toget behind each other. Since both adversaries are attempting the same outcome, the resultant maneuverflow looks like a series of flight path reversals. The result is typically a contest of who can fly the slowest.Types of Scissors. There are two general types of scissors…flat and rolling. The flat scissors is an "in-plane" twodimensionalmaneuver, while the rolling scissors is a three-dimensional maneuver.

Flat Scissors. The Flat Scissors is by far the most common form of this maneuver. The word "flat" refers to the orientation ofthe maneuver flow with the horizon…the flat scissors is flown more or less with the plane of motion (POM) being level withthe horizon. In this maneuver, the pilot attempts to fly at minimum speed to produce the least forward movement andsmallest turning radius relative to the other aircraft. The Flat Scissors is an "in-plane" maneuver in that both aircraft areflying "side to side" in the same general POMRolling Scissors. The Rolling Scissors is probably the least commonly flown type of scissors. Unlike the flat scissors, theRolling Scissors is a three-dimensional maneuver where each opponent flies "out-of-plane" with the other. The overallobjective remains the same…limit forward velocity to force the other aircraft out front. While the flat scissors typically has itsorientation defined by the horizon, the Rolling Scissors may be oriented at any angle to the horizon. This type of scissorsmay be visualized as two aircraft barrel rolling around each other’s flight path.The Rolling Scissors has an additional element that is not as highly stressed in the flat scissors, and that is the importanceof energy management. Since the Rolling Scissors is a series of climbing and diving turns, the importance of energyretention and management becomes critical. The pilot who can best preserve and use his energy will be the victor.In this article, we are going to use the Flat Scissors as the focus of our discussion. Unless specifically mentioned, all furthertechniques, tips, and academic basics are based on flying the Flat Scissors!The Scissors Is A Defensive Maneuver! Now that you have the general idea of what a scissors looks like, let’s talk abouthow you would get into one in the first place.

The scissors is the result of a defender trying to take advantage of an attacker’s overshoot. In other words…move –countermove. The overshoot is the move, and the scissors is the countermove. Think of it as a "stimulus – response" kind ofthing. We need to get this idea down pat since everything that follows is based on the idea of recognizing and then actingeffectively on a scissors opportunity.Section Two - The Starting Point For A ScissorsThe opportunity for a scissors begins with the attacker overshooting a defender’s flight path. This typically results from thedefender making a hard or break turn into the attacker. The attacker is unable to stay within the defender’s turn radius andflies through or "overshoots" that turn radius. The usual reason for the attacker’s inability to match the defender’s turn radius(often referred to as "making the corner") is excessive speed combined with too much angle off.The Overshoot Has Three Components. These will be important for you to recognize later when we talk about how to flythe scissors in our sims.These components are the attacker’s angle off, the rate that the attacker crosses your six, and his distance back when heovershoots your flight path. Remember these well and remember them in this order…angle off, rate, and distance back.Angle Off. Angle off is the difference in headings between the defender and the attacker at the overshoot. When thedefender looks back at the attacker, he compares the attacker’s fuselage alignment with his own. For this discussion, we’llcall any angle off less than 45 degrees "small", and any angle off greater than 45 degrees "large".

Rate. Here we are talking about the speed of the attacker as he crosses the defender’s six o’clock. It is not practical to referto this in knots or mph…or in degrees/second. This rate of movement is a visual perception issue and is gained throughexperience. In this article, we’ll refer only to "fast" or "slow" rates.Distance Back. When the attacker crosses the defender’s extended six, the separation between the two aircraft is the"distance back". We won’t measure this in feet…instead, we’ll think in terms of the defender’s turn radius. "Close in" will bea distance less than that radius, and "far back" will be anything greater than that radius.

The Attacker’s Lift Vector – How He Signals His Intentions. At this point, we have an attacker who seems to beovershooting our six. We want to know if we can or should reverse…or continue our defensive turn. We mentioned the threecomponents of the overshoot, but let’s stop for a moment and remind ourselves that the attacker may not allow himself toovershoot. Is an overshoot good BFM? No…probably not. Typically, an overshoot would be a BFM error for the attacker. Ifhe was smart…and saw the overshoot coming…he would be wise to do something to prevent it from happening…or at leastminimize it. That’s what you would do…right??!!So…what would you do? Yo-yo off, you say! Correct. A High Yo-Yo is a good maneuver to use in this situation. An attackerdoesn’t have to continue blowing through your flight path. He may roll out and yo-yo off to preserve his offensive position.The key thing for us to focus on now is those words "roll out". As the attacker comes in, he’s trying to match your turn. Thatmeans his bank angle is about the same as yours…he has his lift vector more or less aligned with your POM.

But if he decides to yo-yo off, he must roll away from your bank angle to orient his lift vector out of your POM. If he doesthis, it will be very obvious to you. If his lift vector is pointed away from your POM, he is signaling his intention to yo-yo.This is a crucial point for the defender. What should he do now? The attacker is maneuvering out of plane. Is it possible toreverse now? Can the defender scissors with a bandit that is repositioning in the vertical?The answer is a qualified yes...a definite maybe! The defender better have a bunch of energy! It is possible for the defenderto perform a climbing reversal. The result is often a rolling scissors. What I suggest, however, is that we keep it simple atthis point. In most cases, the defender may not have that level of energy. It probably will not be possible or practical for himto reverse in this situation. So, here is a rule of thumb for most situations.Consider a reversal only if the attacker’s lift vector remains aligned with your POM in the overshoot. If the attacker rotateshis lift vector out of your POM, he is signaling a yo-yo. Your better response to this is one of two things. Either continue yourdefensive turn…or immediately unload and extend for separation. The extension is the traditional BFM counter to a yo-yo.Unload and extend to get some of your energy back, increase your separation, and set up your next defensive move.So much for the yo-yo…let’s get back to handling the overshoot. Your next move is the reversal. There are a number ofconsiderations to keep in mind.The Reversal. OK!! The attacker is sliding across our six. We want to take the fight to him by reversing into a scissors.Sounds simple…but in fact, the reversal is a bit more involved than just reversing our turn. We need to have a firmunderstanding of what we want to achieve and how to do it. First the "what" and then the "how".Your Objective In The Reversal. What are we trying to do when we reverse? Some may say that we are trying for a rolereversal…make him the defender and us the attacker! First, we have to explain the significance of your 3/9 line.The Concept Of The 3/9 Line Advantage. Your 3/9 line defines your offensive/defensive status. If you have a bandit aheadof your 3/9 line (your "wingline"), you tend to be offensive…and if you have a bandit behind your wingline, you tend to bedefensive. This becomes the crux of the issue when you reverse. How will your reversal end up? With you ahead of orbehind the attacker’s wingline

The point that we are trying to show is that your turning performance in the reversal should result in your ending up behindthe attacker’s wingline (offensive)…or at least on it (neutral). If your reversal only results in you flying out in front of theattacker, then why bother?

Wing Loading’s Effect On The Reversal. In general, a fighter with a light wing loading as compared to one with a heavierloading will have a turn advantage. As a rule, if you are flying a heavier wing loaded fighter, you may not want to reverseagainst an attacker flying a lighter wing loaded aircraft. Be aware of your relative performance advantages/disadvantagesand fly accordingly!Types Of Reversals. There are two types of reversal techniques. One is an unloaded, fast rate of roll reversal. The other is aloaded up (high g) relatively slow rolling reversal. In the fast reversal, you use primarily aileron to roll with…in the high greversal, you use a combination of aileron and rudder to roll with. For the high g reversal, the use of rudder is importantsince the rudder (particularly in swept wing aircraft) is often the more powerful roll control at high g (high AOA).When would you use one versus the other? The fast, unloaded roll technique is used when an attacker is crossing your sixwith a fast rate and/or high angle off. In this situation, the attacker’s high speed is going to create the turning room for yourreversal.The high g loaded roll is used when the attacker is overshooting at a slow rate and/or low angle off. Here, your loadedreversal is going to produce a minimum turn radius that will create the turning room that you need.

Lift Vector Control In The Reversal. Regardless of the type of reversal, when you finish the roll back into the attacker, youwant to aim your plane properly. Use the concept of pulling to the "High Six" of the attacker. Do not roll out in lead pursuit oreven pure pursuit. Pull to the attacker’s six initially fly to "push’ the attacker more in front of your wingline. If you can orientyour lift vector "above" the attacker’s extended six (the High Six position), all the better, as you will tend to further increaseyour overall advantage.Throttle Control In The Reversal. Your objective in the reversal is a small turn radius. Speed is the enemy of a small turnradius. Your smallest turn radius will come when you turn at speeds at or below your corner velocity. Therefore, if you areabove your corner velocity, then slow down as you reverse. Reduce your throttle…idle and speedbrake, if needed. As youturn, monitor your speed carefully. You do not want to get too slow. Be ready to add power as needed to hold your airspeedat or below corner.Lead Turning In The Reversal. A lead (or "early") turn in the entry to a scissors is when the defender begins his reversalbefore the attacker crosses the defender’s flight path. A lead turn can be very significant to how you end up in the 3/9 linegame. However, lead turns are not always advisable. In general, look for two things in the attacker when considering a leadturn…large crossing angles combined with high crossing rates. If there is any doubt in your mind, don’t lead turn! Doing somay well solve the attacker’s turn radius problem!

OK! At this point, we have covered a number of considerations that deal with how and when to reverse. Let’s move on nowto how to maneuver once the scissors is established.Section Three - Maneuvering In The ScissorsLet’s start with a few assumptions…we’ll assume the attacker has decided to scissors with you. Second, remember that weassume that we are in a "flat scissors". Finally, I’m going to stop using the term "attacker’ and instead use the term "bandit".If our reversal has been successful, we have at least changed a defensive situation to a neutral one…so let’s look at theother guy as now the "bandit"!OK! What Do I Do Next?! Here we are…we’ve reversed on the bandit and we’ve pulled towards his six. Of course, he’sdoing the same to us…so what do we do next to win this fight?We have two primary objectives. We want to remain behind the bandit’s wingline, and we want to align our fuselage with hisso that we can get him in our gunsight! The first objective is really a matter of our ability to control our forward velocityrelative to the bandit. The second objective is dependent on our ability to "out-turn" our opponent. Let’s examine eachseparately.Controlling Forward Velocity. Our forward velocity is more than just the airspeed that we see on our airspeed indicator. Inthe scissors, we use the position of the bandit as the measure of our control of speed. Success in a scissors depends onyour ability to maintain effective control over pitch at slow speeds.Slow Speed Contest. In a scissors, we want to "flush" the bandit out in front of our nose. In a sense, we do this by flying"slower" than the bandit. Our actual airspeed is really not that important. What is important is our forward velocity withrespect to the bandit…as long as we can move him ahead of our own position, then actual indicated speed is irrelevant.We control this forward velocity a number of ways. First, we recognize the role that trim plays in assisting our control overpitch. The second is the most obvious…we use the throttle to change our power setting. Next, we can add or subtractdrag…usually by extending the speed brake or flaps. Lastly, we control forward velocity by orienting our lift vector relative tothe bandit.Trim. Back stick pressure control is very important. Anytime we relax g, we allow our forward velocity component toincrease. Avoid the mistake of unconsciously relaxing back pressure on the stick. If there ever was a time to use trim whenmaneuvering, it is now. Trim your nose "up" and keep your lift vector oriented away from the bandit’s flight path!Throttle Control. Throttle control in the reversal is important. If you are doing an unloaded roll in the reversal, then considerusing a reduced power setting. If you are doing a loaded roll, then you may need to keep the throttle up…as much as fullpower, depending on your entry speed. Once you complete the reversal roll and have oriented your lift vector behind thebandit, then use power to hold your speed constant. If your nose wants to "drop", use power to help hold it up since yourthrust vector will be a component of your total lift vector.Flaps. Flaps lower your stall speed and increase your available g when below corner velocity. Consider using flaps in ascissors to allow you to fly at a slower airspeed as well as allow you to have an increased control over your stall margins.Lift Vector Control. The direction of our lift vector determines our actual forward velocity component as the nextfigure shows. If possible, try to orient your lift vector behind the bandit to minimize your forward velocity.

Turn Performance In A Scissors. Turning allows us to orient our lift vector. We can improve on our turn performance bykeeping these concepts in mind:Roll Rate. As a rule, the aircraft with the faster rate of roll has a big advantage in a scissors. Typically, you can roll thequickest when you are not pulling g, so when possible, unload and then roll. This is not always possible, so be sure to userudder to assist in rolling, particularly when rolling and pulling g.Lead Turns. Just as important is the point at which you begin a reversal in a scissors. A lead turn is when you initiate theturn before you cross the bandit’s flight path. Your objective in the lead turn is to reduce your angle off. Eventually, you wantto align your fuselage with the bandit. By using a lead turn as you minimize forward velocity, you will be able to push thebandit out in front.

Use Of Rudder. When you are in a bank, your stall speed increases if you try to maintain level flight. You will have toincrease your g to maintain level flight…and you may not have that extra g available because you are already flying close tothe stall. In times like this, consider using the rudder to turn with as you use opposite aileron to hold a wings level attitude.This will take extra power due to the increased drag but it a useful technique, particularly in swept wing aircraft.Section Four – Getting Out Of The ScissorsEventually there may come a time when you decide things are not really going your way. You need to find a way out thescissors, but here you are, all tied up neat and close to the bandit. Is there a way out?Yes…sometimes.The approved solution is to get "in synch" with the bandit. Do this by lead turning him to align your fuselage as much as youcan. Your objective is two-fold. One, you want to fly under the bandit to make him lose sight. Two, you want to exit to hisblind side. Here’s how it works:As you and the bandit approach for another crossing, lead turn him to minimize angle off. At the same time, relax a little g todescend slightly below his plane of motion. You want to begin your separation as soon as you cross under the bandit. Yourseparation will be a "Split S" type of maneuver.Begin the Split S by rolling inverted relative to the bandit’s POM and simultaneously add power, use flaps, and g to achieveyour max pitch rate until you have your nose pointed down. Once your dive angle is established, retract your flaps, maintainfull power, and extend nose low. Remember, you may have been trimmed for a slow speed, so in the dive, re-trim to keepyour nose from rising as speed increases. You do not want your nose to come up. Maintain a constant dive angle as youextend away.As you extend, make a quick check turn into the bandit to maintain a tally. Be ready to defend again with a defensive turn.This separation maneuver may only get you out of the scissors…it may not guarantee a complete separation from thebandit.

Part Two – Flying The Scissors In A SimulationSection One – Your View ChoiceAs with any BFM maneuver, you can only fly what you can see. The scissors is no different. Your ability to implement theconcepts discussed in Part One is directly affected by your choice of what view you use and your proficiency with it.You have three choices of views…snap (fixed) views, the padlock, and external views. We’ll assume you are familiar withthese view types, how they are selected, how they are used, and their respective advantages and disadvantages. Sincemost players do not use the external view, we won’t discuss it here.You have seen the importance of lift vector control in Part One. Your ability to orient your lift vector is the key to success orfailure in the scissors. This skill is two-fold. You must be able to find and point at the bandit’s "high six", and you must beable to recognize the initiation point for a lead turn.We have already discussed the significance of the 3/9 line in maneuvering terms. This concept is equally important when itcomes to using your chosen view. We can look at view use by considering two viewing problems…the "behind our 3/9 line"view and the "ahead of our 3/9 line" view.Each sim has its own design for snap views. The typical design will have one view that covers the rear quarter area(approximately the 6 o’clock to 8 o’clock area), another view that covers the beam area (8:00 to 10:00 area), and a third thatcovers the forward quarter (10:00 to 12:00 area). For ease of discussion, all view references will be to our left side (6:00 to12:00).Likewise, each sim has its own padlock format. While this view may differ slightly from sim to sim, in general, the basicconcept is the same. When using the padlock, you will again be presented with a two-fold viewing problem…with the 3/9line being the dividing line between the two types."Behind The 3/9 Line" Viewing Problem. The first viewing situation in a scissors results from the typical defensiveposture…an attack from behind our wingline. This external view shows the viewing area.

The bandit’s position makes situational awareness (SA) of our nose position difficult. This difficulty complicates our ability tomaintain a good defensive turn without having to cycle our view back to a forward view to check our bank angle and pitchattitude. A typical view looks like this…from IL-2. The problem is that when in a bank, the look back view is mostly down anddoes not present a good picture of your six o’clock…the area that the overshooting bandit will be in.This viewing angle is also present when we initially reverse with the bandit. We have to use a rearward looking view to keepthe tally as the bandit moves from our rear quarter towards our 3 or 9 o’clock (beam) position.Aces High has a similar view but also offers an elevated aft looking view that is an improvement in that it shows more of thesky area. Even better is the pure six view in Aces High…unfortunately, this view is missing in most sims. This view will givethe best look at an overshooting bandit.

Some sims have a limited selection of rear looking views. In these cases, you may find that the rear looking view isinadequate when it comes to watching the area that an overshooting bandit will be in. The new sim, Strike Fighters, has alimited set of snap views. As you can see in this next screenshot, the Strike Fighter rear view does not adequately cover thearea of the overshoot."Ahead Of The 3/9 Line" Viewing Problem. This viewing angle results from the initial reversal and our turn back towardsthe bandit. As the bandit moves from our beam towards our nose, we change our view from the side (beam) view to thefront quarter view (10:00 to 11:00) and finally to the front view. The frontal merge situation is shown in this external view.

For viewing the merge as it unfolds in the scissors, most pilots will use the sim "up" views. The "up" views are focused alongthe lift vector. Both IL-2 and Aces High offer several "up" views. The "front up" view centers on the line of sight that is about45 degrees above the aircraft nose and is excellent for positioning for the merge. It looks like this.Strike Fighters comes up short again because of its limited selection of snap views. The sim does not have a "front up"view…it only has an "up" view that is focused straight up along the lift vector. As such, it has limited usability in a mergingsituation. The left/right up view is not effective in flying the merge as the view is centered too low as the next figure shows.

This discussion has centered on the snap view. If you are using the padlock, then some of these limitations will not exist.Section Two – View Objectives Based On 3/9 Line PositionNow we move on to what we are trying to do when using these views. The basic maneuver in a scissors is the reversal, andit comes two forms. I call these the "initial" reversal objective and the "follow-on" reversal objective. In the initial reversal,what are we trying to do first? Gain control of the bandit’s 3/9 line. Once we are "in" the scissors, what are we trying to do?Win the minimum forward velocity contest. Now, I realize these two distinctions can get pretty narrow, but, as far as viewuse goes, let’s think of view objectives in this manner.The Initial Reversal - Control the 3/9 Line. "Controlling the 3/9 line" means reversing so that we end up behind thebandit’s wingline. To do this, we have to win the turn radius contest as both we and the bandit turn hard into each other.Your decision is what kind of reversal to make…an unloaded or loaded reversal. To answer this question, we first considerthe objective. Then we look at how we get there.Where We Want To End Up. This is the objective. Getting our flight path behind the bandit’s wingline. To do this, we mustknow what that looks like. In simple language, it looks like lag pursuit. It means your gunsight pipper is pointed behind thebandit. When your reversal ends, this is what you want to see:

How Do We Get There? We start with the bandit’s overshoot…his angle and rate will determine how we reverse. You mustknow where you expect the bandit to end up…in this case, outside your original turn and approximately level with yourturning plane. It is of supreme importance that we keep in mind where we want to end up…pointing in lag.Here’s an external view of the situation:For unloaded reversals, begin with a quick view change to the forward view. This allows you to use the view as a basis forrolling your lift vector to the anticipated position of the bandit. Unload your g, then roll hard to the right, using the horizon lineand expected bandit position to orient your initial roll out point.For a loaded reversal, you will do the same mental projection of the roll out point. But now, since your roll is going to be aloaded, high AOA roll, your roll axis is not going to be straight ahead…so there is no need to cycle through the forward view.Instead, you bypass the forward view and switch immediately to the opposite side beam/rear side view as you blend in yourbackstick and rudder to roll your plane around to the roll out point. In this roll out, try to roll out with your lift vector above thebandit’s flight path. This will accentuate your control of your forward velocity vector.

These last two examples assumed a snap view use…if you are using the padlock, the end result is the same…you just don’thave to cycle the views…the padlock does that for you!How About A Lead Turn? Could you improve your initial reversal by using a lead turn as the bandit approaches yourextended six? Possibly…it all depends on crossing angle and speed. My advice is to be really, really, really careful aboutattempting a lead turn on the initial reversal. If you misjudge this, you will be committing hara-kiri! You’ll fly right into hisguns! If in any doubt, wait until the bandit actually overshoots and then perform your reversal.Follow-On Reversals – Minimize Forward Velocity. Once you are established in the scissors, your reversals will occurwith the bandit tending to be in your front quarter…ahead of your 3/9 line. You and the bandit will be "scissoring" with eachother. You will both have the same objective…you want to "flush" the bandit out front.This is where the scissors becomes a "who can fly the slowest?" contest. Our point now is to show that "slowest" in thiscontext is not only a measure of airspeed. It is also a measure of flight path velocity. Your airspeed is what you read on yourairspeed indicator…your flight path velocity is your forward vector relative to the bandit’s flight path.Where We Want To End Up. We want to end up with our gun pointed at the bandit! In-plane, in range, and fuselagesaligned. The problem is that we and the bandit are weaving back and forth…not exactly a picture of fuselage alignment.Being in-plane and in range are not significant problems to solve…but how do we deal with this fuselage alignment thing?We do it by timing our reversals so that we reduce our angle off as we keep ourselves behind the bandit’s wingline. Soundsgood…but how is this done?How Do We Get There? The problem is two-fold. One, staying behind the bandit’s wingline. This is where the scissorsbecomes a "slow speed contest". Two, we have to find a way to solve the angle off problem.Winning the wingline contest is going to require you to do two things. Get your lift vector behind the bandit’s six and fly atminimum maneuvering speed. Let’s put ourselves into our cockpit and visualize the situation. The bandit is in our frontquarter…we are pulling towards each other. We want to fly to his six. Here is how. Slow to minimum maneuvering speed.Lower flaps if appropriate. Then roll to point your lift vector at the bandit’s high six…behind and "above" his extended six.Then pull your nose to this point.

How About a Lead Turn? Now you have half of the problem solved. Next, you want to minimize angle off. Do this by lookingfor a lead turn opportunity prior to passing the bandit’s 3/9 line.How do you know when to begin the lead turn? As a rule, the point to begin the lead turn is when you are in the "lead pointwindow". This is an area that is defined as the space in the bandit’s front quarter from 45 degrees off his nose to 60 degreesoff his nose. It looks like this:When do you use the 45 degree lead point versus the 60-degree point? Treat this as function of lateral separation from thebandit. If you are going to pass close to the bandit, then wait until you reach the 60-degree point. If you distance is wider,then consider turning sooner, at the 45-degree point. This is really a turn radius issue…that’s why the use of the lateralspacing technique. Here are two more views of the lead turn window, one an external view over your nose, and the other aninternal forward quarter view.

Section Three – Specific TechniquesIn this section, we’ll talk about flight control inputs and weapons employment. By now, you should have a good idea of howto use your views…now let’s discuss the mechanics of the scissors. We’ll continue to use the Flat Scissors as our focus.Throttle Technique. Here’s a general rule to follow: when pulling g, use power. When not pulling g, throttle back. Why thisgeneralization?Because of the "slow speed contest" nature of the scissors. You want to minimize anything that tends to increase yourforward velocity relative to the bandit. When turning, you want just enough speed to fly a small radius turn…and no more.When unloading, you do not want to accelerate.Remember the concept of lift vector to bandit flight path. In the scissors, we want our lift vector to point away from thebandit’s flight path. This will minimize our velocity relative to the bandit. As long as you keep your lift vector oriented to thebandit’s high six, you may add power without unduly increasing your forward vector.Practice flying your aircraft at slow speeds. Develop a feel for the sim’s modeling of buffet and other stall warnings. Armedwith this knowledge, let’s run through a typical scissors.You are in a hard break. Your throttle is at full power. The bandit overshoots. You decide to reverse into a scissors. Whatyou do with the throttle depends on two things...your speed at the beginning of your reversal, and the type of reversal youare going to make.Entry Speed. At what speed do you get your maximum turn rate? Corner velocity! At what speed do you get your minimumturn radius? Mmm…depends on aircraft type! More often than not, your minimum turn radius speed will be a little slowerthan corner velocity. Let’s simplify things and just go with corner velocity! It’ll be "close enough". Find out what your cornervelocity is for your aircraft. For WW2 fighters, it will vary between about 180mph to nearly 300mph, depending on aircrafttype, weight, and altitude. For jets, use about 300KIAS to 400KIAS.Entry Speed Versus Reversal Type. As the bandit overshoots, decide what kind of reversal you are going to fly…unloadedor loaded (high g). For an unloaded reversal, if your speed is above corner, immediately throttle back as you unload and roll.Then, as you point your lift vector behind the bandit and begin pulling towards him, check your speed again. Add power tostabilize it at corner. If your speed was below corner to begin with, consider unloading and rolling with the throttle left at fullpower. This will accelerate you towards corner speed. Then, vary the throttle to hold that speed as you pull towards thebandit.For a loaded reversal, you will most likely need all the power you can get. Unless you are well above corner velocity,consider leaving the throttle at full power as you initiate the loaded roll. Because of the high energy bleed of this maneuver,you will need full power by the time you are half way through it. Roll towards the bandit and keep both your g and throttle onas you point behind him. Once you have your nose where you want it, you may reduce the throttle to keep fromaccelerating.In subsequent reversals, use the technique of throttling back when unloaded and throttling up when adding g. Think of thethrottle and stick as moving opposite to each other! Stick back…throttle forward…and vice versa!Flap Technique. Here is where the real world and our sim world sometimes go their separate ways! Not all sims model flapeffect. If your sim does not change its flight model when you lower flaps, then there is not much point in using them!Flaps are used to lower stall speed. If flaps are modeled correctly, then you can expect to see a slight decrease in turnradius along with this lowering of stall speed. You will also have to consider the maximum flap employment speeds of yoursim. Do not lower flaps above corner velocity…you gain nothing but drag in doing so. If below corner, you may lower thefirst "notch" of flaps as the max flap lowering speed is typically above corner. In the next diagram, we begin at Point 1…a 3g turn with no flaps. If we extend flaps, the stall line (the green curve) moves left showing how flaps decrease stall speed.Points 2 and 3 show the performance gain if airspeed is held constant (point 2) or g is held constant (point 3). This diagramis strictly an academic example and may not represent actual real world or sim flight performance.

If your sim models flap effect on stall speed, then consider putting flaps out as you enter the first reversal, speed permitting.Then, as the scissors develops, you may lower additional flaps to control your stall speed. As a rule, do not use full (landing)flaps…typically full flaps do not significantly lower stall speed and only add a bunch of drag. You may not have enoughpower to maneuver with if you use full flaps.Gun Employment. Let’s not forget why we are in the scissors! We want to shoot the bandit, not put on an airshow for him!That raises the question of snapshooting in the reversal. If you get a chance at a snapshot while scissoring, should youpass it up to continue to maneuver for a lower angle off shot?First of all, when would you get a chance at this? As you and the bandit approach each other in the front quarter. Pardon mylousy artwork, but the picture is attempting to show the forward view of a gunsight!

You will find yourself in one of three positions. You will either be inside the bandit’s turn…outside his turn…or matching histurn.Only one of these is good. The one where you are on the inside. Only here will the bandit fly through your gun line. If youare on the outside, it’s you that is likely going to get fired at. In the case of matching turns, neither you or the bandit will get ashot, because if you try for one, you’ll probably end up mid-airing the other guy!So, let’s look at the good case. You are turning inside the bandit. Should you take a shot? The answer is a conditional yes.If you are flying in or close to the bandit’s plane of motion, then taking a snapshot is advisable. If you are not close to thebandit’s plane of motion, you probably won’t have the time to make the needed correction to get in-plane, so my advice is toconcentrate on making a good lead turn and forego the snapshot.One last word about what to do if you are on the outside of this situation. Now the bandit has a snapshot opportunity on youif you let him. DO NOT fly in-plane with the bandit when he has the inside position. You will get shot! If you come out of yourreversal and see the bandit to the inside, make an immediate bank change as you pull towards him to move out of his planeof motion.

Section Four – The Rolling ScissorsUp until now, we have focused this article on the Flat Scissors. But there is another type of scissors that can be flown…theRolling Scissors. In terms of complexity, the Rolling Scissors is considerably more difficult to fly in a simulation. Why?Because of the BFM skills involved and the view management problems posed by the maneuver. This section will brieflytouch upon this type of scissors with the emphasis being placed on BFM and view management.The Vertical Aspect Of The Rolling Scissors. Earlier, we mentioned that the Flat Scissors was typically flown in thehorizontal plane. The Rolling Scissors may be flown in any plane…often times, the vertical. Because of this, you may seethe maneuver referred to as the "Vertical Rolling Scissors".We also noted that the adversaries tended to fly the Flat Scissors in the same plane of maneuver. By flying "in-plane", wemean that the two adversaries tend to keep their lift vectors oriented in the same general direction to produce two flightpaths that tend to "overlap". The Rolling Scissors differs in this respect. While both adversaries tend to follow somewhat ofthe same vertical path, they deliberately maneuver "out-of-plane" to minimize their forward velocity and accentuate theirrelative energy capabilities. The primary factor in winning the Rolling Scissors fight is the optimization of our energy staterelative to the bandit’s position. What makes the Rolling Scissors different is the increased importance of energy and thedifferent use of the sim’s views.Energy Use In The Rolling Scissors. Here’s a side view of a Rolling Scissors. The plane of maneuver is "vertical" to thehorizon for ease of discussion.

The maneuver typically begins with the bandit overshooting the defender while attempting an attack from above. Thedefender responds to the overshoot by pulling "up" and then reversing to put his lift vector on or behind the bandit. Thebandit elects to join the scissors by pulling back "up" after his overshoot…now the battle is joined.The Effect Of Gravity. In a Flat Scissors, the effect of gravity is relatively constant since the plane of maneuver is"horizontal". In a Rolling Scissors, since the adversaries are either going "up" against gravity or "down" with it, gravity playsa more significant role in how the planes accelerate (or bleed energy) as well as affecting turn performance (how the one gof gravity adds to or subtracts from turn rate and radius). Gravity will add to your turn performance (smaller turn radius)when coming over the top…and will tend to widen your radius and lower your turn rate when pulling up. When climbing ordescending, you want to unload to no more than one g to minimize drag and allow you to maintain or gain energy.While the Flat Scissors is basically a slow speed contest, this is not necessarily the case in a Rolling Scissors. While theoverall objective is to minimize forward velocity, velocity in the climb and descent is used to control turn performance andclimb potential. Victory in the Rolling Scissors goes to the adversary who can best manage his energy…in this situation,getting "slow" may not be a good idea!How does "energy" play a role in winning the Rolling Scissors? Primarily in providing the "oomph" that allows one adversaryto fly a longer climbing leg than the other. A higher energy state allows the pilot to orient his flight path more into the vertical,and it allows him to remain in the climb longer. The adversary that cannot zoom as well is forced to roll back towards theground…in doing so, he is pushed forward.Perhaps the best way of explaining this maneuver is to go step by step through a typical Rolling Scissors…and point out thevarious considerations as we go along.A Typical Rolling Scissors. A Rolling Scissors is usually entered from two situations…one, as a response to an overheadattack, or, two, from a flat scissors situation where an altitude separation exists between the attacker and defender. We’lluse the first as our example. Some of you might recognize this example…it’s from Shaw’s excellent book, Fighter Combat.I’ll add some minor notation to amplify the points of emphasis. Disregard the exact position of the aircraft in the followingdiagrams. I have placed the red numbers on the aircraft ribbons at the place where the aircraft should be as described bythe text.The Overhead Attack. You pick up the bandit in your high six as he dives down for a gun attack. You begin a hard right turninto the bandit to force his nose into lag. You add aileron as necessary to roll slightly away from the bandit’s flight path…thistakes you out of his gun line. This is Point 1.

Your hard turn produces an overshoot. As the bandit crosses your six, you elect to enter the scissors by rolling back left tobegin a climb. You continue to pull up as you pirouette in a left roll to watch the bandit as he overshoots to your left side.Once you have your climb angle established, you unload to maximize your zoom potential and continue rolling as needed tokeep the bandit in sight out of the top of your canopy. As you do this, you see the bandit has begun a climb as well and ispulling back towards you. At this time you are "canopy to canopy" with the bandit…you both have your lift vectors on eachother (Point 2).

Now, you continue to analyze the bandit’s flight path and roll as necessary to point your lift vector behind the bandit. Youthen add back pressure to begin pulling your nose smoothly to his six. The bandit is also pulling into you…this results inyour flight paths tending to come nose-on to each other (Point 3).At this point, you and the bandit are nearing the top of your climbs with your flight paths converging. Now is when you wantto pull down aggressively. Do so and you will "make angles" with a lead turn. Use full power, flaps as needed, and maxavailable g to produce the maximum turn rate in your pull down. Roll as needed to keep your lift vector pointed behind thebandit. Point 4 is the pull down.

Once you have your nose down, unload the g, go full power, retract the flaps if appropriate, and accelerate. Now watch thebandit as you check your speed. In our example, the bandit is going to make a lead turn in the vertical as we dive down onhim (Point 5). He will signal this by beginning his pull down before we pass his 3/9 line. Does this mean he’s going to usethis lead turn to gain an advantage?Maybe…but it will only be illusory, because by cutting short his climb into the vertical, he’s going to lose a little overallenergy potential. We continue our descent and throttle back to keep our speed around corner. As the bandit comes "overthe top", we wait for him to get his nose "buried"…well established in a nose down attitude…and then we set the hook!Boom! Back up into the vertical we go!

As you begin your second pull up, do not use max g. Instead use your best sustained g…that will be about 3-5 gs for thetypical fighter. Level your wings and pull up…as before, pirouette roll as needed to keep pointed at the bandit’s six. Do notfly out in front of the bandit. Point behind him! Once you have your nose up, then unload again and use your airspeed togain altitude.In your climb, you will see the bandit attempting to stop his dive and pull up and into you. This series of rolling pull ups anddowns is what makes the maneuver a Rolling Scissors. Assuming each pilot flies good BFM, the victor in this contest will goto the plane that has the better energy sustainability characteristics. The pilot of that plane will be able to fly extended pullups and tighter pull downs that will tend to force the other plane forward along the axis of the scissors.

View Use In The Rolling Scissors. It is not unusual for the Rolling Scissors to maintain one direction of roll. As eachadversary rolls about the other, they will look at each other out of the tops of their canopies. As they roll to point behind eachother, they will see each other out of the side of the canopy that is the direction of roll. This tendency to look only in onedirection is different from the bi-directional view technique used in the Flat Scissors.Separating from the Rolling Scissors. Your best chance of a successful separation is when you have pulled down into yournose low acceleration attitude. Unload to one g or less and dive out of the fight. Roll unloaded as needed to watch thebandit. Be ready to counter any follow-on attack.ConclusionHere are the main points to take from this discussion:• Enter a scissors with caution. Once in, it will be difficult to get out.• Generally speaking, the lower wing loaded fighter has the advantage, pilot skillsbeing equal.• The Flat Scissors is a slow speed contest. Be proficient at slow speed flighttechniques. Know how to use flaps.• The Rolling Scissors is an energy fight. Know your corner velocity and energygaining and sustaining techniques.