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296Cairns: Eco-Ethics and Sustainability Ethicstolerated as a consequence of various redundancies. However, long-term stability of an ecosystemdepends on a constant colonization by new species, which can be in a dormant stage atthe site itself or an invader from other sites. Most ecosystems probably have a combination ofthese two phenomena to facilitate both cyclic and successional species turnover. Species invasionand successful colonization by the necessary number of species is enhanced for speciesfrom other sites if the travel distance is minimal and the travel route is tolerable (e.g. no pollutionstress). This dynamic process is enhanced by a decentralization of the total species pooland obstructed by ecosystem fragmentation of species from one ecological ‘island’ to other‘islands.’Sustainable use of the planet requires a significant number of self-regulating ecosystems that letcolonization and natural selection maintain ecosystem integrity. If an ecosystem subsidy is necessary,there must be a better understanding of natural processes, a reverence for them, and awillingness to provide these subsidies for as long as they are necessary to keep ecosystems asfunctional as possible, including the delivery of ecosystem services. Since humankind at its presentpopulation size, distribution, and level of affluence is dependent on both technological andecological life-support systems, it is important that the structure and function of natural systems bereplicated as far as possible (Todd and Todd 1984).ROLE OF BIODIVERSITYArguably, the greatest unknown is the role of biodiversity in ensuring self-regulating ecosystems.Succession or turnover of species in all ecosystems exists, although the temporal spans for therate of turnover may differ dramatically from one ecoregion to another. Society does not yet knowhow many species are needed to preserve the integrity of self-regulating systems (Cairns 2002) orwhat species are being lost and at what rates. Even if financial support were available for determiningthe rate of replacement in temporal spans of a one-century monitoring system, not enoughtrained personnel exist to carry out this endeavor in a scientifically responsible manner, although anumber could be educated and trained over a period of years.BIOMONITORINGBiomonitoring is surveillance undertaken to ensure that previously established quality controlconditions are being met (Cairns 2002). This definition of monitoring is common in hospital intensivecare wards, industrial production lines, and a variety of other situations.Since the number of species and structure of communities will be difficult to use in developing amonitoring strategy, an alternative strategy would be to monitor the integrity and health of ecosystemsand to assume that, if the services they are providing remain fairly constant, the requisitenumber of species are present. One of the weaknesses of this assumption is that some greatlydiverse systems appear to have a significant amount of functional redundancy; therefore, theecosystem may continue to function so well that the monitoring system will not be able to distinguishbetween normal variability and a decline in trend. Of course, monitoring of species of particularinterest to human society should be encouraged, particularly those threatened with or nearingextinction. One of the major drawbacks in the functional approach just mentioned (i.e. integrity,health, and ecosystem services) is that ecosystems may only need substantial levels of biodiversityfor episodic periods of stress and may be able to function quite well under normal conditionswithout the species reserve. Thus, even if the ecosystem seems to be normal in terms of functionalcapabilities, it may not be normal in terms of biodiversity.