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162Cairns: Eco-Ethics and Sustainability Ethicshuman population increase, species extinction, depletion of natural capital, ever increasing humanartifacts that displace natural systems, pollution) are that both natural systems and humankind mayreach a tipping point in the twenty-first century if present unsustainable practices continue. Cairns(2000) remarks that, in order to achieve sustainability, humankind must be at peace with naturalsystems (i.e. cease destroying them).A general principle of preserving natural systems is that maintenance is less environmentallycostly than rebuilding or new growth. Cities destroyed by war (e.g. as in World War II) require moreresources to rebuild than would have been used to maintain them. Similarly, a new growth forestrequires more energy for building new biomass than an old growth forest requires in maintainingitself. Moreover, cultural development occurs primarily when basic needs (e.g. food, shelter, healthcare, warmth) have already been met. Even education suffers when people must use all their energiesjust to survive. Social capital (e.g. sense of community) requires time, which is less availablewhen maintaining basic needs is a struggle. Cultural capital (e.g. museums, symphony orchestras,art galleries) can be badly damaged or destroyed by wars, either directly by explosives or indirectlyby looters, when the social contract (e.g. respecting cultural organizations) has broken down.The Athenian statesman Pericles praised the law that, although unwritten, was obeyed. Today,obeying such laws is called a social contract. At present, the intent to live sustainably and leave ahabitable planet for posterity is the ultimate social contract, which encompasses vast spatialdimensions (e.g. Earth) and vast temporal spans (e.g. indefinite use of the planet). Humankind mustreject short-term economic growth based on unsustainable practices in favour of sustainable practices,which should produce a habitable planet for posterity and reduce risks.RISKSIf humankind is worried about risks of terrorism-caused death, some comparative figures fromthe November/December 2002 issue of World Watch (p. 40) should be enlightening:In the United States:430 700 killed by cigarette smoking, per year, on average300 000 killed by obesity, per year, on average110 000 killed by alcohol abuse per year43 200 killed by motor vehicle accidents, per year, on average2000 killed by terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001.In other countries:2000 000 in Sudan: killed in the ongoing civil war1700 000 in Cambodia: killed by the Khmer Rouge massacre in 1975–781700 000 in Congo: killed in the ongoing war103 000 in Japan: killed by two atomic bombs dropped by US planes in 194520 000 in India: killed by the Bhopal chemical spill of 1985 and its aftermath.The purpose of this information is to show that a better perspective on risks is needed. For example,in the United States, one is far more likely to be killed by cigarette smoking or obesity than byterrorists. If the primary goal is to protect human life, citizens of the United States should concen-