Environmental Impacts of Multi-Storey Buildings Using Different ...

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- 64 -6.3.3.5 Operational EnergyTotal Megawatt hours (MWh) consumed (electricity and natural gas) during the 60 yearoperation period for each building type was supplied by Nicolas Perez (Perez, 2008) (Table6.5) as metered consumption. To demonstrate the total energy consumption this has beenconverted to primary energy and the respective GWP has also been calculated.A life cycle inventory dataset for New Zealand has been used to calculate the primary energycontent and the GWP for electricity. The dataset takes the New Zealand electricity mix aswell as New Zealand specific emissions into account (MED, 2005). The dataset wasdeveloped in collaboration of Scion and PE-Europe and is based on generic datasets for theprovision of electricity in GaBi Software 4.3 (GaBi, 2006).The following results have been calculated:Electricity:Global Warming potential: 0.28 kg CO 2 equiv. / kWhPrimary energy: 8.1 MJ/kWhThe factors for heat from natural gas are based on datasets available in the GaBi 4.2 database.Global Warming potential: 0.24 kg CO 2 equiv. / kWhPrimary energy: 5.1 MJ/kWhThe above results reflect the high proportion of renewable energy in the New Zealandelectricity mix (66.6% in 2007 according to the Ministry for Economic Development)The results for metered energy consumption, as well as primary energy and GWP are shownin Table 6.5. The figures for metered energy consumption have then been multiplied with therespective numbers for CO 2 equiv./kWh and MJ primary energy/kWh for heat from naturalgas and electricity.Table 6.5: Operational energy consumption (electricity and natural gas) over 60 years including meteredMWh and Primary energy (GJ) consumption with associated GWP (t CO 2 eq.)BuildingtypeMetered;Electricity(MWh)(Perez,2008)Primaryenergyx 8.1CO 2x 0.28Metered;natural gas(MWh)(Perez,2008)Primaryenergyx 5.1CO 2x 0.24Primaryenergy(GJ)GWP(t. CO 2eq.)Concrete 14,470 117,207 4,052 3,346 17,065 803 135,863 4,910Steel 14,760 119,556 4,133 3,382 17,248 812 138,428 5,000Timber 15,446 125,113 4,325 3,236 16,504 777 143,315 5,161Timber+ 14,836 120,172 4,154 3,448 17,585 828 139,388 5,038The primary energy consumption associated with the operation stage was determined andused instead of using the consumed MWh in the building because the system boundariesinclude all energy use associated with each stage of the life cycle. Therefore it was imperativeto include all energy consumed in the process of delivering the useable energy to thebuildings.
- 65 -6.3.4 Impact AssessmentTotal primary energy and GWP were the two impact categories calculated for each buildingtype. The results for each building are presented for the following life cycle stages: initialmaterial production and use, maintenance, transport, operation over the 60 year lifetime of thebuilding/s and end-of-life.The results are based on the Base scenario, as described in sections 6.3.4.1 to 6.3.4.3. Theresults for the reutilisation scenario and transport scenarios are presented in section 6.3.5.6.3.4.1 Total Primary Energy Use and GWPThe total primary energy and GWP contributions from each building can be seen in Figure 6.4and Figure 6.5 below. The Timber buildings have lower contributions to global warming thanthe Steel and Concrete buildings; the results for the Steel building are 30% higher than for theTimberPlus building. The TimberPlus building has the lowest primary energy use over its lifecycle, followed by Concrete, Timber and Steel respectively. The total primary energy use forthe Steel building is 7 % higher than the TimberPlus building.The main contribution to each impact category is during the building’s operational phase, inall buildings contributing over 85% of the primary energy use and over 70% of the GWPimpacts. The difference between each building’s transport, maintenance, and end-of-life makerelatively little difference but the differences in initial embodied energy are significant. InTable 6.6 and Table 6.7, the total figures for each stage of the life cycle are presented.When breaking down the total impact of the buildings into life cycle stages, it can be seen thatthe operational energy is the largest figure. It makes up 87% (Steel) to 94% (TimberPlus) ofthe total energy use of the buildings, and 72% (Concrete) to 78% (TimberPlus) of the totalemissions that contribute to GWP. Embodied energy makes up 5% (TimberPlus) to 11%(Steel) of the total primary energy use and embodied GWP makes up 9% (TimberPlus) to23% (Steel) of the impact from greenhouse gas emissions. Maintenance is the only othersignificant contributor in each category. End-of-life (transport of materials to landfill and thelandfilling process as well as storage of carbon and potential release of methane) is around0.5% for primary energy use and ranges from 2% (Concrete) to -9% (TimberPlus) for theGWP. Transport of materials to site makes up around 0.3% of primary energy use and 0.5%of GWP.The differences in the buildings’ embodied energies and embodied global warming potentialscan be seen below (in Table 6.6 and Table 6.7). The Steel building has the highest values forboth categories, followed by Concrete, Timber and TimberPlus. However, taking into accountthe full life cycle (including operation energy) the order for the energy use is different. Due toincreased operational energy, the total primary energy use for the Timber building becomesgreater than for the Concrete building. The order of the total GWP values remains the same.This point has been expanded in the inventory section (6.3.3.3).
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Environmental Impacts ofMulti-Store
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ContentsGlossary...................
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6.3.4.3 Maintenance related embodie
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- 9 -GlossaryCO 2 stored - refers t
Page 11 and 12:
- 11 -Chapter 7Chapter 8Chapter 9Ch
Page 13 and 14: - 13 -An alternative end-of-life sc
Page 15 and 16: - 15 -designers and a shortage of b
Page 17 and 18: - 17 -• Ministry for the Environm
Page 19 and 20: - 19 -which it can be fashioned to
Page 21 and 22: - 21 -For fire safety, the New Zeal
Page 23 and 24: - 23 -buildings for low seismic are
Page 25 and 26: - 25 -4 The Buildings4.1 Constructi
Page 27 and 28: - 27 -the building. The basement le
Page 29 and 30: - 29 -4.3.2 Common Design Principle
Page 31 and 32: - 31 -Figure 4.5: South-west façad
Page 33 and 34: - 33 -the three longitudinal frames
Page 35 and 36: - 35 -4.3.5.2 Floor and RoofThe str
Page 37 and 38: - 37 -4.4 Multi-Storey Timber Build
Page 39 and 40: - 39 -Several different solutions h
Page 41 and 42: - 41 -5 Operational Energy5.1 Gener
Page 43 and 44: - 43 -Table 5.1: Simulation inputs
Page 45 and 46: - 45 -Table 5.3: Areas of office en
Page 47 and 48: - 47 -Modifying the design to achie
Page 49 and 50: - 49 -• Standards New Zealand (NZ
Page 51 and 52: - 51 -6 Life Cycle Assessment6.1 In
Page 53 and 54: - 53 -6.2.3.3 Impact AssessmentThe
Page 55 and 56: - 55 -6.3.2.2 System BoundariesThe
Page 57 and 58: - 57 -For more information see:http
Page 59 and 60: - 59 -6.3.3 Inventory Analysis6.3.3
Page 61 and 62: - 61 -Table 6.2: Net tonnes CO 2 eq
Page 63: - 63 -Growing timber takes up CO 2
Page 67 and 68: - 67 -8000700060005000GWP (t CO2 eq
Page 69 and 70: - 69 -As explained above, carbon st
Page 71 and 72: - 71 -Figure 6.10: Total embodied e
Page 73 and 74: - 73 -Table 6.9: Total GWP of each
Page 75 and 76: - 75 -8,0007,0006,0005,000GWP (t CO
Page 77 and 78: - 77 -45000400003500030000GWP (kg C
Page 79 and 80: - 79 -assumed to be identical for t
Page 81 and 82: - 81 -6.4.3.2 Green Star Recycling
Page 83 and 84: - 83 -Table 6.16: Green Star result
Page 85 and 86: - 85 -The contribution of initial e
Page 87 and 88: - 87 -results, the reutilisation sc
Page 89 and 90: - 89 -7.1.1 Platform and Balloon Co
Page 91 and 92: - 91 -buildings has been analysed a
Page 93 and 94: - 93 -Figure 7.5: Construction sche
Page 95 and 96: - 95 -8.2 Source and Availability o
Page 97 and 98: - 97 -It would be incorrect, howeve
Page 99 and 100: - 99 -8.5 Additional Opportunities
Page 101 and 102: - 101 -example, removal of CCA trea
Page 103 and 104: - 103 -The Waste Minimisation Bill
Page 105 and 106: - 105 -9 Discussion9.1 The Building
Page 107 and 108: - 107 -• The buildings tend to be
Page 109 and 110: - 109 -9.4.3 Data Sets9.4.3.1 Gener
Page 111 and 112: - 111 -The following assessment wil
Page 113 and 114: - 113 -Table 9.1. GWP coefficients
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- 115 -Figure 9.2 shows that the ne
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- 117 -placing and retaining materi
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- 119 -Net CO 2 emissions - that is
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- 121 -The LVL specified for the st
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- 123 -10 ConclusionsThe following
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- 125 -building types, instead subs
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- 127 -In summary, reutilisation sh
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- 129 -• What is the ranking of t
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- 131 -• What is the comparison i
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- 133 -Connell Wagner (2007): Combu
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- 135 -Suzuki, Michiya, and Tatsuo
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- 137 -C O N C R E T E B U I L D I
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- 139 -S T E E L B U I L D I N Gm m
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- 141 -T I M B E R B U I L D I N Gm
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- 143 -T I M B E R B U I L D I N G
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- 145 -T Exterior Wall Cladding 581
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- 147 -Appendix B. Life times of bu
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- 149 -Appendix D: Transport scenar
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- 151 -Appendix F: Warren and Mahon
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Timber Plus ProjectSummary of the T
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Timber Plus ProjectGreen Star Ratin
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Timber Plus ProjectVolatile Organic
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Timber Plus ProjectThe Forest Stewa
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Timber Plus ProjectStain and Clear
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Timber Plus ProjectINTERIOR WALL CL
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Timber Plus ProjectWINDOW REVEALSMa
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Timber Plus ProjectSOFFIT FRAMINGMa
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Timber Plus ProjectEXTERIOR WALL CL
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Timber Plus ProjectAdditional Oppor
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Appendix AResene Expected Paint Sys
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- 152 -Appendix G: Green Star Asses
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New Zealand Forest Research Institu
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Executive SummaryA common building
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1 IntroductionA common building des
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Timber pluso The same assumptions a
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Table 1-1-1: Weightings in Green St
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The science behind LCA is still dev
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In comparison the LCA results have
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All four buildings in this research
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1.4 Further WorkThe difficulty in m
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