Climate Displacement in Bangladesh | The Need for Urgent Housing ...
Climate Displacement in Bangladesh | The Need for Urgent Housing ...
Climate Displacement in Bangladesh | The Need for Urgent Housing ...
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Photo, <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions,January 2011
Contents1 INTRODUCTION 12 CLIMATE HAZARDS AND DISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH 42.1 <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>: <strong>The</strong> Current Situation 42.1.1 Background 42.1.2 Current <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> Coastal Regions 62.1.3 Current <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> Ma<strong>in</strong>land Regions 92.2 <strong>The</strong> Future of <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> 102.2.1 <strong>The</strong> Future of <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> Coastal Regions 112.2.2 <strong>The</strong> Future of <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> Ma<strong>in</strong>land Regions 112.2.3 Other Causes of <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> 122.2.4 Additional Concerns Result<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>Climate</strong> Change and <strong>Displacement</strong> 123 POLICY APPROACHES TO CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH 153.1 Government Policies on <strong>Climate</strong> Change and <strong>Displacement</strong> 153.1.1 Government Policies on Adaptation 153.1.2 Recent Developments <strong>in</strong> Government Policy 183.2 <strong>The</strong> Role of Civil Society <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> 194 THE INTERNATIONAL NORMATIVE FRAMEWORK 204.1 <strong>The</strong> International Protection of <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced Persons 204.1.1 Background 204.1.2 <strong>The</strong> Current Normative Framework 204.1.3 International Human Rights Standards 225 RECOMMENDATIONS:POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH 285.1 Increase Communication and Coord<strong>in</strong>ation Between the Government,Affected Communities and Civil Society on <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> Issues 285.2 Enhance Engagement and Support from the Regional and InternationalCommunities <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> 295.3 Develop a Rights-Based National Plan to Resolve <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> 295.4 Ensure That <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> Policies and Programmesare Implemented with Full Transparency and Free from Corruption 315.5 Explore the Village Cluster Model <strong>for</strong> Potential Applicationto <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced Persons 315.6 Immediately Beg<strong>in</strong> Land Acquisition and Land Set Aside Projects 325.7 Encourage the Use of Community Land Trusts 325.8 Ma<strong>in</strong>stream Emergency and Normal Resettlement Programmesand Ensure they are Accessible 326. CONCLUSION 347. SELECTED RESOURCES 35
1<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions1 Introduction<strong>Climate</strong> change is one of the greatest challenges fac<strong>in</strong>g the world today (1) and the <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communitiesdisplaced from their homes and lands as a result of climate change are the human face of this tragedy.<strong>Displacement</strong> due to the effects of climate change will affect scores of countries and tens, perhaps hundreds,of millions of people. (2)However, as this report clearly sets out, the crisis of climate displacement is not a problem to be addressed atsome po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the distant future. Rather, it is a crisis that is already unfold<strong>in</strong>g across the globe and <strong>for</strong> whichrights-based solutions need to be designed and implemented now. Already, Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ean atolls such asthe Carteret, Morelock, Tasman and Nugeria Islands, States such as Tuvalu, Kiribati, Vanuatu, the Maldives andothers have begun to permanently resettle people because of land lost to ris<strong>in</strong>g seas, subsidence and sal<strong>in</strong>isationof fresh water supplies. (3) Each of these and other countries face climate displacement crises, but pale <strong>in</strong> comparisonto that fac<strong>in</strong>g modern day <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> is widely recognised to be one of the most climate vulnerable countries <strong>in</strong> the world and is set tobecome even more so as a result of climate change. Due to the unique geography of the country, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>suffers from regular natural hazards, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges and droughts. <strong>The</strong>se naturalhazards lead to loss of life, damage to <strong>in</strong>frastructure and adversely impact on livelihoods. (4) <strong>The</strong>y are also lead<strong>in</strong>gto the displacement of <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities from their homes and lands. As a result of climate change, itis expected that all of these natural hazards that are already caus<strong>in</strong>g displacement will <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> frequency and<strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>in</strong> the com<strong>in</strong>g years. (5)Despite difficulties def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the precise contours of the causal l<strong>in</strong>k between climate change and <strong>in</strong>dividualdisplacement – whether as a result of “sudden onset events” or “slow onset processes” (6) - as well as the elementof choice <strong>in</strong> such displacement, (7) what is evident is that millions of people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are already be<strong>in</strong>g(1) <strong>The</strong> United Nations High Commissioner <strong>for</strong> Refugees, Mr. António Guterres, recently addressed the United Nations Security Council and statedthat climate change is the def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g challenge of our times , see Statement by Mr. António Guterres, United Nations High Commissioner <strong>for</strong> Refugees,United Nations Security Council Brief<strong>in</strong>g, Ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of International Peace and Security: New Challenges to International Peace andSecurity and Conflict Prevention , New York, 23 November 2011.(2) A number of estimates put the number of people displaced by the effects of climate change at 150 to 200 million people by the year 2050,however, this report acknowledges the many limitations on be<strong>in</strong>g able to provide a precise estimate of the future number of people displaced byclimate change; <strong>for</strong> a review and summary of sources that have provided the figure of 150-200 million, see: Friends of the Earth, A Citizen’s Guideto <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, Fact Sheet 4: Predictions of <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees to 2050.(3) See further: <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions, <strong>Climate</strong> Change Displaced Persons and Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property Rights: Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary Strategies <strong>for</strong>Rights-Based Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Programm<strong>in</strong>g to Resolve <strong>Climate</strong>-Induced <strong>Displacement</strong>, available at: http://displacementsolutions.org/files/documents/DS_<strong>Climate</strong>_change_strategies.pdf.(4) See: Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy andAction Plan 2008, p4.(5) It is not simply the unique geographic position of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> that makes it especially vulnerable to climate hazards and displacement, thesocio-economic situation of the country and high population density also <strong>for</strong>ces many people to live <strong>in</strong> climate vulnerable parts of the country. Fora discussion of the current and future impacts of climate change on natural hazards <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, see Section 2: <strong>Climate</strong> Hazards and <strong>Displacement</strong><strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(6) In <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, both sudden environmental events and gradual environment change <strong>in</strong>fluence population movement, <strong>in</strong> different ways. Suddenonset events such as floods, cyclones and riverbank erosion may cause the affected population to leave their homes at least temporarily. <strong>The</strong>semovements are usually large scale. And <strong>in</strong> most of the cases people return to their place of orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the long run. Slow onset process such ascoastal erosion, sea-level rise, salt water <strong>in</strong>trusion, chang<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong>fall patterns and drought can produce irreversible results, lead<strong>in</strong>g to more permanent<strong>for</strong>ms of migration; see Tasneem Siddiqui, <strong>Climate</strong> change <strong>in</strong>duced displacement: Migration as an adaptation strategy, <strong>The</strong> Daily Star, 15November 2011.(7) “A person’s decision to move is often compelled by underly<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>ter-related conditions of poverty, environmental degradation, socio-politicalfactors, and the adverse effects of climate change, often mak<strong>in</strong>g it difficult to isolate ‘the’ cause of movement...” Jane McAdam & Ben Saul,<strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law and Policy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong> Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, University of NewSouth Wales Faculty of Law Research Series, Paper 63 (2010). <strong>The</strong> difficulty <strong>in</strong>herent <strong>in</strong> draw<strong>in</strong>g a clear causal l<strong>in</strong>k between climate change anddisplacement will be discussed <strong>in</strong> Section 4: <strong>The</strong> International Normative Framework.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 2displaced by natural hazards (8) and that many millions more will be displaced <strong>in</strong> the future as a result of the<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> frequency and severity of natural hazards due to climate change. (9)This is comb<strong>in</strong>ed with a startl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutional and policy response gap to both the issue of climate displacementand the need to f<strong>in</strong>d durable hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights solutions <strong>for</strong> climate displaced people. This gapis apparent at both the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> level and the <strong>in</strong>ternational legal and policy level. (10)It is <strong>for</strong> these reasons that this report recognises the urgency of the need to f<strong>in</strong>d HLP rights solutions <strong>for</strong> thecurrent and future climate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It is equally imperative that these solutions areadopted utilis<strong>in</strong>g a rights-based approach, emphasis<strong>in</strong>g the the human rights and <strong>in</strong> particular, hous<strong>in</strong>g, landand property rights, of all people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the most vulnerable <strong>in</strong> society, as well as the rights ofeveryone to live <strong>in</strong> security and dignity. <strong>The</strong> Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> should not be left to face this challengealone. Decisions about effective solutions should be decentralised and should engage both affected communitiesand the vibrant and active civil society of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. <strong>The</strong> resources and expertise of the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternationalcommunities must also be mobilised to support the implementation of susta<strong>in</strong>able solutions.This report draws on fieldwork undertaken by <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>in</strong> January, Octoberand November 2011 and April 2012. Dur<strong>in</strong>g these visits, <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions undertook extensive travelthroughout <strong>Bangladesh</strong> to areas <strong>in</strong>habited by climate displaced communities and met with a range of <strong>in</strong>dividualsand communities affected by climate displacement as well as representatives from civil society and governmentofficials and elected representatives from the local Union level to the national M<strong>in</strong>isterial level. (11)Whilst the challenge of climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is great, it is not <strong>in</strong>surmountable. Already, civilsociety organisations, such as the Association <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, are undertak<strong>in</strong>g important work locat<strong>in</strong>g,procur<strong>in</strong>g and provid<strong>in</strong>g alternative lands and homes <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s climate displaced people. (12) <strong>The</strong>seactions are essential first steps towards provid<strong>in</strong>g comprehensive rights-based solutions <strong>for</strong> the current andfuture climate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.This report beg<strong>in</strong>s by assess<strong>in</strong>g the current and future situation of climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.<strong>The</strong> report then exam<strong>in</strong>es the exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutional and policy responses at the domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternationallevels. <strong>The</strong> report concludes by propos<strong>in</strong>g a number of concrete HLP rights solutions to climate displacement<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. In particular, this report proposes that: Communication and coord<strong>in</strong>ation should be <strong>in</strong>creased between the Government, affectedcommunities and civil society on climate displacement issues; Engagement and support from the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternational communities <strong>for</strong> climatedisplacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> should be enhanced; <strong>The</strong> Government should develop a rights-based national plan to resolve climate displacement; <strong>Climate</strong> displacement policies and programmes must be implemented with full transparencyand free from corruption; <strong>The</strong> “cluster village” model should be explored <strong>for</strong> potential application to climate displacedpeople <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>;(8) See boxed text below: Assess<strong>in</strong>g the Number of <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced People <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(9) For an assessment of the current and future numbers of climate displaced <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, see Section 2: <strong>Climate</strong> Hazards and <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong><strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(10) <strong>The</strong> response of the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and the <strong>in</strong>ternational community to the crisis of climate displacement will be addressed <strong>in</strong>Section 3: Policy Approaches to <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and Section 4: <strong>The</strong> International Normative Framework.(11) Dur<strong>in</strong>g these visits, <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions travelled to the follow<strong>in</strong>g districts affected by climate displacement: Dhaka, Khulna, Jessore,Rajbari, Chittagong, Cox’s Bazaar, Bandarban, Rangamati, Khagrachari, Jamalpur, Kurigram, Shadkhira, Rangpur, Chandpur, Comilla and Sirajganj.(12) See further: Section 3: Policy Approaches to <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.
3<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsLand acquisition and land set aside projects should beg<strong>in</strong> immediately;<strong>The</strong> use of community land trusts should be encouraged; andBoth normal and emergency relocation programmes should be ma<strong>in</strong>streamed and accessible.<strong>The</strong> report also highlights that ef<strong>for</strong>ts are already be<strong>in</strong>g undertaken towards f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g durable solutions <strong>for</strong> theclimate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. However, more resources and ef<strong>for</strong>ts are required to make these firstef<strong>for</strong>ts more truly susta<strong>in</strong>able. In particular, adaptation fund<strong>in</strong>g should be earmarked <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>in</strong> particular,the hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property needs of climate displaced communities.This report emphasises that the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>in</strong>deed the world needs to take heed of theclimate displacement crisis that is unfold<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. This is not an impossible problem to be addressed atsome po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the future; this is a problem <strong>for</strong> now. Rights based solutions to climate displacement must be developedand implemented immediately.Is it hoped that this report will act as a first step towards a more concerted and coord<strong>in</strong>ated ef<strong>for</strong>t among stakeholdersat the domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational levels, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with genu<strong>in</strong>e political will<strong>in</strong>gness, to effectivelyaddress this crucial challenge. It is only then that all climate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> can be assuredeffective and durable hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property solutions.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 42 <strong>Climate</strong> Hazards and<strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>2.1 CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH: THE CURRENT SITUATION2.1.1 BACKGROUNDDue to its unique geographic position, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is one of the most climate vulnerable countrieson earth. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> suffers from frequent natural hazards – <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g tropical cyclonesand storm surges, river and coastal flood<strong>in</strong>g, landslides and droughts. (13) <strong>The</strong> frequency andseverity of these natural hazards – comb<strong>in</strong>ed with the socio-economic situation of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>(14) - leads to loss of life, homes and lands, damage to <strong>in</strong>frastructure and economic assetsand adversely impacts on the lives and livelihoods of people across the country. (15)<strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s vulnerability to natural hazards also leads to climate displacement – the <strong>for</strong>ceddisplacement of <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities from their homes and lands. This is as a result ofboth “sudden onset events” such as floods, cyclones and river bank erosion as well as “slowonset processes” such as coastal erosion, seal-level rise, salt water <strong>in</strong>trusion, chang<strong>in</strong>g ra<strong>in</strong>fallpattern and drought. (16)<strong>The</strong> primary causes of climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are tidal height <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> thecoastal areas (lead<strong>in</strong>g to tidal flood<strong>in</strong>g) and riverbank erosion <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land areas. (17) <strong>The</strong> keysecondary causes of displacement are tropical cyclones and storm surges <strong>in</strong> the coastal regionsand river flood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land. (18) <strong>The</strong> primary sites of displacement have been <strong>in</strong> the coastalregions and <strong>in</strong> the river delta regions <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land. Of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s 64 districts, (19) 24 coastaland ma<strong>in</strong>land districts are already produc<strong>in</strong>g climate displaced people: (20)It is estimated that six million people have already been displaced by the effects of climatehazards <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. (21)However, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is set to become even more climate vulnerable as a result of theeffects of climate change. It is expected that climate change will exacerbate many of thenatural hazards faced by <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the natural hazards that are already leav<strong>in</strong>gto climate displacement – <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g, flood<strong>in</strong>g, tropical cyclones, storm surges, sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>in</strong>trusionand river-bank erosion. (22)(13) See: <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008, Supra n4, pp4-5.(14) Widespread poverty <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed with a high population density <strong>for</strong>ces many people to live <strong>in</strong> areas thatare highly vulnerable to natural hazards.(15) See <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008, supra n4. Also, <strong>in</strong> a household survey undertaken<strong>in</strong> May 2008, natural hazards were the most frequently cited cause of <strong>in</strong>security <strong>in</strong> life <strong>in</strong> general, with over half ofall household survey respondents cit<strong>in</strong>g it as one of their primary concerns; see Saferworld, Human Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>,Security <strong>in</strong> South Asia (2008).(16) <strong>Climate</strong> change <strong>in</strong>duced displacement: Migration as an adaptation strategy, supra n6.Analysis of Districts Generat<strong>in</strong>g<strong>Climate</strong> Displaced PersonsProvided by Association <strong>for</strong><strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, 2011)Coastal Districts Generat<strong>in</strong>g<strong>Climate</strong> Displaced Persons1. Satkhira2. Khulna3. Bagerhat4. Pirojpur5. Barguna6. Patuakhali7. Bhola8. Fani9. Laxmipur10. Noakhali11. Chittagong12. Cox’s BazaarMa<strong>in</strong>land Districts Generat<strong>in</strong>g<strong>Climate</strong> Displaced Persons13. Nilphamari14. Kurigram15. Rangpur16. Gaibandha17. Jamalpur18. Bogra19. Sirajganj20. Munshiganj21. Manikganj22. Rajbari23. Faridpur24. Shariatpur(17) Association <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, <strong>Climate</strong> “Refugees” <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> – Answer<strong>in</strong>g the Basics: <strong>The</strong> Where, How,Who and How Many? available at http://displacementsolutions.org/?p=547.(18) See below: Current <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> Coastal Regions and Current <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> Ma<strong>in</strong>landRegions.(19) <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is divided <strong>in</strong>to 7 Divisions, 64 Districts and 500 Sub-Districts (Upazillas).(20) See <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> – Answer<strong>in</strong>g the Basics: <strong>The</strong> Where, How, Who and How Many? Supra n17.(21) See boxed text: Assess<strong>in</strong>g the Number of <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced People <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(22) See below: <strong>The</strong> Future of <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.
5<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsAssess<strong>in</strong>g <strong>The</strong> Number of <strong>Climate</strong>Displaced People <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>One of the most complex and fraught issues when address<strong>in</strong>g climate displacement is the issue of causality. Indeed itmay never be possible to assess def<strong>in</strong>itively whether an <strong>in</strong>dividual is displaced exclusively because of climate change.However, what is clear is that natural hazards <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are already lead<strong>in</strong>g to displacement across the country andthat those same natural hazards are expected to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> both severity and frequency as a result of climate change– almost <strong>in</strong>evitably lead<strong>in</strong>g to further displacement.One attempt to calculate the number of climate displaced persons <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> has been carried out by the Association<strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees (ACR). <strong>The</strong> methodology used by ACR resulted <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs that 6 million <strong>in</strong>dividuals have alreadybeen displaced by the effects of climate hazards <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (23) and that roughly half of those have been displacedbecause of tidal floods and river bank erosion.MethodologyIn reach<strong>in</strong>g this estimate, the ACR held workshops <strong>in</strong> all 7 divisions of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> (Dhaka, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Barisal,Chittagong, Sylhet and Khulna) from March to May, 2010. Each divisional workshop was attended by 25-30 communityleaders who each provided estimates <strong>for</strong> the amount of families that had been displaced <strong>for</strong> climate-related reasons fromtheir respective districts and sub-districts. Throughout these workshops, ACR heard from representatives from all 24coastal and ma<strong>in</strong>land districts that are already produc<strong>in</strong>g climate displaced people.ResultsFrom these workshops, ACR ga<strong>in</strong>ed the follow<strong>in</strong>g specific <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation:Tidal floods (as a result of sea-level rise) haveaffected 236 sub-districts <strong>in</strong> the coastal areasof <strong>Bangladesh</strong>:Most of the villages <strong>in</strong> the affected sub-districtshave been flooded by tidal sal<strong>in</strong>e water twice aday <strong>for</strong> the last 3 years;32 percent of the <strong>in</strong>habitants (2,462,789 of7,693,331 total <strong>in</strong>habitants) <strong>in</strong> the affectedunions have had their houses and landsdestroyed by repeated cyclones and k<strong>in</strong>g tides;Of these 2,462,789 people, 64 percent(1,568,980 people) have been displaced locally,on rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g embankments or <strong>in</strong> higher ground<strong>in</strong> the exposed areas;27 percent (675,113 people) have beendisplaced to other locations with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g to Dhaka;9 percent (218,656 people) have been displacedacross <strong>in</strong>ternational borders;River bank erosion has affected 179 sub-districts<strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land areas of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>:Most of the villages <strong>in</strong> the affected sub-districtshave been eroded by flash flood waters everyyear <strong>for</strong> the past three decades;42 percent of the <strong>in</strong>habitants (1,452,588 ofthe 3,490,500 total <strong>in</strong>habitants) have had theirhouses and lands destroyed by annual rivererosion often coupled with floods;Of these 66 percent (951,531 people) have beendisplaced locally on neighbour<strong>in</strong>g embankmentsor on higher ground;26 percent (375,793 people) have beendisplaced to other locations with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g to Dhaka;8 percent (125,264 people) have been displacedacross <strong>in</strong>ternational borders;(23) See <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> – Answer<strong>in</strong>g the Basics: <strong>The</strong> Where, How, Who and How Many? Supra n17.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 62.1.2 CURRENT CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN COASTAL REGIONS28 percent of the population of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> lives <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions of the country (24) - which,due to <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s unique geographical position, are especially vulnerable to natural hazards. (25)Natural hazards <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions have already led to significant loss of homes and lands result<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> displacement <strong>for</strong> many <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities. (26)Sea level rise <strong>in</strong> coastal regions<strong>The</strong> key driver of displacement <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g tidal water height (lead<strong>in</strong>g to tidal flood<strong>in</strong>g). (27)Additionally, <strong>in</strong>dividuals liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> coastal areas have also been affected by land subsidence and the cont<strong>in</strong>uoussqueez<strong>in</strong>g of tidal pla<strong>in</strong>s.Sea level rise <strong>in</strong> coastal regions has already led to:Semi-permanent <strong>in</strong>undation of large parts of the coastal regions, with homes and property destroyedby strong tidal surges and land lost through coastal erosion;<strong>The</strong> destruction of crop yields, when embankments have been eroded or breached, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a periodof at least two years be<strong>for</strong>e the land can become fertile aga<strong>in</strong>;Sal<strong>in</strong>e water <strong>in</strong>trusion <strong>in</strong>to coastal rivers and <strong>in</strong>to groundwater aquifers, reduc<strong>in</strong>g freshwater availabilityas surface water sources are contam<strong>in</strong>ated;Dra<strong>in</strong>age congestion <strong>in</strong>side the <strong>in</strong>terior coastal polders, adversely affect<strong>in</strong>g agriculture <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions.(24) <strong>The</strong> Coastal Zone covers 19 out of 64 Districts of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, 32 percent of the area of Bangaldesh and 28 percent of the population, see:Rafiqul Islam, “Pre- and Post- Tsunami Coastal Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Land-Use Policies and Issues <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>” <strong>in</strong> FAO, Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the Workshopon Coastal Area Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Management <strong>in</strong> Asian Tsunami-Affected Countries, 2007, p55.(25) See generally: Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> ChangeStrategy and Action Plan 2009.(26) See boxed text: Assess<strong>in</strong>g the Number of <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced People <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(27) “Research <strong>in</strong> Daksh<strong>in</strong> Bedkashi (Koyra Upazila) reveals that the tidal flood water level has risen by 1 meter over 5 years (2004 to 2008) and itrose by an additional meter <strong>in</strong> 2009 and <strong>in</strong> 2010 it cont<strong>in</strong>ues to rise further”, see Association of <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>- Answer<strong>in</strong>g the Basics: <strong>The</strong> Where, How, Who and How Many, available at: http://displacementsolutions.org/?p=547. See also boxed text:Assess<strong>in</strong>g the Number of <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced People <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.
7<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsLife on anEmbankmentIn early 2011, <strong>in</strong> Khulna District <strong>in</strong> the remote South-Western region of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, 60,000 people foundthemselves displaced by what had become permanentcoastal flood<strong>in</strong>g as a result of sea-level rise. 25,000 ofthese displaced persons, unable to return to their housesand lands and with little access to new land, were <strong>for</strong>cedto live on a 25 kilometre long, 2 metre high and 3-4metre wide embankment.<strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions, dur<strong>in</strong>g a visit to <strong>Bangladesh</strong><strong>in</strong> January 2011, travelled to Khulna district and metwith many of the <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities liv<strong>in</strong>galong the length of this embankment. (28) <strong>The</strong>se climatedisplaced people had built rudimentary, makeshift sheltersalong the length of the embankment and wereliv<strong>in</strong>g their lives surrounded by unruly water at hightide and at low-tide by thousands of hectares of desolatemuddy land. 90 percent of these climate displacedpeople were without livelihoods, <strong>for</strong>ced to live day-todayfrom aid hand-outs and unable to return to theirlives and livelihoods.After two years liv<strong>in</strong>g on this embankment, someof these displaced persons have f<strong>in</strong>ally been ableto return to their homes where polders have beensuccessful and have protected their lands aga<strong>in</strong>stsea-level rise. However, others rema<strong>in</strong> displacedwhere polders have failed or where their land hasbeen destroyed through erosion.It is people like these who are desperately <strong>in</strong> need ofrights-based and particularly hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and propertyrights solutions to their climate displacement.Photo Kadir Van Lohuizen, January 2011(28) A video <strong>in</strong>terview between <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions and theaffected communities liv<strong>in</strong>g on this embankment can be viewed at:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aT1W7E8oB2o
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 8Tropical cyclones and storm surgesPhoto KadirVan Lohuizen,January 2011<strong>The</strong> key secondary causes of displacement <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions are tropical cyclones and storm surges. (29)On average, a severe tropical cyclone hits <strong>Bangladesh</strong> every 3 years. (30) <strong>The</strong>se storms generally <strong>for</strong>m <strong>in</strong> themonths just be<strong>for</strong>e and after the monsoon and <strong>in</strong>tensify as they move north over the warm waters of the Bay ofBengal. <strong>The</strong>y are accompanied by high w<strong>in</strong>ds of over 150 kph and can result <strong>in</strong> storm surges up to seven metreshigh. <strong>The</strong> tropical cyclones <strong>in</strong> 1970 and 1991 are estimated to have killed 500,000 and 140,000 people, respectively.(31) <strong>The</strong> storm surges are higher <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> than neighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries because the Bay of Bengalnarrows towards the north, where <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is located.Tropical cyclones and storm surges <strong>in</strong> coastal areas have led to: High loss of life; Extensive damage to houses, property and <strong>in</strong>frastructure; Loss of livestock; and Disruption to agriculture and livelihoods. (32)(29) See boxed text: Assess<strong>in</strong>g the Numbers of <strong>Climate</strong> Displaced People <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(30) <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, September 2009, supra n25, p11.(31) Ibid.(32) Ibid.
9<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions2.1.3 CURRENT CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN MAINLAND REGIONSMost of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> lies <strong>in</strong> the delta of three of the largest rivers <strong>in</strong> the world – the Brahmaputra, the Ganges andthe Meghna. <strong>The</strong>se rivers have a comb<strong>in</strong>ed peak discharge <strong>in</strong> the flood season of 180,000m3/sec (the secondhighest <strong>in</strong> the world after the Amazon) and carry about two-billion tonnes of sediment each year. (33) Two-thirds ofthe country is less than 5 metres above sea-level and is highly susceptible to river flood<strong>in</strong>g. In an average year,approximately one quarter of the country is <strong>in</strong>undated. (34) Once <strong>in</strong> every 4-5 years, however, there is a severe floodthat may cover 60% of the country. (35)Photo, <strong>Displacement</strong>Solutions,November 2011River bank erosion<strong>The</strong> primary cause of displacement <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land regionsis riverbank erosion. (36)Riverbank erosion is caused because the course of riverstends to shift over time, however, erosion may be exacerbatedby poor management of water resources. <strong>Bangladesh</strong>shares nearly all of its rivers with India and there arefrequent accusations that Indian water management doesnot take full account of the possible effects on the riversfurther downstream <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>i territory. (37)<strong>The</strong> Government estimates that annually several thousandhectares of floodpla<strong>in</strong> are lost due to river bank erosion andthat this leads to thousands of people becom<strong>in</strong>g landlessand homeless every year. (38)Along with the floodpla<strong>in</strong>, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> loses several kilometres of roads, railways and flood embankments everyyear. A number of cities and towns such as Chandpur, Rajshahi and Faridpur are also threatened by erosion.Accord<strong>in</strong>g to a recent study, “about one million people are directly affected by riverbank erosion each yearand landlessness <strong>in</strong> these areas could be as high as 70 percent”. (39)Riverbank erosion <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land areas causes considerable <strong>in</strong>security and has led to:<strong>The</strong> loss of thousands of hectares of agricultural land;<strong>The</strong> loss of homes and property;Death and <strong>in</strong>jury; andDisruption of economic production, education, communications and sanitation facilities.(33) Ibid, p7.(34) Ibid.(35) Ibid, p8.(36) “Around one million people have been rendered homeless due to river erosion <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land river bas<strong>in</strong>s over the last three decades, as theBrahmaputra-Jamuna cont<strong>in</strong>ues to widen because of obstruction from upstream sediment and poor downstream erosion management. Officialstatistics show that the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, a major river system <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, has widened by 11.8 km...erod<strong>in</strong>g about 87,790 hectares of land.(CEGIS, 2006)”, see <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> - Answer<strong>in</strong>g the Basics: <strong>The</strong> Where, How, Who and How Many, supra n17.(37) Human Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n15.(38) “<strong>The</strong> major rivers such as the Jamuna, Ganges and Padma annually consume several thousand hectares of floodpla<strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g thousands ofpeople landless and homeless every year”, see: <strong>Bangladesh</strong> Water Development Board, webpage on Erosion:http://www.bwdb.gov.bd/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=179&Itemid=148.(39) Abrar CR and Azad SN, Cop<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>Displacement</strong>: Riverbank Erosion <strong>in</strong> Northwest <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, RMMRU, RDRS, North Bengal Institute,2003,, cited <strong>in</strong> Human Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n15.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 10River flood<strong>in</strong>g<strong>The</strong> key secondary cause of displacement <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>landregions is riverbank flood<strong>in</strong>g.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> is highly susceptible to river flood<strong>in</strong>g and<strong>in</strong> an average year, approximately one quarter of thecountry is <strong>in</strong>undated. (40)Photo, <strong>Displacement</strong>Solutions,November 2011River flood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>land areas has led to: Substantial damage to hous<strong>in</strong>g, propertyand <strong>in</strong>frastructure; Disruption to agriculture, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g destructionof crops; Disruption to livelihoods. (41)2.2 THE FUTURE OF CLIMATEDISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH<strong>Bangladesh</strong> is set to become even more climate vulnerable as a result of the effects of climate change.It is expected that the effects of climate change will exacerbate many of the natural hazards faced by <strong>Bangladesh</strong>,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g all of the natural hazards currently lead<strong>in</strong>g to climate displacement – <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g, flood<strong>in</strong>g, tropicalcyclones, storm surges, sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>in</strong>trusion and river-bank erosion. (42)<strong>The</strong> Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change (IPCC) has stated that climate change and global warm<strong>in</strong>gare likely to lead to: (43)An <strong>in</strong>tensification of ra<strong>in</strong>fall;An <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the frequency of flash floods and large-area floods;<strong>The</strong> earlier melt<strong>in</strong>g of snowpacks and melt<strong>in</strong>g of glaciers;More frequent and <strong>in</strong>tense droughts;More <strong>in</strong>tense tropical cyclones;Ris<strong>in</strong>g sea levels;More frequent and <strong>in</strong>tense storm surges; andMore <strong>in</strong>tense <strong>in</strong>land ra<strong>in</strong>fall and stronger w<strong>in</strong>dsSea level rise from climate change is anticipated to worsen many of these processes and to subsumeup to 13 percent of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s coastal land by 2080. (44)<strong>The</strong> Chief Advisor of the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> has stated that “a one meter sea-level rise will submergeabout one-third of the total area of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, thereby uproot<strong>in</strong>g 25-30 million of our people”. (45)(40) <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, September 2009, supra n25, p8.(41) Ibid, pp7-9(42) Ibid, p14.(43) See Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change, Work<strong>in</strong>g Group II: Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability, Fourth Assessment Report: <strong>Climate</strong>Change 2007, available at: http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch19s19-3-6.html.(44) James Pender, Community-led Adaptation <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, Forced Migration Review 31 (2008), p54, cit<strong>in</strong>g research by the UK Institute ofDevelopment Studies, available at: http://www.ids.ac.uk/climatechange/orchid.(45) Statement by His Excellency Dr. Fakhrudd<strong>in</strong> Ahmed, Honorable Chief Adviser of the Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> at theHigh-level Event on <strong>Climate</strong> Change, New York, 24 September 2007, http://www.un.<strong>in</strong>t/wcm/content/site/bangladesh/pid/8224.
11<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions<strong>The</strong> difficulty <strong>in</strong>herent <strong>in</strong> predict<strong>in</strong>g the future impact of climate change on displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> meansthat any attempt to quantify the exact number of people who will be displaced should be treated with some caution.However, as all of the key current drivers of displacement are expected to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> both frequency and <strong>in</strong>tensitydue to climate change, it is highly likely that the number of climate displaced due to exist<strong>in</strong>g factors will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the future <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. In addition, the number of climate displaced is likely to rise even higher dueto secondary and as yet un<strong>for</strong>eseen effects of climate change.This report emphasises that irrespective of the difficulty <strong>in</strong> precisely predict<strong>in</strong>g the future number of climatedisplaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, there already exists an urgent need to f<strong>in</strong>d rights-based hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and propertysolutions <strong>for</strong> the climate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and that this need will only become more vital asthe number of climate displaced people multiplies <strong>in</strong> the future.2.2.1 THE FUTURE OF CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN COASTAL REGIONSSea level riseRis<strong>in</strong>g sea levels are likely to cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be a lead<strong>in</strong>g cause of displacement <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions. As sea levelscont<strong>in</strong>ue to rise as a result of global warm<strong>in</strong>g, it is likely that there will be an even more complete <strong>in</strong>undation of thelow-ly<strong>in</strong>g coastal regions. Sea level rise is likely to lead to further sal<strong>in</strong>e water <strong>in</strong>trusion <strong>in</strong>to surface freshwatersources, further reduc<strong>in</strong>g the availability of fresh water. <strong>The</strong> further dra<strong>in</strong>age of coastal polders will cont<strong>in</strong>ue toadversely affect agriculture and livelihoods.Tropical storms and storm surges<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly frequent and severe tropical storms with higher w<strong>in</strong>d speeds and storm surges are likelyto exacerbate exist<strong>in</strong>g problems <strong>in</strong> the coastal regions.At present, this is a secondary cause of displacement <strong>in</strong> coastal regions; however, as the frequency and severityof tropical cyclones <strong>in</strong>creases, this could become a more substantial cause of displacement. In particular, thereis likely to be more extensive damage to houses, property and <strong>in</strong>frastructure, a high loss of human life and lossof livestock and disruption to agriculture and livelihoods.2.2.2 THE FUTURE OF CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN MAINLAND REGIONSRiver bank erosionHeavier and more erratic ra<strong>in</strong>fall <strong>in</strong> the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna system is likely to lead to further riverbankerosion. This is likely to cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be a lead<strong>in</strong>g cause of displacement <strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong>land areas of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Further river bank erosion is likely to lead to more widespread destruction of homes and property as well as thousandsof hectares of agricultural land.River flood<strong>in</strong>gHigher and more erratic ra<strong>in</strong>fall is also likely to lead to over-topp<strong>in</strong>g and breach<strong>in</strong>g of embankments result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>widespread flood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> both urban and rural areas. <strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased sedimentation <strong>in</strong> riverbeds is also likely to leadto dra<strong>in</strong>age congestion and water logg<strong>in</strong>g.As the Himalayan glaciers cont<strong>in</strong>ue to melt, it is likely that there will be higher river flows <strong>in</strong> the warmer months ofthe year, followed by lower river flows and <strong>in</strong>creased sal<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>trusion after the glaciers have shrunk or disappeared.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 12At present, river flood<strong>in</strong>g is a secondary cause of displacement <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>land areas; however, as ra<strong>in</strong>fall becomeshigher and more erratic and as river flows change as a result of the melt<strong>in</strong>g of the Himalayan glaciers, it is likelythat this could be a more significant cause of displacement across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.2.2.3 OTHER CAUSES OF CLIMATE DISPLACEMENTDroughtsMore erratic ra<strong>in</strong>fall is likely to lead to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g droughts, especially <strong>in</strong> the drier northern and western regions of<strong>Bangladesh</strong> which record significantly less ra<strong>in</strong>fall. Droughts can lead to the destruction of crop yields and severedisruption to livelihoods. (46)At present, droughts are not a major cause of displacement; however, as ra<strong>in</strong>fall patterns change, it is likely thatthere will be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly frequent and severe droughts, which could become a more significant cause of displacementacross <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.LandslidesMore erratic ra<strong>in</strong>fall is likely to lead to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly frequent and severe landslides <strong>in</strong> the hill regions of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Landslides can lead to the destruction of homes and properties, loss of life and severe disruption to agricultureand livelihoods.Landslides are not presently a significant cause of displacement; however, as they become more severe andfrequent as a result of climate change, they may become a more substantial cause of displacement from the hillregions of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.2.2.4 ADDITIONAL CONCERNS RESULTING FROM CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISPLACEMENTIn addition to exacerbat<strong>in</strong>g the natural hazards that are already lead<strong>in</strong>g to displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, the effectsof climate change may also lead to additional concerns that will impact on climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.UrbanisationNearly 60 percent of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> relies on agriculture <strong>for</strong> their livelihoods (47) and as the availability of arable landsdecl<strong>in</strong>e and food production dim<strong>in</strong>ishes, the rural poor will <strong>in</strong> many cases be <strong>for</strong>ced to leave their rural homes andlands <strong>for</strong> urban areas and slums.This <strong>in</strong>creased urbanisation will create even more stress on the overpopulated cities of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, especiallyDhaka. (48) Insufficient <strong>in</strong>frastructure and governance mechanisms will be stretched even further, potentiallylead<strong>in</strong>g to a further decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g standards and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> social disorder. Slum dwellers are already experienc<strong>in</strong>gexclusion from basic services and <strong>in</strong>frastructure, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g, clean water, sanitation,health care, education and electricity. (49) Nearly 80 percent of slums are located on private land, lead<strong>in</strong>g to challenges<strong>in</strong> terms of basic service provision (50) as well as mak<strong>in</strong>g slum residents vulnerable to violence or exploita-(46) <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, September 2009, supra n25, p13.(47) Fifty-five percent of work<strong>in</strong>g-age <strong>in</strong>dividuals depend on agriculture as their po<strong>in</strong>t of <strong>in</strong>come, see World Food Programme, Food Security Atlas:<strong>Bangladesh</strong> - Livelihoods, available at: http://foodsecurityatlas.org/bgd/country/access/livelihoods.(48) Up to 40 percent of Dhaka’s population of 13 million people are currently liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> slums, <strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law andPolicy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong> Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n7, p 10.(49) Shahadat Hosse<strong>in</strong>, Rapid Urban Growth and Poverty <strong>in</strong> Dhaka City, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> e-Journal of Sociology 5 (2008), cited <strong>in</strong> ibid, p16.1, 19.(50) <strong>The</strong> World Bank Office (Dhaka), Dhaka: Improv<strong>in</strong>g Liv<strong>in</strong>g Conditions <strong>for</strong> the Urban Poor, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> Development Series Paper No. 17, June2007, cit<strong>in</strong>g LGED, Survey of Slums, (2005).
13<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutionstion by crim<strong>in</strong>al gangs, land owners and corrupt police. (51) <strong>The</strong>se issues are likely to become more pronounced with<strong>in</strong>creased urbanisation due to climate displacement.<strong>The</strong> impact of higher ra<strong>in</strong>fall will be especially felt <strong>in</strong> urban areas, where dra<strong>in</strong>age is already a serious problem andsewers frequently back-up <strong>in</strong> the monsoon season. Flood<strong>in</strong>g can br<strong>in</strong>g water borne diseases and contam<strong>in</strong>atefresh water supplies. Dhaka is particularly vulnerable to flood<strong>in</strong>g; be<strong>in</strong>g a low-ly<strong>in</strong>g city (2-13 metres above sealevel) where even moderate sea level rises may <strong>in</strong>undate substantial parts of the city. (52)Migrants <strong>in</strong> slum areas are vulnerable to multiple displacements – both from the risk of <strong>for</strong>ced evictions andthe effects of climate change on slum areas. Attempts to <strong>for</strong>cibly evict thousands of slum dwellers have beencommon and have provoked unrest and violence between residents, police and Government authorities. (53)Health risks<strong>Climate</strong> change is expected to present <strong>in</strong>creased risks to human health, especially <strong>in</strong> light of the poor state ofthe country’s public health <strong>in</strong>frastructure. Access to adequate health care is already difficult <strong>for</strong> the poorestand most vulnerable who are also likely to be the group most adversely impacted by any adverse change <strong>in</strong>human health. (54) Warmer and more humid weather may lead to an <strong>in</strong>creased prevalence of disease and diseasevectors, to which the poor will be the most susceptible. Further, climate displaced people are often <strong>for</strong>ced torelocate to any land available, <strong>in</strong> practice this often leads to illegal squatt<strong>in</strong>g on Government land <strong>in</strong> vulnerableand isolated locations, far removed from adequate and accessible healthcare. This process exposes climatedisplaced persons to further health risks. (55)<strong>Climate</strong> change and security issuesL<strong>in</strong>ks between climate change and security risks are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly be<strong>in</strong>g discussed at the <strong>in</strong>ternational level.<strong>The</strong> United Nations High Commissioner <strong>for</strong> Refugees, Mr António Guterres, recently addressed the UnitedNations Security Council and stated:“<strong>The</strong> process of climate change and its role <strong>in</strong> re<strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g other globalimbalances constitutes an important threat to peace and security”. (56)L<strong>in</strong>ks between climate displacement and security risks have also been made specifically <strong>in</strong> the case of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.In September 2010, the Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> stated that the mass movement of up to one billionclimate change migrants, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 30 million <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, “would cause social disorders, political <strong>in</strong>stability,cross-border conflicts, and upheavals”. (57)(51) <strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law and Policy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong> Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n7, p16.(52) UN Habitat, “Case Study: Dhaka‘s Vulnerability to <strong>Climate</strong> Change”, p <strong>in</strong> UN Habitat, State of the World’s Cities 2008/2009.(53) <strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law and Policy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong> Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n7, p16.(54) Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, National Adaptation Programme of Action (2005), p15.(55) However, note that the National Adaptation Programme of Action states “Changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>fectious disease are less certa<strong>in</strong> as the causes ofoutbreaks of <strong>in</strong>fectious disease are quite complex and often do not have a simple relationship with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g temperature or change <strong>in</strong> precipitation”ibid, p15.(56) Statement by Mr. António Guterres, supra n1.(57) Has<strong>in</strong>a Highlights Un<strong>for</strong>tunate Plight of <strong>Climate</strong> Migrants, <strong>The</strong> New Nation, 25 September 2010, available at: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-237905607.html.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 14<strong>The</strong> most commonly cited security issues alleged to result from climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are conflictover scare resources (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g land), <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Islamic extremism and militancy as a result of impoverishment,frustration and disempowerment and cross-border tensions as a result of flows of climate displaced people <strong>in</strong>toneighbour<strong>in</strong>g countries. (58)It is clearly difficult to draw precise l<strong>in</strong>ks between climate change, displacement and security concerns. Indeed,this report notes that it may even be problematic to speculate on security concerns <strong>for</strong> fear of distract<strong>in</strong>g attentionfrom the urgent need to f<strong>in</strong>d hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property solutions <strong>for</strong> the climate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>result<strong>in</strong>g from exist<strong>in</strong>g causes of displacement. However, it is important to raise attention to the fact thatnot only will the exist<strong>in</strong>g causes of climate displacement certa<strong>in</strong>ly be exacerbated by climate change, but that theresult<strong>in</strong>g scarcity of natural resources, poverty, frustrations and tensions may well lead to additional, un<strong>for</strong>eseenconcerns, that may <strong>in</strong> turn lead to further displacement across <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and the region.(58) See:<strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law and Policy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong> Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n7,p21.
15<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions3 Policy Approaches to <strong>Climate</strong><strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>3.1 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISPLACEMENT3.1.1 GOVERNMENT POLICIES ON ADAPTATION<strong>The</strong> Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> has signalled its clear <strong>in</strong>tention <strong>in</strong> the area of adaptation:“It is essential that <strong>Bangladesh</strong> prepares now to adapt to climate changeand safeguard the future well-be<strong>in</strong>g of its citizens...[the] Government isunequivocal <strong>in</strong> its commitment to protect the people from the ravages ofclimate change...” (59)<strong>The</strong> Government has produced two key documents that outl<strong>in</strong>e its policy and strategy <strong>in</strong> the area of climatechange adaptation: <strong>The</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> National Adaptation Programme of Action (2005); and <strong>The</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan (2009).<strong>The</strong> 2005 National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA)In 2005, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> completed and published its National Adaptation Programme of Action, prepared by theM<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests. (60) <strong>The</strong> preparation process was guided by a Project Steer<strong>in</strong>g Committeeheaded by the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests and members from other key m<strong>in</strong>istries, department andagencies <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g M<strong>in</strong>istry of F<strong>in</strong>ance and Plann<strong>in</strong>g. (61)A wide variety of stakeholders were consulted <strong>in</strong> the development of the NAPA <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g “policymakers of Government, local representatives of the Government...scientific community members of the variousresearch <strong>in</strong>stitutes, researchers, academicians, teachers...lawyers, doctors, ethnic groups, media, NGO and CBOrepresentatives and <strong>in</strong>digenous women contributed to the development of the NAPA <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>”. (62)<strong>The</strong> 2005 NAPA recognises that <strong>Bangladesh</strong> will be one of the most adversely affected countries due to climatechange especially because of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s “low economic strength, <strong>in</strong>adequate <strong>in</strong>frastructure, low level of socialdevelopment, lack of <strong>in</strong>stitutional capacity and a higher dependency on the natural resource base”. (63)<strong>The</strong> 2005 NAPA identified many adverse climatic impacts of climate change, many of which have clear l<strong>in</strong>ks withclimate displacement:a. Scarcity of fresh water due to less ra<strong>in</strong> and higher evapo-transpiration <strong>in</strong> the dry season;b. Dra<strong>in</strong>age congestion due to higher water levels <strong>in</strong> the confluence with the rise of sea level;c. River bank erosion;d. Frequent floods and prolonged and widespread drought;(59) <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, supra n25, pXVII.(60) “<strong>The</strong> National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> has been prepared…as a response to the decision of the SeventhSession of the Conference of the Parties (COP7) of the United Nations Framework Convention on <strong>Climate</strong> Change (UNFCCC). <strong>The</strong> preparationprocess has followed the generic guid<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples outl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the NAPA Annotated Guidel<strong>in</strong>e”, National Adaptation Programme of Action (2005),supra n55, Foreword.(61) Ibid.(62) Ibid.(63) Ibid, Executive Summary.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 16e. Wider sal<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>in</strong> the surface, ground and soil <strong>in</strong> the coastal zone. It was found that the population liv<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong> the coastal area are more vulnerable than the population <strong>in</strong> other areas. (64)<strong>The</strong> NAPA further identified that some of the effects of climate change have l<strong>in</strong>ks with migration; however, thesel<strong>in</strong>ks were not expressed <strong>in</strong> concrete terms. For example, the report stated that the long term consequencesof the project to “promote adaptation to coastal crop agriculture to combat sal<strong>in</strong>isation” was that the “affectedcommunity would not migrate to cities <strong>for</strong> job and livelihood” and that the “social consequences of mass scalemigration to cities would to some extent be halted”. (65)<strong>The</strong> document also stated that a potential long term consequence of the “adaptation to agriculture systems<strong>in</strong> areas prone to enhanced flash flood<strong>in</strong>g” project would be that “people might get a means to cont<strong>in</strong>ue withfarm<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>stead of migrat<strong>in</strong>g to cities after the flood”. (66)However, the NAPA did not articulate any concrete l<strong>in</strong>ks between climate change and displacement.In suggest<strong>in</strong>g adaptation measures <strong>for</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> to address the adverse consequences of climate change,the 2005 NAPA suggested the follow<strong>in</strong>g:1. Reduction of climate change hazards through coastal af<strong>for</strong>estation with community participation.2. Provid<strong>in</strong>g dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g water to coastal communities to combat enhanced sal<strong>in</strong>ity due to sea level rise.3. Capacity build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrat<strong>in</strong>g climate change <strong>in</strong> plann<strong>in</strong>g, design<strong>in</strong>g of <strong>in</strong>frastructure, conflict managementand landwater zon<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> water management <strong>in</strong>stitutions.4. <strong>Climate</strong> change and adaptation <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation dissem<strong>in</strong>ation to vulnerable community <strong>for</strong> emergency preparednessmeasures and awareness rais<strong>in</strong>g on enhanced climatic disasters.5. Construction of flood shelter, and <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation and assistance centre to cope with enhanced recurrent floods<strong>in</strong> major floodpla<strong>in</strong>s.6. Ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g adaptation to climate change <strong>in</strong>to policies and programmes <strong>in</strong> different sectors (focus<strong>in</strong>gon disaster management, water, agriculture, health and <strong>in</strong>dustry).7. Inclusion of climate change issues <strong>in</strong> curriculum at secondary and tertiary educational <strong>in</strong>stitution.8. Enhanc<strong>in</strong>g resilience of urban <strong>in</strong>frastructure and <strong>in</strong>dustries to impacts of climate change.9. Development of eco-specific adaptive knowledge (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>digenous knowledge) on adaptation to climatevariability to enhance adaptive capacity <strong>for</strong> future climate change.10. Promotion of research on drought, flood and sal<strong>in</strong>e tolerant varieties of crops to facilitate adaptation <strong>in</strong> future.11. Promot<strong>in</strong>g adaptation to coastal crop agriculture to combat <strong>in</strong>creased sal<strong>in</strong>ity.12. Adaptation to agriculture systems <strong>in</strong> areas prone to enhanced flash flood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> North East and Central Region.13. Adaptation to fisheries <strong>in</strong> areas prone to enhanced flood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> North East and Central Region through adaptiveand diversified fish culture practices.14. Promot<strong>in</strong>g adaptation to coastal fisheries through culture of salt tolerant fish special <strong>in</strong> coastal areasof <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.15. Explor<strong>in</strong>g options <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>surance and other emergency preparedness measures to cope with enhancedclimatic disasters. (67)However, the 2005 NAPA did not prescribe any adaptation programmes or policies specifically relatedto the issue of climate displacement.In not identify<strong>in</strong>g displacement as an adverse effect of climate change, the document un<strong>for</strong>tunately did not evenbeg<strong>in</strong> the process of develop<strong>in</strong>g rights-based solutions <strong>for</strong> the millions of current and future climate displacedpersons across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(64) Ibid.(65) Ibid, p35-36(66) Ibid, p36(67) Ibid, Executive Summary.
17<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions<strong>The</strong> 2009 <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP)In September 2008, the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> published the <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy andAction Plan (BCCSAP). (68) Follow<strong>in</strong>g the change of Government <strong>in</strong> the December 2008 national elections, the2008 BCCSAP was “updated and revised” to reflect the new Government’s “priorities <strong>for</strong> future economic,human and social development <strong>in</strong> the country”. (69) As with the 2008 document, the 2009 BCCSAP is a 10 yearprogramme (2009 – 2018) designed to “build the capacity and reliance of the country to climate change”. (70)<strong>The</strong> 2009 BCCSAP recognises that “<strong>Bangladesh</strong> is one of the most climate vulnerable countries on earth andwill become even more so as a result of climate change”. (71) <strong>The</strong> BCCSAP highlights the risk of many of the effectsof climate change that have led to displacement, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g: floods, tropical cyclones, storm surges and droughts. (72)Importantly and <strong>in</strong> contrast with the 2005 NAPA, the 2009 BCCSAP draws direct l<strong>in</strong>ks between climate changeand displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.<strong>The</strong> BCCSAP states that <strong>in</strong>creased river bank erosion and sal<strong>in</strong>e water <strong>in</strong>trusion <strong>in</strong> coastal areas “are likely todisplace hundreds of thousands of people” and that if sea level rise is higher than currently expected and coastalpolders are not strengthened and/or new ones built, “six to eight million people could be displaced by 2050 andwould have to be resettled”. (73)Specifically, the BCCSAP states that “it is now evident that population <strong>in</strong> many parts of the country will be soadversely affected [by climate change] that they will have to move out…<strong>The</strong> process of migration of climatechange-affectedpeople, both <strong>in</strong>side and outside the country, need[s] to be monitored closely…and adequate<strong>in</strong>stitutional support should be provided <strong>for</strong> their proper resettlement”. (74)However, despite draw<strong>in</strong>g these direct l<strong>in</strong>ks, the document does not accurately portray the full extent of climatedisplacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. First, climate displacement <strong>in</strong> the BCCSAP is characterised as a potential future event,however, as noted by this report, climate displacement is already occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. Secondly, the BCCSAPsuggests that <strong>in</strong>creased river bank erosion and sal<strong>in</strong>e water <strong>in</strong>trusion <strong>in</strong> coastal areas “are likely to displace hundredsof thousands of people”; however, surveys undertaken by the Association of <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees suggest that thisnumber is likely to be more accurately <strong>in</strong> the millions of people displaced, rather than the hundreds of thousands.Thirdly, the BCCSAP suggests that six to eight million people could be displaced if “sea level rise is higher thancurrently expected”; aga<strong>in</strong>, sea level is already lead<strong>in</strong>g to displacement from coastal areas <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Perhaps more critical than the mischaracterisation of the seriousness and urgency of climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>,is that the BCCSAP itself does not propose any policies, programmes or actions designed to address climatedisplacement. <strong>The</strong> document explicitly states that six to eight million people could be displaced by sea level rise andthat they “would have to be resettled”; however, the BCCSAP does not propose any policies or strategies <strong>for</strong> thesemillions of people, let alone any rights-based hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property solutions <strong>for</strong> these affected communities.Instead the BCCSAP merely proposes that the process of migration of climate-change-affected people needs to be“monitored closely” and that “adequate <strong>in</strong>stitutional support should be provided <strong>for</strong> their proper resettlement”. <strong>The</strong>reis no <strong>in</strong>dication of where or how this “<strong>in</strong>stitutional support” will be provided.<strong>The</strong> BCCSAP does however, importantly, highlight that the role of monitor<strong>in</strong>g climate displacement and ensur<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>stitutional support <strong>for</strong> “proper resettlement” lies with the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests, the M<strong>in</strong>istry of(68) <strong>The</strong> BCCSAP was created <strong>in</strong> support of the Bali Action Plan developed at the UNFCCC COP13 <strong>in</strong> 2007, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> ChangeStrategy and Action Plan 2009, supra n25, p2.(69) Ibid, Foreword.(70) Ibid.(71) Ibid, pXVII.(72) Ibid.(73) Ibid, p1.(74) Ibid, p59.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 18Home Affairs and the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Local Government, Rural Development and Cooperative. It is imperative thatthese M<strong>in</strong>istries develop transparent, effective climate displacement monitor<strong>in</strong>g processes, and to beg<strong>in</strong> now todesign and implement durable and effective resettlement and relocation policies and programmes <strong>for</strong> climatedisplacement affected communities.Importantly, the BCCSAP highlights that “climate change is likely to impact most severely on the poorest and mostvulnerable <strong>in</strong> society...[and that] every ef<strong>for</strong>t will be made to ensure that they are protected and that all programmesfocus on the needs of this group <strong>for</strong> food security, safe hous<strong>in</strong>g, employment and access to basic services, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>ghealth”. This statement acknowledges the <strong>in</strong>creased vulnerability of the poorest <strong>in</strong> society to the effects of climatechange as well as the need to ensure safe hous<strong>in</strong>g as part of the Government’s adaptation strategy. Un<strong>for</strong>tunately,however, the BCCSAP does not propose any specific projects or policies as to how exactly the Government willensure safe hous<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> the most vulnerable members of society.3.1.2 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN GOVERNMENT POLICYRecent developments <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> seem to suggest that the Government is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly pay<strong>in</strong>g attention to theseriousness of climate displacement. However, this attention appears to be focused on the controversial issue of thestatus of climate displaced people as “climate refugees” and their entitlement to be resettled to other countries. (75)In 2008, the Government F<strong>in</strong>ance M<strong>in</strong>ister, Abul Maal Abdul Muhith, stated that up to 20 million <strong>Bangladesh</strong>is maybe <strong>for</strong>ced to leave the country <strong>in</strong> the next 40 years because of climate change and that Brita<strong>in</strong> and other wealthycountries should accept millions of displaced people. (76) Specifically, he called on the United Nations to redef<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>ternationallaw to give climate refugees the same protection as people flee<strong>in</strong>g political repression. (77) <strong>The</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>iForeign M<strong>in</strong>ister, Dr. Dipu Moni and a Junior M<strong>in</strong>ister <strong>for</strong> Environment and Forests, Dr Hasan Mahmud, stated that<strong>Bangladesh</strong> will raise its voice at the Durban [COP 17] Summit <strong>for</strong> the recognition of people displaced by climatechange, so-called “climate refugees”. (78)Some of this focus on the issue of “climate refugees” may be as a result of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g the current chairof the <strong>Climate</strong> Vulnerable Forum, a partnership of “some of the countries most vulnerable to the adverse impactsof climate change”. (79) <strong>The</strong> outcome of the November 2011 m<strong>in</strong>isterial meet<strong>in</strong>g of the <strong>Climate</strong> Vulnerable Forum <strong>in</strong>Dhaka expressly stated:“Recognis<strong>in</strong>g that migration is a viable adaptation strategy to ensure thatpopulations are not compelled to reside <strong>in</strong> high risk and affected areas,and to manage risks dur<strong>in</strong>g displacement; and furthermore a plannedstrategy <strong>in</strong> the long-term to offer displaced populations with enhancedoptions <strong>for</strong> dignified and diversified livelihood.” (80)However, this focus on the status of climate displaced persons as “climate refugees” is a concern <strong>for</strong> a number ofreasons. First, the issue of whether climate displaced people from <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are entitled to qualify <strong>for</strong> “refugeestatus” or other <strong>for</strong>ms of <strong>in</strong>ternational protection under the current <strong>in</strong>ternational legal framework is far from clearand highly controversial. Indeed, it can be said that, <strong>for</strong> political reasons, the <strong>in</strong>ternational legal framework is highlyunlikely to be re<strong>for</strong>med to <strong>in</strong>clude the protection of climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> the near future. Secondly, focus<strong>in</strong>g(75) For a discussion of the dist<strong>in</strong>ction under <strong>in</strong>ternational law between climate displaced people and climate refugees, see Section 4: <strong>The</strong> InternationalNormative Framework.(76) <strong>The</strong> Guardian, “UK should open borders to climate refugees, says <strong>Bangladesh</strong>i m<strong>in</strong>ister”, 4 December, 2008 available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2009/nov/30/rich-west-climate-change.(77) Ibid.(78) All Headl<strong>in</strong>e News, <strong>Climate</strong>-vulnerable nations to seek aid <strong>for</strong> ‘climate refugees’, 1 November 2011, available at: http://www.allheadl<strong>in</strong>enews.com/articles/90063897?<strong>Climate</strong>vulnerable%20nations%20to%20seek%20aid%20<strong>for</strong>%20.(79) Declaration of the <strong>Climate</strong> Vulnerable Forum, Adopted <strong>in</strong> Malé, Maldives, 10 November 2009, available at: http://dara<strong>in</strong>t.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Declaration-of-the-CVF-FINAL2.pdf(80) Dhaka M<strong>in</strong>isterial Declaration of <strong>The</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Vulnerable Forum, Adopted at Dhaka, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> on 14 November 2011,Available at http://dara<strong>in</strong>t.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Dhaka.Declaration.pdf
19<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutionson the right to <strong>in</strong>ternational resettlement <strong>for</strong> climate displaced people distracts attention from the immediate needto develop and design <strong>in</strong>novative and effective rights-based domestic solutions to climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Irrespective of the lack of <strong>in</strong>ternational resettlement options <strong>for</strong> climate displaced people, the most truly durableand effective solutions to climate displacement are to be found <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> itself, where there is not only a largeamount of Government land available <strong>for</strong> relocation programmes, but where common language, cultures and traditionsmake relocation more truly susta<strong>in</strong>able. Thirdly, focus<strong>in</strong>g on a debate over whether the <strong>in</strong>ternational communityshould accept climate displaced people <strong>for</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational resettlement distracts attention from the need <strong>for</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternationalcommunity to support the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g and implement<strong>in</strong>g domestic solutions,both through technical as well as f<strong>in</strong>ancial assistance.This paper does not propose to enter <strong>in</strong>to a discussion of the “moral” obligation of the <strong>in</strong>ternational community toaccept and receive climate displaced people from <strong>Bangladesh</strong> as “climate refugees”. (81) Rather, these comments arebased on current political reality, the likelihood of re<strong>for</strong>m of the <strong>in</strong>ternational legal regime and the need to immediatelydevelop and implement concrete, durable and rights-based solutions <strong>for</strong> the current and future millions of climatedisplaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.3.2 THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN BANGLADESH<strong>Bangladesh</strong> has a famously large and vibrant civil society. It is essential that the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludescivil society organisations <strong>in</strong> the design and implementation of climate displacement solutions. <strong>The</strong> experience andcapabilities of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s civil society organisations will be essential <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>novative and effective solutionsto climate displacement across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Civil society organisations <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> have a level of access and knowledge about local and affected communitiesthat the Government often lacks. <strong>The</strong>se organisations can provide critical first-hand <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation about both theeffects of climate displacement as well as the implementation of climate displacement and HLP solutions throughout<strong>Bangladesh</strong>. Civil society organisations can provide an essential l<strong>in</strong>k between climate affected communities and thepolitical decision makers and policy developers <strong>in</strong> Dhaka.Civil society <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> can also fulfil an important watchdog function over the design and implementation ofGovernment climate displacement and hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property programmes. This supervisory function shouldoccur both at the grassroots implementation level, ensur<strong>in</strong>g the effective delivery and operation of Government policiesand programmes, as well as at the policy level <strong>in</strong> Dhaka, where civil society can contribute to debates and to thedesign and implementation of climate displacement solutions, especially ensur<strong>in</strong>g that programmes are designed toreach the most vulnerable and remote communities <strong>in</strong> the country.Civil society organisations must also develop strong regional and <strong>in</strong>ternational l<strong>in</strong>ks to advocate <strong>for</strong> sufficient fund<strong>in</strong>g<strong>for</strong> programme design and implementation as well as a degree of oversight over these programmes. In execut<strong>in</strong>gthese supervisory functions, both the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternational communities as well as <strong>Bangladesh</strong>i civil society canensure a degree of transparency and freedom from corruption that is currently a key concern <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Civil society must also undertake essential education programmes with<strong>in</strong> the affected communities. <strong>The</strong>se organisationscan <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>m people of their rights - both at the domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational levels - as well as <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>m communitiesabout Government plans and policies to implement solutions to climate displacement.(81) For example, <strong>in</strong> call<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong> recognition under <strong>in</strong>ternational law of “climate refugees”, the <strong>Bangladesh</strong>i Junior M<strong>in</strong>ister <strong>for</strong> Environment andForests, Dr Hasan Mahmud, stated that “the per capita carbon emission of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is much below the level of the developed world, and thatdevelop<strong>in</strong>g countries…should be compensated <strong>for</strong> that…We’re not responsible <strong>for</strong> climate change”, see <strong>Climate</strong>-vulnerable nations to seek aid <strong>for</strong>‘climate refugees’, 1 November 2011, supra n78.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 204 <strong>The</strong> InternationalNormative Framework4.1 THE INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF CLIMATE DISPLACED PERSONS4.1.1 BACKGROUNDIn assess<strong>in</strong>g the ability of the <strong>in</strong>ternational normative framework to provide protection to climate displacedpersons <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, an important <strong>in</strong>itial issue to assess is the causal l<strong>in</strong>k between climate change anddisplacement. This is because many of the specific <strong>in</strong>ternational migrant and refugee <strong>in</strong>struments offerprotection premised on the causal l<strong>in</strong>k between the reason <strong>for</strong> displacement and the displacement itself.Although the impacts of climate change <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are likely to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly contribute to climate displacement<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, it is often difficult to isolate “climate change” as the sole cause of movement. <strong>Bangladesh</strong>is clearly no stranger to natural hazards and so it can be difficult to segregate those natural hazards that havebeen caused by climate change from those that occur “normally”. As a side note, it may not make policy senseto separate or offer differ<strong>in</strong>g levels of protection to those displaced from “normal” natural hazards rather thanthose displaced by “climate change caused” natural hazards. <strong>Climate</strong> change also tends to exacerbate preexist<strong>in</strong>gstress factors, such as poverty, underdevelopment, unemployment, landlessness and population pressures,rather than be the sole cause of movement on its own. (82)Despite the difficulties <strong>in</strong> isolat<strong>in</strong>g climate change as the sole or primary cause of movement, it is important toemphasise that currently the vast majority of climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is caused by the destructionor loss of homes and land as a result of natural hazards. Further, it is clear that this process is set to <strong>in</strong>crease asclimate change <strong>in</strong>creases the frequency and <strong>in</strong>tensity of those same natural hazards.As the effects of climate change worsen, it is likely that a variety of other effects will also contribute to climatedisplacement – from droughts and landslides, to the loss of fertile land and livelihoods, to potential security issues.<strong>The</strong>se causes will have a less immediate, albeit real, <strong>in</strong>fluence on displacement.Thus the picture of climate displacement is likely to become <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly complex, with a mix of permanentand temporary, <strong>for</strong>ced and voluntary displacement across <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and across borders, and <strong>in</strong>fluencedby a variety of motivations.4.1.2 THE CURRENT NORMATIVE FRAMEWORKIn part, it is the complexity of causes and motivations <strong>for</strong> climate displacement that means the <strong>in</strong>ternationalnormative framework does not provide comprehensive solutions <strong>for</strong> climate displaced people. It is also the casethat the majority of <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>struments were developed and drafted prior to knowledge of the existenceof climate change, let alone the situation of climate displaced people. Because of these two reasons, climatedisplaced persons do not easily fit <strong>in</strong>to any of the exist<strong>in</strong>g categories of protection under <strong>in</strong>ternational law.This leads to a complex situation where a number of different categories of <strong>in</strong>ternational protection may or maynot apply to climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> at different times and <strong>in</strong> different circumstances.Of particular relevance to climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are standards relat<strong>in</strong>g to the <strong>in</strong>ternationalprotection of refugees, the protection of <strong>in</strong>ternally displaced people and <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights standards.(82) <strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law and Policy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong> Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, supra n7.
21<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions<strong>The</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational protection of refugeesIt is often assumed that refugee law is the category of <strong>in</strong>ternational protection most relevant to climate displacedpeople and that <strong>in</strong> turn, many climate displaced people will become “climate refugees” able to travel to othercountries and seek protection there. However, the picture under <strong>in</strong>ternational law is far from that straight<strong>for</strong>ward.Under the 1951 Refugee Convention, a refugee is a person who:“…ow<strong>in</strong>g to a well-founded fear of be<strong>in</strong>g persecuted <strong>for</strong> reasons of race,religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or politicalop<strong>in</strong>ion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable to,or ow<strong>in</strong>g to such fear, is unwill<strong>in</strong>g to avail himself of the protection ofthat country”.This means that, at a m<strong>in</strong>imum, a climate displaced person from <strong>Bangladesh</strong> must be outside <strong>Bangladesh</strong> be<strong>for</strong>ethey can claim the protection of the Refugee Convention. Further, they would then need to demonstrate that ifthey were returned to <strong>Bangladesh</strong> they would face a well-founded risk of “be<strong>in</strong>g persecuted” and that the persecutionwould be <strong>for</strong> one of the enumerated reasons (race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular socialgroup or political op<strong>in</strong>ion) under the Refugee Convention. <strong>The</strong>y would then need to show that the Governmentof <strong>Bangladesh</strong> was either unable or unwill<strong>in</strong>g to protect them from that persecution.Under the Refugee Convention, as it currently stands, it may be possible that climate displaced persons couldconstruct a claim of eligibility <strong>for</strong> protection as a refugee; however, it is clear that the Refugee Conventionwould not apply to the circumstances of the vast majority of climate displaced people of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It is worthhere re-emphasis<strong>in</strong>g that the Refugee Convention was drafted many decades be<strong>for</strong>e the existence of climatedisplaced people and that it was never <strong>in</strong>tended to offer protection to such category of person.Because of this gap <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational protection, there is considerable discussion about whether and how to re<strong>for</strong>m<strong>in</strong>ternational refugee law to offer protection to climate displaced persons.Rather than to enter <strong>in</strong>to this debate, it suffices to say that none of the proposals <strong>for</strong> re<strong>for</strong>m are likely to achievethe political support required <strong>for</strong> implementation <strong>in</strong> the immediate future.<strong>The</strong> protection of <strong>in</strong>ternally displaced peopleIt is likely that the vast majority of climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be displaced <strong>in</strong>ternally,that is with<strong>in</strong> the national borders of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.<strong>The</strong> UN Guid<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples on Internal <strong>Displacement</strong> apply the follow<strong>in</strong>g widely accepted def<strong>in</strong>ition of <strong>in</strong>ternallydisplaced persons:“persons or groups of persons who have been <strong>for</strong>ced or obliged to flee orto leave their homes or places of habitual residence, <strong>in</strong> particular as aresult of or <strong>in</strong> order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations ofgeneralized violence, violations of human rights or natural or humanmadedisasters,and who have not crossed an <strong>in</strong>ternationally recognizedState border”. (83)(83) Guid<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples on Internal <strong>Displacement</strong>, 22 July 1998, E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3c3da07f7.html.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 22<strong>The</strong> Guid<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, although not <strong>in</strong> b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong>m, reflect and are consistent with b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternationalhuman rights law and <strong>in</strong>ternational humanitarian law. (84) <strong>The</strong>y detail the responsibilities of national authoritiesto prevent displacement, to respond to the needs of those who have been displaced and to support durablesolutions <strong>for</strong> their displacement.Of particular relevance to climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are the follow<strong>in</strong>g pr<strong>in</strong>ciples: Internally displaced persons shall enjoy, <strong>in</strong> full equality, the same rights and freedoms under <strong>in</strong>ternationaland domestic law as do other persons <strong>in</strong> their country. <strong>The</strong>y shall not be discrim<strong>in</strong>ated aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>in</strong> the enjoymentof any rights and freedoms on the ground that they are <strong>in</strong>ternally displaced. (85) National authorities have the primary duty and responsibility to provide protection and humanitarian assistanceto <strong>in</strong>ternally displaced persons with<strong>in</strong> their jurisdiction. (86) All <strong>in</strong>ternally displaced persons have the right to an adequate standard of liv<strong>in</strong>g. (87) At the m<strong>in</strong>imum, regardless of the circumstances, and without discrim<strong>in</strong>ation, competent authorities shallprovide <strong>in</strong>ternally displaced persons with and ensure safe access to: (a) Essential food and potable water;(b) Basic shelter and hous<strong>in</strong>g; (c) Appropriate cloth<strong>in</strong>g; and (d) Essential medical services and sanitation. (88)Although the Guid<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples provide relevant standards <strong>for</strong> the protection of climate displaced people,a key issue is that they are not legally b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g on the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.4.1.3 INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS STANDARDSAlthough the specific <strong>in</strong>struments relat<strong>in</strong>g to refugee status and displacement either do not provide comprehensiveprotection to climate displaced people or are not b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g on the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>in</strong>ternationalhuman rights law provides both important protection and is legally b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g on the Government. This is the caseregardless of the cause or motivation beh<strong>in</strong>d the displacement and regardless of whether the displacement istemporary or permanent.<strong>The</strong> l<strong>in</strong>ks between climate change more generally and <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights law have seen <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g attentionat the <strong>in</strong>ternational level. S<strong>in</strong>ce 2007, a series of specific ef<strong>for</strong>ts have been undertaken to better understandthe l<strong>in</strong>ks between climate change and human rights. In 2009, a report by the Office of the High Commissioner <strong>for</strong>Human Rights (OHCHR) was released exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the relationship between climate change and human rights. (89)Of particular relevance to climate displacement, the OHCHR report states that the follow<strong>in</strong>g human rightsmay be affected by climate change:<strong>The</strong> right to life;<strong>The</strong> right to adequate food;<strong>The</strong> right to water;<strong>The</strong> right to health;<strong>The</strong> right to adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g; and<strong>The</strong> right to self-determ<strong>in</strong>ation.(84) Ibid.(85) Ibid, Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple 1.(86) Ibid, Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple 3.(87) Ibid, Pr<strong>in</strong>ciple 18.(88) Ibid.(89) UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner <strong>for</strong> Human Rights on the relationship betweenclimate change and human rights, 15 January 2009, UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61.
23<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions<strong>The</strong> report importantly emphasises that:“persons affected by displacement with<strong>in</strong> national borders are entitledto the full range of human rights guarantees by a given state, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>gprotection aga<strong>in</strong>st arbitrary or <strong>for</strong>ced displacement and rights related tohous<strong>in</strong>g and property restitution <strong>for</strong> displaced persons”. (90)<strong>The</strong> report also highlights the need to take a human rights based approach <strong>in</strong> protect<strong>in</strong>g particularly vulnerablegroups aga<strong>in</strong>st the effects of climate change:“With<strong>in</strong> countries, exist<strong>in</strong>g vulnerabilities are exacerbated by the effectsof climate change. Groups such as children, women, the elderly andpersons with disabilities are often particularly vulnerable to the adverseeffects of climate change on the enjoyment of their human rights. <strong>The</strong>application of a human rights approach <strong>in</strong> prevent<strong>in</strong>g and respond<strong>in</strong>g tothe effects of climate change serves to empower <strong>in</strong>dividuals and groups,who should be perceived as active agents of change and not as passivevictims”. (91)<strong>Bangladesh</strong> has signed many key <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights treaties that provide protection <strong>for</strong> climatedisplaced persons, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g: <strong>The</strong> International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (<strong>Bangladesh</strong> acceded on 5 October1998); <strong>The</strong> International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (<strong>Bangladesh</strong> acceded on 6 September 2000); <strong>The</strong> Convention on the Elim<strong>in</strong>ation of All Forms of Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation aga<strong>in</strong>st Women (<strong>Bangladesh</strong> accededon 6 November 184); <strong>The</strong> Convention on the Rights of the Child (<strong>Bangladesh</strong> ratified on 3 August 1990).This means that the <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights standards conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> these <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>struments applyto all climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and that they must be applied without discrim<strong>in</strong>ation.Hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights under <strong>in</strong>ternational lawOf particular <strong>in</strong>terest among the larger body of human rights guarantees that apply to all climate displaced people<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights.Significant development of hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights has occurred at the <strong>in</strong>ternational level over the past50 years. This development began with the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which recog-(90) Ibid, para 57.(91) Ibid, para 94.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 24nized both the right to hous<strong>in</strong>g (92) and the right to property. (93) S<strong>in</strong>ce that time, HLP rights have been reaffirmedand developed <strong>in</strong> a series of <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights treaties, (94) declarations and other documents. (95)<strong>The</strong>re has also been a number of <strong>in</strong>terpretative standards and documents developed at the <strong>in</strong>ternational level,<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights General Comment No. 4 on the Right toAdequate Hous<strong>in</strong>g, (96) General Comment No. 7 on Forced Evictions, (97) the Guid<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples on the Rights ofInternally Displaced Persons (98) and the P<strong>in</strong>heiro Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples on Hous<strong>in</strong>g and Property Restitution <strong>for</strong> Refugeesand Displaced Persons. (99)Comb<strong>in</strong>ed, these legal sources create a considerable body of <strong>in</strong>ternational human rights laws and standards relevantto climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> is a State Party to all of the key HLP <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>struments, and as such has voluntarily undertakena b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g legal obligation to ensure that the standards conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> these treaties are respected, protectedand fulfilled, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g HLP rights:<strong>The</strong> right to adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g and rights <strong>in</strong> hous<strong>in</strong>g;<strong>The</strong> right to security of tenure;<strong>The</strong> right not to be arbitrarily evicted;<strong>The</strong> right to land and rights <strong>in</strong> land;<strong>The</strong> right to property and the peaceful enjoyment of possessions;<strong>The</strong> right to privacy and respect <strong>for</strong> the home;<strong>The</strong> right to HLP restitution/compensation follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong>ced displacement;<strong>The</strong> right to freedom of movement and to choose one’s residence;<strong>The</strong> right to political participation;<strong>The</strong> right to <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation;<strong>The</strong> right to be free from discrim<strong>in</strong>ation;<strong>The</strong> right to equality of treatment and access;<strong>The</strong> right to water; and<strong>The</strong> right to energy.All climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are rights-holders and have the right to claim respect <strong>for</strong> these standardsfrom the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(92) Article 25(1) of the UDHR provides: “Everyone has the right to a standard of liv<strong>in</strong>g adequate <strong>for</strong> the health and well-be<strong>in</strong>g of himself and of hisfamily, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g…hous<strong>in</strong>g…”(93) Article 17 of the UDHR provides: “(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as <strong>in</strong> association with others. (2) No one shall bearbitrarily deprived of his property.”(94) Key HLP provisions occur <strong>in</strong> Article 5(e)(iii) of the International Convention on the Elim<strong>in</strong>ation of All Forms of Racial Discrim<strong>in</strong>ation (ICERD);Article 27(3) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC); Article 14(2) of the Convention on the Elim<strong>in</strong>ation of All Forms of Discrim<strong>in</strong>ationaga<strong>in</strong>st Women (CEDAW); the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966); International Convention Relat<strong>in</strong>g to the Status of Refugees(1951).(95) Other HLP provisions are conta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 169 Concern<strong>in</strong>g Indigenous and Tribal Peoples;International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 161 Concern<strong>in</strong>g Occupational Health Services (1985); International Labour Organization(ILO) Convention No. 117 Concern<strong>in</strong>g Social Policy (Basic Aims and Standards) (1962); International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No.110 Concern<strong>in</strong>g Plantations (1958); International Labour Organization (ILO) Convention No. 82 Concern<strong>in</strong>g Social Policy (Non-Metropolitan Territories)(1947); Declaration on the Right to Development (1986); Declaration on Social Progress and Development; <strong>The</strong> Vancouver Declaration onHuman Settlements (1976); and the International Labour Organization Recommendation Concern<strong>in</strong>g Workers’ Hous<strong>in</strong>g (1961).(96) UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 4: <strong>The</strong> Right to Adequate Hous<strong>in</strong>g (Art. 11 (1) ofthe Covenant), 13 December 1991 U.N. Doc. E/1992/23.(97) General Comment No. 7: <strong>The</strong> right to adequate: <strong>for</strong>ced evictions hous<strong>in</strong>g (Art. 11(1) of the Covenant), 20 May 1997, UN Doc. E/1998/22.(98) UN Commission on Human Rights, Report of the Representative of the Secretary-General, Mr. Francis M. Deng, submitted pursuant toCommission resolution 1997/39. Addendum: Guid<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples on Internal <strong>Displacement</strong>, 11 February 1998, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1998/53/Add.2.(99) UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples on Hous<strong>in</strong>g and Property Restitution <strong>for</strong> Refugees andDisplaced Persons, 28 June 2005, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/2005/17.
25<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsOf all of these rights, the right to adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g has been developed the farthest at the <strong>in</strong>ternational level.In 1991, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights adopted ‘General Comment No. 4 on theRight to Adequate Hous<strong>in</strong>g’ which <strong>in</strong>dicates that the follow<strong>in</strong>g seven components <strong>for</strong>m the core contents of thehuman right to adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g: (100)Legal security of tenure;Availability of services, materials, facilities and <strong>in</strong>frastructure;Location;Habitability;Af<strong>for</strong>dability;Accessibility; andCultural adequacy.General Comment No. 4 also reiterates that the right to adequate hous<strong>in</strong>g should not be <strong>in</strong>terpreted <strong>in</strong> a narrowor restrictive sense which equates it with the shelter provided by merely hav<strong>in</strong>g a roof over one’s head or viewsshelter exclusively as a commodity, but that hous<strong>in</strong>g rights should be seen as rights to live somewhere <strong>in</strong> security,peace and dignity. (101)<strong>The</strong> Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s obligation towards these HLP rights is subject to the immediately en<strong>for</strong>ceableobligation of non-discrim<strong>in</strong>ation. This is especially important <strong>in</strong> the context of climate displaced people, whereoften the most vulnerable and prone to discrim<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> society are at risk of displacement.Furthermore, where it can be shown that the HLP losses <strong>in</strong>curred by climate displaced persons constitute directviolations of their HLP rights, or the <strong>in</strong>ability to access the protections af<strong>for</strong>ded under law by HLP rights, thenappropriate <strong>for</strong>ms of reparation and restitution must be accorded to those citizens of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.As <strong>Bangladesh</strong> has <strong>for</strong>mally accepted these obligations, the Government must endeavour by all appropriatemeans to ensure everyone has access to HLP resources adequate <strong>for</strong> health, well-be<strong>in</strong>g and security, consistentwith other human rights, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those affected by climate change. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> must, there<strong>for</strong>e, adopt the policies,laws and programmes required - to the maximum of their available resources - to cont<strong>in</strong>ually and progressivelyexpand the enjoyment of these rights and simultaneously ensure <strong>in</strong> policy, legal or other terms, that nodeliberately retrogressive measures are taken that lead to the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the enjoyment of these basic rights.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> has various levels of obligations towards these hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g obligationsto respect, protect, promote and fulfil these rights.To achieve these rights, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> must respect these rights by ensur<strong>in</strong>g that no measures are taken which<strong>in</strong>tentionally erode the legal and practical status of these rights. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> must comprehensively review relevantlegislation, refra<strong>in</strong> from actively violat<strong>in</strong>g these rights by strictly regulat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>for</strong>ced evictions and ensure thatthe hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property sectors are free from all <strong>for</strong>ms of discrim<strong>in</strong>ation at any time. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> must alsoassess national HLP conditions, and accurately calculate, us<strong>in</strong>g statistical and other data and <strong>in</strong>dicators, the truescale of non-enjoyment of these rights, and the precise measures required <strong>for</strong> their remedy.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> must protect the rights of people by effectively prevent<strong>in</strong>g the denial of their rights by third partiessuch as landlords, property developers, social service providers and others capable of restrict<strong>in</strong>g these rights.To promote HLP rights, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> should adopt targeted measures such as national HLP strategies that explicitlydef<strong>in</strong>e the objectives <strong>for</strong> the development of the HLP sector, identify the resources available to meet thesegoals, the most cost-effective way of us<strong>in</strong>g them and how the responsibilities and time-frame <strong>for</strong> their implemen-(100) UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), General Comment No. 4: <strong>The</strong> Right to Adequate Hous<strong>in</strong>g (Art. 11 (1) ofthe Covenant), 13 December 1991 U.N. Doc. E/1992/23.(101) Ibid.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 26tation will be applied. Such strategies should reflect extensive genu<strong>in</strong>e consultation with, and participationby, all those affected, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g groups traditionally excluded from the enjoyment of HLP rights.F<strong>in</strong>ally, the obligation to fulfil these rights <strong>in</strong>volves issues of public expenditure, the regulation of national economiesand land markets, hous<strong>in</strong>g subsidy programmes, monitor<strong>in</strong>g rent levels and other hous<strong>in</strong>g costs, the constructionand f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g of public hous<strong>in</strong>g, the provision of basic social services, taxation, redistributive economic measuresand any other positive <strong>in</strong>itiatives that are likely to result <strong>in</strong> the cont<strong>in</strong>ually expand<strong>in</strong>g enjoyment of HLP rights.<strong>The</strong> relationship between hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights and climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is clear– the current primary causes of displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are the destruction of homes and the loss of land asa result of climate hazards. <strong>The</strong> legally b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g obligations on the Government to respect, protect, promote and fulfillthe hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights of climate displaced persons must be used as the basis <strong>for</strong> legislative, policyand <strong>in</strong>stitutional solutions to climate displacement.Adopt<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights orientated policies and programmes <strong>for</strong> climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>will <strong>for</strong>m the basis <strong>for</strong> truly durable solutions <strong>for</strong> millions of climate displaced people now and <strong>in</strong> the future.
27<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsPhoto, <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions, November 2011
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 285 Recommendations: Possible Solutions to<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>Despite the bleak prognosis <strong>for</strong> the climate vulnerability of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and the current and future millionsof people who will be displaced as a result of the effects of climate change, it is important to emphasise thatrights-based solutions are not only required, but that they are also very possible and that early hour successesare already <strong>in</strong> place.<strong>The</strong> majority of climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> will be displaced <strong>in</strong>ternally and will not flee across <strong>in</strong>ternationalborders. Thus, the primary responsibility <strong>for</strong> protect<strong>in</strong>g the rights of climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>falls to the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. All climate displaced people are entitled to the full range of humanrights protections under both the <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>struments that <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is party to as well as the protections<strong>in</strong> the domestic law of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It is with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> that solutions, based on the Government‘s obligationsto respect, protect and fulfil the human rights of all <strong>Bangladesh</strong>is, must be focused.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> has a vibrant and active civil society and it is these organisations, alongside the Government,affected communities and the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternational community, who can and must work together to solve thecurrent and future climate displacement crisis <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It will require the coord<strong>in</strong>ated ef<strong>for</strong>ts of these andother stakeholders to ensure that the millions of climate displaced people can live <strong>in</strong> security and dignity with fullrespect <strong>for</strong> their human rights.It is clear that a range of co-ord<strong>in</strong>ated measures, backed by sufficient resources, can go a long way towardsf<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g climate displacement solutions.In particular, the follow<strong>in</strong>g recommendations have been identified <strong>for</strong> priority implementation:5.1 INCREASE COMMUNICATION AND COORDINATION BETWEEN THE GOVERNMENT,AFFECTED COMMUNITIES AND CIVIL SOCIETY ON CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT ISSUESIt is essential that the Government immediately be<strong>in</strong>gs to encourage enhanced communication and coord<strong>in</strong>ationbetween relevant Government departments, affected communities and civil society on climatedisplacement issues.<strong>The</strong> knowledge, experience and resources of affected communities themselves will be essential to develop<strong>in</strong>gand implement<strong>in</strong>g effective policies and programmes to solve climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.Civil society, due to their unique access and expertise, must play an important role <strong>in</strong> ensur<strong>in</strong>g effectivecoord<strong>in</strong>ation, consultation and participation between affected communities and the Government.It is important that the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> clearly identifies a M<strong>in</strong>istry or <strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>for</strong> whom primaryresponsibility <strong>for</strong> the success of this liaison lies. It is essential that coord<strong>in</strong>ation and liaison with the Governmentis accessible <strong>for</strong> civil society organisations and <strong>for</strong> affected communities. At present, communitiesaffected by climate displacement do not have a clear l<strong>in</strong>e of communication with the Government at thenational level. Often their communication with local representatives (<strong>for</strong> example at the Union level) is lost ordelayed by the time it is relayed to the Upazilla, then District then National levels. This is <strong>in</strong> part exacerbatedby the large Government bureaucracy <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, where there are many M<strong>in</strong>istries with many differentand often unclear responsibilities related to climate displacement. However, it is also <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the factthat the communities most affected by climate displacement are the communities <strong>in</strong> the most isolated regionsof <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, with little access to political life and <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> Dhaka.
29<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions5.2 ENHANCE ENGAGEMENT AND SUPPORT FROM THE REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONALCOMMUNITIES FOR CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH<strong>Bangladesh</strong> has the primary responsibility to respect, protect and fulfil the rights of all climate displacedpeople <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, regardless of the cause or motivations beh<strong>in</strong>d their displacement. However, as a develop<strong>in</strong>gcountry, with limited resources, it is essential that the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternational community becomesaware of the climate displacement crisis <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and supports the ef<strong>for</strong>ts of the Government to protectthe rights of all climate displaced people.This support can come <strong>in</strong> many different <strong>for</strong>ms and does not necessarily need to <strong>in</strong>clude the <strong>in</strong>ternationalresettlement of climate displaced people. Types of support could <strong>in</strong>clude f<strong>in</strong>ancial aid, technical cooperationand the capacity build<strong>in</strong>g of relevant <strong>in</strong>stitutions.Recent developments at the <strong>in</strong>ternational level have been encourag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this regard. <strong>The</strong> outcome of theCOP16 summit was an agreement that called <strong>for</strong> a “Green <strong>Climate</strong> Fund”. <strong>The</strong> Fund, proposed to be valuedat 100 billion a year by 2020, is designed to assist poorer countries <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g emissions reductions andadaptation. Although there are concerns with the Fund, especially as to how the money will be raised, (102) thathave cont<strong>in</strong>ued through the COP17 negotiations <strong>in</strong> Durban, (103) it is essential that <strong>Bangladesh</strong> captures themomentum of this process and contributes to the development of this <strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>in</strong> a way that will best protectthe rights of climate displaced people across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> should clearly identify a Government M<strong>in</strong>istry or Agency <strong>for</strong> whom the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternationalcommunity can engage with on a technical level <strong>in</strong> the development and implementation of solutionsto climate displacement across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.5.3 DEVELOP A RIGHTS-BASED NATIONAL PLAN TO RESOLVE CLIMATE DISPLACEMENTA national plan should be developed by the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> to resolve climate displacement.This national plan could be <strong>in</strong>corporated as part of the Government’s climate change adaptation strategy(BCCSAP), thus avoid<strong>in</strong>g duplication of resources and fragmentation of the Government’s response.It is essential that this plan <strong>in</strong>cludes an effective national mechanism <strong>for</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g climate displacementand <strong>for</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g statistics on the scope and causes of climate displacement. <strong>The</strong> absence of reliable <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mationon the current numbers of climate displaced persons <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is a key concern. Develop<strong>in</strong>gan effective monitor<strong>in</strong>g mechanism is an area that the <strong>in</strong>ternational or regional communities may be ableto assist by provid<strong>in</strong>g technical assistance and expertise.It is essential that the Government clearly identifies the bodies with primary responsibility <strong>for</strong> climate displacement.<strong>The</strong> citizens of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> need to be able to clearly identify the specific <strong>in</strong>stitutions that are responsible<strong>for</strong> ensur<strong>in</strong>g rights related to climate displacement. In particular, climate displaced persons should haveclear understand<strong>in</strong>g of which <strong>in</strong>stitutions are able to provide social, f<strong>in</strong>ancial and resettlement assistance andwhich <strong>in</strong>stitutions are entrusted with en<strong>for</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g, respect<strong>in</strong>g and protect<strong>in</strong>g hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights.Human right law provides an important framework <strong>for</strong> the development of a national plan to resolve climatedisplacement. Under human rights law, the Government must provide effective protection to the most vulnerable<strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.(102) See BBC News, <strong>Climate</strong> Talks End With Late Deal, 11 December 2011.(103) On the Green <strong>Climate</strong> Fund, Helen Clark, Adm<strong>in</strong>istrator of the UN Development Programme, stated: “Very little money so far has gone to low<strong>in</strong>comecountries because they have no capacity and no plans. <strong>The</strong>re needs to be capacity supplementation to ensure develop<strong>in</strong>g countries areready”, see Sunday Tribune, COP17: Agreement may not be Reached, December 8, 2011, available at http://www.sundaytribune.co.za/cop17-agreement-may-not-be-reached-1.1194576.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 30LESSONS LEARNED FROM LAND ACQUISITIONAND LAND SET ASIDE PROGRAMMESDespite the importance of land acquisition and landset-aside programmes as a potential solution to climatedisplacement (see 5.6 Immediately Beg<strong>in</strong> Land Acquisitionand Land Set-Aside Projects), the experience todate with these programmes has generally been poor.For example, what could have been a relatively straight<strong>for</strong>ward land acquisition and land allocation process <strong>for</strong>Carteret Islanders has <strong>in</strong>stead been a long drawn outcomplicated process, with land acquisition provid<strong>in</strong>gthe primary obstacle to susta<strong>in</strong>able solutions. Similarly,although the Government of Kiribati has purchased5,000 acres of land <strong>in</strong> Fiji, to resettle some of its citizens,the difficulties <strong>in</strong> relocat<strong>in</strong>g from Kiribati to anothersovereign country are large and difficult to resolve.Further, resettlement and relocation projects are <strong>in</strong>herentlyfraught with difficulties, such that <strong>in</strong> many casesit is more susta<strong>in</strong>able and desirable to encourage <strong>in</strong>dividualsto rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> their po<strong>in</strong>t of orig<strong>in</strong>, where possible,rather than be resettled or relocated.In study<strong>in</strong>g the global failures and successes of landpurchase <strong>in</strong>itiatives, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> can not only avoidthe mistakes of other countries, but can also become aleader and model example <strong>for</strong> other countries <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>gtheir land purchase and set aside <strong>in</strong>itiatives. <strong>Bangladesh</strong>should beg<strong>in</strong> now to review public land hold<strong>in</strong>gsand to select possible long-term resettlement sites thatwill be removed from the land market through land setasideprogrammes. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> should take immediatemeasures to identify available land and other appropriateresources <strong>for</strong> the purposes of relocat<strong>in</strong>g and resettl<strong>in</strong>gclimate displaced persons.<strong>Bangladesh</strong> should also beg<strong>in</strong> the process ofreview<strong>in</strong>g domestic legislation as it relates to questionsof the compulsory acquisition of land <strong>in</strong> thepublic <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>for</strong> the exclusive purpose of expand<strong>in</strong>gland reserves <strong>for</strong> the eventual use of permanentlyresettl<strong>in</strong>g climate displaced persons.Develop<strong>in</strong>g an effective mechanism to identify landhold<strong>in</strong>gs that could be suitable <strong>for</strong> the relocation ofclimate displaced persons with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is alsoan area that the <strong>in</strong>ternational or regional communitiesmay be able to assist with by provid<strong>in</strong>g technicalassistance and expertise.Photo, <strong>Displacement</strong>Solutions,January 2011
31<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsAs with the development of the NAPA and the BCCSAP, the responsibility <strong>for</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g a rights-based planto resolve climate displacement could be guided by a Project Steer<strong>in</strong>g Committee, headed by the M<strong>in</strong>istry ofEnvironment and Forests as well as members from other key m<strong>in</strong>istries, departments and agencies <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>gthe <strong>Bangladesh</strong> M<strong>in</strong>istry of F<strong>in</strong>ance and Plann<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> preparation process should <strong>in</strong>clude consultations witha wide variety of stakeholders, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g policy makers, local Government representatives, members of thescientific community and various research <strong>in</strong>stitutes, researchers, academics and importantly, civil societyrepresentatives and representatives from the affected communities themselves.5.4 ENSURE THAT CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES AREIMPLEMENTED WITH FULL TRANSPARENCY AND FREE FROM CORRUPTIONIt is essential that the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> ensures the effective implementation of the nationalclimate displacement plan. <strong>The</strong>re is currently a concern that exist<strong>in</strong>g climate change adaptation policies andprogrammes are be<strong>in</strong>g affected by a lack of transparency and corruption. It is essential that these issuesare resolved immediately.Civil society <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> must also play an essential watchdog role <strong>in</strong> this regard. <strong>The</strong> regional and<strong>in</strong>ternational communities, and especially donor countries, must also support ef<strong>for</strong>ts to elim<strong>in</strong>ate corruptionand vastly improve transparency. It is not enough to simply provide funds <strong>for</strong> climate displacementprogrammes and policies, it is essential that funds are monitored and that effective implementation ofprogrammes is ensured.5.5 EXPLORE THE VILLAGE CLUSTER MODEL FOR POTENTIALAPPLICATION TO CLIMATE DISPLACED PERSONSIn the past, a number of projects have been undertaken by the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> to relocate landless<strong>in</strong>dividuals and families. Two of these projects, the Adarsha Gram and Ashrayan projects, should beexplored <strong>for</strong> potential application to climate displaced people across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. <strong>The</strong> Adarsha Gram (“IdealVillage”) was designed to relocate homeless and landless families to Government owned land. <strong>The</strong> relocatedfamilies were provided with a homestead of 0.08 acres as well as skills and awareness build<strong>in</strong>g tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g andas access to <strong>in</strong>come generat<strong>in</strong>g activities with the help of NGOS. (104) <strong>The</strong> Ashrayan project is designedto relocate landless people, especially those who had lost homes and lands as a result of tropical cyclones<strong>in</strong> the coastal region as well as river erosion and flood<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>land regions. As the with Adarsha Gramproject, the Ashrayan project aims to provide shelter, land and a “village” environment, by encourag<strong>in</strong>g thesocio-economic development of the relocated <strong>in</strong>dividuals and families. (105)<strong>The</strong>se projects have been generally considered to be hampered by a lack of transparency and <strong>in</strong>effectiveness<strong>in</strong> their implementation as well as <strong>in</strong>sufficient attention to susta<strong>in</strong>able livelihood possibilities <strong>in</strong> thenew locations. However, neither of these concerns are critical to the success of future projects based onthese models – provided they can be effectively resolved. Similar projects, <strong>for</strong> climate displaced persons,with sufficient transparency <strong>in</strong> implementation and sufficient awareness and support <strong>for</strong> the need <strong>for</strong> livelihood,health and education support could be used as a model <strong>for</strong> domestic relocation as a solution toclimate displacement and should be explored as such.(104) See Adarsha Gram II, Project Details, available at:ht tp://www.eudelbangladesh.org/en/projects/projectdetails/13.htm(105) See GOB Project of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> Goverment, Ashrayan-2 Project, available at:ht tp://www.ashrayanpmo.gov.bd/
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 325.6 IMMEDIATELY BEGIN LAND ACQUISITION AND LAND SET ASIDE PROJECTSOne of the key factors <strong>in</strong> the success of durable solutions <strong>for</strong> climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> willbe ensur<strong>in</strong>g that sufficient land and hous<strong>in</strong>g resources are available.Land purchase, land acquisition and land set-aside programmes should immediately be undertaken by theGovernment of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. Such programmes should identify and isolate land parcels <strong>for</strong> future use byclimate displaced <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> should beg<strong>in</strong> now to review public land hold<strong>in</strong>gsand to select possible long-term resettlement sites that will be removed from the land market through landset-aside programmes.At a m<strong>in</strong>imum, this land should be provided <strong>for</strong> resettlement whereby climate displaced people can then buildtheir own houses on the land. A more detailed model would be similar to the village cluster model (above),whereby climate displaced people are provided with a land, a home and effective livelihoods opportunities.5.7 ENCOURAGE THE USE OF COMMUNITY LAND TRUSTSIt is clear that identify<strong>in</strong>g new land and hous<strong>in</strong>g resources lies at the core of the bundle of durable solutionsrequired to resolve climate displacement.Community land trusts ensure that land rema<strong>in</strong>s held <strong>in</strong> common over time. This <strong>in</strong> turn ensures that landallocated <strong>for</strong> climate displaced persons will be available <strong>for</strong> use by new climate displaced persons asdisplaced persons from earlier periods eventually move to new locations elsewhere. Approaches to resettlementon new land that are based exclusively on <strong>in</strong>dividual property title are unlikely to provide the basis<strong>for</strong> community development and <strong>in</strong>frastructure development required to secure the full spectrum of HLPrights of the communities concerned.It is essential that the work <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g and implement<strong>in</strong>g community land trusts is supported and encouraged,this work can then be used as the basis of a scalable model <strong>for</strong> wider implementation by the Governmentof <strong>Bangladesh</strong> as well as civil society organisations across the country.<strong>The</strong> use of community land trusts <strong>in</strong> tandem with the village cluster model should be explored as a potentialdomestic relocation solution to climate displacement with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. International expertise and experiencewith community land trusts should be drawn on <strong>in</strong> design<strong>in</strong>g effective models that best protect the rightsof climate displaced persons.5.8 MAINSTREAM EMERGENCY AND NORMAL RESETTLEMENTPROGRAMMES AND ENSURE THEY ARE ACCESSIBLEPlanned relocation, <strong>in</strong> l<strong>in</strong>e with the village cluster or other models, should not be seen as a measure of lastresort or failure, but as a key strategy <strong>in</strong> durable solutions <strong>for</strong> climate displaced persons across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>(see boxed text, From Vulnerability to Safety – Planned Relocation Strategies). <strong>The</strong>se should be <strong>in</strong>vestigatedand exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>for</strong> true durability and <strong>in</strong>ternational and regional expertise should be engaged on this issue.In addition to ensur<strong>in</strong>g durable solutions <strong>for</strong> climate displaced people, it is essential that effective emergencyresettlement programmes are immediately <strong>in</strong> place and accessible <strong>for</strong> the most vulnerable communities <strong>in</strong><strong>Bangladesh</strong>.At present, the decision of where to f<strong>in</strong>d new homes and new land <strong>for</strong> communities affected by climatedisplacement is dictated by personal circumstance. In practice this means that climate displaced personswith more resources are able to relocate to safer land, often near suitable livelihood opportunities However,other climate displaced persons with less resources are <strong>for</strong>ced to relocate to the slums of Dhaka or Chit-
33<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights SolutionsFrom Vulnerabilityto Safety - PlannedRelocation Strategies<strong>The</strong> success of planned migration and relocation strategiesis exemplified by the <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mal relocation of anumber of communities across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. <strong>Displacement</strong>Solutions visited a community <strong>in</strong> Comilla District<strong>in</strong> April 2012 who had lost their homes and lands toclimate hazards <strong>in</strong> Kurigram District and had spontaneouslyrelocated to Comilla District (over 400kmaway). This community has now found safety fromclimate hazards and suitable livelihood opportunitiesand access to healthcare and education facilities.However, the success of this relocation was dictatedby the personal circumstances of this community, manyother climate displaced persons do not have the sameresources and connections that would enable themto undertake such spontaneous relocation.It is essential that susta<strong>in</strong>able and planned migrationfrom exposed and climate vulnerable zones shouldtake <strong>in</strong>to account the potential <strong>for</strong> livelihood opportunitiesat the place of relocation, as well as ensur<strong>in</strong>g thatland and hous<strong>in</strong>g is available and secure. It is essentialthat the <strong>in</strong>dividuals and communities <strong>in</strong> Governmentresettlement and relocation sites are protected aga<strong>in</strong>st<strong>for</strong>ced eviction and that they are relocated to locationswhere there is trust between the people be<strong>in</strong>g resettledand the host communities.Photo, <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions,November 2011<strong>The</strong> Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> should not viewplanned relocation as a measure of last resort, or offailure, but as a successful, effective and durable solutionto protect people across <strong>Bangladesh</strong> from theadverse effects of climate change.
<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions 34tagong, or those with even fewer resources are <strong>for</strong>ced to illegally construct and occupy makeshift hous<strong>in</strong>g onGovernment land, often <strong>in</strong> isolated and vulnerable regions of the country. It is imperative that the Governmentdevelops an effective national plan to resolve climate displacement, so that all climate displaced persons havethe full range of their hous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights respected and that fulfillment of their rights is not leftto personal circumstances and resources.6 Conclusion<strong>Climate</strong> displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> will only worsen as climate change <strong>in</strong>creases the frequency and <strong>in</strong>tensity ofthe natural hazards that are already lead<strong>in</strong>g to displacement across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. It is essential that effective anddurable solutions to this grow<strong>in</strong>g crisis are developed and implemented immediately.<strong>The</strong> Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> has both the primary responsibility and the opportunity to address the immediateand future climate displacement crisis <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. <strong>The</strong> most press<strong>in</strong>g concern is <strong>for</strong> the Government to beg<strong>in</strong>now to ma<strong>in</strong>stream climate displacement strategies <strong>in</strong>to climate change adaptation policies and programmes.<strong>The</strong> Government should immediately beg<strong>in</strong> work on a national climate displacement plan that respects, protectsand fulfils the rights of all climate displaced people <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. An essential pillar of this national plan willbe develop<strong>in</strong>g a national mechanism that provides reliable <strong>in</strong><strong>for</strong>mation and statistics on the numbers of climatedisplaced persons across <strong>Bangladesh</strong>.However, it is essential that the ef<strong>for</strong>ts of the Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> are supported by civil society, theregional and <strong>in</strong>ternational communities and the affected communities themselves. Civil society can supportimproved l<strong>in</strong>ks and collaboration between policy makers <strong>in</strong> Dhaka and the affected communities. <strong>The</strong>y haveunique expertise, resources and knowledge that must be utilised by the Government <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g an effectivenational climate displacement plan. <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is a develop<strong>in</strong>g country with limited resources and it is essentialthat the regional and <strong>in</strong>ternational communities support the Government through f<strong>in</strong>ancial aid, technical cooperationand capacity build<strong>in</strong>g. <strong>The</strong> momentum of developments at the COP16 and COP17 should be captured.Every ef<strong>for</strong>t should be made by the authorities of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> to f<strong>in</strong>d domestic solutions to displacement; <strong>in</strong> theevent that domestic solutions are no longer viable, <strong>in</strong>ternational migratory and resettlement options should beconsidered by the <strong>in</strong>ternational community.<strong>The</strong> Government of <strong>Bangladesh</strong> and <strong>in</strong>deed the world need to take heed of the climate displacement crisis that isunfold<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>. This is not an impossible problem to be addressed at some po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the future; this is aproblem <strong>for</strong> now. Rights based solutions to climate displacement must be developed and implemented immediately.
35<strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> | <strong>The</strong> <strong>Need</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Urgent</strong> Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property (HLP) Rights Solutions7 Selected Resources1. Association <strong>for</strong> <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, <strong>Climate</strong> “Refugees” <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> – Answer<strong>in</strong>g the Basics:<strong>The</strong> Where, How, Who and How Many? Available at: http://displacementsolutions.org/?p=547.2. <strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions, <strong>Climate</strong> Change Displaced Persons and Hous<strong>in</strong>g, Land and Property Rights:Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary Strategies <strong>for</strong> Rights-Based Plann<strong>in</strong>g and Programm<strong>in</strong>g to Resolve <strong>Climate</strong>-Induced <strong>Displacement</strong>,available at: http://displacementsolutions.org/files/documents/DS_<strong>Climate</strong>_change_strategies.pdf.3. Friends of the Earth, A Citizen’s Guide to <strong>Climate</strong> Refugees, Fact Sheet 4: Predictions of <strong>Climate</strong>Refugees to 2050.4. Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests, <strong>Bangladesh</strong><strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008.5. Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, M<strong>in</strong>istry of Environment and Forests, <strong>Bangladesh</strong><strong>Climate</strong> Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009, September 2009.6. Government of the People’s Republic of <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, National Adaptation Programme of Action (2005)7. Intergovernmental Panel on <strong>Climate</strong> Change, Work<strong>in</strong>g Group II: Impacts, Adaption and Vulnerability, FourthAssessment Report: <strong>Climate</strong> Change 2007.8. Jane McAdam & Ben Saul, <strong>Displacement</strong> with Dignity: International Law and Policy Responses to <strong>Climate</strong>Change Migration and Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, University of New South Wales Faculty of Law ResearchSeries, Paper 63 (2010).9. Saferworld, Human Security <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong>, Security <strong>in</strong> South Asia (2008).10. Scott Leckie, Ezekiel Simper<strong>in</strong>gham & Jordan Bakker, <strong>Bangladesh</strong>’s <strong>Climate</strong> <strong>Displacement</strong> Nightmare,<strong>The</strong> Ecologist, 18 April 2011.11. Scott Leckie, Ezekiel Simper<strong>in</strong>gham & Jordan Bakker (Eds), <strong>Climate</strong> Change and <strong>Displacement</strong> Reader,Earthscan, Routledge, 2011.12. UN Human Rights Council, Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner <strong>for</strong> Human Rightson the relationship between climate change and human rights, 15 January 2009, UN Doc. A/HRC/10/61.13. World Bank (Dhaka), Dhaka: Improv<strong>in</strong>g Liv<strong>in</strong>g Conditions <strong>for</strong> the Urban Poor, <strong>Bangladesh</strong> DevelopmentSeries Paper No. 17, June 2007.
CLIMATE DISPLACEMENT IN BANGLADESH: THE NEED FOR URGENTHOUSING, LAND AND PROPERTY (HLP) SOLUTIONS<strong>Displacement</strong> Solutions, April 2012<strong>Bangladesh</strong> is widely recognised as one of the mostclimate vulnerable countries <strong>in</strong> the world and is set tobecome even more so as a result of climate change.One of the most tragic consequences of climate changeis climate displacement – the <strong>for</strong>ced displacement of<strong>in</strong>dividuals from their homes and lands as a result of theeffects of climate change. This report emphasises thatclimate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> is not an impossibleproblem to be addressed at some po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> the future;it is a problem <strong>for</strong> now. Rights based solutions toclimate displacement must be developed and implementedimmediately.This report comprehensively exam<strong>in</strong>es the current andfuture causes of climate displacement <strong>in</strong> <strong>Bangladesh</strong> –particularly <strong>in</strong> vulnerable coastal and river bas<strong>in</strong> areas.<strong>The</strong> report then explores the exist<strong>in</strong>g national and <strong>in</strong>ternationalpolicy and legal responses to climate displacement.<strong>The</strong> report concludes by identify<strong>in</strong>g gaps with<strong>in</strong>the exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>stitutional and policy responses to climatedisplacement and by propos<strong>in</strong>g a number of recommendedactions <strong>for</strong> resolv<strong>in</strong>g climate displacement <strong>in</strong><strong>Bangladesh</strong>, <strong>in</strong> particular, emphasis<strong>in</strong>g the need to utilisea rights-based approach and especially the need to prioritisehous<strong>in</strong>g, land and property rights based solutions.Rue des Cordiers 14, 1207 Geneva, SwitzerlandSuite 2/3741 Po<strong>in</strong>t Nepean Road, 3944 Portsea, Australiawww.displacementsolutions.orgAS-DIS1415-6