Camping and woodcraft - Scoutmastercg.com

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BY HORACE KEPHARTOUR SOUTHERN HIGHLANDERSTHE BOOK OF CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSPORTING FIREARMSCAMP COOKERYCAMPING

CAMPINGANDWOODCRAFTA- HANDBOOK FOR VACATION CAMPERSAND FORTRAVELERS IN THE W^ILDERNESSBYHORACE KEPHARTAiuthor of *'Our Southern Highlanders," "SportingFirearms," "Camp Cookery," etc.AMKIICAN CAMPING ASSOCIATION:.R' ^' "^^AINING COMMITTEK2116 NORTH S8th STHEBTPHILADELPfllA 31, PA.Two Volumes in OneVol. ICAMPINGNm forkTHE MACMILLAN COMPANY1957

7^^*COPTHIQHT, 1917,By the MACMILLAN COMPANlfNew EditionTwo Volumes in One, 1921Eighteenth Printing, 1957All rights reserved—no part of this book may bereproduced in any form without permission m writingfrom the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishesto quote brief passages in connection with a reviewwritten for inclusion in magazine or newspaper.Printed m the United States of America

ToTHE SHADE OF NESSMUKINTHEHAPPY HUNTING GROUND7'p- 629()0

PREFACEThe present work is based upon my Book ofCamping and Woodcraft, which appeared in igo6.All of the original material here retained has beenrevised, and so much new matter has been addedthat this is virtually a new work, filling twovolumes instead of one.My first book was intended as a pocket manualfor those who travel where there are no roads andwho perforce must go light. I took little thoughtof the fast-growing multitude who go to more accessibleplaces and camp out just for the pleasureand healthfulness of open-air life. It had seemedto me that outfitting a party for fixed camp w^ithirireach of wagons was so simple that nobody wouldwant advice about it. But I have learned thatsuch matters are not so easy to the multitude as Ihad assumed; and there are, to be sure, " wrinkles,"plenty of them, in equipping and managing stationarycamps that save trouble, annoyance, or expense.Consequently I am adding several chaptersexpressly for that class of campers, and I treatthe matter of outfitting much more fully than before.It is not to be supposed that experienced travelersw^ill agree with me all around in matters of equipment.Every old camper has his own notions aboutsuch things, and all of us are apt to be a bit dogmatic.As Richard Harding Davis says, " Thesame article that one declares is the most essentialto his comfort, health, and happiness is the veryfirst thing that another will throw into the trail.A man's outfit is a matter which seems to touch hisprivate honor. I have heard veterans sitting

PREFACEaround a camp-fire proclaim the superiority of theirkits with a jealousy, loyalty, and enthusiasm theywould not exhibit for the flesh of their flesh andthe bone of their bone. On a campaign you mayattack a man's courage, the flag he serves, the newspaperfor which he works, his intelligence, or hiscamp manners, and he will Ignore you ; but If youcriticise his patent water-bottle he will fall uponyou with both fists."Yet all of us who spend much time in the woodsare keen to learn about the other fellow's " kinks."And field equipment is a most excellent hobby toamuse one during the shut-in season. I knownothing else that so restores the buoyant optimismof youth as overhauling one's kit and planning tripsfor the next vacation. Solomon himself knew theheart of man no better than that fine old sportsmanwho said to me *' It isn't the fellow who's catchinglots of fish and shooting plenty of game that's havingthe good time: it's the chap who's getting readyto do it."I must thank the public for the favor It showedmy Book of Camping and Woodcraft, which passed,with slight revision, through seven editions in tenyears. For a long time I have wished to expand thework and bring it up to date. As there is a welldefinedboundary between the two subjects of campingand woodcraft. It has seemed best to devote aseparate volume to each. The first of these is hereoffered, to be followed as soon as practicable by theother, which will deal chiefly with such shifts andexpedients as are learned or practised in the wildernessitself, where we have nothing to choose frombut the raw materials that lie around us.Acknowledgments are due to the D. T. AbercrombleCo.,New York, the Abercromble & FitchCo., New York, and the New York Sporting GoodsCo.,for permission to reproduce certain illustrationsof tents and other equipment.This book had its origin in a series of articles

PREFACEunder the same title that I contributed, in 1904-1906, to the magazine Field and Stream. Othersections have been published, in whole or in part, inSports Afield, Recreation, Forest and Strs'am, andOuting. A great deal of the work here appears forthe first time.Many of these pages were written in the wilderness,where there were abundant facilities for testingthe value of suggestions that were outside therange of my previous experience. In this connectionI must acknowledge indebtedness to a scrapbookfull of notes and clippings from sportsmen'sjournals which was one of the most valued tomesin the rather select " library " that graced half asoap-box in one corner of my cabin.I owe much both to the spirit and the letter ofthat classic in the literature of outdoor life, the littlebook on Woodcraft, by the late George R. Sears,who is best known by his Indian-given title of''Nessmuk." To me, in a peculiar sense, it hasbeen rermdium utriusque fortunce; and it is butfitting that I should dedicate to the memory of itsauthor this pendant to his work.Horace Kephart.Bryson City, N. C,February, 19 16.

CHAPTERCONTENTSPAGi.I Vacation Time 17II Outfitting 23III Tents for Fixed Camps ... 29IVFurniture, Tools, and UtensilsFOR Fixed Camps . . . -53V Tents for Shifting Camps . . 68VI Types of Light Tents , . . 76VII Light Camp Equipment ^ . . 109VIII Camp Bedding 124IX Clothing . . . . • . .138X Personal Kits 164XI Provisions 178XII Camp Making 208XIII The Camp-fire 225XIV Pests of the Woods . . . .241XV Dressing and Keeping Game andFish 264XVI Camp Cookery — Meats . . . 290XVII Camp Cookery — Game .. . 305XVIII Camp Cookery — Fish andShellfish 321XIX Camp Cookery — Cured Meats,ETC.— Eggs 332XX Camp Cookery — BreadstuffsAND Cereals 342XXI Camp Cookery — Vegetables —Soups 363XXII Beverages and Desserts . . .378XXIII Cook's Miscellany .... 386Index . . -.395

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGEWall Tent with Fly ",9Extension Fly 36Tropica' Tent 37Bobbinet Window 39Mosquito Curtain 39Asbestos Pipe Guard 40Locating Corner of the Tent 42Tent Stake and Guy Rope 43U. S. Army Wall Tent with Fly (Officers' Ten:) 4sStorm Set 45Wall Tent on Shears with Guy Frame ... 46Lashing for Shear Legs 47Shear Legs Spread 47Magnus Hitch (not apt to slip along a pole) .47Wall Tent with Side Bars 48Trenching Tent 49Tent Floor 50Guys Weighted with Log 51Guy Rope Fastened to Fagot to Be Burled i 1Ground 51Narrow Cot 54Compact Cot 54Telescoping Cot 54Cot with Mosquito Screen 54Folding Chair 56Folding Arm Chair 56Roll-up Table 56Roll-up Table Top 56Table with Shelf 57Compact Table 57Folding Shelves 57Wall Pocket 57Small Camp Stove 61Stove Packed 61

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGEStove for Large Wood 6iField Range 62Field Range (packed) 62Dutch Oven 64U. S. A. Conical Tent 78Sibley Tent Stoves 79Miner's Tent 83Frazer Tent 8»Marquee 83George Tent 84Layout of George Tent 85Royce Tent .87Royce Tent 89Royce Tent 90Wedge Tent, Outside Ridge Rope 92Pegging Bottom of Tent 92Side Parrels ... .93Whymper Alpine Tent 95Hudson Bay Tent 95Ross Alpine Tent 96Separable Shelter Tent 96Shelter half with Wall 97Tarpaulin Tent 98Baker Tent 99Camp-fire Tent 100Canoe Tent with Pole 102Canoe Tent with Ridge 102Compac Tent 104Snow Tent 105Explorer's Tent 106Little Giant Scale 115Cooking Pot 119Pot Chain 119Coffee Pot 119Miner's Coffee Pot 119Cup 120Miller Frying Pan 120Reflector (angular back) 121Reflector (fiat back) 121lR^&actr>r rfolded in case) 121

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGESheet Steel Oven 122D. T. Abercrombie Sleeping Bag 130Flala Sleeping Bag 131U. S. A. Regulation Sleeping Bag 136Shattuck Camp Roll 136Comfort Sleeping Pocket 137Combination Bed Roll, Stretcher Bed and Bed Tick . 137Combination as Stretcher Bed 137Combination as Hammock 137Combination as Bed Roll 137Neckerchief Folded for Hood 143Neckerchief Hood Adjusted 143U. So Army Canvas Legging 145Canvas Strap Puttee 145Woolen Spiral Puttee 145True Bow Knot 151Reef Knot Formed 151Reef Knot Drawn Tight 151U. S. Army Shoe 152Sole of Army Shoe, Showing Proper Method ofPlacing Hobnails 152Soled Moccasin (made over last) 159Dunnage Bag 164Kit or Provision Pack 164Screw Hook Fastening for Box Lid 164Hatchet 166Sheath Knife 167Compass with Course Arrow 169Map Case 171U. S. A. Dispatch Case 171To Fold Triangular Bandage . . . . . . . 175Rare Natural Crotch 219Common Crotch 219To Make a Crutch 219Spring Box , 221Latrine 223Indian Deer Pack . 268The Place to Use Your Knife 270

—CAMPINGCHAPTER IVACATION TIME" So priketh hem Nature in hir corages,Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,And palmares for to seken straunge strondes."— Canterbury Tales.To many a city man there comes a time when theo'reat town wearies him. He hates its sights andsmells and clangor. Every duty is a task and everycaller is a bore. There come visions of green fieldsand far-rolling hills, of tall forests and cool, swiftflowingstreams. Pie yearns for the thrill of thechase, for the keen-eyed silent stalking; or, rod inhand, he would seek that mysterious pool where thefather of all trout lurks for his lure.To be free, unbeholden, irresponsible for thanonce ! 1* ree to go or come at one's own sweet will,to tarry where he lists, to do this, or do that, or donothing, as the humor veers; and for the hours,"It shall be what o'clock I say it is! "Thus basking and sporting in the great clean out--of-doors, one could, for the blessed interval," Forget six counties overhung with smoke,Forget the snorting stearr and piston-strokt,Forget the spreading of ^he hid'^ous town,"T7

i8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThis instinct for a free life In the open is asnatural and wholesome as the gratification of hungerand thirst and love, it is Nature's recall to thesimple mode of existence that she Intended us for*Our modern life in cities is an abrupt and violentchange from what the race has been bred to thesemany thousands of years. We come from a lineof forebears who, back to a far-distant past, werehunters in the forest, herdsmen on the plains, shepherdsIn the hills, tillers of the soil, or fishermen orsailors at sea; and however adaptive the humanmind may be, these human bodies of ours still stubbornlyinsist on obeying the same laws that FatherAdam's did.There are soothsayers who forecast that, in thecourse of evolution, we shall conform to what arenow abnormal and mischievous conditions ; that manis the most adaptive of all creatures, accommodatinghimself to greater extremes of temperature and soforth than any other of the higher animals; thatmoreover he is constantly inventing machines andprocesses to better his condition, so that we mayreasonably expect him to make even the crowded citya wholesome place of residence, though people dwelltier above tier, and our old-fashioned domestic lifebe quite out of the question.It may be so. We can fix no bounds to Nature'sconforming power. She has produced certain vertebrates,such as the mud-turtle and the hellbender,so eminently adaptive to circumstances that they areequally at hr^me whether immersed in air, water, ormud. Ana there is the Chinaman, who, being of abreed that has been crowded and coerced for thousandsof years, seems to have done away with nerves." He will stand all day in one position without seemingIn the least distressed ; he thrives amidst the mostunsanitary surroundings; overcrowding and bad airare nothing to him ; he does not demand quiet whenhe would sleep, nor even when he Is sick ; he canstarve to death with supreme complacency." A

VACATION TIME 19missionary says: " It would be easy to raise inChina an army of a million men — nay, of ten millions— tested by competitive examination as to theircapacity to go to sleep across three wheelbarrows,with head downwards like a spider, mouth wideopen, and a fly inside."Some of our own people seem totion out of anything but chasing afterget no satisfac^dollars withoutlet-up from year to year, save when they areasleep, or in church, or both. We recall a certainrich man who boasted that in the eighty-eight yearsof his career he had not once taken a vacation orwanted one. Naturally his way was the right way,and he proceeded to show "it. What right," askedhe, " has a clerk to demand or expect pay for twoweeks' time for which he renders no equivalent? Isitnot absurd to suppose that a man who can workeleven and a half months cannot as wtU work thewhole year ? The doctors may recommend a changeSickness isof air when he's sick; but why be sick?an irreparable loss of time." I am not misquotingthis very rich man: his signed pronouncement liesbefore me — the sorriest thing that ever I saw in9rint.Seriously, is it good for men and women and childrento swarm together in cities and stay there, keepstaying there, tilltheir instincts are so far pervertedthat they lose all taste for their natural element, thewide world out-of-doors? In any case, althoughevolution be a very great and good law, yet is it nota trifle slow? How about you and me? Can wewait a few thousand years for fulfilment of the wise(men's prophecy? We are neither coolies, nor mudturtles,nor those other things with the awful name.Granting, then, that one deserves relief now andthen from the hurry and worry that would age himbefore his prime, why not go in for a completechange while you are about it? Why not exorcisethe devil of business and everything that suggests it?The best vacation an over-civilized man can have if

20 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT^o go where he can hunt, capture, and cook his ownmeat, erect his own shelter, do his own chores, andso,in some measure, pick up again those lost arts ofwildcraft that were our heritage through ages past,but of which not one modern man in a hundredknows anything at all. In cities our tasks are sohighly specialized, and so many thi \gs are done forus by other specialists, that we tend \o become a onehandedand one-idead race. The self-dependent lifeof the wilderness nomad brings bodily habits andmental processes back to normal, by exercise ofmuscles and lobes that otheiwise might atrophy fromwant of use.If one would realize in its perfection his dream ofpeace and freedom from every worldly care» let himkeep away from summer resorts and even fromfarms; let him camp out; and let it be the realthing. There are "' camps " so-called that are notcamps at all. A rustic cottage furnished with tablesand chairs and beds brought from town, with rugson the floor and pictures on the walls, with a stove inthe kitchen and crockery in the pantry, an ice-househard by, and daily delivery of groceries, farm products,and mails, may be a pleasant place in which tospend the summer with one's family and friends;but it Is not a camp. Neither is a wilderness clubhouse,built on a game preserve, looked after by acaretaker, and supplied during the season withservants and the appurtenances of a good hotel.A camp proper is a nomad's biding-place. Hemay occupy it for a season, or only for a single night,according as the site and its surroundings please ordo not please the wanderer's whim. If the fish donot bite, or the game has moved away, or unpleasantneighbors should intrude, or if anything elsegoes wrong. It is but an hour's work for him to pullup stakes and be off, seeking that particularly goodplace which generally lies beyond the horizon'srim.Your thoroughbred camper likes not the atten-.

VACATION TI^IE 21lions of a landlord, nor will he suffer himself torooted to the soil by cares of ownership or lease. Itis not possession of the land, but of the landscape,that he enjoys ; and as fo" that, all the wild parts ofthe earth are his, by a title that carries with it noobligation but that he shall not desecrate nor laythem waste.Houses, to such a one, in summer, are little betterthan cages; fences and walls are his abomination;plowed fields are only so many patches cf torn andtormented earth. The sleek comeliness of pasturesis too prim and artificial, domestic cattle have ameek and ignoble bearing, fields of grain aremonotonous to his eyes, which turn for relief tosome abandoned old-field, overgrown with thicket,that still harbors some of the shy children of thewild. It is not the clearing but the unfenced wildernessthat is the camper's real home. He isbrother to that good old friend of mine who, ingentle satire of our formal gardens and close-croppedlawns, was wont to say, " I love the unimprovedworks of God." He likes to wander in the foresttasting the raw sweets and pungencies that uncloyedpalates craved in the childhood of our race. Tohim" The shelter of a rockIs sweeter than the roofs of all the world."The charm of nomadic life Is Its freedom fromcare, its unrestrained liberty of action, and the proudself-reliance of one who is absolutely his own master,free to follow his bent in his own way, andwho cheerfully, in turn, suffers the penalties thatNature visits upon him for every slip of mind orbungling of his hand. Carrying with him, as hedoes, in a few small bundles, all that he needs toprovide food and shelter In any land, habited or uninhabited,the camper Is lord of himself and of hissurroundings.be

22 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT" Free is the bird in the air,And the fish where the river flows;Free is the deer in the wood,And the gipsy wherever he goes.Hurrah!And the gipsy wherever he goes."There Is a dash of the gipsy In every one of Ukwho is worth his salt.

-CHAPTER nOUTFITTING"By St.NicholasI have a sudden passion for the wild wood —We should be free as air in the wild wood —What say you ? Shall we go ? Your hands, your 'Hanrts'! ^— Robin hood.In some of our large citiesoutfitters to whom one can go and say:there are professional" So manysuch a region,of us wish to spend such a month inhunting and fishing: equip us." The dealer w411name a price; you pay it, and leave the rest to him.When the time comes he will have the outfit readyand packed. It will include everything needed foithe trip, well selected and of the best materials.When your party reaches the jumping-off place itwill be met by professional guides and packers, whowill take you tothe best hunting grounds and fishingwaters, and will do all the hard work of paddling,packing over portages, making camp, choppingwood, cooking, and cleaning up, besides showingyou where the game and fish are " using,"and how to get them. In this way a party of citymen who know nothing of woodcraft can spend aseason in the woods very comfortably, though gettinglittle practical knowledge of the wilderness^This is touring, not campaigning. It is expensive;but it may be worth the price to such as can affordit, and who like that sort of thing.But, aside from the expense of this kind of camping,it seems to me that whoever takes to the woodsand waters for recreation should learn how to shifr23

24 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfor himself in an emergency. He may employguides and a cook — all that ; but the day of disastermay come, the outfitmay be destroyed, or thecity man may find himself some day alone, lost inthe forest, and compelled to meet the forces ofNature in a struggle for his life. Then it may gohard with him indeed if he be not only master ofhimself, but of that woodcraft which holds the keyto Nature's storehouse. A camper should know forhimself how to outfit, how to select and make acamp, how to wield an axe and make proper fires,how to cook, wash, mend, how to travel withoutlosing his course, or what to do when he has lostit; how to trail, hunt, shoot, fish, dress game, manageboat or canoe, and how to extemporize suchmakeshifts as may be needed in wilderness faring.And he should know these things as he does the wayto his mouth. Then is he truly a woodsman, sureto do promptly the right thing at the right time,whatever befalls. Such a man has an honest pridein his own resourcefulness, a sense of reserve force, adoughty self-reliance that is good to feel. His isthe confidence of the lone sailorman, who whistlesas he puts his tiny bark out to sea.And there are many of us who, through some miscueof the Fates, are not rich enough to give carteblanche orders over the counter. We would likesilk tents, air mattresses, fiber packing cases, and allthat sort of thing; but we would soon " go broke "if we started in at that rate. I am saying nothingabout guns, rods, reels, and such-like, because theyare the things that every well conducted sportsmangoes broke on, anyway, as a matter of course. I amspeaking only of such purchases as might be thoughtextravagant. And it is conceivable that some folksmight call it extravagant to pay thirty-five dollarsfor a thing to sleep in when you lie out of doors onthe ground from choice, or thirty dollars for potsand pans to cook with when you are '*playing hobo,''as the unregenerate call our sjdvan sport. To

OUTFITTING 25practise shrewd economies in such things helps outif you are caught slipping in through the back gatewith a brand-new gun, when everybody knows thatyou already possess more guns than you can findlegitimate use for.If one begins, as he should, six months in advance,to plan and prepare for his next summer or fall vacation,he can, by gradual and surreptitious hoarding,get together a commendable camping equipment, andnobody will notice the outlay. The best way is tomake many of the things yourself. This gives yourpastime an air of thrift, and propitiates the Laresand Penates by keeping you home o' nights. Andthere is a world of solid comfort in having everythingfixed just to suit you. The only way to haveit so is to do the work yourself. One can weatready-made clothing, he can exist in ready-furnishedrooms, but a ready-made camping outfit is a delusionand a snare. It is sure to be loaded with gimcracksthat you have no use for, and to lack somethingthat you will be miserable without.It is great fun, in the long winter evenings, tosort over your beloved duffel, to make and fit up thelittle boxes and hold-alls in w'hich everything hasits proper place, to contrive new wrinkles that nobodybut yourself has the gigantic brain to conceive,to concoct mysterious dopes that fill the house withunsanctimonious smells, to fish around for materials,\n odd corners where you have no business, and, generally,to set the female members of the householdbuzzing around in curiosity, disapproval, and sundryother states of mind.To be sure, even though a man rigs up his ownoutfit, he never gets it quite to suit him. Every seasonsees the downfall of some cherished scheme, thefailure of some fond contrivance. Every wintersees you again fussing over your kit, altering this,substituting that, and flogging your wits with thesame old problem of huw to save weight and bulkwithout sacrifice of utility. All thoroughbred camp-

26 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTers do this as regularly as the birds come back in^h^/^^^^"d has been doing it sincewnrll'l.'the^^ orld began It is good for us. If some misguidedgemus should invent a camping equipment thatbody no-could find fault with, half our pleasure inwould lifebe swept away.This is not saying that outfitters' catalogues shoulabe Ignored. Get them, by all means, and studythem with care. Do this at home, comparing onecatalogue with another, that you may knowwhat justyou want and what you don't want, beforeyou go out to make purchases. Then you will notbe such easy prey to the plausible clerk, and yourselection will bear the stamp of your individuality.Ihe joys and sorrows of camp life, and the proportionof each to the other, depend very much uponhow one chooses his companions — granting that hehas_ any ^choice in the matter at all. It may benoticed that old-timers are apt to be a bit distantwhen a novice betrays any eagerness to share in theirpilgrimages. There is no churlishness in this"rather it is commendable caution. Not every goodtellow in town makes a pleasant comrade in thevvoods. So It IS that experienced campers are charyot admitting new members to their lodges To beone of them you must be of the right stuff, ready toendure trial and privation without a murmur, and— what IS harder for most men — to put up withpetty inconveniences without grumbling.For there is a seamy side to camp life, as to everythingelse. Even in the best of camps things dohappen sometimes that are enough to make a saintswear silently through his teeth. But no one is fitfor such life who cannot turn ordinarv ill-luck intoa joke, and bear downright calamity like a gentlemanYet there are other qualities in a good camp-matethat are rarer than fortitude and endurance. Chiefof these isa love of Nature for her own sake — notthe "put on" kind that expresses itself in gushy

OUTFITTING 27sentimentalism, but that pure, intense, thoughordinarily mute affection which finds pleasure inher companionship and needs none other. As OliveShreiner says: " It is not he who praises Nature,but he who lies continually on her breast and issatisfied, who is actually united to her." Donald G.IMitchell once remarked that nobody should go tothe country with the expectation of deriving muchpleasure from it,as country, who has not a keen eyefor the things of the country, for scenery, or fortrees, or flowers, or some kind of culture ; to whicha New York editor replied that " Of this not onecity man in a thousand has a particle in his composition."No doubt a gross exaggeration ; but theproportion of city men who do thoroughly enjoy thehardy sports and adventures of the wilderness is certainlymuch larger than those who could be entertainedon a farm ;yet the elect of these, the oneswho can find plenty to interest them in the woodswhen fishing and hunting fail, are not to be foundon every street corner.If your party be made up of men ^experienced inthe woods, hire a guide, and, if there be more thanthree of you, take along a cook as well. Treat youiguide as one of yourselves. A good one deservessuch consideration ; a poor one is not worth havingat all. But if you cannot afford this expense, thenleave the real wilderness out of account for the present;go to some pleasant woodland, w^ithin hail ofcivilization, and start an experimental camp, spendinga good part of your time in learning how towield an axe, how to build proper fires, how to cookgood meals out-of-doors, and so forth. Be sure toget the privilege beforehand of cutting what woodyou will need. It is worth paying some wood-geldthat you may learn how to fell and hew. Here,w^ith fair fishing and some small game hunting, youcan have a jolly good time, and will be fitted forsomething more ambitious the next season.In any case, be sure to get together a company of

good-hearted, manly fellows, who will take thingsas they come, do their fair share of the camp chores,and agree to have no arguments before breakfast.There are plenty of such men, steel-true and bladestraight.Then will your trip be a lasting pleasure,to be lived over time and again in after years.There are no friendships like those that are madeunder canvas and in the open field.In the following pages I treat the matter of outfittingindetail, not that elaborate outfits are usuallydesirable — for they are not — but because in townthere is so much to pick and choose from. Thereare many patterns of this, that, and the other articleof equipment, some good for one kind of camping,come for another. I try to explain their " points,"^hat the reader may choose intelligently accordingto his needs.

CHAPTER IIITENTS FOR FIXED CAMPSWhen camp Is made in a certain locality with nointention of moving it until the party is ready togo home, it usually Is called a *' permanent camp."This is a misuse of terms; for a camp of any kind*'is only a temporary biding place. The camp andnot the soil," says Gibbon, " Is the native countryof the genuine Tartar." When speaking of a campfixed in one place for a considerable time, I shallcall it a fixed camp or stationary camp. It differsfrom a shifting camp, so far as outfitting is concerned,In permitting the use of heavy and bulk>equipment and more of the comforts of home.Wall Tents.— For fixed camps, situated wherethere are wagon roads or other adequate ways oftransportation, the best cloth shelter Is a wall tent,rectangular or square, of strong and rather heavymaterial.Fig. I.— Wall Tent, with FlyIt Is a trade custom to list tents according to anarbitrary scale of ground dimensions, In even feet,although the cloth seldom works out exactly so ; forground dimensions art* governed by the number of

soCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwidths of cloth used and the number of inches tothe width, allowing for seams. To slit the clothlengthwise would destroy its strongest part, theselvage, besides being a waste of material. Moreover,cloth stretches or shrinks in handling.In the following table are given the trade sizeSjactual ground dimensions (these may vary), standardheights of wall and center, and w^eights of unproofedtents (without flies, poles, or stakes) insizes commonly used by campers. These sizes applyonly to tents made of standard 29-inch duck. li36-inch stuff, or some other width, is used, proportionalallowances must be made.STANDARD WALL TENTS.29-lNCH Duck.

A group ofTENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 31small tents around a common campflreis quite as sociable as if the party were all bunkedtogether — except when sociability is not wanted^as when some wish to sleep and others want to playcards. Even a camper does not care to reduce hisindividuality to a least common multiple.Two small tents need not be made of so heavj*material as a large one of cubic capacity equal toboth of them. They are easier to erect and manage.They are more adaptable to various campsites. Their short poles are handier to transport(for that matter, jointed ones may be bought, upto a limit of twelve feet total length). And smalltents are stancher ina gale than big ones.Roominess is not to be estimated by ground dimensionsalone. It depends much upon height ofcenter and walls. If a tent is to be used right onthe ground, not elevated over a floor with baseboards,it should be made higher in center and wallsthan the standard proportions given in the table.This is not expensive: the charge is only five percent, of the cost of regular tent for each six inchesof added height.To my notion the best all-round size of wall tentfor two people, if weight and bulk and cost are ofany consequence, is the so-called 9x9 or a 9x 12,huilt with 3}^-foot walls, instead of 3-foot, and8-foot center, instead of 7^-foot. For four personsa 12x14 is commonly used; but a 14x14with 4-foot walls and 9-foot center has double thehead-room of the standard 12x14, and 2j/^ feetmore space between cots, if these are set lengthwiseof the tent, two on a side.Before selecting a tent, consider the number ofpeople to occupy it,and their dunnage, and the furniture.Then draw diagrams of floor and end elevation,of various sizes, fitting in the cots, etc., accordingto scale; so you can get just what you want— no more, no less.Tent Materials.— The conventional tent is

32 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmade of plain cotton duck. A single roof of suchmaterial will shed rain, if the stuff is closely woven,but only so long as it is stretched at a proper angle,rather taut, and nothing touches it from the inside.If so much as a finger-tip should be rubbed againstthe under side of the roof, a leak would springthere, due to capillary action. It is of little use todraw the finger from the drip spot down to the tentwall, for, although this runs the water off for atime, fresh dripping will start on each side of theline.Nor is it possible to avoid slackness in a roof ofplain canvas during a wet spell of weather. Cloththat is not water-proofed will shrink a great dealas soon as it gets wet ; hence the guy ropes must belet out, and the roof allowed to sag, before the rainzomes; otherwise the shrinkage of the canvas willloosen your tent stakes, or even pull them all uptogether, when down goes your house about yourears!For these reasons, a tent should either be waterproofed,or should have a supplementary roof called,a fly. These matters will be considered later.Cotton duck comes in three geneial grades, knownas single filling, double filling, and army duck.Single filling duck is made of coarse yarn, looselywoven, and of an inferior grade of cotton. It issuitable only for cheap tents that are not intendedfor continuous use, and generally is a bad " bargain" even then. It is weaker than the same weightof the other grades and is poor stuff to shed water.Double filling duck is of closer texture, betterfiber, and is equal to all but the hardest service.For average summer camping It Is good enough.Army duck Is the best grade made, of selectedcotton free from sizing, both warp and fillingdoubled and twisted, closely woven, and free fromimperfections — if It comes up to army standard.It will outwear any other tent material of the sameweight, except flax (which I have not seen used

I'ENTS FOR blXKD CAIVIF5 33in this country), and sheds water much better thancheaper grades.Khaki generally means simply duck or twillthathas been colored to the familiar leaf brown of huntingtogs. It may be had in almost any grade, thebest, of course, being army tent khaki.The strength and durability of duck dependslargely upon its weight per square foot. Standardtent duck comes m weights of 8 ounces, 10 ounces,12 ounce J, 4nd upwards, to the running yard ofmaterial 29 inches wide (army duck, 283^ inches).But other duck is made in 36-inch width, or wider.The 36-inch stuff is about one-fourth lighter perrunning yard than 29-inch duck ; in other words, its" 8-ounce " weight is really about 6-ounce, it3" lo-ounce " is 7^-ounce, its " 12-ounce " is 9-ouncestuff, as compared with standard goods. Bear thisin mind when comparing qualities and prices oftents by different makers. Some tent makers specifyin their catalogues which width is used ; others donot. In case of doubt, get samples of cloth beforepurchasing.Since guys and beckets (loops for the pegs) generallyare fitted only where there are seams, it followsthat a tent made of wide duck is not so stanchas one of standard widths. All things considered,8-ounce army duck (28V2-inch) and lo-ouncedouble filling standard (29-inch) are superior toi2-ounce double filling of 36-inch width.For fixed camps, nothing less than lo-ouncestandard duck for tents, and 8-ounce for flies, shouldbe used; 12-ounce for tents, and lo-ounce for flie*.,is preferable, unless the tent be quite small andportability Is a factor to be considered.Tricks of the Trade.— Not all of them, byany means; but a few tricks for the novice to lookout for if he is not sure of his tent maker.Prices fluctuate, of course, with the cotton market,at least in the better grades of duck. And yet,in the same season we may notice considerable dif-

34 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfereiice In prices for what is ostensibly the samething. There is a legitimate margin of variationin tent prices according to local cost of production;but when " bargains " are offered, keep your weathereye open. There are many different qualities ofduck in grades that nominally are alike — all theway from honest clear cotton to weighted stuff thatis almc^t shoddy.A tent may be stunted in height to deceive thepurchaser, since most buyers consider only theground dimensions. A flattened roof and low wallsnican less head-room and greater danger of leakage.V'ery ciieap tents may have worthless jute ropes, insteadof hemp or sisal, and their poles and stakesmay be defective.Low prices generally go with Interior workmanship.Look out for single seams, chain stitching,insufficient stay-pieces or reinforcements where thechief strains come, and machine-clamped brass grommets,that tear out easily, instead of galvanized ironrings sewed in by hand.High prices, on the contrary, may mean refinementsthat ordinary campers do not need. Betweenthe two extremes there is wide room for choice.For example, at the time of this writing, you canget a new 9x9 wall tent of single filling duck(29-inch), complete with fly, poles, stakes, andropes, for as little as $11.50. For the best grade ofU. S. Army 9x9 officers' tent you would pay^Si.50- Of course, the army tent is of far bettermaterial than the cheap one, and it is higher at centerand walls, but a good part of the difference inprice Is due to hand sewing and hand workmanshipthroughout. In the officers' model, even to finishingevery becket and door-string with a MatthewWalker knot.Wathri'Roof Tents.— A waterproof tent need?no fly to shed rain ; but it should have eaves to carrydrip free from the walls, if there are any. It costsless than a plain tent of equal quality with fly,

",TENTS FOR FIXED CAivIT*^ 35weighs less, bulks less when packed, does not mildew,does not have to be dried out every time beforemoving, and is easier to set up and manage thanone with a fly.A prime advantage of the processed cloth is thatit does not shrink when rained on. This means alot of trouble saved. With a tent of ordinary canvasit is necessary to slacken guys before a rain, andat night before turning in, lest the stakes be pulledloose. Of course, if long guy ropes are used theywill shrink, and must be eased before a rain, eventhough the tent itself be waterproof.Waterproof materials, and home methods ofwaterproofing tents, are discussed in Chapter V.For heavy tents, such as we are now considering, myown preference is either " green waterproof(Willesden) duck or a cravenetted khaki. Both ofthese are perfectly rainproof, in heavy and closelj^woven stuffs; they are soft, and are not affected byheat or cold.Colored tents, either khaki or green, are restfulto the eyes, blend pleasantly with their surroundings,and are not so likely as white ones to attractthe attention of unwelcome visitors, from insects totramps. They do not soil so easily as white canvas,and do not make shadow pictures of the inmatesby lantern light. Khaki or green is cooler underto shed rain and to make the tent cooler.the summer sun than white. It moderates the glarefor those who would sleep late or take a siesta (somecannot sleep well in a white tent under a full moon)and it does not light up so brilliantly as white canvaswhen the lightning flashes.Tent Flies.— A fly is an auxiliary roof of canvas,Most tent flies are set tight on top of the regularridge pole. A better plan, when the camp is not tobe shifted for a good while, is to use t\vo ridge poles,and so have a space between the fly and the ridgefor air to circulate through. In small tents, it ishandier to have a stout band on the :^idge of the

36 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtent itself, with strings by which it can be suspendedfrom an outside ridge pole that is cut in thewoods, this pole being set up on shears at each end.This leaves the doorway unobstructed. Such a rigpermits the use of any sized fly, with only one ridgepole (Fig. ii).Many like to have the fly large enough to form a7- or 8-foot canopy in front of the tent; but thereare disadvantages in this rig: it cuts off side entrance,and it makes the fly a sport of the winds.A gust can get tremendous purchase under a pro^Fig. 2.— Extension Flytruding roof and is likely to send it sailing. Evenin moderate winds there will be a great slatting andbanging, just when one wants to drop off to sleep.Generally it is best to have a spare fly, as I havementioned for the dining place, and erect a framein front of the tent over which this cloth can bestretched for an awning (Fig. 2). In this case theawning can be rigged as high as one wishes, andwill not be in the way ot entering the tent from oneside..A fly large enough to project three or four feetfor shelter over the doorway is not objectionable;in fact it is a good thing, especially if made longpnough to come almost to the ground at the sides.

TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 37Figure 3 shows one of Edgington's tropical tentswith such a fly (similar ones are made in this country).Note the liberal air-space between fly andtent. The shelter outside the tent w^alls is usefulFig- 3-— Tropical Tentfor baggage, dry wood, dogs, etc. Such a fly weighsand costs about as much as the tent itself. For securityin a wind, the '' storm set " should be used(Fig. lo).Sod-Cloth.— If a tent is not to be floored andfitted with a base-board, it should have a sod-cloth.This is a strip of 8-ounce canvas, about 9 incheswide, that is sewed all along the bottom edge of thetent walls, both sides and ends (Fig. 16). Whenthe tent has been set up, this sod-cloth is turned inon the floor and weighted down with poles or stones.Its function is to keep out insects and draughts thatotherwise would enter through the numerous gapsthat are left between tent pegs. The bottom edgeof a tent is the worst possible place to get ventilationfrom; one might as well seek to ventilate ahouse through cracks in the floor. Banking the tentinside with leaves and earth is a poor substitute fora sod-cloth. It will not stay tight for an hour, andthe earth rots the canvas.Ground-Sheet.— In a small tent that often isshifted from place to place, a ground-sheet to cover•iic floor and lap over the sod-cloth is a good thing

38 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTto keep the interior dry and secure against insects;but in a fixed camp such a carpet is a nuisance. Itgets filthy, and it stays so. Bare earth is soontrodden down hard so that it is easy to sweep andkeep clean. I have lived for months in an unflooredcabin, and my partner and I had no troubleto keep the earthen floor neat to the eye and moresanitary than any carpet. If you want a floor in atent, build a real one of dressed boards brought alongfor the purpose.Vextilatiox.— " Nessmuk " used to rail at walltents and wedge tents because they were so fustyand damp and cheerless. So they are when improperlybuilt and carelessly managed. One's mainreason for camping out should be to get plenty offresh air and sunshine. It is not enough to havegood air in daytime. One-third of our time isspent in bed. And yet it is common practice toclose the tent tight at night, especially if there areany mosquitoes about. Consider. Who wouldspend summer nights at home with no windowopen ? Well, a tent closed up is less permeable toair than the average house w^ith windows down.The notion that night air in the woods is malarialor otherwise unwholesome is idiotic. It isthe best air there is. Still, you can't buy a walltent in America that has proper means of ventilation,unless you have it built to order. Army tentshave ventilators, so-called, that are nothing but ahole at each peak, four inches wnde and eight incheslong. A tent window, to be of any account, shouldbe not less than 12 x i8 inches.Our best tent makers will fit one or more windowsin a tent wherever the owner wants them, atfrom $1.00 to $2.50 each. The opening is coveredwith fine-mesh bobbinet, taped around the edgesand crosswise, with a canvas storm flap that can beraised or lowered from the inside (Fig. 4). A moreelaborate kind, that may be detached and rolled upwhen the lent is folded, is made of copper mosquito

;bar,TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 39*and has a celluloid window that can be slippedrains.in when itIn a tent of ordinary size, one such window atthe rear, w^ith the doorway left wide open in fairweather, will make the place a cheerful and wholesomeabode instead of a fusty den.Mosquito Bar.— The doorway may be screenedby a sort of drop-curtain of bobbinet or cheeseclothordinary mosquito netting is too easily torn, and itsmesh is too open to exclude the smaller mosquitoesand gnats. Bobbinet is expensive. The tent'JLFig. 4.— Bobbinet WindowFig. 5.— Mosquito Curtainmaker will attach a cheesecloth front toa tent 9 to14 feet wide for about $2.85.Rear Door.— For about the same price as awindow, and serving as well for ventilation, thefent-maker will put an extra door in the rear endof the tent, with cheesecloth screen. This is a betterarrangement for hot weather, and often convenientwhen there is a driving rain or a contrarywind ; but it reduces the space for wall-pockets,shelves,etc.Door Weights.— To do away with pegs at theentrance, that you are apt to stumble over, tie ashort and rather heavy pole to the bottom of eachflap. This holds the door open when desired, andcloses it securely against dogs, '' varmints," and theelements.

40 CAJViriiNG AND VVUUUUKAl'^r•Stove-pipe Hole.^-A simple tin protector forthis opening is an annoyance at night, for it scrapesand skreeks when the canvas slats in the wind.Tent-makers supply pipe shields of asbestos that arequite safe, noiseless, and roll up nicely with the tentwhen it is stored or en route. Aflap covers the opening when nostove is in use (Fig. 6).Tent Poles and Pins.—Poles should be of ash, white pine,or spruce, straight-grained andfree from defects. At each endthere should be a galvanized iro»*,. band to keep the pole from split-,Fig. 6.— AsbestosPipe Guard ^^"g-^, ., /A wall tent requires stakes (unlessa frame is built for the guys) about two feetlong, and becket pins about sixteen inches. Shorterones will not hold in loose or sandy soil. Woodenones do very wtW for stationary camps.Care of Tents.— Never except when unavoidableshould a tent be rolled up when wet. Even ifit be only damp from dew, an unprocessed tent willsoon mildew if packed away in that state. Theparts that require most drying are where the materialis doubled, as at the seams and along theedges: the bottom edge especially, and the sod-cloth,are sure to rot if not thoroughly dried before stowingaway.To protect the tent in transport, it should becarried in a stout bag; otherwise it is likely to bepunctured.Tent pins are to be carried in a bag of their own,not only to save them from being lost, but also becausetheir inevitable dampness when camp is struckwould rot the tent if they were rolled up with it.To Mend a Tear in Canvas.— Cross-stitchit flat, using a sail needle and twine, and taking anarrow hold on each side with one stitch, then awider hold with the next one, and so on alternately.

;TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 41I'hen it will not tear again so easily as if narrowstitches were taken all along, nor will itbe likely toruck. Temporary repairs can be made with adhesiveplaster.Second-hand Tents.— Second-hand army tentsthat are in good, serviceable condition, having beencondemned for stains or other trifling defects, maybe bought cheaply from dealers who get them atgovernment auctions. These army tents are alwayswell designed and well made. Second-hand tents,however, should not be bought without inspectionthey may be mildewed or otherwise unserviceable.Tent Rental.— Some tent-makers and outfittershave tents for rent. From a list at hand I copythe following charges for wall tents: 10x12,$2.00 first week, and half this for each succeedingweek; 12 x 14, $2.50 do.; 14X 16, $3.00 do.; flies,half these prices. In some places 3 whole campequipment can be rented.Pitching Wall Tents.— A tent should standsquared and taut and trim. This not only thatone's eyes may dwell with pride upon his camp, butbecause a tent that is wrinkled and set askew willnot shed a downpour nor stand stanchly against agale.In erecting any square or rectangular tent, thefirst thing is to locate the corners, and from themto determine where the corner guy stakes are to bedriven. Soldiers do this by measuring with the uprightpoles, but as the height of a common tent maynot bear the right relation to its spread, for thispurpose, a knotted string may be better.Set up the tent in your yard at home and adjustpoles and guys until the angles of the wall are trueand the canvas is drawn smooth all around. Tosquare the corners, observe that a triangle the sidesof which are 3, 4 and 5 ft., or multiples of these,forms a right angle.Then take a stout fish-line, fasten a small peg atone end, and drive this peg close into one corner of

42 CAMriNG AND WOODCRAFTthe tent (//, Fig. 7). Draw the line straight (gently,so as not to stretch it) to center of upright pole{B) (if there be one) in the doorway; tie a knotin itthere, and then go on to the corner C, where itis knotted again. Drive a small peg at C, pass thestring around it, and on to the corner D, where anotherknot is tied and peg driven. Then draw theline diagonally back to A, and knot it. Cut theline at the last knot, reel it up on its peg, and keep itstowed with the tent for future use.When the camp ground is reached, it is but thework of a moment to peg out, with the knottedAr\'B. :iFig. 7.— Locating Corners of the TentString, first the triangle A CD and then, reversing,EDC.You then have located exactly the positionsand marked whereof the four corners for your tent,the uprights shall be set, and the tent is sure tostand " square."A wall tent is set up with inside or outside poles,and its wall and fly are guyed out either to stakesor to horizontal poles set up on posts. We will considerthese methods in turn.Wall Tent on Inside Poles, Staked.— Thisis the usual way of setting up a wall tent, with orwithout a fly ; but it is not the best, except whenIt is necessary or expcch'ent to carry shop-made pole^and stakes with the outfit, as in the case of an army,D

TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS43or of a party traveling by wagon and frequentlymoving camp.Having chosen the best frontage, lay out the cornersand end centers with cord and small pegs, asdescribed. Then drive the corner guy stakes diagonallyoutward from tent corners, slanting them asshown in Fig. 8. If fly guys are to be looped overthem, as well as wall guys, the stakes should be longenough to project well and still take firm hold inthe ground. (When striking a tent, do not workFig. 8.— Tent Stake and Guy Ropethe stakes forward and backward to loosen them,but slip a looped rope over the notch and pull atangle that stake was driven.) Corner stakes aredriven several feet away from tent, depending onslope of roof, and two or three feet outward, foreand aft, to make the guys draw diagonally.Now unroll the tent and drag it away by theridge until it is laid out flat over the ground selected.Insert ridge pole (rounded side up) inside thetent, with its holes for the spindles (iron pins inend of uprights) meeting the grommets or large eye-

. Toi44 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlets at ends of tent ridge. Place uprights at frontand rear, at right angles to ridge, spindles inserted inridge pole and passing out through peak grommets.If a fly is to be used, lay it out flat over the tent,spindles passing through grommets as in the tent.If end guys are to be run out fore and aft, or thestorm set is used (Fig. lo), slip the loops of thelong guys over the spindles.A man at each end now takes hold of an upright,and the two raise tent and fly together. Then oneor two men hold the tent in position while one ortwo others guy out the corners (beginning on thewindward side) so that the tent will stand by itself.See that the uprights stand truly perpendicular.Tie up the door and peg down the corners of thetent wall.Guy out the sides to stakes, tightening or slackeningthe ropes alternately with their slides until thetent stands true and the guys draw evenly.Stretch the fly similarly, making sure that ittouches the tent nowhere except at the ridge. Itshould clear the eaves by at least 6 inches, preferably9 or lo inches. This requires an extra set of stakesdriven outside the wall stakes, or a single set of longstakes with double notches (army tents). In thelatter case there is not enough clearance for hotweather, unless the fly ropes are propped up oncrotched sticksON Tents). A better method, without any stakes,is described later.(see further under Action of WindFinish pegging down the tent wall ; or, If there isa sod cloth, weight It down with flat rocks or poles,which is a better rig, not only to exclude draughtsand Insects, but also because then the tent wall canreadily be clewed up to the eaves, In fine wxather, tosun and air the Interior.The tent now stands Gquare and taut allaround(Fig. 9), secure against all but heavy end winds.brace it against end strain you could run a pair»of long guys out fore and aft; but such a rig is a

TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 45never-ending source of wrath and objurgation.Itis forever in the way, prevents having the camp-firein front where you want it, and is sure to be runinto or tripped over by anyone who goes out of thetent at night.Fig. 9.— U. S. Array Wall Tent with Fly. (Officers' Tent)Storm Set.— Better end braces are rigged witha pair of long guy ropes each of which has a loopin the middle to go over the upright spindle and aregulating lashing at each end. These may be madefast to corner stakes set diagonally outward fromFig. 10.— Storm Setthe tent corners, as with army hospital tents; but abetter plan is w^hat I call the storm set (Fig. 10), inwhich the ropes are carried backward to the oppositecorners. The storm set leaves both ends of thetent free from obstruction, takes less room, does nottend to Dull apart a jointed ridge pole^ if such is

used, keeps the fly from " ballooning " when windgets under it, and is the most secure of all end bracesbecause the strain each way is met by ropes pulling,over a triangle of wide base, directly back againstthe wind.In the illustration, the loop at middle of one guyis slipped over the spindle A, one end is drawn backto C and the other to the stake opposite C. Similarlythe other guy runs from B to D and E.Wall Tent with Guy Frames.— Tent stakesare troublesome t-hings at best. Generally whenyou go to driving them you find stones or roots inthe way. They do not hold well except in favorableFig. II.— Wall Tent on Shears with Guy Framesoil and in dry weather. When guy ropes get wetthey shrink and engage in a tug of war that loosensthe stakes.If poles grow near the camp site i»: is more satisfactoryto drive four heavy crotched corner stakesand lay a stiff pole across each pair of them at aboutihe height of the tent wall and parallel to its sides,to which the guy ropes are made fast (see Fig. ii).If a fly is used, lash a rather heavy pole to eachedge and drop these poles over the guy rods. Theirweight automatically keeps the fly taut at all times,wet or dry.Tent on Shears.— Tent poles are bothersome

TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 47'on the train and in a wagon, and impossible in acanoe or on a pack train unless they are jointed.Socketed poles become useless, or hard to refit, if aferrule is stepped on or otherwise dented. An uprightpole in the doorway must be dodged every timeyou go in or out. A pair of shear legs at each endof the tent, to support the ridge pole, is a stancherset.Cut four straight poles a couple of feet longerthan the distance from peak to corner of tent, anda stiff stick for ridge pole about two feet longer thanFig. 12.— Lashing for Shear Legs.(For Tent Shears it is not Necessaryto Take so many Turns)Fig. 14.— MagnusHitch.(Not Apt toSlip Along aPole)Fig. 13.— SheaLegs Spreadthe tent. To bind the shear poles, lay a pair ofthem side by side; with a small rope take severalturns around both poles near their upper ends, nottoo tightly, then pass the ends of the rope one upand the other down, to form a cross-lashing, and tiethem with a reef knot (Fig. 12). When the buttsof the shear legs are drawn apart the crossing ofthe tips puts a strain on the knot and effectually securesthem (Fig. 13).Having spread out the tent and inserted the ridgepole (or tied it outside), raise tent with the shears,

48 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTand spread their legs until the tent just touches theground when ready to be pegged down (Fig. ii).One man can raise a rather heavy tent in this wayby working first at one end and then at the other.In the case of a wall tent w^ith fly, erect sideframes for the guys (Fig. ii) ; but if no fly is used,all that is needed is to lash side poles to the shearsand tie the eaves fast to them : this is the best rig fora small waterproof tent that is to be moved often(Fig. 15)-Sometimes the rear end of the ridge pole can belashed to a convenient sapling, or rested in the forkof a limb. Some campers plant a single crotchedpost at the rear, but usually it is easier to set upshears than to find a suitable crotch and plant itFig. 15.— Wall Tent with Side Barsfirmly. It is one advantage of shear legs that theycan be erected without diflficulty anywhere, althoughthe ground may be rocky or frozen.This rig has several other merits. It leaves thedoonvay unobstructed. The legs do not sink somuch in soft soil or sand as single uprights; if theyshould sink, they can be raised in a trice by drawingthe butts closer together. Similarly, when the tentshrinks, from wetting, the strain can be eased bysimply lifting one shear leg and pushing it a littlefarther outward. When the canvas sags, draw thelegs closer to their mates, and you stretch the tentas taut as a drum-head.An inside ridge pole is best for a large, heavy

.TENTS FOR FIXED CAMPS 49tent; but it must be straight and smooth, or it willwear the canvas and make it leak. Small or medium-sizetents are best made with a strongly reinforcedouter ridge with cords by which the tent istied to an outside ridge pole (Fig. 11). In thiscase the pole need not be so straight nor so carefullytrimmed.An outside ridge pole is excellent to keep a tentfly clear all around from the tent roof, permittinga free circulation of air between the two, whichkeeps the tent cool in summer.Trenching the Tent.— This should alwaysbe done if camp is not to be vmoved frequently. Do not dig ^^othe ditch V-shaped, but cut ^^-^straight down, just outside thetent pegs and slope the trenchinward toward this dam (Fig.16). Cast the dirt away ; neverbank it against the tent, for it^^^ .v^^ould quickly rot the canvas. ^ -£^^ !!^^^Give the ditch a uniform slope ^^/^^^^^toward the lowest ground ^. , ^^Till,,— Fig. 16. Trenching:,around the tent. In the shal- Xentlowest places it need not be overthree inches deep. A trench that does not draiawell is worse than none.Tent Floors.— In fixed camp, especially if it isin a sandy place, the tent should have a board floor.Lay down the requisite number of 2" x 4" scantlingas floor-joists, setting them on flat rocks or posts ifnecessary. (It is well to let the front and rearjoists project far enough for a guy-rope frame to benailed to them.) Plank them over with dressedlumber. The edges should be dressed to match,",tongued and grooved flooring is best.If you have enough lumber, run a base-boardaround the sides and rear. Inside the base-boards,at each corner, set up a 2" x 4" joist to height of tentwall, and connect these corner posts at top by nar-^

50 CAMPING AND WOCTOCRAFl'row boards, on the outside, corresponding to thebase-boards (Fig. 17).Such a frame helps to hold the tent in shape.The upper boards are convenient for hanging upwall-pockets, guns, etc., where they are handy butout of the way., . 1 1Loop the tent-pin beckets over nails in the baseboards:then the walls can be clewed up in warmweather.Before laying a floor the tent first should be setup without it and accurate measurements taken (orthe measuring string previously mentioned may beused). If the floor is too small there will be en-Fig, 17.— Tent Floor, with Wall Rail, Base-board, andEnd Joists Projecting that Corner Stakes May Be Nailedto Themtrance for draughts and Insects; If It projects, thecanvas will not fit over It, and rainwater will run In.A portable tent floor may be made in sectionsthat bolt together. The sections should not be toolarge to lie flat in a wagon box (for standard roads,wagon boxes are usually 42 inches wide ; for narro\^tracks, 38 inches; length of box usually 10^ ft.).Dimensions and number of sections will depend, ofcourse, upon size of tent.Tlxts on Rocky or Sandy Ground.— If theground is too rocky to drive stakes in it, or is hardfrozen, erect the tent on shears and guy it out torocks or growing bushes.Tent stakes do not hold well in sand or in groundthat has been soaked by rain. It Is customary, Insuch cases, to attach the guys to a double row oi:

TEIS'IS FOR FIXED ^.lAMPS 51stakes, one behind the other, or intcilocking at rightangles (one stake driven at a sharp angle towardthe tent, the other outward so that its notch engagesthe head of the other stake, the two forming an invertedV, thus A).An easier and more secure way is to lay a heavypole over the guy ropes close to the stakes (Fig. 18),and, if need be, weight it down with rocks, earth,or sand-In a very sandy place, where no log isto be found,dig a small pit for each guy, tie the rope around afagot or to a bag of sand (Fig. 19), bury this, andstamp the sand over it.Fig. 18.— Guys Weightedwith LogFig. 19.— Guy Rope Fastenedto Fagot to BeBuried in Ground.Action of Wind on Tents.— Unless one encampsin an open country the wind will seldomstrike his tent steadily in a direction parallel withthe ground. Rather it goes eddying and curling likedriven smoke: hence the flapping and slatting of thefly-sheet.During a squall a violent blow may fall straightdown upon the roof as chough bent on snapping thepoles; then, rebounding, it will try to carry thetent away and aloft, as though your shelter w^ere anopen umbrella. This action is often marked inravines and in a glade surrounded by tall trees, butit may occur anywhere. The stanchest tents fora very windy situation are those of conical or pyramidalform, set up on or under tripods.A fly-sheet is a perfect wind trap, especially if Itorojects in the form of a porch, or is set well away

52 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfrom the ridge of the tent. This is one reason whyI prefer a waterproofed tent without fly (except forhot climates). If a porch is wanted, rig a sheet ofcanvas over a separate frame in front of the tent;I'hen, if it blows away, it will not wreck the tent too.The flies of army tents, and of other patterns builtfor hard and varied service, are guyed to doublenotchedwall stakes, and so set rather close to theroof (see Fig. 9).

v^HAPTER IVFURNITURE, TOOLS, AND UTEN-SILS FOR FIXED CAMPSWhen you go a-camping, make yourself as comfortableas you can. It is neither heroic nor sensibleto put peas in your boots to mortify the flesh.There is no comfort in toting a lot of baggage overbad trails, but when there is a wagon to carry foldingcots and camp chairs, take them along.Pack your provisions, and some of the other things,in boxes that will serve for cupboards and coldstoragein camp. Put some ready-cut shelf boards inthem, and leather for hinges. Make sure beforehandthat you can get enough lumber at your destinationto make a dining table and benches.Straw beds on the ground soon get fusty, andthey attract vermin. Fixed bunks in a tent harbordirt and dampness.Cots.— For a bed in fixed camp, or wherevertransportation is adequate, choose a folding cot. Itis easy to keep presentable. It makes a comfortablelounge or settee, as well as a good bed. It can bepicked up bodily and carried out every morning tosun and air, leaving the tent floor free for sweeping.Wire-bottomed cots are too cumbersome for generalcamping. Canvas stretcher-beds with framesthat fold compactly are the right things. I havechosen four models for illustration.Length.

54 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTFig.20.— Narrow CotFig.21.— Compact CotFig.22.— Telescoping CotFig. 23.— Cot with Mosquito Screen

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAMPS 55The first and fourth of these cots differ only insize and weight. The second folds so compactlythat it can be stowed in a short chest or steamertrunk. The third opens like a lazy-tongs, can beset up in less than a minute, and is unusually highand roomy for its weight.The wider the cot, the more comfortable it willbe, especially in cold weather. On a very narrowcot the sleeper's body raises the covering free fromthe bed on both sides, leaving gaps through whichcold air draws upward between mattress and blanket,chiUing the sleeper, no matter how much coveringhe may pile on. Sleeping-bags obviate this.The cotton pad mattresses made for camp cots areneedlessly bulky and heavy, hard to lie on, and hardto keep dry in the moist forest air. Much betteris a folded comforter stuffed with wool instead ofcotton. It can be kept dry and sweet by hanging itout in the sun like a blanket.Wool stays fluffy andspringy, but cotton batting mats down and getslumpy, besides retaining moisture.To be secure against insect pests is as essential topeace and comfort in camp as a dry roof overhead, ifnot more so.If the tent itself is not thoroughly screenedagainst flies and mosquitoes, then by all means getfrom the outfitter a cot frame and netting (Fig. 23),or, as a makeshift, rig for yourself a pyramidalhead-screen of netting or cheesecloth, to be hungby a string above the bed, with the edges of threesides tucked under the mattress after you turn in.Camp Chairs.—• Folding stools without backsare by no mean? comfortable. Far better is a chairin which you can recline and rest the whole body.The pattern show^n in Fig. 24 folds as easily as anumbrella, to a size 3 ft. long by 3 in. square, and,when opened, adjusts itself perfectly to the body. Itweighs 4^ pounds. A larger size, high enough torest the head, weighs 6% pounds.The armchair, Fig. 25, knocks down into six parts

50 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwhich are carried in a bag, forming a package 29 x 6in., that weighs 8 pounds. This is the Indian" Rhorkee " chair, a favorite with old campaignersthe world over.With the addition of a foot-rest ofFig, 24.— Folding Chair Fig. 25.—Folding Arm Chair«)me sort it makes a fairly comfortable bed. CaspaiWhitney and Richard Harding Davis consider itthe best camp chair made. Several of our sportinggoods houses carry it in stock.Camp Tables.— A small table in the tent Isan-Fig. 26.— Roll-up Table Fig. 27.—Roll-up Table Topother convenience that pays for its transportation.The model shown in Fig. 26, with roll top, comes intwo sizes, 36x27 and 36x36 inches. It folds intoa package about 6 inches in diameter, and weighs

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAMPS 5716 pounds. The top separately, weighing only 6pounds, and costing but $1.25, can be set up onforked stakes, as illustrated in Fig. 27.The table shown in Fig. 29 folds into a packageonly 27 inches long, and weighs 15 pounds.Fig. 2S.— Table with ShelfFig. 29.— Compact TableA Stronger and more rigid table than either ofthese has legs that cross in four directions (Fig. 28).It may be bought either plain (16 pounds) or witha folding shelf underneath (23 pounds). The topis 36 X 27 inches ; size folded, 36x7x5 inches. Byan interlocking device, two or more of these tablesmay be fastened together, for mess purposes.^,

58 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTShelves and Wall Pockets.— To keep a tentfrom being littered with small articles that are alwaysin the way except when you want them andcan't find them, shelves or wall pockets, or both, arewell-nigh indispensable. These may be purchasedready-made.The camp cupboard here illustrated (Fig. 30) hasfour shelves, each 10 x 30 inches, folds into a parcel4x10x30 inches, and weighs 7 pounds. Othersizes are manufactured.The wall pocket (Fig. 31) is 30 x 36 inches, andweighs 1 5^ pounds. Such things can easily be madeat home to suit individual requirements.Clothes Hangers.— There are various kinds oftent-pole hooks for suspending clothing, a lantern,and accoutrements. Such a contrivance is to beclamped to the rear upright, or to the center pole,depending on the kind of tent. Some are made ofleather or webbing so as to be adjustable to poles ofany size.In any tent with a ridge pole two screw-eyesshould be put in at opposite ends from which to suspendby cords a straight stick to hang clothes on.This is especially handy for wet clothes on rainydays.Medical Kit.— About the best thing of this sort,for average campers who do not have to go verylight, is the " Household (B) " first aid box fittedup by the American National Red Cross, Washington,D. C. The case is of heavy tin, 10 x g]^ x 3^inches, white enameled inside and out, and containsrhe following articles:I 2-oz. bottle Alcohol, 1 2-dram vial Oil ofI 2-oz. bottle Aromatic Cloves.Spirits of Ammonia. i Bottle Soda Mint Tab-1 2-oz. bottle Syrup of lets.Ipecac. I Bottle Cascara SagradaI 2-oz. bottle Jamaica Tablets.Ginger. 2 Iodine Containers.1 2-oz. bottle Liniment, i Package A. R. C. Fin*1 2-dram vial Olive Oil. ger Dressings (6)

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAMPS 551 Package A. R. C. Small i Paper Safety Pins.Dressings (3) 6 Wooden Tongue De-2 A. R. C. First Aid Out- pressors.fits. I Medicine Dropper.6 Assorted Bandages. i Package Paper Cups.I i-yard package Picric i Tourniquet.Acid Gauze. i Clinical Thermometer.I Spool Adhesive Plaster. i 2-oz. Package Absorb-X Pair Scissors. ent Cotton.Brief directions telling how to use these are pastedInside the lid, but one should order at the same timea copy of the excellent little American Red CrossAbridged Text-book on First Aid (General Edition)by Major Charles Lynch, Medical Corps, U. S. A.For prices see the Red Cross catalogue, which Is sentfree on application to the address given above.Tools.— An axe and a hatchet are Indispensable(see Chapters VII and X). If much wood Is to becut, and there are poor axemen In the party, a crosscutsaw is the tool for them. The long pattern fortwo men Is much the easiest to cut with, but meanto transport; a one-man cross-cut with 3-ft. bladeand auxiliary handle for the left hand will do verywell.A hand saw Is necessary if you are to make a diningtable, tent floor, and so on. Make the cookswear on his cook-book that he will not use that sawon meat bones (provide him with a cheap kitchensaw).A spade or miner's shovel will be needed fortrenching, and for excavating the refuse pit, latrine,and perhaps a cold-storage hole and a camp oven.For small tools, see Chapter VII.Take an assortment of nails and tacks, a spool ofand a bundleannealed wire, a ball of strong twine,of braided cotton sash cord (for clothes line, emergencyguys to tent, etc.).If you have a dog, string some heavy wire betweentwo trees as a " trolley," and chain him to it atnight, so he can move back and forth.Here is a good wrinkle that I found in a sports-

6oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmen's magazine: If there are children in camp," put a small cow-bell in the lunch basket or berrypail of the youngsters before you let them go intostrange woods. It will reassure both them and you,and may be the means of preventing a tragedy.Trust them to shake it up if they get lost!Lanterns.— "If a powerful light is wanted incamp, a gas lantern of the type advertised in sportsmen'sjournals is a good thing, or an acetylene lanternthat is made so that the flame can be regulated.Ordinarily a common kerosene lantern will servevery well.Camp Stoves.— If there is a separate commissarytent, the cooking can be done on a common blueflameoil or gasolene stove, set up on a perfectlylevel stand. Such a stove is useless out of doorsunless fitted with a wind-shield. Do no cooking inthe living tent: it attracts flies and vermin.The best cooking stoves for campers are thosespecially designed for the purpose, and burningwood. There are many patterns, of varying merit.Do not buy a folding stove for ordinary camping:they are bothersome and flimsy.I leave out of account stoves without ovens (Tcan see no good reason for a stove at all unless it hasan oven). There are shown here three differenttypes of sheet steel camp stoves, each good in its way.The first one (Figs. 32, 33) is very compact, yetlarge enough to cook for four persons, or six in apinch. When packed and locked in its metal crate,it measures 103^x18x213^ inches, and can bechecked as baggage. Inside the fire-box (8 x 10 x 17inches) are packed three sections of adjustable 4-inchpipe, and two automatic locking bars. Inside theoven (73^ x 103^ x 17 inches) there is stowed a 5-gallon water reservoir, and with it a set of sheetiron and tin cooking utensils and table service forsix persons. When the stove is in use, the reservoirhooks on to the left side of the stove, next to thefire box, and increases the stove top to I7 x 28 inches

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAMPS6iThis is a most useful addition, since plenty of hotwater is needed for cooking and in washing up.The fire box takes in 1 6-inch wood. The oven islarge enough for a gx 15-inch bread pan and willroast a good-sized fowl.Fig. 32.— Small Camp StoveFig. 33.— Stove PackedWhen the stove is set up, it is mounted on its steelcrate and the locking bars are attached under theoven to form a warming rack. It is not intendedfor tent heating.This stove weighs 25 pounds,and the reservoir and utensilsabout 15 pounds more. Tomake the pots and pans nest inthe oven, they are made squareor rectangular. For fixed campsit is best to select your own utensils,and carry the larger ones ina separate box.The second stove (Fig. 34)is made with fire box extendingFig. 34.— Stove forLarge Woodits entire length. It will takein a billet 28 inches long, whichwill keep a fire all night, and will be ready forcooking five minutes after the dampers are openedin the morning. When packed for transportation,the stove measures 30 x 14 x 12 inches, and weight

62 ca:\iping and woodcraft29 pounds (43H pounds complete ^^ith grub boxand utensils). When set up, the 14 x 30-inch topis free for utensils; the oven, above it, takes a10 X 14-inch pan for baking or roasting. Oven,legs, and pipe stow inside the body of the stove,leaving space for a 12 x 13 x 9^-inch galvanized boxthat holds cooking utensils and is used in camp as adish-pan or as a vermin-proof box for provisions.A cook-stove with sheet-iron top needs ruD plates.If you get one with plates, be sure they are farFig. 36.— FieldRange (Packed)Fig. 35-— Field Rangeenough apart so that the vessels do not interferewith each other.The third type of stove (Figs. 35, 36) is one regularly used by our Geological Survey, Forestry Bureau,and issimilar to the Army range, but smaller.The No. 4 size, to cook for 6 men, packs, withutensils, in a space 12x13x22 inches. The ovenis 8 X 12 X 12 inches. The range weighs 52 pounds,the utensils 20 pounds, and a dining service for sixpersons, in enamel and white or plated metal, 13pounds. For continuous field service this is a quitepractical range.

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAMPS 63Personalh^ I never use a camp stove, preferring tocook in the open.As for a heating stove in a tent, my experiencetalhes with that of Dr. Breck: "Either it bakesyou with a temperature of ninety degrees, or it takesthe first opportunity to go aiit directly ^-ou clo^e)'our eyes, and you awake trembh'ng with cold, thethermometer registering somewhere 'round zer'o."Someone else has called the tent stove ." a portable vhell." But there are those who like it/ for, cold- ^*weather camping; and I admit that- if the tent is not "less than 10x14, and the stove's fire-box is bi^^enough to take in a thick billet two feet lone, so"^*that it will keep a smouldering all-night fire withoutyour everlastingly pottering around it, there are'iimes and places where a stove in the tent may be agood thing.-If you do set up a stove, be sure to fix a spark--arrester over the top of the pipe. This need not beanything more costly than a piece of wire netting.If the stove must be set rather close to the tenlAvail, take along a sheet of asbestos as a shield.Oneof the pads used for dining-tables will do very well.Such things can be bought at department stores, 01of mail-order houses.When starting a fire in an " air-tight," use littlefuel at first, or you will smother the flame in its ownsmoke. If the stove has no legs, make a boardframe like the sides of a low box, or a crib of notchedlogs, and fill in with gravel.Camp Grates and Fire Irons.— A stove ismerely a convenience and an economizer of fuel.Quite as good meals can be cooked over an openfire. Even when it rains, a bonfire can be built toone side and hard coals shoveled from it to a spotsheltered by canvas where the cooking is done. Butit pays to take along either a folding grate or a pairof fire irons to hold the frying-pan, etc., level andclose over the coals. Then you will need no longstick attached to the frving-oan handle, nor must

64 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe cook give all his attention to that one utensilwhen frying or making pancakes.Of folding grates there are many and ingeniouspatterns. I never use any of them ; for they arelikely to warp from heat or to rust in service, andbecome unmanageable. Simpler, cheaper, and quiteas useful, are a pair of ** fire-irons," which are simplytwo pieces of flat steel 24 x i ^ x ^^ inches,weighing 23^ pounds to the pair, that any blacksmithwill cut for you in a minute. Lay them acrossa couple of logs or flat rocks that are placed oneither side of the fire. You can space them apartto suit vessels of different sizes. They will standany amount of abuse; if they get bent, you canquickly hammer them back into shape.Ovens.— When there is no stove in the outfit,you will need some kind of camp oven. For a fixedcamp a good kind is the oldfashionedDutch oven (Fig.37). How to use it is explainedin Chapter XX. Fora party of four to six it shouldbe of full 13-inch diameter,which will weigh about 17pounds. Lighter ones, butFig. 37.—Dutch Oven "^"ch more expensive, are madeof aluminum with iron tops.Aluminum will not stand the high heat necessaryfor the top, but does very well for the body of thevessel, if thick enough.Such ovens are favorites in the South and theFar West. They are better than reflectors (seeChapter VII) for any baking or roasting that requiresconsiderable time (inimitable for pot-roastsand baked beans), but rather unhandy forbiscuits,though all right for biscuit-loaf.Other Utensils.— For stationary camps, or fortraveling by wagon, the most satisfactory materialfor pots and table service is enameled ware. It iseasier to clean than any other metal, and it is not

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAMPS 65corroded, like tin, by fruits or vegetables steeped,cooked or left over in it. The tendency of enameledware to chip and flake in cold weather can be tamedby warming gradually before exposing to fierce heat.Pressed tinware of heavy gauge is good enoughfor most purposes, though hard to clean when greasy.It is unfit to cook tart fruit in, and it makes tea*'taste." Thin soldered tinware is treacherous,dents and rusts easily,and lasts but a short time.Aluminum is needlessly expensive for the class ofcamping we are now considering.Where compactness need not be studied, fryingpanswith stationary handles are more practical thanthe folding kind.A complete cooking, washing, and table set, forsix persons, is listed below. It is heavy (about 58pounds, with oven and fire irons, or 38 pounds withoutthem), but cheap (about $13.50 with, or $10.50without oven and irons) and should last a long time.Utensils for 6 Persons in Fixed Camp.Dutch Oven, cast iron, 13^4x6 in. (omitted if there isa stove).2 Fire Irons, fiat steel, 24X ij^ x J/^ in. (omitted if thereis a stove).Dish Pan, enameled, 16x5 in.Wash Basin, enameled, 13^ in.2 Milk Pans, enameled, io)/2 in. (for mixing and serving).Water Pail, enameled, 10 qt.3 Covered Pails, enameled, 3, 4^^ and 6 qt., nesting.Double Boiler, enameled, 3^2 qt.Coffee Pot, enameled, 3^4 qt.Tea Pot, enameled, 2 qt.Graduated Measure, enameled, i oK2 Frying-pans, steel, 10% i^2 Pot Covers, tin, 10^ in.Broiler, wire, 9 x 14 in.3 Pot Chains.Tea Ball, aluminum.Dipper, enameled, i qt.Basting Spoon, enameled.Skimmer, enameledSoup Ladle, enamt'led.

66 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTCake Turner, steel.Butcher Knife, steel.Flesh Fork, steel.Kitchen Saw, steel.Spring Balance, 24 lb.Pot Cleaner, wire.Can Opener and Corkscrew.Salt Shaker.Pepper Shaker.TO Dinner Plates, white enameled, 8J/^ in.6 Cups, white enameled, i pint (handles cut to nest).6 Cereal Bowls, white enameled.6 Knives, steel.6 Forks, white metal.6 Teaspoons, white metal.6 Dessert Spoons, white metal.2 yds. Table Oilcloth.2 yds. Turkish Toweling (dish towels and clouts).100 Paper Napkins.1 bar Sapolio.1 bar Fels Naphtha Soap.A milk-can should be added if the camp is near afarm-house.FiRELESS Cookers.— A great deal of the botherof cooking can be saved by using a fireless cooker, inwhich all of the slow processes are performed (roasting,baking, stewing, boiling, and making porridge).'In this case only a few simple utensils are required,a wood stove is dispensed with, and there is noneed of anyone staying in camp to watch the fireand the cooking. The soapstone radiators can beheated over an alcohol or blue-flame stove. Hotmeals can be had at all hours, even when the partyis traveling.A rough-and-ready fireless cooker, which can alsobe used as a cold-storage box, was described someyears ago in Outing.—"When preparing your outfit this summer, pack someof your belongings in a soap or cracker box that has afairly close-fitting lid. Take along an old white quilt ora blanket that can be folded into a pad to fit the box, ormake a crude pad out of unbleached muslin with cottonbatting, about one inch thick. Include in your outfit agranit-s cooking pail commensurate in capacity with the

FURNITURE FOR FIXED CAIvIFS 67size of your party. In setting up camp, the soap box is tobe lined with three or four thicknesses of newspaper (thiscan be done easily with the aid of a few tacks) andfilled with clean hay or stiaw, packed firmly; and a closelittle nest hollow^ed out to fit the cooking pail.This camp fireless cooker has been tested and hasproved a pleasant luxury as well as a convenience incamp life. It makes possible cooked cereals, rice, evap'orated fruits and slow-cooking vegetables, where oiheiwisethey would be excluded from the menu. If ther

CHAPTER VTENTS FOR SHIFTING CAMPSTents were devised long before the dawn of history,and they still are used as portable dwellingsby men of all races and in all climes. Every yearsees countless campers busy with new contrivancesin canvas or other tent materials, seeking improvements— and still the prehistoric patterns hold theirown. Wherever caravans or armies march, or peopletravel by wagon, or summer vacationists take toa gipsy life, we see wall tents of house shape, orconical ones,of heavy canvas.But for a small party traveling in rough country,with pack animals, or in light water-craft, or perchanceafoot, such cumbersome affairs are out of thequestion.Wherever transportation is difficult it is imperalive that the tent should be light, compact to carry,and, if you are to make camp and break camp everyday or two, it must be so rigged that it can be setup easily and quickly by one or two men.The tent should shed heavy rains and stand securelyin a gale. It should keep out insects andcold draughts, yet let in plenty of pure air. If coldweather is to be encountered, either the tent shouldbe fitted with a very portable stove, or it should beopen in front and so shaped as to reflect the heat ofa log fire down upon the occupants, yet not smotherthem with smoke. All of which is easily said, butharder to combine In fact. Hence the multitude oftent patterns.In designing a light tent we begin by cuttirux68

nrTENTS FOR SHIFTING CAMPS 69down the size to what will " sleep " the occupantsand their personal duffle. Since the party is to beout of doors all day, save in uncommonly badweather, a small tent will suffice. Then we dispensewith a fly, and make the tent of waterproof material,not only to shed rain but also because plain canvasis very heavy when wet. If the journey is througha well wooded countrj^, no poles or stakes are carried: they are to be cut on the spot. If, however,saplings are scarce in the land, then the tent is madeto set up with only one pole, and this pole may bejointed ; no guy stakes are used, and the pegs arelight things made of steel,Tents that are to be carried on pack animals needas few as practicable.to be of strong, heavy duck, or else carried in stoutbags; otherwise they will be ruined by the sawingof lash ropes and snagging or rubbing against treesand rocks. For such work the best of army duck isnone too good.Materials for Light Tents.— Otherwise themost suitable material is very closely woven stuffmade from Sea Island or Egyptian cotton, which hasa long and strong fiber. A thin cloth of this kindis stout enough for most purposes, yet very light, anda tent made from it rolls up into a much smallerbundle than one of duck. It comes in variousweights and fineness of texture. The standard gradeof " balloon silk" runs about 3^ oz. to the squareyard in plain goods, and 5>4 oz. when waterproofedwith paraffine. This trade name, by the way, is anabsurdity: the stuff has no thread of silk in it, andthe only ballooning it ever does is when a wind getsunder it.Cheaper goods, of coarser weave, and intermediatein weight between this and duck, do well enough foreasy trips, if waterproofed.Waterproof or Rainproof Cloths.— Thesemay be classed under two heads: {A) cloth filledwith paraffine or other water-shedding substance;{B) cloth chemically treated so that each fiber or

70 CAMPING AND WCODCRAF'ithread is itself repellant of water, but the intersticesare leftopen.In the first instance it is not practicable to treatthe cloth before making it up ; the whole tent shouldbe soaked in a waterproofing mixture, or the " wax "ironed in, thus insuring that the seams are tight.Paraffine is used either plain (in which case it iuliable to crack or flake in cold weather) or combinedwith some elastic substance. The " mineral wax "callea ozocerite or cerasine (often used as a substitutefor beeswax, and sold by dealers in crude drugs)is not so brittle as paraffine, adheres better, and, likeparaffine, has no deleterious action on cloth, beingchemically neutral. I have not known of it beingused by tent-makers, but believe they should try it.Crude ozocerite is nearly black; when refined it isof a yellow color (cerasine) and resembles beeswaxbut is not so sticky. It makes a tough compoundwith rubber.The plain wax process renders cloth quite waterproof,but adds considerable weight, makes the stuffrather stiff, and increases its liability to catch afire,when exposed close to a stove or camp-fire.Cloth of class B is subdivided in two groups:( 1) Cravenetted goods, like duxbak and gabar-^,dine, are processed in the yarn, or by chemical treatmentapplied to the raw strands themselves beforethey are twisted into thread. Such cloth is not sowaterproof as waxed or oiled stuff, yet tents madeof it can be depended upon to shed rain. It is aspliable as plain cloth, not perceptibly heavier, and isnot affected by changes of temperature.(2) Willesden canvas (or twill, etc., as the casemay be), also known in England as "green rotproof,"is cotton stuff soaked in an ammoniacal solutionof copper that dissolves enough cellulose in thecloth to coat each fiber with a more or less impermeable" skin " of its own substance, and turns the materiala light shade of green. It is not so waterproof^s waxed cloth, yet sheds rain very well if the mate-

TENTS FOR SHIFTING CAMPS 71rial is closely woven. What is known in this countryas " green waterproof " has gone through thecupro-ammonium process and then is lightly waxedbesides, making it quite waterproof but more pliableand slower burning than plain waxed stuff.The mills produce many grades of light clothsuitable for tenting. Each tent-maker chooses forhimself, and generally does his own waterproofing.In comparing samples, count the number of threadsto the inch with a magnifying glass, then note weightper square yard, and strength.Cloth proofed with linseed or other drying oil isnot strong enough for tenting (for its weight) ; it issticky in hot weather, stiff in cold, and dangerouslyinflammable.Featherweight Tent Materials.— Pedestrianand cycle campers sometimes go in for the utmostpossible lightness and compactness of outfit thatwill serve their purposes. For tents they use themost finely woven cotton, linen, or silk, not waterproofed,but depending upon extreme closeness of textureto shed rain.The cloth may " spray " a littlein the first heavy downpour, but it will not leak solong as nothing rubs it from within.I have a sample of very close-woven silky cottonstuff from which a Puget Sound tent-maker turnsout "A" tents complete of the following weights:31^x7x4 ft. high, 2 lbs.; 4^x7)^x5 ft., 2^lbs. ; 7>4 X 7>^ x 7 ft., 5 lbs.Lightest of all rain-proof materials, strongest forits weight, and, of course, most expensive, is silk.It can be woven more closely than any other textileand so needs no waterproofing (oiled silk, such assurgeons use, weighs more than "balloon silk").Genuine silk is the toughest of all fibers ; but it doesnot stand much friction, hence should be reinforcedat all friction surfaces, and rolled up when packedaway, not folded in creases.It is unsuitable for anybut special tents made for pedestrians. A Londonmaker, T. H. Holding, sells a tentlette (If I may

72 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcoin a terrr.) of Japanese silk, in wedge shape,6 X 5 X 4 ft. 6 in. high, that weighs under I2 ounces;and it is a practical little affair of its kind. Of oneof these he reports: "It has stood some of theheaviest rains, in fact records for thirty hours at astretch, without letting in wet, and I say this of anli-oz. silk one."Waterproofing Cloth at Home.— If one hashome facilities, there is no reason why he should notmake a good job of waterproofing for himself.Paraffine Process.— The cheapest, simplest, and, insome respects, the most satisfactory way is to get a cakeor two of paraffine or cerasine, lay the tent on a tablerub the outer side with the wax until it has a good coatingevenly distributed, then iron the cloth with a mediumhotflatiron, which melts the wax and runs it into everypore of the cloth. The more closely woven the cloth, theless wax and less total weight.Some prefer to treat the tent with a solution of paraffine.In this case, cut the wax into shavings so it will dissolvereadily. Put 2 lbs. of the wax in 2 gallons of turpentine(for a 7x9 tent or thereabouts). Place the vesselin a tub of hot water until solution is completed.Meantime set up the tent true and taut. Then paint itwith the hot solution, working rapidly, and using a stiffbrush. Do this on a sunny morning and let tent standuntil quite dry. The turpentine adds a certain elasticityto the wax; benzine does not.For tents to be used in cold weather before anopen fire, the following process is better:Alum and Sugar of Lead.— First soak the tent overnightin water to rid it of sizing, and hang up to dry.Then get enough soft water to make the solutions (rainwateris best; some city waters will do, others are toohard). Have two tubs or wash-boilers big enough forthe purpose. In one, dissolve alum in hot soft water,in the proportion of 34 Jt). to the gallon. In the other,with the same amount of hot water, dissolve sugar oflead (lead acetate — a poison) in the same proportion.T.et the solutions stand until clear; then add the sugarof lead solution to the alum liquor. Let stand about fourhours, or until all the lead sulphate has precipitated.Then pour off the clear liquor from the dregs into theother tub, thoroughly work the tent in it with the hands

TENTS FOR SHIFTING CAMPS 73until every part is quite penetrated, and let soak overnight.In the morning, rinse well, stretch, and hang upto dry.A closely woven cloth should be used.This treatment fixes acetate of alumina in the fibers ofthe cloth. The final rinsing is to cleanse the fabric fromthe useless white powder of sulphate of lead that is depositedon it. Failures are usually due to using hardwater, or a less proportion of alum than here recommended,or to not dissolving the chemicals separately anddecanting off the clear liquor. When directions are followed,the cloth will be rain-proof and practically sparkproof,but not damp-proof if you use it as a ground-sheetto lie on, or if exposed to friction. After a good deal ofuse, the tent will need treating over again, as the mineraldeposit gradually washes out.Remember that cotton goods shrink considerably whensoaked.firstAlum and Soap.— Shave up about a pound of laundrysoap and dissolve it in 2 gallons of hot water. Soak thecloth in it, dry out thoroughly, and then soak in an alumsolution as above, and dry again.I have had no success with the alum and limemethod mentioned by " Nessmuk."Good waterproofing compounds can be purchasedteady-made from some tent-makers.The following recipes, although not suitable fortents, are useful for other articles of equipment, andare included here while on the subject of waterproofingcloth:Oiled Cloth.— For groupd-sheets to use under bedding:get some of the best grade of boiled linseed oil of areputable paint dealer. One quart will cover five or sixsquare yards of heavy sheeting. Pour it into a pan bigenough to dip your hand into. Lay out the cloth and rubthe oil into it between your palms, using just enough oilat a time to soak the cloth through, filling the pores, butleaving no surplus. Then stretch it in a barn or garret,or other dry shady place, for one week. Finish drying byhanging in the sunlight three or four days, fi .st one sideup, then the other.Flexible Celluloid Coating.—A flexible enamel suchas is used on fly lines for fishing is also useful for finishingseams in articles sewed up from waterproofed cloth.Get some old photographic films, soak them in hot water,and scrub off the gelatine surface with a small stiff brush.

74 crA:VIPING AND WOODCRAFTVVhen they are dry, gradually add them to acetone untilthe solution IS of the consistency of varnish. If a dropof It dries transparent and firm, it is fit. In this stateit makes a strong cement or hard rod varnish that wi Inot crack or peel. To make it flexible, proceed as 7oLAdd common benzine to the amount of one-fourth th^acetone. Shake well. Let the mixture sta^d an'set leDraw off the clear varnish from the water at the bo^torn, and test as before. If it does not dry clearadd a and firmlittle more ""'benzine.Now add castor oil to the amount ofweight two-third,o thethedry celluloid films thatshake well, andhavrbeen usedgive it time to thoroughly mix Test ifin^^f:ce;^7=r^^^r ^:^~^ ^^'It us ^'°'flexibility.°'' -^^f S'^'sDvEiNc Cloth.— Use Diamond dye ofrecommended a kindby the makers for eoUonmv goods. Fold,rect,ons on package. Dye tlie tent a deeperconsiderably m sun and rain.The dyeing must bedone before waterproofingCON-STRUCTION OF LiGHT Tents.- In a tent ofrf "' I " i!"r''"' 'hat the widthsrow,be nar-to keep the shelter taut when set upheandseams thatbe remforced with tape, to relievtself thefrom c othoverstram. Eaves, bottom, andshouldcornersbe strengthened with doubleU cloththere IS a ridge, have it reinforced with tinesr."ret'.eti:n^L'-rT-^*--^^-^the?e"t\S alLed-i^. itt''^' ='""^' ""'^A tent that is to be used in "fly ti-ie"'s cerrtbMnTt"'"'Yf"'' ^curtain'of -cheeseclothused l.,tem the season „-,th an all-night fire in frontAll tents that are made to close up at night or in

TENTS FOR SHIFTING CAMPS 75bad weather should be fitted with screened windowsfor ventilation. The smaller the tent, the greaterthe need of this.Guy-rope slides, if there are any, should be or galvanizedwire. Grommets (galvanized iron ringsworked in by hand) are much better than brass eyeletswhich are likely to pull out.Ropes and beckets are to be small but strong;braided sash cord is best for a ridge rope.Tent pins of steel are more durable and lesscumbersome than wooden ones. In well forestedcountries none need be carried, but four steel cornetpins help in setting up the tent quickly.

CHAPTER VITYPES OF LIGHT TENTSLocal conditions, means of transportation, and sizeof party, are to be considered in choosing among themany tent models that have been designed for camperswho travel light. All depends on where you go,when you go, how you go, and what you want to do.The perfect all-round tent is a myth, like the perfectall-round gun. Of one thing, though, be sure: thatwhatever rig you choose shall be stanch againstwind. The utmost pinnacle of comfort is reachedwhen one lies at night under canvas, with a stormroaring toward him through the forest, and chortlesover the certainty that no wind can blow his tentdown. And it takes just one second of parting guysand ripping cloth to tumble him off his perch andcast him headlong into the very depths of woe.Light Wall Tents.— A wall tent is the favoritecloth shelter of soldiers, engineers, explorers, naturalists,trappers, loggers, and other practical menwho live away from civilization a great deal of thetime. For one thing, it gives the most head-roomfor a given amount of material ; and that counts,especially in continuous bad weather, or when onecomes in wet all over and wants to hang up hisclothes to dry. It is the best form of tent if a stoveis carried ; and that may be necessary in a thinlywooded country, late in the season. The verticalends permit large ventilators or windows that maybe kept open in almost any weather. There is nowaste space, as in tents without walls.Wall tents for flying camps should be muchlighter, of course, than those mentioned in Chapter'76

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 77III. In wooded country they are to be set up withshears, as previously described t or, if the groundfavors, and a quick set is desired, run a ridge ropefrom tree to tree, or from a tree to a stake, stretchthe guys, and do not bother to pin down the bottombut simply weight the sod-cloth.Light waterproof wall tents may be had in greatvariety of sizes and materials, from which the followingare selected as examples (width, depth,height, and wall, in order given) :Balloon Silk(white).iVzy^ iVz^l -2 10^ lbs.S^x 8^x7^-3 14^ lbs.1034x10^x8^-3^20 lbs.Tanalite (tan), Emeralite (green).7x7x7-210 lbs.8J^x 8^x73^-3 14 lbs.10 X 10 x8J^-3^ 19 lbs.Tang (tan), Nilo (green).73^ X 73^x7-2 9 lbs.73^ X 9 X 7-23/2 II lbs.9 X 12 X 7-2 3/^ 13 lbs.Kiro(olive drab).7 X 7 X 7-23/2 123^2 lbs.93^x11^x8-3 20^ lbs.11^x14 x9-33^ 27 lbs.Extra Light Green.6>4x 63^x6 -2 7 lbs.8 X 8 X 7 -23/2 10 lbs.93^x93^x73^-3 133/2 lbs.Green Egyptian.7/^ X 73^ X 7-2 93^ lbs.9^x 9^x8-334 16^ lbs.9^xi2>^x8-3^ 19 lbs.Green Standard.7^^ X 7^^, x 7 -2 12 lbs,9^x 9^x8 -334 19'/' lbs.TiM X ii-M X 9^4-334 273/^ lbs.

78 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTAll of the above-named tents have tape ridges thatcan be tied to outside poles, and are fitted with sodcloths.made ;Smaller, and larger, and intermediate sizes arebut if a lighter shelter is w^anted it is generallybest to choose some other shape than a walltent; and, if a larger one, then use heavier materialstand up better and endure more strain.that w^illDirections for setting up wall tents are given inChapter III (see especially Figs, ii, 15).Conical Tents.— A tent may be " light " absolutely(so many pounds all told) or relatively (soFig. 38.— U. S.A. Conical Tentmany pounds per man sheltered).military pattern, such as the old Sibley,Conical tents ofthe presentU. S. A., and the Bell tent of the British service, belongto the latter class.The U. S. Army conical wall tent (Fig. 38) is16 ft. 5 in. in diameter, 10 ft. high, and has a 3-ft.wall. It is erected by a single pole, the butt ofwhich fits into a folding steel tripod, thus shorteningthe pole and giving it better bearing. At the top isan opening shielded by flaps. It is heated by a bottomlesscone-shaped stove of 2-ft. diameter at thebas^. (Fig» 39) with 5-in. pipe. This stove con-

:TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 79sumes little fuel. It is fed with sticks stood on end(dn^ "cow chips" will do), and the draught isregulated by banking earth around the bottom.Such a tent is room)- and comfortable for eight menin any weather. It willshelter a dozen or more atpinch.A conical tent is best fora party traveling on theplains, where violent windstormsor cloud-bursts orblizzards may suddenly beencountered, and w^here thereis little or no timber. Acone sheds winds and rainbetter than any other shape,as it has a steep pitch andequal bracing in all directions.On the other hand, itis not fit for rough grounds;aFig- 39-—Sibley TentStoveunless the site is smooth and level the tent bottonntwill gape in some places and sag in others. A conicaltent cannot be set up properly without a fullset of pegs, and it requires many of them.Smaller and lighter conical tents are made for^various tastes ; but no tent of this shape should be ofless diameter than 13 feet with wall, or 14 feet withoutone; for the occupants are supposed to lie likespokes of a wheel, and their feet must not come toonear the center pole.The army conical wall tent is usually pitched byeight men, of whom the director is designated asNo. 8. They w^ork as followsUpon the hood lines of the tent are placed three marks;the first about 8 feet 3 inches, the second about 11 feet 3inches, the third about 14 feet 2 inches from the hcodring; the first marks the distance from the center to thewall pins, the second to the guy pins, and the distancebetween the second and third is the distance between guypins. These distances vary slightly for different tentsand should be verified by actual experiment before per-

3oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmanently marking the ropes. To locate the position ofguy pins after the first, the hood ring being held on thecenter pin, with the left hand hold the outer mark onthe pin last set, with the right hand grasp the rope atthe center mark and move the hand to ihe right so as tohave both sections of the rope taut; the center markis then over the position desired; the inner mark is overthe position of the corresponding wall pin.To pitch the tent, No. i places the tent pole on theground, socket end against the door pin, pole perpendicularto the company street. No. 2 drives the center pin atthe other extremity of the pole. No. 3 drives a wall pinon each side of and i foot from the door pin. No. 4places the open tripod fiat on the ground with its centernear the center pin. The whole detachment then placesthe tent, fully opened, on the ground it is to occupy, thecenter at the center pin, the door at the door pin.No. 8 holds the hood ring on the center pin, and superintendsfrom that position. No. i stretches the hood ropeover the right (facing the tent) wall pin and No. 2drives the first guy pin at the middle mark. No. i marksthe position of the guy pins in succession and No. 2 drivesa pin lightly in each position as soon as marked. Atthe same time No. 5 inserts small pins in successionthrough the wall loops and places the pins in positionagainst the inner mark on the hood rope, where theyare partly driven by No. 6. No. 4 distributes large pinsahead of Nos. i and 2; No. 7, small pins ahead of Nos.5 and 6; No. 3 follows Nos. i and 2 and drives the guypins home. No. 7, after distributing his pins, takes anax and drives home the pins behind Nos. 5 and 6. No. 4,after distributing his pins, follows No. 3 and loops theguy ropes over the pins.Nos. I, 2, and 3, the pins being driven, slip under thetent and place the pin of the pole through the tent andhood rings while No. 8 places the hood in position. Nos.I, 2, and 3 then raise the pole to a vertical position andinsert the end in the socket of the tripod; they thenraise the tripod to its proper height, keeping the centeror the tripod over the center pin; while they hold thepole vertical. Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7 adjust four guy ropes,one in each quadrant of the tent, to hold the pole in itsvertical position, and then the remaining guy ropes. Assoon as these are adjusted the men inside drive apin at each foot of the tripod if necessary to hold it inpla::e.The tent may also be pitched by four men. No. 4 holdsthe hood ring and superintends. After the tent is inposition on the ground it is to occupy, the pins are distributedby Nos. 2 and 3. Number 3 takes the place of

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 81Nos. 5 and 6 in placing the wall loop pins. After all thepins are placed they are driven home, all assisting.isThis takes a long time to describe, but the thingdone in a jiffy.Teepees.— The teepee (pronounced tee-pee) ofthe plains Indians was an admirable shelter for thecountry they roamed over. Being of conical shape,and erected on a set of inside poles meeting at the topand with their butts radiating in every direction, itwas proof against anything but a tornado. A verysmall fire in the center sufficed to keep it warm, andthe smoke was wafted out of a hole at the top by aningenious arrangement of flaps set according to thedirection of the wind, in combination with an innercurtain around the bottom of the teepee, a littlehigher than a man's head, with its lower edge confinedlike a sod-cloth. The draught, entering freelythrough the gaps between tent pegs, emerged at topof curtain, and was drawn " a-fluking " upward bythe warm current of air from the fire.* It has beenin a teepeesaid that no white man can manage a firewithout smoking the occupants out. This is anerror: I have done it myself; but I had the best ofdry wood in plenty, and I gave that fire more attentionthan it deserved.The beauty of the teepee is that there is no centerpole in the way. However, it needs at least ninelodge poles, and they should be slender, stiff, andstraight. This rules it out of consideration by campersgenerally. Remember, too, that the real Indianimpermeable to wind andteepee was made of skins,proof against sparks. Under modern conditions, ifyou must have a fire in your tent, use a stove.Pyramidal Tents.— For a party of only two orthree, traveling light, in a region where trees andsaplings are scarce, as on the plains, or the coast, orin the mountains above timber-line, and where storms* For details and illustrations see Edward Cave's The Boy'sCamp Book, pp. 31-33-

8- CAMPING AND WOODCRAFl'may be violent, there Is nothing better than a pyrzvmidal or ''miner's" tent (Fig. 40). It requiresonly one pole, and but few pegs. It has more availableground space than a conical tent of equal cubiccapacity. It Is economical of cloth. Next to thecone. It Is the most stable form of tent, and it shedsrain and snow better than any other. One man,without assistance, can set it up In a trice. It setswell on uneven ground, and is easy to trench.Pyramidal tents may be had with walls; but theyare not nearly so easy to erect as one without a wall,Fig. 40.— Miner's Tentand many more pegs must be carried.This shape isat its best in the plain miner's form of a size suitablefor two or three men : namely, a 7x7x7 or a9/^ X 93/2 x8^ ft., weighing, In different materials,from 534 to 14 lbs. A jointed pole of ash willweigh about 4^ lbs. In 7-ft., or 5 lbs. in 8^ ft.length, and a dozen 9-Inch steel tent pins about 2 lbs.Since the only head-room in such a tent is directlyunder the peak, a center pole Is constantly in theway. If a little extra weight is not prohibited, it isbetter to carry a pair of jointed shear poles that setup inside the tent, one on either side, like two legs

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS «3of a tripod. Of course, if poles can be found nearcamp, the tent may be erected on outside shears ortripod. For this purpose, or for suspending fromFig. 41.— Frazer TentR limb, it should have a strong canvas loop sewed toihe peak.If the tent is to be used on a sandy coast or desert.Fig. 42.—Marqueeor where insects are very bad, it is best made with aground-cloth sewed fast to the bottom, or with aseparate one that fits over a rather wide sod-cloth.

84 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe Frazer tent (Fig. 41) has a small awningto shield the doorway, and a cloth " sill " that holds'the bottom together. There is a window at therear. Only a small screen is required at the doorwayto keep out insects, yet the ventilation is good.It is not a cold-weather tent, as it cannot be thrownwide open, like a plain miner's tent, to receive therays of a camp-fire.Some canoeists in *' civilized waters '* prefer themarquee (Fig. 42), because it has more head-roomthan a pyramidal tent. It has spreaders attached tothe center pole, like ribs of an umbrella, to extend theeaves, and guy ropes to stiffen them against wind;but in spite of these braces it is not very stable.Semi-pyramidal Tents.— The lightest of enclosedtents that allow a man to stand upright undershelter is one shaped like a pyramid cut vertically inFig. 43.—George Tenthalf. Since the pole, if one is used, stands in front,it is less in the way than the center pole of a pyraniidaltent, bi't a suy or two must be run out for-

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS «5ward to brace it. A better rig, when poles can becut on the spot, is an outside tripod (as an examplesee Fig. 66). If a small tree happens to stand convenientlyon the camp site, the tent peak can be suspendedfrom it.A good example of this model is the George tent(Figs. 43, 44). For two men, its dimensions are7x7x7 ft. In waterproofed " balloon silk " itweighs about 5^ lbs., including pegs, and rolls upinto a parcel 12x5 in., convenient for the knapsack.To pitch it: Peg down at i and 2 (Fig. 44),A—Fig. 44.— Layout of George Tentcarry 3 and 6 at right angles to i and 2, pull taut,peg down, insert pole, and raise ; or suspend as above.This is done in one minute, if no poles have to becut. A cheesecloth front is needed in fly time. Incold weather the front is left open, and the slopingback and sides reflect camp-fire heat down upon thesleepers.Semi-pyramidal tents must be wtW guyed to standup in a contrary wind. They are best suited tocanoeists and forest cruisers.Modified Pyramid Tent.— A shelter tentadaptable to varied conditions, and a very goodmodel for " go light " trips, was recently described inOuting by its designer, R. S. Royce. His article ishere reprinted in full, by permission of the publishers.

SoCAAlriNG AND WOODCRAFXTHE ROYCE TENT." Several seasons ago, desiring a very light tent forside trips, or, in fact, anywhere that a comfortable shelterwas needed under conditions which would not permit ofusing a wall tent, one was designed which so well metall requirements and aroused so much interest amongthe outing brotherhood as to warrant presenting a detaileddescription of it.Keeping away from the idea of a mere shelter tocrawl under, and insisting on having something reallycomfortable in the event of several stormy days or nights^and with a spirit of comradeship that finds more funin an outing shared by one or two friends, rather thanalone, a tent was designed to afford room for two orthree and high enough to sit, dress, or stand in.This sounds like something too big for the ruck-sack,or a minor corner of a pack-basket, without crowding theother essentials of going light. However, it was accomplishedat a weight of four pounds, making a packageabout 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches long for carrying;erected, it covers 56 square feet, as a closed halfpyramid 7 feet 9 inches high and y^^^ feet square (Fig.45). But this is not all, for it is extensible to a pyramid7^2x13 feet, still 7 feet 9 inches high, but open at one; or it may be extended at theend to the peak (Fig. 47)front of the half pyramid in a triangle the width of thetent, 73^x2^ feet, closing completely and increasing thelength of the tent to lo feet (Fig. 46). The objection isimmediately presented that this is too large a tent for goingeven moderately light, but one may reasonably ask^ovv much smaller package or lighter can you take, andget room for standing, sitting, and sleeping.''Considering this, first, as a half pyramid tent, 7^ xiVz and 7^^ feet high; no form gives so much groundopace with headroom from so little material as a pyramid;none sheds water better, nor resists wind so well, andnone is simpler or quicker to erect.The objections to a pyramid, of scant headroom andlost space on ground by rapidly sloping roofs; of presenceof pole in the center, and of possible rain leak anywhereon the entrance side from peak to ground, arelargely overcome by carrying the peak to 7^ feet, givingmore headroom and nearer perpendicular roofs; and bymaking the peak over the center of one side, instead of inthe middle of the tent, giving a perpendicular entranceopening and no pole in the ground space. This gives betlerthan a 45-degree pitch to the back roof and about65-degree pitch to the side roofs: sheds rain well.

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS S?withoul: necessary recourse to waterproofing, and allowsof erection not only over a single upright pole, or suspensionfrom overhanging branch, but also permits of settingup near any upright tree to which the peak-line may beextended diagonally upward in a general line with theslope of the back roof, thus generally eliminating the tentpoleproblem.Now, some of the arguments for this half pyramid be-Fig. 45,— Front Upright Fig. 46. -Wings Advanced2>4 feetiF'ig. 47 — Wings Extended Fig. 48.— One Wing Closed,sheltering 73/2x13 feet One Open for Wind-breakFig. 49.— One Wing PartlyExtendedRoYCE Tenting given, another exists in the use of it with the frontopen (flaps turned away back on the side roofs), when itproves to be as truly a baker tent as the one usually describedas such, and heats well wnth a fire in front.The peculiar feature of this design is in the extra sizeand the form of the flaps, which make possible the triangularextension of the front for 2^ feet and still closingcompletely; and the further extension of the flaps, inplane with the side roofs, leaving an open-ended tvue

88 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpyramid 7^^x13 feet, at an increase of only aVioo yardsof material and not over one-quarter pound weight, overthat required for the simple half pyramid 7^/^ feet squ'L.re,barely closed.. •rThis is worth while for most of us, for it permits oiconsiderable extra room at practically no expense ofweight or material, and allows of use in a variety ofways otherwise impossible: viz., the flaps extended contipletely,in plane with the side, leave an unroofed triangle/withinwhich a fire may be built, aJlowing thecamper to sit under either flap, and, protected, manipulatehis frying pan, etc.; or one may be so extended and theother closed, affording a wind and rain protection withgood ventilation (Fig. 48), or one may be closed andthe other extended 2^ feet (as for triangular front),leaving an open doorway without disclosing to view theinterior, on account of the extra wide flaps (Fig. 49).Another peculiarity is that in the event of findingonly a short tent-pole and no tree to tie to, the tent maybe set up vvith any height pole, under 'jYz feet, and dresstaut and trim, and, incidentally, cover a larger groundspace, but, of course, at cost of less pitch to the roofs.The front being open clear to the peak, and all lines convergingthere, it is very easily cleared of insects by brushor smudge.Of course, any pyramid tent, without perpendicular sidewalls, is free from the need of stakes, as only short pegsare necessary; when a quick shelter is needed, the peaklineover a branch or to a tree and pegs at the fourcorners will serve until it is convenient to place the intermediatepegs.So many inquiries as to the details of this tent hav^been made, and so many requests for measurements anddirections for making copies of it have occurred, thatdiagrams and measurements are here given.Any tent-maker can reproduce it, for amateurs have,and it lends itself easily to those who enjoy making theirown equipment.The original is made of Lonsdale cambric and lightlywaterproofed, and weighs only four pounds. It has hadhard usage and has proved altogether satisfactory. Anythin material closely woven will serve, and that, too,without waterproofing, with roofs so steep.Sheeting is practical, but would give a weight in excessof that quoted here.DIRECTIONS FOR CUTTING AND SEWINGMateiial: Light, closely-woven cambric or other close(iiaterial, 36 inches wide.

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 89Dimensions: Seven feet 6 inches square on ground and7 feet 9 inches high to peak.Form: Half pyramid. Front "A," perpendicular;roof sloping three ways from pointed peak. Front flapsor wings are made to overlap considerably, and are longerthan are necessary to reach the ground when closed perpendicularly.LAYOUT FOR SIDE WALLS (fIG. 50)Join two breadths 10' 4" long by edges, overlaid anddouble-stitched. Pin these out on floor smooth, and frompoint i' 9" from end on one side to point same distancefrom other end of other side pin down a cord tight; close*it either side of cord pin or baste a narrow tape, leavingFig. 50tapes which cross the edges about two feet longer. Stitchthese tapes down and divide goods in line between tapes.Sew to i' 9" edge the selvage edge of a triangle i' 9" by1' 6" and sew tape to bias edge. These two triangles arethe two side roofs.LAYOUT OF MATERL-xL FOR BACK (fIG. 51)Pin out smooth one breadth 13' long, and between points2' 2^" from each end on opposite side edges draw line orpin tight cord and sew tapes either side of line, leavingtapes which cross the edges two feet longer. Against

goCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthese edges and to the tapes sew triangles 2' 2" by 9".Divide the goods between the tapes. These two trianglesto be turned with selvage edges together and when joinedform the back roof.Fig. 51This is to permit extending the front 2^ feet triangularlyand still closing it tight; also allowing the wingsto be extended 5 feet 6 inches in plane with the sideroofs, producing a pyramid 13 feet by 7^/2 feet open at oneend to the peak.LAYOUT OF MATERIAL FOR WINGS (fIG. 52)Pin out one breadth 8' 7/^" long. From one corner topoint on opposite side, and 3' 10J/2" from the opposite end:r^i^!5zzi^F-ROisir IS CUOSCD^j^ouf^o ufr>fS t^Herry/openFig. 52draw line and sew tape on side of line toward larger piece,leaving tape about 4' 9" longer than reaching to the sel-

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 91vage edge. Against this 3' 10^" selvage edge sew trianglecut from other side of line, using right angled triangle3' lo^" by 2' 6", binding bias edge with overhangingtape. This makes only one flap or wing Duplicate.HOW TO SET IT UPJoin to each diagonal edge of the back one of ttiediagonal edges of each sidepiece; and to the selvage edgeof each side-piece a selvage edge of one of the wings.Close the peak around a 54"inch metal ring. Leavefront wings open clear to peak. Turn in ground edge alittle all around and attach strong tape loops for pegs atcorners and five between on each side and back and fouron bottom of each wing; also on a line from lower attachedcorner of each wing to a point 2 feet up frombottom of free edge of each wing put four loops on outsideand again on a line from corner to a point 4 inches stillhigher four more loops. These loops are for peggingdown wings in the three positions of extension in planewith sides, in partial extension, and when closed withperpendicular front.If sod- ;loth is desired, a breadth of cloth 7^ feet longsplit in three strips will make about a lo-inch sod cloth ifattached to low^er edge of sides and back before puttingon a heavy tape which will finish the lower edge. Nosod-cloth is needed at front as wings will turn in sufficientin all positions except when fully extended.For light tent, flap-ties are best of tape and should bespaced along the free edges of each wing and also atline where edges fall when overlapped so as to make frontbottom line of tent measure 7^ feet. Wings need hemor tape for free edges. A 5^-inch braided cord 15 feetlong is needed from peak where it can be attached to ametal ring just too large to pull through the peak ring.From this inside ring it is well to lead like cords downto the back corners of the tent and out through eyelet-holesthrough the sod-cloth just under the corner peg-loops.These two add to the trimness of tent, especially if ofvery light material, and can be run to front corners aswell, if desired.MATERIAL36-inch wide stuff^oYz yards.5^-inch tape 75 feet.^-inch tape for bottom edge 23 feet.^ cord, peak 15 feet 1f^^^^Vs, cord 2 back seams 25 J

92 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTWedge or " A " Tents.— The wedge tent Ism " old stand-by " for those who go where portagesmust be made or camp shifted every day or twocIt is light, cheap, easy to pitch with or without poles,and is well adapted to uneven ground.In wooded country the camper often may find twotrees or saplings from which to stretch a rope, abovethe level of his head, where it is out of the way.The tent is then pegged out and suspended by itsridge from the rope. This is a quick and satisfac-Fig. 53.— Wedge Tent, Outside Ridge Ropetory *' set " in level forest. On rough ground it maybe hard to find a place for the tent with trees growingjust where you want them.Common wedge tents are made with rope runningthrough, under the ridge. The ridge then sags inwhat engineers call a catenary curve. This makesthe sides sag inward, reducing the roominess allaround, and the wind makes matters worse. A betterplan is to have tapes on the outside of the ridge.(Fig- 53)> run the rope high and taut, then tie the

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 93middle tapes closer to the rope than the outerones.The bottom of a wedge tent with rope ridge shouldbe pegged in such way that the sides will be in arcs ofa circle, instead of straight along the ground (Fig.54): this takes up slack. The ground-cloth, if thereFig- 54-— Pegging Bottom of Tentis one, should be cut accordingly. The thinner thematerial, the more a tent will sag when erected withouta ridge pole. Partially to obviate this, and tostiffen the tent in a gale, it is a good scheme to attachparrels (Figs. 55, 58) to ropes or strong seamsin the sides. These pull outward and turn theFig.55.— Side Parrelswedge into a semi-wall tent. Referring to Fig 55,C shows the theoretically straight side of a wedgetent and E the actual inward sag from ridge droopand wind pressure. The dotted line F indicates theopposite side without parrels, and A is the same wallheld out and made taut by the parrels BG. The

94 CAMFIJNG AND VVUUUUKAri'illustration is adapted from one by T. H. Holding,of London.Where no trees stand convenientl}^, a forked stakecan be placed at each end of the tent, the rope runover the crotches and staked out as a guy fore andaft; but the front guy is much in the way. It is betterto set up shears and a ridge pole, as in Fig .11.Often a natural support can be found for one endof the pole.When traveling w^here there are few or no trees,it will be necessary to carry jointed poles of wood,steel, or bamboo. There may as well be three ofthese, so that two can be straddled to leave the doorwayfree. A jointed ridge pole makes the tent standtrimmer ; but, if all that weight can be carried, theparty had better take a wall tent and be comfortable.Wedge tents are not recommended in sizes largerthan about 7 x 7 x 7 f t. Weights of a few examplesare asfollows:Tanalite, EmeraliteExtra Light Greeist473x7x5. 6 lbs. 4^x6^x5. 5 lbs.7 X7X7. 8 lbs. 6>4x6>^x7. 6^ lbs.Balloon silk a bit heavier.Tang, NiloGreen Egyptian.4]^ X 7^x5. 4^ lbs. 5 X7>^x5. 6>^ lbs.7)^x7^x7. 714 lbs. 7^x773x7. 9>^ lbs.The alpine tent shown in Fig. 58 was designed byEdward Whymper, and has been used by many otherfamous mountaineers, such as Sir Martin Conway,Douglas Freshfield, Dr. Hunter Workman, and theDuke of the Abruzzi, for exploration among thehighest mountains of the globe. It is made ofWillesden canvas or drill, with a sewed-in groundsheet,and a " sill " at the door, to cut out draughts?

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS-which the ridge rope is guyed out fore and aft Thisis a very stanch " set." The standard size7 X 7 X 65^ ft.95ij,-K\\Fig. 56.— Whymper Alpine TentModified Wedge Tents.— An angular lap orextension may be added to the lower edge of eachdoor flap to serve as a wind shield for a cooking firein bad weather. If the rear end of a wedge tent ismade rounded instead of square, extra room foiduffle is provided, with little additional weight.The Hudson Bay tent (Fig 57) saves weight b)Fig' 57-— Hudson Bay Tenthaving both ends rounded and the ridge short. Itdoes not sag so much as a regular wedge tent, and ismore stable in a wind, but affords less head-room.

96 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTTo get more head-room In a tent without walls,the Ross alpine tent (Fig. 58) is fitted over a sectionalbent frame. It has side parrels, and a doorat each end.The dimensions are 7 x 7 x 6^ ft.Fig. 58.— Ross Alpine TentSeparable Shelter Tents.— When men travelin pairs, going light, it is a good plan for each tocarry a " shelter-half," adequate to protect him ifhe should become separated from his companion, andso fitted with ridge flap and tapes that it can quicklybe attached to its mate to form a low, broad wedgetent.s^Fig' 59'— Separable Shelter TentThe old-fashioned army shelter half was merely arectangle of 73^- or 8-oz. duck, two of which, buttonedtogether, made an A-shaped roof open at both

-TYPES OF TLIGHI^ TENrb' 9/ends. It was little protection against shifting winds.In the present military shelter tent, the halves, whenjoined, close at the rear end, which is lower thanthe front. A rifle stood up at the front is all thesupport needed, and it can instantly be recovered foremergency use bv kicking the butt tree.For hikers, etc., a good separable tent consists oftwo lean-tos that close at both ends when joined(Fig. 59). Sometimes these halves are made with a12 to 18-inch wall (Fig 60). Each half should beFig. 60.— Shelter Half with Wallabout 7 ft. long, 3^ or 3^ ft. wide, and 4.% ft.high, weighing about 3j^ lbs.Shelter Cloths.— For side trips from camp, asimple rectangle of thin, closely woven waterproofcloth, with grommets and tapes, is all one needs inmoderate weather. Set it up at an angle, facing thefire, and, if need be, thatch one or both sides withevergreen boughs or other windbreak. The cloth isuseful as a " tarp " about camp and as a wrap forpacks on the trail. One that I use, of Tanalite,7 X Q ft., weighs 25^ lbs. Set up with a 9-ft. slant,

98 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTit stands 6 ft. high In front and shelters 7x5 ft. ofground. A small pyramidal mosquito bar should betaken along in summer.Tarpaulin Tent.— A larger shelter cloth cutas in Fig. 61, the seams reinforced with tapes, becketsfor tent pins added along three sides, and doortapes along the other, as indicated, has many uses.It serves, as one wishes, either for a simple lean-toshelter, a wedge tent open at both ends, a semipyramidalenclosed tent, a dining fly, a tarpaulin, aground-sheet, a pack-cloth, or an emergency sail on aFig. 61.— Tarpaulin Tentboat.Referrmg to the diagram, it will be seen thatwhen the triangular corners A and B are tuckedunder we have practically the George tent, and thecloth is erected in the same way.These " tarp " tents are furnished by outfittersready-made, in various materials, and in sizes from73^x12 to 10x13 ft., making semi-pyramidalshelters from 4^ x9x6 to J xy x 6^ ft., waterproofed,weighing from 3^ to 6^ lbs.Full directionsfor making one at home are given in The BoyScout's Hike Book by Edward Cave.Baker Tent.— For a light tent in the huntingseason. East or South, Iprefer one with a shed-roof,rear wall, and a front that can be closed when one isaway for the day, or when a contrary wind springsup with driving rain. Usually the front is left open,and in cold weather a good fire with back-logs of

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 99green wood is kept going all night, about five feet infront of the tent. Of course, this takes a lot ofwood, a good-sized hardwood tree being consumedin a single night, and the labor of chopping is rathersevere to any one but a good axeman ; but the workis well repaid by the exquisite comfort of lying beforethe blazing backlogs on a cold night, warm astoast, and breathing deeply the fresh air of the forest.Such a tent is never damp and cheerless, asclosed tents are apt to be. The heat rays are reflecteddownward by the sloping roof, drying theground and warming one's bed in a comparativelyshort time.Fig.62.— Baker TentA baker tent may be set up on shears (Fig. 62),(Fig. 63), or on a pole nailed from oneor on stakestree to another, or in various other ways suggestedby the location. At the rear a stake is driven foreach corner guy and a pole laid outside it, on theground, to which the other guys are made fast; or aframe is made.If the door is stretched straight forward as shownin these illustrations, it will prevent having a fireclose in front where it should be. Ordinarily the

:100 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTflap isthrown backward over the roof when a campfireis going. A long pole on each side of the tent,run diagonally upward from rear to front, will liftthe awning high enough to be out of the way. However,I prefer to have the door-flap separate, and sofitted with grommets or eyelets that it can be attachedeither to the top or to one side of the tent, aspreferred. In warm weather, when no all-night fireis needed, it may be hung from the top as an awning,and the tent may be closed up by it when the occupantsare away; but on nights when a fire is keptgoing the flap should be stretched forward verticallyfrom the windward side of the tent front, so as toFig. 63.— Camp-fire Tentcheck the draught from that direction, and the fireshould be built close to the tent, the front of whichisleft wide open.A fall of snow on the roof of an ordinary bakertent may cause trouble, unless an outside frameworkhas been built and thatched with browse. Thecamp-fire tent (Fig. 63) has a steeper roof, whichsheds rain and snow much better, and it affords morehead-room without increased weight. This is thebest pattern of baker tent. Sizes and weights ofsome examples are as follows, the dimensions beingwidth, depth, height of front, center, and back, inturn

FYFES OF LlGJti^' lEN lb lOi^\.Extra Light Ga£o^6^x6^x6-7-a^'O^s.Green EgyptiA^^ ^ V' v>yVsx 7^x6 -7^2-2^.

fireȦ canoe tent with short ridge is shown in Fig. 65.102 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTground — peradventure he even be permitted to lighta fire in the woods at all. Alas ! the lean-to, and thehissing red logs that cheered us and kept us cosythrough the long frosty nights under the hunter'smoon.Fig. 64.— Canoe Tent with PoleCanoe Tents.— The old pattern canoe tent(Fig. 64) is erected with a single pole. The frontis semi-circular, and the strain from it, pulling forward,does away with the need of a guy rope, unlessFig.65.— Canoe Tent with Ridgethe whole front is left open to the camp-fire, in whichcase two guys are run forward on either side of thesuspended bv a rope. When this pattern is used in

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 103the open it is erectea on a pair of shears, as inFig. 68.These models are advertised as " quick and easyto erect," but a glance at the cuts will show that theytake too many pegs and stakes to really belong inthat category. Still they are very popular, especiallythe one with ridge. Dimensions (not including therounded front), and weights in various materials, aretabulated below. Other sizes and cloths are suppliedby outfitters. The two patterns do not varynoticeably in weight.Tanalite^ Emeralite7 X4^x6 -i>2 7>4 Ibsc7Mx7>^x7 -2. 1014 lbs.8^x7^x7^-3. izYzlhs.Tang, Nilo75^x43^x6 -i3^. sHlbs.7^/2x7^x7 -2. 8H lbs.9 X9 xj^^-zYz. II lbs.KiRO,Driki7 X4^x7 -2. 9^ lbs.7 X7 X7 -2. 11^ lbs.9^x9^/^x83^-3. 17 lbs.Extra Light Green6^x4^x7 -2. 6^ lbs.6^/^x63/2x7 -2. 7^ lbs.8 X 6^x7^ -3. 10 lbs.Green Egyptian7^x4^x7 -2. 73^ lbs.7^x7^x7 -2. 1034 lbs.9^x73^3x73^-3. 13 lbs.Green Wpf. Standard73/^x4^x7 -2. 93>2 lbs.7^x73^x7 -2. 13 lbs.9^x73^x7^-3- isMlbs." CoMPAC " Tent.— This is a very light tentfor pedestrians, canoeists, or others who want to getalong with the least practicable outfit. For its sizeand weight, I have found it a good thing. It has 9

I04CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfloor sewed to Its walls ; so, when the door flaps aresnapped shut, nothing can get in. You can defy notonly rain and wind, but bugs, flies, spiders, scorpions,snakes, skunks, wood rats, and all other vermin.Ventilation is provided by four little windows coveredwith bobbinet, with storm flaps that raise orlower from the inside. The cloth is very closelywoven, and waterproofed. It may be had in tan,green, or the natural yellowish-white of unbleachedcotton.Fig. 66— "Compac" TentThis tent Is easy to set up on any kind of ground.If a sapling happens to stand in the right place, pegout the corners of the floor and suspend the peak byits cord from a convenient limb. Otherwise, pitchwith shears In front and a pole slanting backwardfrom them, as shown In Fig. 66. Only a few pegsare required.Being so low and so well braced, this pocket housewill stand up against a gale that might overthrowwall tents and send their flies a-klting. In cold

;TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 105weather It can be warmed by radiation from a campfire in front. It will accommodate two men andtheir duffle. Of course it is only high enough tosit up in, but that is all the room one needs on suchtrips, and it is best for a cloth floored tent anyhow,for it balks muddy feet. However, I do not like asewed-in floor, for general camping. The reasonsare given at the end of this chapter.I have called this clever contrivance a " pockethouse."It deserves the name, being waterproof,wind-proof, bug-proof, ventilated, sheltering a spaceFig.(i"].— Snow Tent8 X 6 X 4-2 feet, and yet It rolls up into a 16 x 4-inchparcel, and weighs, with its rope, only 3^ pounds.Snow Tent.— This pattern (Fig. 67) gets itsname from the steepness of its slopes which makes itshed snow Instead of holding It. With front flapsspread as shown. It can be warmed by a fire In front.The back has a low w^all, and there Is a short ridgeotherwise Itsqualities are those of a semi-pyramidaltent. It Is made In sizes from 6^ x 6^ x 7^^-2>4 ft. to 9% X 9^ X 7^-2^ ft., and the weights,in different materials, run from 7^ to17 lbs.

io6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe same model, with sewed-In floor, closed front,an oval door of bobbinet, and a ventilator, is knownes the " explorer's" tent (Fig. 68)0 It is perfectlyinsect-proof. For the tropics a fly is added. A•^"^''-"^^ ,S^'-

TYPES OF LIGHT TENTS 107* balloon silk.' In size 7x7, very high in the ridge andon the walls, the tent in its bag weighs only about 12pounds. A light waterproof floor is sewn into it. Bothends are sewn into it. On each side there are two largenetted windows, affording abundant ventilation. Thereare flaps arranged for these windows which can be buttoneddown in case of rain.In each end of this tent there is yet another largewindow for ventilation. The roof projects three or fourinches all around over the walls, making eaves whichkeep the water out of the open windows in case of rain.The front door is not a door at all, but a hole, round,and not triangular. This hole is fitted with a sleeve, likethe trap of a fyke-net, the sleeve, or funnel, itself beingmade of light material. You crawl through this hole and,so to speak, pull it in after you and tie a knot in it. Atleast there is a puckering string by which you can closethe bag which makes the entrance of the tent. Once insideit, you have a large, roomy house in which you canstand up with comfort, lay down your beds in comfort,and do light housekeeping. No mosquito can get at youunless you brought it in on your clothes. In case you havedone that you can put a wet sock into operation. At firstyou will think the lent a little close, but soon will see thatthe ventilation is perfect." {Out of Doors).Sewed-in Floors.— On the other hand, thereare objections to a sewed-in floor. Muddy bootsmake it odious, and hob-nailed ones are its ruin.Every bit of snow that you track in will help makea puddle. A lantern is dangerous in such structuresas the last two we have been considering, and onemust be very careful about matches. In the caseof the explorer's tent, which lacks the windows ofthe other, you can't cook inside, even on a vaporstove, without risk of disaster, and certainty ofsteam condensing where it cannot escape. Eventhe moisture of one's breath amounts to a gooddeal in the course of a night, and in cold weatherit will keep the interior of such a tent constantlydamp or coated with rime. As for the sewed-infloor serving as a mattress cover, to keep your bedof browse or leaves in place, if that bed is thickenough for comfort, the tent will not set well, andthere will be too much strain on the pegs and seams.

io8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSo, anywhere but in extremely bad mosquito coun^try, or on bleak and windy mountains, it is better tohave a wide sod-cloth around the bottom of the tent,and a separate ground-sheet, overlapping, that youcan roll aside when you want a bare spot, and cantake out and wash when it needs ito

CHAPTER VIILIGHT CAMP EQUIPMENTThe problem of what to take on a trip resolvesitself chiefly into a question of transportation. Ifthe party can travel by wagon, and intends to gointo fixed camp, then almost anything can be carriedalong — trunks, chests, big v^^all tents and poles, cots,mattresses, pots and pans galore, camp stove, kerosene,ma

noCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTout of doors. It is one of the blessings of wildernesslife that it shows us how few things we need inorder to be perfectly happy.Let me not be misunderstood as counseling anybodyto *'rough " it by sleeping on the bare groundand eating nothing but hardtack and bacon. Onlya tenderfoot will parade a scorn of comfort and ataste for useless hardships. As " Nessmuk " says:" We do not go to the woods to rough it ; we go tosmooth it — we get it rough enough in town. Butlet us live the simple, natural life in the woods, andleave all frills behind."An old campaigner is known by the simplicity andfitness of his equipment. He carries few " fixings,"but every article has been well tested and it is thebest that his purse can afford. He has learned byhard experience how steep are the mountain trailsand how tangled the undergrowth and downwoodin the primitive forest. He has learned, too, how tofashion on the spot many substitutes for " boughten "things that we consider necessary at home.The art of going " light but right " is hard tolearn. I never knew a camper who did not burdenhimself, at first, with a lot of kickshaws that he didnot need in the woods; nor one who, if he learnedanything, did not soon begin to weed them out ; noreven a veteran who ever quite attained his own idealof lightness and serviceability. Probably " Nessmuk" came as near to it as any one, after he gotthat famous ten-pound canoe. He said that hisload, including canoe, knapsack, blanket-bag, extraclothing, hatchet, rod, and two days' rations," never exceeded twenty-six pounds ; and I wentprepared to camp out any and every night." This,of course, was in summer.In the days when game was plentiful and therewere no closed seasons our frontiersmen thoughtnothing of making long expeditions into the unknownwilderness with no equipment but what they carriedon thetir own persons, to wit: a blanket, rifles ammu-

LIGHT CAMP EQUIPMENTin'nition, flint and steel, tomahawk, knife, an awl, aspare pair of moccasins, perhaps, a small bag ofjerked venison, and another of parched corn, groundto a coarse meal, which they called " rockahominy "or " coal flour." Their tutors in woodcraft oftentraveled lighter than this. An Indian runner wouldstrip to his G-string and moccasins, roll up in hissmall blanket a pouch of rockahominy, and, armedonly with a bow and arrows, he would perform journeysthat no mammal but a wolf could equal. GeneralClark said that when he and Lewis, with theirmen, started afoot from the mouth of the ColumbiaRiver on their return trip across the continent, theirtotal store of articles for barter with the Indians forhorses and food could have been tied up in two handkerchiefs.But they w^ere woodsmen, every inch otthem.Now it is not needful nor advisable for a camperin our time to suffer hardships from stinting his supplies.It is foolish to take insufficient bedding, or torely upon a diet of pork, beans, and hardtack, in acountry where game may be scarce. The knack is instriking a happy medium between too much luggageand too little. Ideal outfitting is to have what wewant, when we want it, and not to be bothered withanything else. A pair of scales are good things tohave at hand when one is making up his packs.Scales of another kind will then fall from his eyes.He w^ill note how the little, unconsidered triflesmount up ; how every bag or tin adds weight.Now let him imagine himself toiling uphill under anAugust sun, or forging through thickety woods, overrocks and roots and fallen trees, with all this stuffon his back. Again, let him think of a chill, wetnight ahead, and of what he will really need to keephimself warm, dry, and well ballasted amidships.Balancing these two prospects one against the other,he cannot go far wrong in selecting his outfit.In his charming book. The Forest, Stewart EdwardWhite has spoken of that amusing foible, com-

112 CAMPING AND WOODUKAFImonto us all, which compels even an experiencedwoodsman to lug along some pet trifle that he doesnot need, but which he would be miserable without.The more absurd this trinket is, the more he loves it.One of my camp-mates for five seasons carried inhis " packer " a big chunk of rosin. When askedwhat it was for, he confessed " : Oh, I'm going toget a fellow to make me a turkey-call, some day, and*this is to make it turk.' " Jew's-harps, campstools,shaving-mugs, alarm-clocks, derringers thatnobody could hit anything with, and other suchtrifles have been known to accompany very practicalmen who were otherwise in light marching order.If you have some such thing that you know youcan't sleep well without, stow it religiously in yourkit. It is your " medicine," your amulet against thespooks and bogies of the woods. It will dispel thekoosy-oonek. (If you don't know what that means,ask an Eskimo. He may tell you that it means sorcery,witchcraft — and so, no doubt, it does to thechildren of nature; but to us children of guile it isthe spell of that imp who hides our pipes,steals ourlast match, and brings rain on the just when theywant to go fishing.)No two men have the same " medicine." Mine isa porcelain teacup, minus the handle. It cost memuch trouble to find one that would fit snugly insidethe metal cup in which I brew my tea. Many's thetime it has all but slipped from my fingers anddropped upon a rock ; many's the gibe I have sufferedfor its dear sake. But I do love it. Hot indeedmust be the sun, tangled the trail and wearythe miles, before I forsake thee, O my frail, coollipped,but ardent teacup!There is something to be said in favor of individualoutfits, every man going completely equippedand quite independent of the others. It is one ofthe delights of single-handed canoeing, whether 50Ugo alone or cruise in squadron, that every man isfixed to suit himself. Then if any one carries too

much or too little, or cooks badly, or is too lazy tobe neat, or lacks torethought in any way, he alonesuffers the penalty; and this is but just. On theother hand, if one of the cruisers' outfits comes togrief, the others can help him out, since all the eggsare not in one basket. I like to have a completecamping outfit of my own, just big enough for twomen, so that I can dispense a modest hospitality toa chance acquaintance, or take with me a comradewho, through no fault of his own, turns up at thelast moment; but I want this outfit to be so lightand compact that I can easily handle it myself whenI am alone. Then I am alwaAS " fixed," and alwaysindependent, come good or ill, blow high orlow.Still, it is the general rule among campers to have" company stores." In so far as this means onlythose things that all use in common, such as tent,utensils, tools, and provisions, it is well enough ; butit should be a point of honor with each and everyman to carry for himself a complete kit of personalnecessities, down to the least detail. As for companystores, everybody should bear a hand in collectingand packing them. To saddle this hard andthankless job on one man, merely because he Is experiencedand a willing worker, is selfish. Dependupon It, the fellow who " hasn^t time " to do hisshare of the work before starting will be the veryone to shirk in camp.Axe.— A full-sized axe should be carried, In coldweather, if means of transportation permit. Itshead need not weigh over 3 or 3^ pounds, but letthe handle be of standard 36-inch length for a fullarmsweep. A single-bitt Is best for campers, as thepoll is useful for driving stakes, knocking off pineknots, to rive timber (striking with a mallet), andas an anvil (bitt stuck In a log or stump).^With this one tool a good axeman can build anythingthat is required in the wilderness, and he canquickly fell and log-up a tree large enough to

114 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTkeep a hot fire before his lean-to throughout thenight.If an axe Is bought ready handled, see that thehelve is of young growth hickory, straight grained,!and free from knots. Sight along the back of the'helve to see if it is straight in line with the eye ofthe axe, then turn it over and see if the edge of theaxe ranges exactly in line with the center of thehilt (rear end of handle), as it should, and that thehilt is at right angles to the center of the eye. Agood chopper is as critical about the heft and hangof his axe as a shooter is about the balance of hisgun. If the handle is straight, score a 2]5^-footrule on it, in inches. Get the axe ground by acareful workman. The store edge is not thinenough or keen enough. One cannot be too carefulin selecting this indispensable tool: some grades areof the best steel and hand-forged, but many othersare just " bum."Have a leather sheath for the axe-head, to preventaccidents when traveling. Some are made withstrap attached for carrying on one's back, but this isneedless : in the few cases that you carry an axe thatway, tie it to outside of pack with a string.An axe lying around camp has a fatal attractionNot thatfor men who do not know how to use it.they will do much chopping with it; but somebodywill pick it up, make a few bungling whacks at aprojecting root, or at a stick lying flat on theground, drive the blade through into the earth andpebbles, and leave the edge nicked so that it willtake an hour's hard work to put it in decent ordeiagain. And the fellow who does this is the onewho could not sharpen an axe to save his life. Itnever seems to occur to him that an axe is of no useunless its edge is kept keen, or that the best way toruin it is to strike it into the ground, or that a choppingblock will prevent that. You may loan yourlast dollar to a friend ;but never loan him your axe,unless you are certain that he knows how to use it.

LIGHT CAMP EQUIPMENTnyIf a full-^rown axe cannot be carried,then take ahatchet with handle as long as practicable (seeChapter X).Other Tools.— A small spade, or an army entrenchingtool, is a handy implement about camp.One outfitter has produced a good thing in this linewhich he calls a trekking spade. The handle is detachable.In shoveling hot coals at the fire-place,work quickly, so as not to draw the temper of thesteel.A useful tool, when it can be carried, is one Ifound recently in the catalogue of a certain mailorderhouse: a nail-cutting compass saw (just likeany compass saw except that it is tempered for nails,sheet metal, etc., as well as wood), with 12-inchblade and weighing only 5 ounces. It can be used,too, in butchering big game, savingyour axe edge. A folding saw, soldby sporting-goods dealers, will dowell enough in most outfits.If you want to weigh the gameyou kill, carry what is called a LittleGiant scale (Fig. 69). Althoughof pocket size and 12-oz.weight, it w^eighs by the small hookup to 40 lbs. by 2 lbs., and by thelarger one up to 350 lbs. by 5 lbs.For fish, of course, a small springbalance is the thing-A pair of side-cutting pliers, ofthe very best steel, is almost a necessity.I always carry a small oneFig. 69.— Littlewhen fishing, to snip off the barb of Giant Scalean imbedded hook, which otherwiseis a mighty mean thing to get rid of. The pliersare in daily use for other purposes.A 6 to 8-inch mill file, and a carborundum stone,will keep the axe and other cutlerv in order. (Amill file is cut diagonally and parallel, instead ofcriss-cross like a common flatfile.),.

ii6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSelect from the following list such articles as youknow you will need, and make a light wooden boxin which they will stow properly.Folding Saw.Mill File.Triangular File.Side-cutting Pliers.Carborundum Stone.Scales.Gun Screw-driver.Reel Screw-driver.Small Hand Drill.Tape Line.Copper Wire (two sizes).Nails, Brads, Tacks,Screws.J/2 gill Le Page's Glue.Marine Glue.Solderene.Winding Silk (or DentalFloss).Rod Varnish.Ferrule Cement.Spare Tips and Guides.Rubber Mending Tissue.Gun or Rifle Cleaning Rodand Brush.Gun Oil.Gun Wipers.Sandpaper.Emery Cloth.Shears.Needles.Thread.Wax.Spare Buttons.Safety Pins,Horse-blanket Pins.Rubber Bands (large).Spare Shoe Laces.Lock-stitch Awl.Shoe Nails.Hob-nails.Sail Needles.Twine (in tobacco bag).Split Rivets,lo yds. 2-inch AdhesivePlaster.Adhesive plaster (zinc oxide plaster) can bebought at any drug store. Besides its regular use tohold a dressing in place where bandaging is difficult(never apply it directly to a wound), and for protectingsore spots, such as a cut finger or a blisteredfoot, it is a lightning repairer for all sorts of things.When warmed it will stick to any dry surface, wood,metal, glass, cloth, leather, or skin. It can bepeeled off and reapplied several times. As an instantaneousmender of rents and stopper of holes orcracks it has no equal. It is waterproof and airtight.With a broad strip you can seal a box orchest watertight, stop a leak in a canoe (" iron " iton with a hot spoon or stone) or mend a paddle, agunstock, or even an axe-handle (first nailing it).A chest or cupboard can be extemporized from any

;LIGHT CAMP EQUIPMENT 117packing box, in a ji%, by cleating the top and usingsurgeon's plaster for hinges.One of the most bothersome things in shiftingcamp is to secure opened cans and bottles from spilling.Surgeon's plaster does the trick in a twinkling.Put a little square of it over each hole in the milkcan that j^ou opened for breakfast, and there will beno leakage. To hold a cork in a bottle, stick anarrow strip of the plaster over the cork and downopposite sides of the bottle's neck. To protect thebottle from breaking, run a strip around it at topand one at bottom. The caps of baking powdercans or similar tins can be secured to the bodies inthe same way.If your fishing rod sticks at the ferrules, wrap abit of the plaster around each joint to give you agrip, then pull without twisting.Rubber mending tissue (any dry-goods store) isgood to patch a tent, a canoe, or rubber articles(waders, etc.). Cut canvas patch and tissue olsame size, place the latter over rent and the patchon top, then press with a hot iron or rub with a hot,smooth stone.Dental floss is fine for quick rod repairing, or touse as an emergency leader. It is very strong, readywaxed, waterproof, and durable.The list of tools and supplies given above is, ofcourse, only suggestive, and for trips where thegoing is fairly easy. To each according to his needs.When traveling with horses, take along a hammer,a few spare horseshoes and their nails, leathermending kit, and the necessary ropes.Lantern.— Kerosene is a nuisance in carriageif so much as a drop escapes anywhere near yourprovisions, it wn'll taint them. Carbide is easy tocarry, and, aside from its regular use in an acetylenelantern, makes it easy to start a fire when everythingis wet. A folding pocket lantern of Stonebridge orAlpina type, for candles, is best for men in light

ii8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmarching order; but let it be of tin or brass; thosemade of aluminum are much too frail.Horn.— When camping in a canebrake countryhave a huntsman's horn in the outfit. Leave it withthe camp-keeper, who wnll blow it every eveningabout an hour before supper. The sound of a horncarries far, and its message is unmistakable. It isa dulcet note to one who is bewildered in a thickwood or brake.Sundries.— A length of small rope, such asbraided sash cord, and a ball of strong twine, sparecloth and leather for mending, a few rawhidethongs, and some broad rubber bands, are likely tobe needed.A few yards of mosquito netting should be takenalong to protect meat from blow-flies, and for variousother purposes.Cooking Kit.— In rough country, especially ifcamp is to be shifted frequently, a stove is out of thereckoning. If pack animals are taken, or the trip isby canoe, without long and difficult portages, it paysto take along either a folding grate or a pair of fireirons (see Chapter IV).On light marching trips no support for the utensilswill be carried. Rocks or logs will take theirplace. There may be a little more spilling andswearing, but lesstired backs.It is commonly agreed that four is the ideal num^ber for a camping party, at least among hunters andfishermen. Certainly no larger number should attempttheir own cooking. Utensils and table warefor such a party, going light, should include: alarge frying-pan (more serviceable than two smallones) ; a pan to mix dough in and wash dishes (commonmilk pan) ; a stout, seamless, covered pot forboiling or stewing meat, baking beans, etc. ; amedium pot or pail for hot water (always wanted,substitute for tea kettle) ;vegetables, fruit ;a smaller one for cereals,and either a coffee pot low enoughto nest in the latter, or a covered pail in its place.

T:TGHT camp EQUIrMENT 119There should be six plates (two for serving) andfour each of cups, knives, forks, teaspoons, tablespoons.This is about as little as the party can wellget along with.It will be bothersome to bake bread for four inthe frying-pan. Add a reflector or a sheet-steeloven, if practicable. A wire broiler, a tea percolator,and a corkscrew and can opener will nest withthis set. If the cook wears no sheath knife abutcher knife is essential. Several dish towels(some to be divided into clouts) and a couple ofyards of cheesecloth for straining and to hang meatin should be taken. Sapolio will be needed, or BonAmi if the utensils are of aluminum.The common utensils of the shops will not nest.They are all spouts and handles, bail ears and coverknobs. Still, a good deal can be done by substitution.Covered pails or pots (Fig. 70) do the workFig. 70.—Cooking PotFig. 71.—Pot ChainFig. 72.—Coffee PotFig. 73-—Miner'sCoffee Potof sauce pans and kettles, and are better all round,for they can either be set upon the coals or hungabove the fire ; besides, you can carry water in them,and their covers keep heat in and ashes out. Allsuch vessels should be low and broad ; then they willboil quickly and pack well. Good proportions are:in, height.3 quarts diameter 6^ in. x 5]^4 " .... " 7^" xsM "6 " .... " 8^" x6^ " "8 " .... " 9M" X7^ "Bail ears should project as little as possible.Lids should have fold-down rings instead of knobs,so they will nest well.

CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTI20A set of pot-chains with hooks (Fig. 74) is worthtaking. With one of these (weight 2 oz.) a kettlecan be suspended at any desired height above thefire.Ordinary coffee pots are not suitable for camping.A good pattern for the purpose is shown in Fig. 72.It has a bail, folding handles, and a solid spout thatcannot melt off. A cheaper but very good article intin (Fig. 73) is known as a "miner's coffee pot."When very compact nesting is sought, discard thecoffee pot for a lidded pail: it has the merit that noaroma escapes through a spout. For tea, have analuminum tea-ball ; then you will not commit thecardinal sin of steeping the leaves too long.Cups, to nest inside the coffee pot, have the lowe'part of the handle free (Fig. 74). In tin, tht^13^-pint size is best (5 x 2% in.). Small cups andsmall plates are impertinences to anybody with awoods appetite. Tin is not so bad for coffee, butaluminum blisters the unwary mouth. Enamel isbest for cups and plates, no matter what the materialof the rest of the kit may be. It is so mucheasier to clean than tin or aluminum. If the platesare deep and generous (9^-inch soup plates, nest-Fig 74.— CupFig. 75.— Miller Frying Paning in the frying-pan) there will be no need ofbowls for soup and porridge.The frying-pan handle is a perennial problem.If detachable, it is likely to be lost. The best foldinghandled pan that I have used is the Miller pattern(Fig. 75). A common pan may be adaptedby cutting off all but two inches of the handle andriveting a square socket to the top of the stub sothat a stick may be fitted to it when you cook (if

LIGHT CAMP EQUIPMENT 121the socket is round the stick will twist unless carefullyfitted). I prefer the folding handle, becauseit saves time, and, on the very few occasions whenone needs a long stick for handle, he can insert it inthe rings of the Miller handle. Get a pan withhinge that won't work loose.Some sort of baker is almost essential for comfortablelife in the woods. The most portable form isthe folding reflector sold by most outfitters. It issimilar to those that our great-grandmothers used tobake biscuit in, before a hearth fire. The top slantslike a shed roof, and the bottom like another shedroof turned upside down, the bread pan being inthe middle. The slanting top and bottom reflectheat downward upon the top of the baking and upwardagainst its bottom, so that bread, for instance^bakes evenly all around.A prime advantage of this cunning utensil is thatbaking can proceed immediately when the fire i?kindled, without waiting for the wood to burn downto coals, and without danger of burning the dough.Fish, flesh, and fowl can be roasted to a turn in thiscontrivance. It has several better points than anoven, chief of which is its portability, as it folds flat;but it is inferior for corn bread, army biead, etc,and impossible for pot-roasts or braising. How touse it Is shown in Chapter XVI.Fig. 76.—Reflector(Angular Back)Fig. 77.—Reflector(Flat Back)Fig. 78.—Reflector(Folded in Case)There are two models of reflectors, one with asingle joint at the rear (Fig. 76), the other withtwo (Fig. 77) and a flat back. The latter is morecompact, but not so stiff as the other.

122 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThese ovens may be bought in tin or aluminum*Tin Aluminum Aluminum9x12 pan. 4 lbs. 8x12 pan. 2 lbs. i2x 15 open. 2 lbs»ix X I4pan. 5^2 lbs. 8 x 18 pan. 2% lbs. 15 x 18 open. 3 lbs.10x18 pan. 5 lbs. 15 X 24 open. 4 lbs.An 8x i2-in. pan hold's just a dozen biscuits.A canvas carrying case (Fig. 78) w^hich is needed,for the baker is frail, adds another pound. A wirebroiler packs inside the reflector; it is not necessaryfor broiling meat, but it is handy for the purpose,end especially for broiling fish.A reflector must be kept bright to do good baking.The sheet steel oven shown in Fig. 79 is muchcheaper than a reflector. It consistsof two halves that nest, each4x12 inches, and a perforated shelfon which a roast or a bake-panmay be placed. It is managed like„. a Dutch oven (see Chapter XX),Fig. 79.— 1 . .1'^^^ requires more attention, as theSheet Steel Ovenmaterial is thin. A reflector isbetter for the amateur, as he cari see at all timeshow the baking or roasting progresses.Men who have neither time nor inclination torummage the stores for " calamities " that will nestwould do well to pay extra for outfits already kittedby camp outfitters. Using one outfitter's sets forillustration, we are offered:In "Armor- In "Alum-Set for Size, nested steel" inol"Two persons.. 9^ x 8^ in. 6^ lbs. $4.00 6^ lbs. $9.85Four persons.. 10 x 11^ in. 12 lbs. 6.25 lo^g lbs. 16.60Six persons... II x 12% in. 17^ lbs. 8.50 17^ lbs. 26.50Eight persons. II x 12% in. 19^ lbs. 9.40 18^ lbs. 30.00In the four-men and eight-men sets the coffeepots will be found rather stingy.An 8x18 foldingaluminum reflector, broiler, canvas case, butcherknife, cooking spoon, percolator, and canvas ivaterbucket, would add exactly 4^ pounds weight and$6.90 to the price.

LIGHT CAMP EQUIPMENT 123Such sets as these are very nice for what I maycall confirmed campers; but if the party is likely tosplit up after the first trip, and no one cares to buya first-class outfit for future use, go to the departmentstore and get, in tin or enameled ware, thearticles I have listed. The reflector you must orderfrom an outfitter, or make for yourself.

CHAPTER VIITCAMP BEDDINGOne's health and comfort in camp depend verymuch upon what kind of bed he has. In nothingdoes a tenderfoot show off more discreditably thanin his disregard of the essentials of a good night'srest. He comes into camp after a hard day's tramp,sweating and tired, eats heartily, and then throwshimself down in his blanket on the bare ground.For a time he rests in supreme ease, drowsily satisfiedthat this is the proper way to show that he can" rough it," and that no hardships of the field candaunt his spirit. Presently, as his eyes grow heavyand he cuddles up for the night, he discovers thata sharp stone is boring into his flesh. He shiftsabout, and rolls upon a sharper stub or projectingroot. Cursing a little, he arises and clears theground of his tormentors. Lying down again, hedrops off peacefully and is soon snoring. An hourpasses, and he rolls over on the other side; a halfhour, and he rolls back again into his former position; ten minutes, and he rolls again ; then he tosses^fidgets, groans, w^akes up, and finds that his hipsand shoulders ache from serving as piers for thearches of his back and sides.He gets up, muttering, scoops out hollows to receivethe projecting portions of his frame, and againlies down. An hour later he reawakens, this timewith shivering flesh and teeth a-chatter. How coldthe ground is! The blanket over him is sufficientcover, but the same thickness beneath, compacted byhis weight and in contact with the cold earth, is124not

CAMP BEDDING 125half enough to keep out the bone-searching chill thatcomes up from the damp ground. This will neverdo. Pneumonia or rheumatism may follow. Hearises, this time for good, passes a wretched nightbefore the fire, and dawn finds him a haggard, wornouttype of misery, disgusted with camp life andeager to hit the back trail for home.The moral is plain. This sort of roughing it isbad enough when one is compelled to submit to it.It kills twice as many soldiers as bullets do. Whenit is endured merely to show off one's fancied toughnessand hardihood it is rank folly. Even the dumbbeasts know better, and they are particular aboutmaking their beds.This matter of a good portable bed is the mostserious problem in outfitting. A man can standalmost any hardship by day, and be none the worsefor it, provided he gets a comfortable night's rest;but without sound sleep he will soon go to pieces, nomatter how gritty he may be.In selecting camp bedding we look for the mostwarmth with the least w-^eight and bulk, for durabilityunder hard usage, and for stuff that will nothold moisture long, but will dry out easily.Warmth depends upon insulation. The bestinsulation is given by dry air confined in the intersticesof the covering, this covering being thickenough to keep one's animal heat from escaping tooreadily.Of course, materials vary in conductivity — cottonand other vegetable fibers being coldest, silk andwool warmer, fur and feathers warmest of all —but, irrespective of materials, the degree of insulationafforded by a covering depends upon its fluffiness,or looseness of texture, and its thickness ofbody. This means bulk; there is no way of gettingaround it ; there must be room for confined air.Innumerable expedients have been tried to keepdown bulk by using impermeable insulators, suchas oaper, oiled cotton or silk, and rubber or rubber-

•126 CAMPING AND WOODCRAF-lizedfabric, but all such " skins to keep heat in " aretotal failures. The vapor from one's body musthave an outlet or a man vrill chill, to say nothing ofother unpleasant consequences.The degree of insulation afforded by confinedair may be judged roughly by a few comparisons.Here is a pack cloth of close-woven cotton duck;there is a cotton bed comforter of the same spreadand weight, but thicker, of course. Size, weights,and materials are the same, yet what a difference inwarmth! Well, it is just the enclosed air thatmakes the comforter "comfy," and lack of it thatleaves the canvas cold as a covering. Similarly, athree-pound comforter filled with lamb's wool battingisas warm as a five-pound all-wool blanket, becauseit holds more dead air. Down filling is stillwarmer than wool, being fluffier, and its elasticitykeeps it so — it does not mat from pressure.After a cotton comforter has been used a longtime, or kept tightly rolled up, its batting becomesmatted down and then the cover is no warmer thana quilt of equal weight. Quilts — ugh! In thedank bedroom of a backwoods cabin, where the" kivvers " were heirlooms, but seldom had beenaired, I have heaped those quilts on me till theirvery weight made my bones ache, and still shiveredmiserably through the long winter night.Batting of any sort (but cotton the worst) willalso mat from wet, and then its elasticity is gone.Water, moreover, is a good conductor of heat, andso a bed covering of any kind is cold when it is wet.Note this, also, that the weight of one's bodypresses out a good deal of air from the beddingunder him. Moreover, earth, being a good conductor, draws off one's animal heat faster than th^air does. So, when sleeping on the ground, on&needs more bedding underneath than over him —a cold, hard fact that some designers of sleepingbags have unaccountably overlooked. A bag withtwo thicknesses of blanket over the sleeper and only

CAMP BEDDiNa i2>one under him Is built upside-down. The man willhave at least part of his back only half protected iand one's vertebral region is the very part of himthat ismost vulnerable to cold.Blankets.— The warmest blanket for its weightis not a close-woven one but one that isloose-wovenand fluffy. An army blanket is made for hard service,and so must be of firm weave, but a third of itsWeight is added for that purpose only, not forV.jvarmth. For use in a sleeping bag, where they areprotected from wear, blankets of more open tex- /ture are better. Two three-pound blankets arc/*Warmer than a six-pound one of the same grade/owing to the thin stratum of air between them.Hence the best bags are made up of several layersof light, fluff>' blanketing, instead of a thick, feltedbag.A cotton orCamp blankets should be all-wool.much more prone to absorb moist-part-cotton one isure from the damp woods air and to hold that whichexudes from the body of the sleeper, hence it isclammier and colder than wool. The differencemay not be so noticeable in the dry air of a heatedbedroom, but it will quickly make itself felt in thewoods. Another bad quality of cotton is that firewill spread through it from an ember cast out by thecamp-fire, whereas the coal would merely burn ahole in wool.The warmest blankets for their weight are thosemade of camel's hair. They are expensive, but oneof them is as much protection as two commonwoolen blankets. They are favorites among experiencedtravelers all over the world.Hudson Bay blankets have a well-justified reputation,being much like the well-nigh everlastingproducts of the old hand-loom. Their size is distinguishedby " poinds "^ (four points, three-and-ahalfpoints, three points) and they are marked accordinglyby black bars in one corner.Blankets should be of dark or neutral color, sC

128 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTas not to show dirt or attract Insects. If used withouta canvas cover they may well be waterproofedwith lanolin, by the process that I will describe inthe next chapter.To roll up in a blanket in such a way that you willstay snugly wrapped, lie down and draw the blanketover you like a coverlet, lift the legs without bendingat the knee, and tuck first one edge smoothlyunder your legs then the other. Lift your hips anddo the same there. Fold the far end under yourfeet. Then wrap the free edges similarly aroundyour shoulders one under the other. You willlearn to do this without bunching, and will findyourself in a sort of cocoon.Often it is convenient to use a blanket as a garment while drying out your clothes, or as a cape incold weather. Wear it as a Mexican does hisserape. As a bed blanket is larger than a serape,one end must first be folded, say about two feet,depending upon size and your own height. Thisfold being turned under, stand with your backtoward the blanket and draw its right-hand cornersnugly up under the right armpit so that the trianglehangs down in front of you, and hold it firmlythere. With left hand then draw the blanket upover left shoulder from behind, tight against napeof neck, and down in front. That leaves the leftcorner trailing on the ground before you. With aquick flirt throw this corner up over right shoulderand let it hang down your back, where it will stayof its own weight. You are now wrapped up butwith right arm free. The blanket can be cast offin an instantComforters.— Sometimes these are miscalledquilts, but they are knotted together instead olquilted, and have thicker, fluffier filling than quilts.Cotton comforters are wholly unsuitable for outdooruse. They are warm only when perfectly dry,and it is impossible to keep them so in the damp airof a forest. But a comforter filled with wool bat*-

CAMP BEDDING 129ting is very warm for Its weight and does not takeup moisture so readily. It is cheaper than a blanket,and makes a softer bed, but is bulkier. Comfortersare much used by Western campers, alongwith a canvas " tarp." Whenever extreme compactnessof outfit is not necessary, I recommend thateach member of a party take v/ith him a wool comforter,even if for no other use than as a mattress.Warmest of all coverings of this sort are the socalledeiderdown quilts (leally goose down). Theyare expensive, and must be carefully protected fromthe wet.Sleeping Bags.— There is a good deal of wastematerial in blankets and comforters, especially at thefoot end. Suppose we cut them into a sort of coffinshape, to conform to the outlines of the body, sewup a side and an end and the lower third of theother side, then attach buttons or laces or clasps toclose the bag after one has got into it. A good dealof weight and bulk are saved.'^he objections are that such an arrangement ishard to air and dry out, it is not readily adjustableto varying temperatures, and the occupant has afeeling of constraint when cooped up in the thing=Still, in some kinds of camping, it is essential thatthe bed be very warm, waterproof, windproof, andyet as portable as possible. Hence the sleeping bag.It may be laid down as an axiom at the start thatno sleeping bag is worthy of serious notice unless itsblankets or other lining can be removed quickly andsoread out on a line to dry. A lining sewed insidea waterproof cover is an abomination. So is a nestof blanket bags that can only be aired by proppingeach one open with a stick. Such things get mustyand dirty. They are so bothersome to air that theywill be neglected.Of course, if the bag is of but a single thickness itmay be sunned first on the outside and then turnedrnside out. But no single bag is practical, exceotfnr a polar climate, when one adopts •*' fur basr

130 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTBedding, to be comfortable and healthful, must beadaptable to variations of temperature. Rememberthat the night gets colder and colder till daylight.This is much more noticeable out-of-doors than indoors,and yet, even at home, when one goes to bedhe generally has a spare cover handy to pull overhim towards morning.Now a tent is far less insulated than a house.So if one muffles himself up when he goes to bed inenough covering to meet the last few hours beforedawn, he will soon be roasted out, whereas if hehas only enough bedding for comfort through thefirst watches of the night, he will find the last onehis watch in literal truth, for he won't sleep. Theonly sleeping bag worth talking about is one thatFig. 80.— D. T. Abercrorabie Sleeping Baghas at least four layers of blanketing. Then onescan turn in under one layer and the canvas; in thecold hours after midnight, he can emerge and crawlback under more cover (Fig. 80).It is from lack of attention to these simple andobvious requirements that most designers of sleepingbags have failed. They have turned out contrivancesthat either were insufferably hot in theearly part of the night or confoundedly cold beforemornmg.The explorer, Anthony Fiala, who has patentedan extremely light and warm bag for use in highlatitudes (Fig. 81), claims that not only the bagitself but its cover should be porous so as to throwoff the bodilv moisture which otherwise condenses

CAMP BEDDINGI3Tground the sleeper and chills him. So he uses plainkhaki for a bag cover instead of waterproofed mate^rial. However, his type of sleeping bag is a snugger" " fit than the average, and so arranged with hoodand closing flaps that it ventilates only through thecloth itself. The larger and heavier bags commonlyused are roomy enough to provide considerable ventilationfrom the unconscious wriggling of thesleeper. Besides, the cover, though waterproof, isnot impermeable to air, as rubber or oilskin wouldbe.If several layers of blanketing are used within ?roomy cover of waterproofed canvas the outer layerwill take up what little *' sweating " occurs insideFig. 8i.— Fiala Sleeping Bagthe canvas. Such a cover is desirable to protect theoccupant from damp ground, from moist air, andfrom rain when he bivouacs away from camp. Italso keeps the bedding dry while en route, as, forexample, in a boat or canoe when water is shipped.If the bag is opened out and its lining sunned frequently,as should be done with any sort of bedding,no trouble from condensed moisture will be experiencedin ordinary climates.I have spoken of fur bags. They are much toohot for our climate, except in the high mountainswhere one must bivouac perhaps in wind and snow.The warmest of all coverings for its weight is abag made of caribou nr reindeer-skin. The hair of

132 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthis animal is extraordinarily close and thick, andeach hair is hollow, like a quill, and contains air(this is true of the whole deer family). Cariboupelts are in their prime when in the summer coat,in August and early September. After this the hairbecomes too long and brittle. Skins of young animalsshould be used, being lighter than those of oldones, although almost as warm, and their hair isless liable to come out under conditions of dampness.They weigh about the same per square foot asraccoonor goat-skms (4^ to 5 ounces, as comparedwith 63^ for wolf and 7 for black bear, on theaverage). A bag made from such skins will weighabout twelve pounds, from the adult caribou aboutsixteen pounds. Sleeping bags m.ade in Norwayfrom skins of domesticated reindeer could be purchased,before the war, through the Army and Navystores in London for about £5. Alaska reindeerskins can be bought from trading firms in Seattle.In the old Book of Camping and Woodcraft Idiscoursed as follows re sleeping bags:It is snug, for a while, to be laced up in a bag, but notso snug when you roll over and find that some apertureat the top is letting a stream of cold air run down yourspine, and that your weight and cooped-upness prevent youfrom readjusting the bag to your comfort. Likewise asleeping bag may be an unpleasant trap to be in when asquall springs up suddenly at night, or the tent catchesfire.I think that one is more likely to catch cold when emergingfrom a stuffy sleeping bag into the cold air than if hehad slept between loose blankets. A waterproof coverwithout any opening except where your nose sticks out isno more wholesome to sleep in than a rubber boot iswholesome for one's foot. Nor is such a cover of muchpractical advantage, except underneath. The notion thatit is any substitute for a roof overhead, on a rainy night,is a delusion.Blankets can be wrapped around one more snugly, theydo not condense moisture inside, and they can be thrownopen instantly in case of alarm. In blankets you can sleepdouble in cold weather. Taking it all in all, I choose theseparate bed tick, pillow bag, poncho, and blanket, ratherthan the same bulk and weight of any kind of sleeping

CAxMP BEDDINr^ 133bag that I have so far experimented with. There maybe better bags that I have not tried.In his excellent book on The Way of the Woodsy,Dr. Edward Breck replied:" I have always looked up to Mr. Kephart as a woodsmansans reproche, but I am forced to believe that he hasnever made fair trial of a good sleeping bag; for, if thereis one thing a bag does not do, it is letting in streams ofcold air down your spine, and, to me at least it almostgoes without saying that a man is wrapped up much moretightly in blanicets than in a bag, and hence far more helplessto rearrange his bed without pulling things to pieces.It is just precisely the ability to turn over in comfort thatmakes me love a sleeping bag, and this springs from itsgeneral stay-puttedness.' As for the ' stuffiness of a bag Iconfess I have yet to discover it. A proper bag opensdown the side and ventilates easily. It is a little moredifficult to air out in the morning, but not much. Thecomparison with a rubber boot is most unjust, and, thoughharder to get into, it takes no longer to do so than to wraponeself up properly in blankets. As to getting caught insideif a fire breaks out, I will engage to get outside ofmine [a 'Comfort sleeping pocket'] in less than threeseconds if necessary. The sleeping bag has come tostay. My Indians have made themselves a couple out ofblankets and waterproof canvas. Mr. Kephart assertsthat the waterproof cover is no substitute for a roof overheadon a rainy night; and yet I can assure him that Ihave slept out in mine without a tent many times in hardrain without getting wet in the slightest degree, exceptwhen rising. Imagine, if you please, the state I shouldhave been in with blankets only. A lean-to of some kindwould have been imperative, and even then misery wouldhave been the result. Of course, spending the night withoutsome kind of shelter is not to be recommended, but myexperience shows what the bag is capable of."As for the roof overhead, what I meant was thatgun and duffel need protection, and so do you whenyou crawl out on a rainy morning. The weight ofa sleeping-bag cover put into a little waterproof tentthat you can carry in your pocket, and a groundsheet to go with it, will give you better protectionfrom the elements at night and a sheltered place todress and cook breakfast in. This for side triplfrom camp, or for long hikes.

134 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTOtherwise It is a matter of finding a proper sleepingbag, and I have tried here to make the essentialsplain.decisive factor.Beyond this, one's personal taste must be theEmerson Hough:Let us hear from another old-timer," As to your bed, let us have one more whack at thesleeping bag — that accursed invention of a misguidedsoul. Leave your sleeping bag at home, in the Adirondacksor in the Minnesota woods. Take a pair of goodwool blankets which will weigh not less than ten pounds— more weight is better. Don't despise a good wool comforteror a ' Katy ' which will fold double and make anice mattress under you. And whatever you do, don'tfail to have for your own use a good, big bed tarp * ' as itis known in the West. On the stock ranches we alwaysused to have the tarpaulin of 20-oz. duck, about 7 x 14 ft.,jand sometimes it had harness hooks on it, sometimes not.It surely would turn rain. For the pack travel of todayyou will not need canvas of quite so much weight. Butcanvas and wool in abundance you surely should havefor your bed. No hunting trip is a success when youdon't sleep well and dry at night. Canvas and woo!together are the correct dope for the mountains. Take anair mattress if you insist, or if your dealer does: don'tblame me if you sleep cold."When all is said, plain blankets are cheaper thansleeping bags, and they can be used at home: thatsettles the matter for most folks.Mattresses and Pillows.— It is folly to sleepon bare ground if one can help it. A bed of balsambrowse is not excelled, if properly made and frequentlyrenewed ; but it takes fully an hour to makeone right, and on many a camp ground there is nobrowse, not even spruce. As a substitute one mayuse pine needles, grass, ferns, the moss off old fallentrees, or even dead leaves. Such stuff, however,packs hard and spreads from under one unless confinedin a bag.For years I carried a bag of commonbed ticking for this purpose, 2^^ feet wnde by 6^feet long, and weighing only i^ pounds. Such abag made of tanalite is more practical than any kindof carryall or bed-sheet, for it serves just as well to

CAMP BEDDING 135protect the bedding en routes and then is easy toturn into a mattress when you make camp. A pillowbag, similarly stuffed, with spare clothing atop,was not the least important item in my very lightkit. When one has room, it pays to carry a smallfeather pillow or a down cushion about 12x18inches.Air Mattresses.— An air bed is luxurious inmoderate weather, but too cold to use late in thereason unless well insulated with blankets or a feltpad. The thinner the bed the less objectionable itis in this respect, as it does not then steal so muchof one's animal heat.There are sleeping bags combined with airmattresses,full-length or only ** body size," that aregood for canoe cruising, horseback journeys, or othertrips when camp is changed every day or so andgood sites are not always to be found. They savemuch work, and sometimes a good deal of anxiety.There is then no night wood to cut, no browse togather, no tent to trench, and little bother aboutsmoothing the ground. Wherever one may be, indamp forest or on sandy dune, on rocky ground ormucky ground, down goes the bundle, it is unrolled,and one inflates his " blow bed " with the bellowsthat nature gave him. In ten minutes he is assuredof a dry, warm, elastic bed for the night, in spite ofJupiter Pluvius, or Boreas, or both of them allied.If water runs in on the floor, let it run. If the tentblows down, let it alone until you feel like gettingup. Come morning there is no bed making to do, ifyou are too hurried to air things, except to deflatethe mattress and roll the bag up. It straps into awaterproof pack that stows conveniently anywhere.But such a bed is quite expensive. For ordinaryservice, blankets and a bed tick will do just as well.In any case, study your health and your ease atnight. There is a veteran's wisdom in what ChaunceyThomas says: " I go camping to have a goodtime, and a third of that time is spent in bed,"

136 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTBed Rolls.— If one carries loose blankets he willneed a waterproof canvas cover to protect them€n route and to serve as a ground sheet betweenthem and the damp earth when he sleeps on theground. A bed roll made with flaps at sides andFig. 82.— U. S. A. Regulation Bed Rollend is best for this purpose. It Is also a good thingwhen you sleep on a narrow cot, to keep cold airfrom coming up under the overhang of your blankets.The army regulation bed roll (Fig. 82) is^aFig.83.— Shattuck Camp Roll^ne type. There Is a pocket for spare clothing thatserves as pillow, and the blankets and a folding cotare rolled up In the main part of the sheet, coveredby the flaps, and strapped up.Another camp roll is shown In Fig. 83. It con-

CAMP BEDDING13';tains a detachable wall pocket for small articles,which is to be hung up in the tent, and bellowspockets at the end.There is a combination carryall and bed (Fig,84) that I think a good deal of. In principle it klike the other bed rolls mentioned, but the bottom iadouble and open at both ends. A pair of stiff polesconvert it into a stretcher bed (Fig. 86) ; cross poleaFig. 84.— Fig. 85.—Comfort Sleeping Pocket Combination Bed Roll,Stretcher Bed and BedTickFig. 86.—Combination as Stretcher BedFig. 87.—Combination as HammockFig.88.—Combination as Bed Rolladded and lashed at the ends make a hammock frameThe double bottom serves as a bed tick,(Fig. 87).to be filled with browse, grass, or whatever softstuff the camp site affords. The ends can be closedwith horse-blanket pins, after stuffing the bag.Theroll is made of 12-oz. army duck, and weighs 7 or 8pounds. It can be had with blanket lining, but thisI do not recommend. Use separate blankets; thenyou can have as much thickness under as over you.

CHAPTER IXCLOTHINGIn a wild country one soon learns that the differencebetween comfort and misery, if not health andillness, may depend upon whether he is properlyclad. Proper, in this case, does not mean modish,but suitable, serviceable, proven by the touchstoneof experience to be best for the work or play thatis in hand. When you seek a guide in the mountainshe looks first in your eyes and then at yourshoes. If both are right, you are right.The chief uses of clothing are to help the bodymaintain its normal temperature, and to protect itfrom sun, frost, wind, rain and injuries. To help,mind you — the body must be allowed to do itsshare.Perspiration is the heat-regulating mechanism ofthe body. Clothing should hinder its passage fromthe skin as little as possible. For this reason one'sgarments should be permeable to air. The body iscooled by rapid evaporation, on the familiar principleof a tropical water-bag that is porous enough tolet some of the water exude. So the best summerclothing is that which permits free evaporation —and this means all over, from head to heel. In winter,just the same, there should be free passage forbodily moisture through the underclothes; but extralayers or thicknesses of outer clothing are needed tohold in the bodily heat and to protect one againstwind ; even so, all the garments should be permeableto air. If a man would freeze most horribly, lethim, on a winter's night, crawl into a bag of Indiarubber and tie the opening tight about his neck.128

CLOTHING 139Cloth can be processed in such a waj^ as to berainproof and still self-ventilating (this will be consideredlater), but rubber garments and oilskins cannotsafely be worn the day long, unless they are veryroomy, and the wearer exercises but little. Rubberovershoes, boots, waders, are endurable only in coolweather or cold water, and then only if very thickoversocks are worn to hold air and absorb moisture.All clothing worn by an outdoorman should beof such texture and fit as will allow free play to hismuscles, so he may be active and agile, and shouldbind as little as possible, especially over vital organs.Garments that are too thick and stiff, or too loose atpoints of friction, will chafe the wearer.These are general principles ; now for particulars.Underclothing.— In discussing " togs " weusually begin on the wrong side — the outside.Now the outer garments will vary a great deal, accordingto climate, season, the terrain or waters,and according to the sport or work that one is todo; but the integument that comes next to one'sskin should vary littleweight.for an outdoorman except inThe material and quality of one's underwear areof more consequence than the shell he puts over it,^or his comfort and health depend more on them.Whenever a man exercises heartily he is sure to perspirefreely, no matter how cold the air may be.Arctic explorers all agree that their chief miserywas from confined moisture freezing on them. Howit is in the dog-days everybody knows — a glowingsun, humidity in the air, and sweat trickling fromevery pore because the atmosphere is not dry enoughto take it up.Permeability of cloth to air and moisture islargely a matter of texture. Consider the starchedlinen collar and the soft collar of an outing shirt;consider a leather sweat-band inthe hat and a flannelone, or no sweat-band at all.Underclothing, for any season, should be loosely

I40CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwoven, so as to hold air and take up moisture fromthe body. The air connned in the interspaces is anon-conductor, and so helps to prevent sudden chillingon the one hand and over-heating on the other.A loose texture absorbs sweat but does not hold it—the moisture is free to pass on to and through theouter garments. In town we may endure closewovenunderwear in summer, if thin enough, becausew^e exercise little and can bathe and changefrequently. In the woods we would have to changefour times a day to keep near as dry.Wool versus Cotton.— Permeability also dependsupon material. Ordinary cotton and linengoods do not permit rapid evaporation. They abi>orbmoisture from the skin, but hold it up to t'heThen, when they can hold nclimit of saturation.more, they are clammy, and the sweat can onlyescape by running down one's skin.After hard exertion in such garments, if you sitdown to rest, or meet a sudden keen wind, as in toppinga ridge, you are likely to get a chill — and thenext thing is a " bad cold," or lumbago, rheumatism,or something worse.Wool, on the contrary, is permeable. That iswhy (if of suitable weight and loose weave) it isboth cooler in summer and warmer in winter than*'cloth made from vegetable fibre. One wraps himselfin a woolen blanket to keep warm — to keepthe heat in. He wraps ice in a blanket to keep itfrom melting — to keep the heat out." In otherwords, wool is the best material to maintain anequable, normal temperature.However, the broad statement that one shouldwear nothing but wool at all seasons requires modification.It depends upon quality and weave.Some flannels are less absorptive and less permeable(especially after a few washings by the scrub-andwring-outprocess) than open-texture cottons andlinens.And, speaking of washing, here comes another

CLOTHING 141practical consideration. If woolen garments arewashed like cotton ones — soap rubbed in, scrubbedon a washboard or the like, and wrung out — theywill invariably shrink. The only way to preventshrinkage is to soak them in lukewarm suds (preferablyof fels-naphtha or a similar soap), then merelysqueeze out the water by pulling through the hand,rinse, squeeze out again, stretch, and hang up to dry.This is easy, but it requires a large vessel, and sucha vessel few campers have. The alternative is tobuy your undershirts and overshirts a size too large,allowing for shrinkage. Drawers must not be oversize,or they will chafe. But one's legs perspiremuch less than his body, and need less protection ; so,up to the time of frost, let the drawers be of ribbedcotton, which is permeable and dries out quickly.Cotton drawers have the further advantage thatthey do not shrink from the frequent wettings andconstant rubbings that one's legs get in w^ildernesstravel. Wool, however, is best for wading troutstreams. For riding, the best drawers are of silk.I conclude that for cold weather, for work Inhigh altitudes where changes of temperature aresudden and severe, and for deep forests w^here thenight air is chilly, woolen underclothes should beworn. In hot climates, and for summer wear inopen country, a mixture of silk and wool is best,but open-texture linen or cotton does very well. Pajamasshould be of flannel, at all seasons, if onesleeps in a tent or out-of-doors.Union" Suits are not practical in the wilds. Ifyou wade a stream, or get your legs soaked fromwet brush or snow, you can easily take off a pair ofdrawers to dry them, but if wearing a union suit youmust strip from head to foot. Moreover, a unionsuit is hard to wash, and it Is a perfect haven forfleas and ticks — you can't get rid of the bruteswithout stripping to the buff.Drawers must fit snugly In the crotch, and benot too thick, or they will chafe the wearer. Thef

142 CAMPING AND WOODCR"AFTshould be loose in the leg,to permit free knee action.Full-length drawers are best because they protectthe knees against dirt and bruises, and safety-pinscan be used to hold up the socks (garters impedecirculation).Socks.— If trousers of full length are worn, thensocks are preferable to stockings; they bulk less,weigh less, cost less, and are easier to wash. Forforest travel, regardless of season, socks should beof soft wool, thick enough to cushion the feet andabsorb moisture, and not closely knit but of ratheropen texture. But for open country, in hot sunnyweather, cotton is better, because wool " draws " thefeet at such times. On an all-day hike it pays tochange to a fresh pair at noon.The fit of socks is very important. If too loose,they wrinkle and chafe the feet; if too small, theyare unendurable. To prevent woolen ones fromshrinking is not difficult. Every night, or every timeyou come in with wet feet, remove your socks, puton fresh ones (having bathed the feet, of course),and put those you have worn to soak in a runningstream ; then draw them through the hand to squeezeout water, do not wring, but pull them gently intoshape, and hang up to dry. On a long trip youwill find means, now and then, to soak them in tepidsuds, as they do not require a large vessel.Take along enough socks so that when a pairgets " more holey than righteous " you can throwthem away. Darned socks cause blisters, especiallywhen a man does the darning.OvERSHiRTS.— For Summer wear the U. S. A.chambray shirt is as good as any. It is durable,does not fade, and shows dirt and perspiration stainsless than khaki or common outing shirts. Armyshirts have two roomy Stanley pockets with buttonedflaps. These are just right for pipe and tobacco,note-book and pencil, or whatever you want handyat all times without crowding the trousers pockets.Later in the season, or for a cool climate, the

CLOTHING 143standard infantry or officer's service shirt of olivetanwool is excellent. It is always natty, and wearsbetter than common flannel. The cloth is shrunkbefore making up, but will do some more shrinkingfrom repeated wettings and washings, so get a sizelarger than what is worn at home. Gray is also agood color for overshirts.Neckerchiefs.— A neckerchief worn with thepeak in front is convenient to wipe perspiration fromthe face. Slewed around the other way, it shieldsthe neck from sunburn. In a high wind, or indense thickets, k can be used to hold the hat on bytying over the head ; and it will protect one's earswhen frost nips. It serves as a nightcap, or as ashield against insects, when folded and worn asshown in Figs. 89, 90.Fig. 89 —NeckerchiefFolded for HoodFig. 90.—NeckerchiefHood AdjustedLay the kerchief out flat, fold over the uppercorners a and b till they meet, roll the square loweredge toward the triangle thus formed, place kerchiefover head with the slit ac in front, tie extremities ofthe roll under chin, and over ab, with a reef knot.The neckerchief should be large (the army size,27x27 in., or navy, 36x36 in.) and of silk. Silkneckerchiefs in any desired color can be bought ofmilitary outfitters. The army or navy size can beused as a doubled triangular bandage (or cut intotwo of them) in emergency. Tied around the abdomenit helps to keep a man warm when he iscaught out at night, and it is a good thing in ?:a5Cof cramps.

144 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTTrousers.— Khaki, of standard army grade, isgood for summer wear, as it is cool and can be'*washed. Duxbak," or other closely woven cravanettedcotton, is better late in the season, since itsheds a good deal of wet and keeps out wind. Bothof these materials dry readily. They are too noisyfor still-hunting.For cold weather the army trousers of olive-tanwool are good, unless one goes out for very roughtravel. The woolen cloth called kersey is firstchoice in a cool, rainy climate, or wherever muchwading is to be done. It is the favorite amongthose most practical of men. the log-drivers and lumberjacksgenerally.Woolen trousers do not wear so well as firmlywoven cotton ones. They " pick out " in brush,*'snag," and collect burs. What has been said ofcotton drawers applies also to trousers. Best of alltrouser material, for rough service, is genuine Englishmoleskin, which is a very strong, tough, twilledcotton cloth, with a fine pile or nap, the surface of*'Ivhich is shaved " before dyeing. It wears likeiron, is wind-proof, dries out quickly, and is comfortablein either warm or cold weather. Cheapmoleskin is worthless.Corduroy is easily torn, heavy, likely to chafe one,and it is notoriously hard to dry after a wetting.When wearing corduroy trousers there is a swishswashat every stride that game can hear at a greatdistance.Trousers should not be lined ; it makes them stiffand hard to dry.To wear with leggings the " foot breeches " of ourinfantry, which lace or button in front below thekne€, fit better than trousers that must be lappedover; but for wilderness wear I prefer commontrousers cut off about six inches below the knee:they are easier to put on and they dry out quicker.Riding breeches are best for the saddle. Theyare cut too tight at the knee for foot travel, espe-

CLOTHING 145ciall}^ for climbing. Knickerbockers are too baggyfor the woods: they catch on snags and tear, orthrow a man.Belts.— A belt drawn tight enough to hold upmuch weight is not only uncomfortable but dangerous.It checks circulation, interferes with digestion,and may cause rupture if one gets a fall. Ifcommon suspenders are objectionable, then wear the" invisible " kind that go under the overshirt. Theyprevent chafing, by holding the trousers snug up inthe crotch. For ordinary service there is no needof a belt more than an inch wide. A cartridgebelt should be worn sagging w^U down on the hips;or, if a heavy weight is to be carried on the belt(bad practice, anyway), by all means have shoulderstrapsfor it.Leggings.— Never buy leggings that strap underthe instep. The strap collects mud, and it is sooncut to pieces on the rocks. Any legging that lacesover hooks will catch in brush or high grass andsoon the hooks bend outward or flatten. The presentU. S. A. canvas legging (Fig. 91) has only oneFig. 91.—U. S. ArmyCanvas LeggingFig. 92.—StrapPutteeCanvasFig- 93—Woolen SpiralPutteehook, in front; it is quickly adjusted. The strapputtee (Fig. 92) is better for a woodsman or mountaineer.Leather puttees are suitable only for horsemen; in walking and climbing they cut one in frontand rear of the ankle joint. Genuine pigskin is theonly leather that will stand hard service and frequentwettings.

146 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTFor still-hunting I like spiral puttees (Fig. 93),not spat but plain, as here illustrated. They arestrips of woolen cloth with selvage edges, speciallywoven and *' formed," which wind round the leglike a surgeon's bandage and tie at the top. Do notwind too tightly. They are pliable, noiseless againstbrush, help to keep ticks and rhiggers from crawlingup one's legs, and, with the clothing underneath, area sufficient defense against any snakes except the'*great diamond-back rattlers. In experiments,only in rare instances has snake virus stained blotting-paperplaced behind two thicknesses of heavyflannel."German socks, instead of leggings, are good forstill-hunting insevere cold weather.Many dispense with leggings by wearing theirtrousers tucked inside boots or high-topped shoes.This will do when the woods are dry, but when allthe bushes are wet from rain, or from heavy dew,the water runs down inside your shoes until theyslush-slush as if you had been wading a creek.Coats.— The conventional American huntingcoat of tan-colored cotton is designed primarily forfishermen, bird-hunters, and others who can reachhome or permanent camp every night. Being nearly" all pockets but the button-holes," its wearer needsno pouch or game-bag. A man can stuff all thepockets full (he generally does) and still cross fencesand slipthrough thickets without anything catchingor dangling in the way. A cravenetted coat of thissort turns rain and keeps out the wind. It is anexcellent defence against burrs and briers. It is noheavier than a poncho, and more serviceable foreverything but as a ground-sheet or shelter-cloth.These are good points.On the other hand, the coat is too hot for summer(barring trout fishing), it impedes athleticmovements, and, unless sleeveless, it is a poor thingto shoot in, as a gun butt is likely to slip from theshoulder. For summer hikes, canoeing, and big-

CLOTHING 147game hunting (except when it is cc.M enough forMackinaw's) any coat is a downright nuisance.Have the coat roomy enough to wear a sweateror thick vest under it. Never mind " fit " — thething is hideous anyway. Of course, one can weara modish and well-fitting shooting suit, or the like,in the fields near '' civilization," but for wildernesstravel it is as outre as a stag shirt and caulked bootswould be on Fifth Avenue.The coat should not be lined. Most linings areso tightly woven that they check ventilation of theskin, and they make a garment hard to dry out.Sweaters.— A sweater, or sweater jacket, iscomfortable to wear around camp in the chill of theevening and early morning, and its elasticity makesit a good bed garment when there are not enoughblankets. With nothing over it, a sweater is notserviceable in the woods, as it *' picks out," " snags,"and catches up burrs as a magnet does iron filings.When you want such a garment at all, you needwarmth a-plenty : so get a thick one of good quality,and don't kick at the price. It should have cuffs todraw down over the knuckles, and a wide collar toprotect the neck and base of the head. The bestcolors are neutral gray and brown or tan. Asweater jacket that buttons up in front is more convenientthan the kind that isbut it is not so warm as the latter.Personally, Idrawn over one's head,usually discard the sweater in favorof a Mackinaw shirt, worn hunting fashion with tailoutside. It has all the good points of a sweater,except great elasticity, and has the advantages ofshedding rain and snow, keeping out wind, wearingwell under hard service, and not picking up so muchtrash.Leather Jackets.— In the cold dry air of theFar West a buckskin jacket or hunting shirt is oftenthe best outer garment. It keeps out the keenestwind, is pliable as kid, noiseless, less bulky than a

148 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsweater or Mackinaw, wears forever, and Is proofagainst thorns and burrs. But when wet It Is ascold and clammy as tripe.Genuine buckskin shirts are still listed In thecatalogues of certain dealers in the Northwest. Besure the skins are " smoke-tanned," so that they willdry soft and not shrink so badly as those dressed bya commercial tanner. A fringed shirt dries betterthan a plain one, as the water tends to drip off thefringes.Swedish dogskin jackets are rain-proof, but notso pliable as buckskin.If one can get them (Hudson Bay posts) lightCaribou orcaribou skins are better than buckskin.reindeer hide has the singular property of not stretchingwhen wet.When tanned with the hair on Itis the warmest of all coverings.Vests.— A vest without coat may not be sightly,but It is mighty workmanlike. Suspenders can beworn under it without desecrating the landscape —and stout suspenders, say what you please, are abadge of good common sense on a woodsman.But the vest worn in town is not fit for the wilderness.One's back Is more vulnerable to cold thanhis chest ; hence the thick cloth of a waistcoat shouldgo all the way round. There should be four roomypockets, the lower ones with buttoned flaps. Tabsfitted at the bottom will keep the vest from flappingwhen worn open.Waterproofing Woolens.— Wet clothing Isheavy and uncomfortable. It Is much less permeableto air than dry clothing; consequently It Interfereswith evaporation of sweat ; and it is chilly, becausewater, which Is a good conductor of heat, hasreplaced the air, which Is a non-conductor. Airpasses through dry cloth more than twice as freelyas through wet material.The problem Is to waterproof the outer garmentsand still leave them permeable to air. This Is donewith cotton goods by cravenettlng the material, or,

CLOTHING 149less effectively, by the alum and sugar-of-lead processwhich fixes acetate of alumina inthe fibers.It is easier to waterproof woolens than cottonclothing. Simply make a solution of anhydrouslanolin in benzine or gasoline, soak the garment init about three minutes, wring out gently, stretch toshape, and hang up to drj^ shifting position of garmentfrequently, until nearly dry, so that the lanolinwill be evenly distributed. This process is verycheap, and old clothing can be treated by it as wellas new, w^ithout injuring the buttons or anythingelse.Cloth so treated permits the ready evaporation ofsweat, and so may be worn without ill effects, nomatter what the weather may be. In fact the p

i5oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe strength of solution to be used depends uponclimate. For a hot, rainy climate, use four ouncesof lanolin to a gallon of benzine ; for average conditionsin the temperate zone, three ounces to the gallon; for cold climate, or winter use exclusively, twoounces to the gallon, as cold has a tendency to stiffencloth that has been steeped in a strong solution.The three-ounce formula is right for blankets.If trouble is experienced in making a solution oflanolin, dissolve it first in a little chloroform, thenpour into the benzine.Footwear.— It is a truism that " a soldier is nobetter than his feet." Neither is anybody else whohas much walking to do. Such shoes as we wear intown are wholly unfit for the field. They are toolight, too short, and too narrow. We do little walkingin town, and none that we do is over roughground. We carry no burdens on our backs. Sothe " snug fit " is tolerated, and the thin socks.On the trail it is different. One must have freeplay for his toes, or his feet will be cramped andblistered within a few hours — then misery! Inmarching with a pack, one's foot lengthens abouthalf an inch every time his weight is thrown on it,and broadens nearly as much. And after hikingsome distance the feet begin to swell.The only way to insure a good fit is to put onthick socks, pick up a weight equal to the load youare to carry, slip a tape-measure under the sole, thenthrow your whole weight on that foot, and havesomeone do the measuring. Then the other footsimilarly ; for in many cases the two differ. Havethe shoe made a half inch longer than the foot measurement,and wide enough to give a snug but easyfit over the ball when poised as above. Around theheel it should be snug enough to prevent slipping andchafing. These are the army rules, and they areright for anyone who marches and has equipment tocarry.When starting afield, lace the shoes rather tightly

CLOTHING 151across the instep ; then ease the lacing when yourfeet begin to s\\ ell. By the way, some people arealways having their shoe laces come undone, becausetied with a granny bow. A true bow knot (Fig.94) is made like a reef knot (Figs. 95, 96) exceptthat the ends are doubled back before tying.Carry spare laces. They come handy for manypurposes. Rawhide laces may be hardened at theends by slightly roasting them.Shoes.— It is not enough that the shoes be roomy.The lasts over which they are made should be anatomicallycorrect. In 191 1 a board of officers of ourarmy was appointed to select a soldier's shoe. Theytried many models, instituted thorough marchingtests by thousands of men, and finally adopted aFig. 94.— Fig. 95.— Fig. 96.—True Bow Reef Knot Formed Reef Knot DrawnKnot. Don- Tightble the EndsBack andTie as in aReef Knotshoe made over lasts designed by Surgeon-MajorMunson, the well-known expert on military hygiene(Fig. 97). These lasts are straight on the inside,so that the big toe can point straight ahead, as Natureintended. The front is broad enough to giveall the toes free play. There is no compression overthe ball or arch of the foot. This is the perfectmodel, easy on one's feet from the word " go."The army shoe has now been in use, by all armsof the service, long enough to have proved beyondquestion its merits. Lieutenant Whelan, so wellknown to us as a sportsman and military authority,says of it:" In the light of what the army nowknows, sore feet are absolutely inexcusable. Thepresence of sore feet in an officer's command is a

152 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcause for Investigation as to the efficiency of thatofficer."To break In a new pair of shoes the soldier standsin about three Inches of water for five minutes, thengoes for a walk on level ground. When the shoesare not in use, care Is taken that they shall not bepacked away tightly or otherwise compressed out ofthe true shape that the breaking In gave them.At night the shoes are dried by hanging them upsidedown on stakes before the fire — not too close,for wet leather " burns " easily. Or, fill a frjangpan with clean pebbles, heat them (not too hot) overthe fire, put them in the shoes, and shake themFig. 97-—U. S. Army ShoeFig. 98.—Sole of ArmyShoe, ShowingProper Methodof PlacingHobnailsaround after a while. Before the shoes are quitedry, rub just a little ncatsfoot oil into them. Theremaining dampness prevents the oil from strikingclear through, but helps it to penetrate on the outside,as the oil follows the retreating water.The army shoe has a single sole ; so it is flexible —a prime desideratum for good walking. The heel islow, broad, and longer than usual, giving firm footingand having less tendency to ** run down " thanthe common pattern of heel. The tongue is loose,

CLOTHIiNG 153making: the shoe cool and easy to dry out. Thereare no hooks to catch in grass and bend out of shape.A pair of these shoes weighs only 2 to 2_^ pounds,according to size. This is a proper weight formarching on ordinary roads, but is too light, ofcourse, for rough service, such as a sportsman'sshoes often are put to. For the hardscrabble ofmountaineering, or going anywhere over sharp rocksor among thorns and saw-briers, the leather is toothin ; when it gets wet it goes to pieces.When buying shoes go to a maker who has made,and kept, a reputation for using none but goodleather. There is no severer test of leather thanhard usage during frequent wettings and dryings;so, when you find a firm of shoemakers that lumberjacksswear by, trust it to turn you out a goodarticle.Waterproofed Shoes.— The army board de'^ided positively against using any waterproofing compoundon shoe leather, because waterproofed shoessteam the feet in perspiration, congest them, andmake them tender, if worn for any considerable time,especially in warm weather.However, it is one thing to march on ordinaryroads and another thing to follow wilderness trailsor go where there are none at all. And sportsmenoften are out in cold slush or wet snow. It is truethat no harm comes from wet feet so long as onekeeps moving; but if a man has much standingaround to do with his feet cold and wet he willsuffer discomfort and quite likely catch a cold. Besides,no matter how good the quality of leather maybe, when it gets soggy it wears badly. Consequently,although the army shoe is just right forwarm weather and marching on roads, it is neitherstrong enough nor dry enough for continuous wildernessuse.My advice is to get shoes made over the Munsonlast, of weight suitable for the service in view, andhave them viscolized or otherwise waterproofed if

154 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTyou are to be out a good deal in the wet. Have »pair of the regulation army shoes for hot weatherand easy going.No leather is absolutely waterproof. The skinfrom which it is tanned is porous, and a waterproofingpreparation only partially fills those pores,making the leather shed water so long as the fillingremains intact, but not preventing air and moisturefrom gradually seeping through. This is as itshould be. If the pores were completely and permanentlystopped up, the shoe would be as uncomfortableand unhealthful to wear as if made of rubber.All we can reasonably ask is that the shoe shall shedwater under marching conditions; not that we maywade or stand in water indefinitely and still keepdry feet.There are several good waterproofing preparationson the market, to be bought of almost any dealerin sporting goods. If you prefer to make your own,either of the following recipes will do very well.Do not use a mineral oil on shoes: it "burns"leather ; but vaseline and paraffine are harmless.To Waterproof Leather.— A rather thickdubbing melted and rubbed into warmed leatheris better than an oil, as it " stays put " and does notmix so much with water. Have the leather perfectlydry and apply the compound with a smallbrush, blowing it into the crack between the sole andupper, then rub well with the hand. Usually twocoats, sometimes three, should be applied.(i) Melt together one part paraffine and two parts yellowvaseline. Apply as above.(2) Melt together equal parts paraffine or beeswaXjtallow, and harness oil or neatsfoot oil.(3) Boil together two parts pine tar and three partscod-liver oil. Soak the leather in the hot mixture, rubbingin while hot. It will make boots waterproof, andwill keep them soft for months, in spite of repeated wettings.This is a famous Norwegian recipe.(4) Get a cake of cocoanut butter from a drug storeand a small quantity of beeswax. Melt the cocoanut butterand add the beeswax in the proportion of about one

CLOTHING 155part of beeswax to six of the cocoanut butter. Warmthe shoe as thoroughly as possible to open the pores ofthe leather, and rub your melted waterproofing on whilehot. Repeated warming of the shoe and application ofthe preparation will thoroughly fill the pores of theleather and also the stitching. The cocoanut butterwhen cold hardens somewhat like paraffine but not sufficientlyto seal the stitching. The beeswax gets in itswork there. A mixture of tallow or neatsfoot oil appliedhot and with melted rubber mixed in, is also good. Tomelt the rubber, first chip it as small as possible. Rubbercuts easiest when wet. Apply to stitching with a stifibrush.— Recreation, April, 191 1.Hobnails.— If one is not traveling bv canoe oton horseback, a few cone-headed Hungarian naikshould be driven into the shoe soles in the patternhere shown (Fig. 98). The ''natives" may studtheir soles thickly, but that is only to save shoeleather. Too many nails hurt the feet, make theshoe stiff (whereas it can scarcely be too springy),cause the shoe to ball up in snow, and do not gripso well as a few nails well placed. I am not speakinghere of mountaineering above snow-line, but ofordinary climbing, especially where leaves or pineneedles may be thick, and of following the beds oftrout streams. The nails under the instep are invaluablefor crossing streams on fallen trees or poles.The sharp points of cone-headed nails soon wearoff, but edges are left that " bite " well. Broadhobnails with corrugated faces are good at first, butthey quickly wear smooth, and then slip worse onthe rocks than small ones. They also pull outsooner.Many recommend short screw caulks.These, ifsharp pointed, pick up trash at every step when j^ouare in the woods; if blunt, they are treacherous onthe " slick rocks," as they are m.ade of hard steel.Some prefer ^-inch round head blued screws insteadof hobnails or caulks. They claim that these" bite " better, and that they are easy to insert orremove.Rubber heels save much jarring on a long hike,

156 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbut they do not grip on slippery roots,on footlogs,or on leaf-strewn mountain sides.Boots.— By boots I mean any soled footgear withtops more than eight inches high. Engineers whodo more standing around than walking m.ay be allright in high-topped boots that lace up the legs, andhave buckles besides, but there are mighty few placeswhere a sportsman should be seen in such rig. Theimportance of going lightly shod when one has to domuch tramping is not appreciated by a novice.Let me show what it means. Suppose that a manin fair training can carry on his back a weight offorty pounds, on good roads, w-ithout excessive fatigue.Now shift that load from his back andfasten half of it on each foot — how far will he go?You see the difference between carrying on yourback and lifting with your feet. Very well ; a pairuf single-soled low shoes weighs about two and ahalf pounds. A pair of boots with double soles andsixteen or seventeen-inch tops weighs about four andSI half pounds. In ten miles there are 21,120 averagepaces. At one extra pound to the pace theboots make you lift, in a ten-mile tramp, over tentons more footgear than if you wore the shoes.Nor is that all. The boots afford no outlet foihot air and perspiration. They are stiff, clumsy,and very likely to blister your feet and ankles.When they are brand new, you can wade shallowsin them and keep your feet dry; but soon the seamsare bouna to open and no dubbing will ever closethem again. Anyhow, if you fall in fording, or stephalf an inch too deep, it will take five minutes toremove those boots, pour out the w^ater, and put.them on again. Then if they dry out overnightyou are uncommonly lucky.And how are the boots in warm, dry weather?They keep the feet and legs wet all the time withstagnant perspiration. No — take six-inch shoesand light leggings, with a pair of waterproofed" pacs " in reserve for wet going. If you hunt in a

CLOTHING 157marsh, wear rubber boots, which are waterproof insomething more than name.There are times and places where an eight or teninchhunting shoe that started out to be waterproofis all right.High-topped " cruisers " have all the faults of theboots except that they are lighter. They scald thefeet on a warm day, and chill or freeze them on acold one; from lack of ventilation and confinement ofmoisture.Pacs.— A " shoe-pac " or " larrigan " is a beefhidemoccasin w^ith eight to ten-inch top, and with orwithout a light, flexible sole. It is practically waterproofso long as the seams (which are on top wherethey get less strain than those of a shoe) remainsound, and they are kept well greased. They arelighter and more pliable than shoes, and are firstrate*' extras " to take along for wet days, dewymornings, and swampy ground, or as the regularfootwear for still-hunting. Get them big enoughto accommodate heavy lumbermen's socks over your•3oft thinner ones. Otherwise your feet will generallybe either too hot or too cold.Pacs without soles are fine in a canoe. In troutfishing they can be worn with a pair of hemp sandalsto prevent slipping. In extremely cold weather theoil-tanned leather freezes as stiff as horn, and getsdangerously " slick."Moccasins.— In dry weather, on ground that isnot too steep or stony, give me the velvety and pliant,pussy-footed moccasin, of real moose-hide, " smoketanned" So it will dry soft if I do get wet. I willsee more that is worth seeing in the woods thananybody w^ho wears shoes.If your feet are too tender, at first, for moccasins,add insoles of good thick felt, or birch bark or thedried inner bark of red cedar. After a few days thefeet will toughen, the tendons will learn to do theirproper work without crutches, and you will be ableto travel farther, faster, more noiselessly, and with

158 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTless exertion, than in any kind of boots or shoes.This, too, in rough country. I have often gonetenderfooted from a year's office work and havetraveled in moccasins for w^eeks, over flinty Ozarkhills, through canebrakes, through cypress swampswhere the sharp little immature " knees " are hiddenunder the needles, over unballasted railroad tracks atnight, and in other rough places, and enjoyed nothingmore than the lightness and ease of my footv/ear.After one's feet have become accustomed to thismost rational of all covering they become almost likehands, feeling their way, and avoiding obstacles asthough gifted with a special sense. They can bendfreely. One can climb in moccasins as in nothingelse. So long as they are dry, he can cross narrowlogs like a cat, and pass in safety along treacherousslopes where thick-soled shoes might bring himswiftly to grief. Moccasined feet feel the dry sticksunderneath, and glide softly over the telltales withoutcracking them. They do not stick fast in \nud.One can swim with them as if he were barefoot. Itis rarely indeed that one hears of a man spraining;his ankle when wearing the Indian footgear.Moccasins should be of moose-hide, or, betterstill, of caribou. Elk-hide is the next choice. Deerskinis too thin, hard on the feet for that reason, andsoon wears out. The hide should be Indian-tanned,and ' honest Injun '* at that — that is to say, nottanned with bark or chemicals, in which case (unlessof caribou-hide) they would shrink and dry hardafter a wetting, but made of the raw hide, its fibersthoroughly broken up by a plentiful expenditure ofelbow-grease, the skin softened by rubbing into itthebrains of the animal, and then smoked, so that itwill dry without shrinking and can be made aspliable as before by a little rubbing in the hands.Moccasins to be used in a prickly-pear or cactiAcountry must be soled with rawhide.Ordinary moccasins, tanned by the above process(which properly is not tanning at all), are oniv

CLOTHING 159pleasant to wear in dry weather. But they are alwaysa great comfort in a canoe or around camp, andare almost indispensable for still-hunting or snowshoeing.They weigh so little, take up so little roomin the pack, and are so delightfully easy on the feetjthat a pair should be in every camper's outfit. Atnight they are the best foot-warmers that one couldjWish, and they will be appreciated when one must getup and move about outside the tent.In a mountainous region that is heavily timbered,moccasins are too slippery for use after the leavesfall.Moccasins should be made over a regular shoelast (Fig. 99). Those commonly sold are too narrowat the toe. Rememberthat they will shrink someafter getting wet, and thatyou must wear thick socks inthem, or perhaps two pairs,so get them big enough.Heavy men, tenderfootedfrom town, enjoy pjg^ ^^_ Soled Moccaslr,moccasins best in a ham- (Made Over Last)mock. In fact, most citymen will get on better in soled moccasins, but theseshould be pliable and of not over i}4 pounds to thepair. Or canvas " sneakers " may be used. Butbeware the rubber soled variety. They are very hot,and will make your feet more tender than ever.Canvas with leather sole is cool and dries out quickly.Either moccasins or sneakers are needed in campto rest the feet, and to slip on at night if you stir out.Headwear.— For general use a soft felt hat, ofgood quality that will stand rain, is the best headcovering. The rim should be just wide enough toshield the eyes from glare and the back of the neckfrom rain. I like a creased top, wearing it so untila hot sun beats dow^n, then I push up the crown andhave a good air space over my pate. The hat shouldhave ej^'elets for ventilation. A strap or cord under

i6oCAVfplNG AND WOODrRAFTone's " back hair," or chin if need be, holds the haton in a wind.A stiff rim is suitable only for mounted men ; inthe woods it is a plaything for brush and lowbranches.A flannel sweat-band absorbs perspiration insteadof holding it back like a leather one. (The Jaegerstores have them in stock.) It also helps to hold thehat on. In attaching, do not sew through the hatbut through the narrow band under original sweatband,otherwise the hat will leak.A cap is of no account in the rain, and its crownistoo low to protect one's head from the sun rays.Head Nets.— A head net and gauntlets are theonly adequate protection against insects when theseare at their worst. The best net is of Brussels silkveiling of fine mesh, black, because that isthe easiestcolor to see through. A net that tears easily isizseless.Gloves.— Buckskin gloves are needed in mountainclimbing and in a region where thorns andbriers are common. Buy the regular army ones:they are real buck, and dry out soft. Cavalry gauntletsare better for horseback trips. By folding thehand of a gauntlet back against its cuff the latterserves as a drinking cup.For " fly time " Dillon Wallace recommends" old loose kid gloves with the fingers cut off andfarmer's satin elbow sleeves to fit under the wristbandsof the outer shirt."Waterproofs.— Rubber tears easily. Oilskinsare superior, regular weight for the saddle and theduck blind, " feather-weight " for fishing and thelike. A slicker should be quite roomy, to admit a?much air as possible. Oilskin overalls are gooc?things, at a fixed camp, to wear of a morning whendews are heavy and where the brush is thick.On a hike there is no need of rubber or oilskinsIf you wear cravenetted or lanolined clothing; butone usually carries a light poncho as a ground-sheet

CLOTHINGi6iat night, and on the march It will protect gun andpack, as well as the bearer, and let plenty of air circulateunderneath it. A poncho makes a fair temporaryshelter, a good wind-break, and is nice to silon when the woods are damp. In a canoe it formsa waterproof cover for the pack. There are ponchosof " impervo " and similar oiled fabrics that outwearrubber ones two to one. A poncho is a nuisance onhorseback; wear a pommel slicker.Go over your oilskins each winter with an oilthat the dealers sell for the purpose ; then they willlast for a long time.Rubber Footwear.— I never wear waders forsummer trout fishing, but early spring fishing is adifferent matter. Wading stockings require specialhobnailed shoes to go over them. I prefer a pair otlight hip boots and separate w^ading sandals studdedwith nails. This combination costs less than theother, is more durable, and the boots by themselvesare serviceable for general wet weather wear, marsbshooting, and the like. Light rubber boots of firstclassquality will last as long as the common heavj^ones, ana nave the advantage that the legs can beturned inside out clear to the ankle for drying.They need not weigh over 3 or 3^ pounds to thepair, and the sandals a pound more — together nomore than the high-topped leather boots that Ihavebeen objurgating. Have them large enough forboth socks and oversocks, then your feet are notlikely to get " scalded." Carry a couple of " eezyquick" menders, and have a rubber repair kit amongyour possibles in camp.For hunting big game In w^et snow and slush thebest footwear is a pair of rubber shoes with ten-inchleather uppers, weighing a bit over two pounds.They should have heels, if you go into a hilly country,and rough corrugated soles. Dress the feet withsoft woolen socks, and over these draw a pair of long,thick " German socks " that strap at the top. Thelatter are warmer than the loose felt boots worn by

102 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlumbermen, lighter, more flexible, fit better, and areeasier to dry out. The rubbers should fit proper!-;over the heavy socks, neither too tight nor too loose,but especially not too tight or you risk frostbite!Thus equipped, a still-hunter is" shod with silence."For cold weather the vital necessity is suppleness ofthe foot, and here you have it.Cold Weather Clothing.— The main fault ofmost cold weather rigs is that, paradoxically, they-re too hot. You go out into '' twenty-some-odd "below zero, all muffled up in thick underwear, overshirt,heavy trousers, and a 32-ounce (to the yard)Mackinaw coat. Very nice, until you get yourstride. In half an hour the sweat w'll be streamingfrom you enough to turn a mill. By and by youmay have to stand still for quite a while. Thenthe moisture begins to freeze, and a buffalo robewouldn't keep you warm.Conditions vary ; but for average winter work puton two suits of medium weight all-wool underwear,instead of one heavy one, moleskin trousers (heavyMackinaws chafe), wool overshirt,Mackinaw shirtworn with tail outside, so it can easily be removedand worn behind you when not needed, the rubber" overs " and socks mentioned above, a Mackinawcap with visor and ear laps, large, old kid gloves,and thick, woolen mittens held by a cord around theneck.In buying Mackinaws get none but the best qual-^ity. Cheap Mackinaw is shoddy, or part cotton,and soaks up moisture like a sponge. A good gradesheds rain so long as the nap is not worn off; then itcan be waterproofed by the lanolin process. It isnoiseless, and stands rough usage. The natural graycolor is best, except where the law requires you towear red for protection against gun-bearing fools.(About this, saith our friend Crossman: "Yes,some fellow might take you for a deer if you wore-m inconspicuous color in the woods, but whatwould you ? He'd take you for a zebra if you wore

!CLOTHING 163green and yellow, or shoot you for a forest fire ityou wore flaming crimson.")Clothing for Women.— So far as materials go,the same rules hold good for women in field and

———When one isCHAPTER XPERSONAL KITSgoing into fixed camp, the best cartierfor his personal belongings is a common steamertrunk — a light one, but long enough to take in thefishing rods. For canoe, pack train, or automobile,the kit will be much smaller, of course, and may becarried in one of the bed rolls already described, orin a knapsack, or a dunnage bag, according to circumstances.Dunnage Bag.— A common sailor's bag or" war bag " (simple canvas sack closed by a puckeringcord) has the merit of simplicity, but it is notCL05EPFig.loo.Dunnage BagFig. loi.Kit or ProvisionPackFig. I02.Screw Hook Fasteningfor BoxLidwater-tight. If a bag is used for packing, get from,a camp outfitter what he calls a duffel bag (Fig,icx)), of waterproof canvas, made with an insideneck or throat-piece that is tied tightly before thei6d

PERSONAL KITS 165outside Is closed. Then it will keep the contentsdry even if your graft should fill or capsize. Itshould be about 3 i^eet long and 12 inches in diameter.Get a good quality, reasonably snag-proof, andwith extra-strong seams and handles. If it is to beshipped as baggage, have it fasten with chain andpadlock. I would not use a bag at all unless it wasperfectly water-tight, for that is Its only point ofsuperiority; on the other hand, it is bothersome Jfe^pack, and when you want anything out of a bag Xyou generally have to dump all th^ contents ^n tl^e,. %ground to find It.^ O^ 4^The //;>^. pack shown In Fig. loi Is almost as goodprotection against wet, and a deal handier. Thetop edge, AB, is stiffened by a stick, to hang It upby in camp, and there are pockets to keep thingsseparated. To close it, fold in the sides, bringingfront and back together, roll up, and strap.Ditty Boxes, Pouches.— Everyone will fit upchese things to suit himself. When practicable tocarry It, I prefer to put my small odds-and-ends Inone or two low cigar boxes (the 50-sIze), with partitions,the lid being secured by a small screw-hook(Fig. 102). Otherwise little bags of cloth or softleather answer the purpose.As for pouches to carry on one's person, my reasonstor not liking them will be given under thehead of Walkixg Trips, In Volume II.Hatchet.— A woodsman should carry a hatchet,and he should be as critical in selecting Itas In buyinga gun. The notion that a heavy hunting knifecan do the work of a hatchet Is a delusion. Whenit comes to cleaving carcasses, chopping kindling,blazing thick-barked trees, driving tent pegs or trapstakes, and keeping up a bivouac fire, the knife neverwas made that will compare with a good tomahawk.The common hatchets of the hardware stores areunfit for a woodsman's use. They have broadblades with beveled edge, and they are generallymade of poor, brittle stuff. A camper's hatchet

i66CAxVIPING AND WOODCRAFTshould have the edge and temper of a good axe. Itmust be light enough to carry in. or on one's knapsack,yet ft should bite deep in timber. The besthatchet I have used (and it has been vi^ith me in themountains for seven or eight years) is one shown inFig. 103, except that the handle is a straight one,17-inch, that I made myself. Its w^eight, withleather sheath, is i lb. 10 oz. With this keen littleFig.103.— Hatchettool I have cut many a cord of the hardest woods —hickory, oak, dogwood, beech, etc.— up to youngtrees eight or more inches thick, often laying in awinter night's wood with it. (The way to learnchopping is to go slow, give all your attention tomaking every blow tell just where it is needed, anddon't strike too hard.)Sheath Knife.— On the subject of huntingknives I am tempted to be diffuse. In my greenand callow days I tried nearly everything in theknife line from a shoemaker's skiver to a machete,and I had knives made to order. The conventionalhunting knife is, or was until recently, of the familiardime-novel pattern invented by Colonel Bowie. Itis too thick and clumsy to whittle with, much toothick for a good skinning knife, and too sharplypointed to cook and eat with. It is always temperedtoo hard. When put to the rough service for whichit is supposed to be intended, as in cutting throughthe ossified false ribs of an old buck, it is an evenbet that out will come a nick as big as a saw-tooth— and Sheridan forty miles from a grindstone!Siirh a knife, ^s 4iaped ^xpresslv for stabbing, which

;PERSONAL KITS 167is about the very last thing that a woodsman evcThas occasion to do, our lamented grandmothers tothe contrary notwithstanding.Many hunters do not carry sheath knives, saying(and it is quite true) that a common jackknife willskin anything from a squirrel to a bear. Still, Ilike a small, light sheath knife. It is always openand *'get-at-able," ready not only for skinning gamesnd cleaning fish, but for cutting sticks, slicing breadand bacon and peeling " spuds." It saves the pocketknife from wet and messy work, and preserves itsedge for the fine jobs.For years I used knives of my own design, becausethere was nothing on the market that met my notionof what a sensible, practical sheath knife should bebut w^e have it now in the knife here shown (Fig.104). It is of the right size (4^-inch blade), theFig. 104.— Sheath Kniferight shape, and the proper thinness. I ground thefront part of the back of mine to a blunt bevel edgefor scaling fish and disarticulating joints. Thesheath being flimsy, and the buttoned band a nuisance,I made one of good leather that binds well upon the handle and is fastened together with copperrivets besides the sewing.Cutlery should be of the best steel obtainable.Knicks and dull edges are abominations, so useknives and hatchets for nothing but w^hat they weremade for, and whet them a little every day that theyare in service.Pocket Knife.— The jackknife has one stoutblade equal to whittling seasoned hickory, and twosmall blades, of which one is ground thin for suchsurgery as you may have to perform (keep it clean).Beware of combination knives; they may be pas5-

1 68 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTable corkscrews and can openers, but that is aboutall.Compass.— This instrument may not often beneeded to guide one's course, but it is like the proverbialpistol in Texas. Besides, it is useful in readinga map, and indispensable for route sketching.If you get one of the common kind with both endssimply pointed and the north one blued or blackenedscratch B = N (Blue equals North) on the case.This seems like an absurd precaution, does it not?Well, it will not seem so if you get lost. Tlie firsttime that a man loses his bearings in the wildernesshis wits refuse to work. He cannot, to save his life,remember whether the black end of the needle isnorth or south. Once when I got lost in thebig woods I was not frightened, and yet I did a perfectlyidiotic thing: to hold my compass level andsteady I set it on the thick muzzle of my rifle barrel!That made the needle swing away out of true. Itwas ten minutes before I thought of this, and triedagain, with all iron carefully put aside. That showswhat a dunderhead a fellow can be, even when he isfairly cool.If dust accumulates inside the case of a compassit may interfere a little with its true pointing, andmoisture will do so. But, so long as the needlemoves freely, do not quarrel with it, no matter howsure you may think you are that it has been bewitched.A compass with revolving dial (card compass) issomewhat easier to use than one with a needle, becausethe N on the dial alwaj^s points north, no matterwhich way you turn ; but it must be rather bulky,to traverse freely, is not so sensitive as a needle, andwears the pivot faster.There are compasses with dials illuminated by aradio-active substance that are handy to use at night.The old-fashioned " luminous " compasses that haveto be exposed to sunlight every day are not worththe extra cost, for you will forget to attend to them.

—Anv'Avay,PERSONAL KITS 169a woodsman should carry a pocket electricflasher, and, with that along, a common compassserves very well.My favorite compass is of a pattern known as the" Explorer's," as here shown (Fig. 105), except thatit has a hinged cover. Twice I havecrushed the glasses of open faced compassesand ruined the pivots. Themoveable arrow is to be set towardone's objective, when the needle pointsnorth ; it then indicates the general directionof the course. The dial is ofl^ inches diameter, and is dividedmto spaces of two degrees, reading Fig. 105.from left to right, which is better for ^""^^^^H'^j^^_an amateur than the contrary reading j.^^of a surveyor's compass.The use of the compass will be explained in Vol.II,under the head of Route Sketching.I wear the instrument in a small pocket sewed onmy shirt for that purpose, so It fits, and attach it toH button-hole by a short, strong cord. A long cordwould catch in brush. If the compass is carriedin a large pocket it will flop out when you stoopover or fall down. Sometimes, when mapping, Inave worn one in a leather bracelet, like a wristwatch; but a better way is to attach it, at such tmie,to the little board that your cross-section paper istacked on.Watch.— Ordinarily a cheap watch Is goodenough for the woods. If you do carry a good one,and it is open-faced, there is a good way to protect itfrom wet that I read some 3^ears ago in a sportsman'sjournal. This also helps to keep it from falling out''of a pocket. To keep one's watch dry, even thoughyou go overboard, take a piece of pure rubber dentaldam 8 inches square, put the watch In the center, andbring the rubber together at the stem, tying theWhen youpuckered up rubber with a bit of stringswkh to see the face, simply stretch the rubber over

I70CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe front and you can see the hands clearly throughIt."If it Is desired to make a sketch-map of someregion for which you cannot obtain a governmenLtopographical sheet, and the country is too roughfor pacing, it will help if one member of the partycarries a stop-watch, with which to estimate distancesby the sound of pistol shots, as described in Vol. II.Whistle.— A party traveling in thick woodswith only an old line of blazes to guide them mayhave to deploy to find the marks. It will save time,and perhaps a good deal of searching for each other,if they have shrill whistles and a prearranged code5f signals. The army officer's whistle is a good one.Maps.— Write to The Director, U. S. GeologicalSurvey, Washington, D. C, for an index mapshowing what topographical sheets have been publishedfor the State that you are to travel in. Thesesheets are sold at ten cents each (no stamps).Their character is described as follows:The United States Geological Survey has been engagedsince its organization in making a topographic survey andmap of the United States. The unit of survey is a quadrangle15', 30', or 1° in extent each way, covering anarea of one-sixteenth, one-fourth, or one " square degree,"The unit of publication is an atlas sheet 16^ by20 inches, and each sheet is a topographic map of one ofthe above areas. As the atlas sheets are uniform in size,the greater the area covered the smaller the scale of themap. The scale of the full degree sheet is i: 250,000,that of the 30' sheet is i: 125,000, and that of the 15'sheet 1 : 62,500. A sheet is designated by the name ofsome well-known place or feature appearing on it, andthe names of adjoining published sheets are printed onthe margins. The maps are engraved on copper andprinted from stone. The cultural features, such as roads,railroads, cities, towns, etc., as well as all lettering, arein black; all water features are printed in blue; whilethe hill features are shown by brown contour lines.The contour interval varies with the scale of the mapand the relief of the country.These maps vary in merit. For some of thewilder and rougher regions they are only recon-

——PERSONAL KITS 171aolssance maps and full of minor inaccuracies; butthey are revised from time to time. A good partof the continental United States has already beensurveyed.Maps may be cut in sections and mounted onmuslin in such way that they fold conveniently forthe pocket, but there should be a cover to protectthem from soiling and wet.A better w^ay is to use what the French call aliseur de cartes. There are many models and sizes,but all are alike in principle. The simplest form isa leather pocket to contain map sections, faced withFig. 106.Fig. 107.Map Case U. S. A. Dispatch Casetransparent celluloid, ruled in squares, for the particularsection in use at the time. Then there is noneed of mounting the map on cloth (such a backingis likely to loosen in the humid air of the forest,and the edges will fray), nor is there risk of themap being soiled, torn, injured by rain, or blownaway.If one has much mapping, sketching, or writingto do, he may well carry a military dispatch case,of which one pattern is shown in Fig. 106, made ofolive drab web. with celluloid windows divided into

172 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTI -inch squares, pockets for stationery, pencils, dividers,etc., and fitted with a military compass, ornot, as one desires. The regulation U. S. Armydispatch case is of leather (Fig. 107).For ordinary purposes a pocket case is more convenient.The London tackle makers, C. Farlow &Co., sell, at 5s. 6d. postpaid, a leather " fly and castcase," 5 X 4}^ inches, with six transparent pocketsof celluloid. A topographical sheet by the U. S.Geological Survey cuts into twelve sections that fitthese pockets, two in each, back to back. Numberthe sections to show how they join. Small sheets ofquadrille ruled paper for notes and route sketchinggo in the same case. The maps can readily be consultedwithout the bother of unfolding in a wind,and are protected.Stationery.— Note-books and writing papershould be quadrille ruled, for convenience in mappingand drawing to scale. A loose-leaf memorandumbook is best: then you can file your notes in asafe place every evening. Postal cards may sufficefor correspondence. If envelopes are carried, letthem be of linen, and take along a small stick ofsealing-wax. Linen wears better than paper in thepocket of a native messenger. Gummed envelopes,in a moist climate, seal themselves before 3^ou wantto use them. Sealing-wax thwarts the inquisitiverural postmaster and his family. On the route outfrom camp your mail may go through many hands:a bon entendeur salut! Carry stamps in books, notsheets.A self-filling fountain pen, and a bottle of inkwith screw top held tight by a spring, an indeliblepencil for marking specimens or packages for shipment,and several large rubber bands, may be needed,according to circumstances.Take along an almanac to regulate the watch,show the moon's changes (tides, if near the coast),and, by them, to determine the day of the monthand week, which one is very apt to forget when he

PERSONAL KITS 173IS away from civilization. Have a time-table of therailroad that you expect to return by.Matchbox.— Do not omit a waterproof matchbox,of such pattern as has a cover that cannot dropoff. I prefer a flat one. It can be opened wirhone hand. The matches in this box are to be usedonly in emergency. Carry the daily supply loosewhere you can get at them. For this purpose I likea pigskin pocket with snap-button, worn on the belt.The matches I waterproof, before starting, by dippingthem half-length in shellac varnish thinnedwith alcohol to the right consistency, which is foundby experiment, and laying them out separately on anewspaper to dry. This is better than using paraffineor collodion, because shellac does not wear off,and it is itself inflammable, like sealing-wax.Matches so treated can be left a long time in waterwithout spoiling.A bit of candle isa handy thing to start fire withwet wood, besides its other obvious use in an emergency.Sick-room candles are less bulky than commonones, burn brighter, and last longer.Flashlight.— To find things in the tent atnight, or to find one's way if belated, a pocket electricflasher is so useful that a camper should alwayscarry one. Get one with round edges that will notwear holes in the pocket. The kind shaped like afountain pen is all right in some cases, but not onhunting or fishing trips: the less bright metal youexpose, the better.Eye Glasses.— If you wear them, carry a sparepair; the woods are hard on such things.The glare of the sun on water, or snow, or indeserts, is often very trying. The best sun glassesare what are called shooting glasses, of amber color,w^hich excludes the ultra-violet rays. They arelarge enough to protect the eyes against wind, dust,and flying insects. They come handy when one ispursued for an hour by a swarm of *' red pepper "

174 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTgnats that are bent on suicide and on blinding somebody in doing it.First Aid Kits.— There are many kinds ofpocket medicine cases, and of first aid boxes fittedwith both medical and surgical supplies. Most ofthem are too large and heavy to be carried constantlyon the person when a man is afield : they willbe left in camp — and camp is not the place whereaccidents are most likely to occur.It is quite important that the little store of firstaid appliances that one does keep always at handshould be contained in a case that is air-tight andaseptic, yet easy to open and close. I have not seena ready fitted emergency case that is so, except thesoldier's first aid packet, which is hermetically sealedin either tin or impermeable cloth. This packagecontains a triangular bandage, one or two compressesof sublimated gauze, two safety pins, and instructions.A triangular bandage is made by dividing a pieceof muslin a yard square into halves by a diagonalcut joining two opposite corners, and thoroughlysterilizing it. Cuts are printed on it showing howto bandage any major part of the body. Rollerbandages are difficult for untrained people to handle,but anyone can see almost at a glance how to use thetriangular one. A folded neckerchief, or any triangularpiece of cloth, will do as a makeshift, if anaseptic dressing is first applied, in case of an openwound. How to fold the bandage before applyingis shown in Fig. io8. A tourniquet to check bleedingis made by folding into a narrow cravat, as indicated,and then twisting into rope form.The soldier's packet is intended for a first dressingof gunshot wounds, fractures (with the aid of improvisedsplints), and other serious injuries. Onewould not care to open it if he merely had cut histhumb, skinned his knuckle, or blistered his heel.Yet it is the lesser injuries that we are most apt tosuffer^ and they certainly should be treated anti-

—PERSONAL KITS 175septically on the spot, lest grave consequences follow.So, get a small tin tobacco box, flat, with roundedcorners ; boil it in two waters, and dry thoroughly.Then pack it as follows: From the American Na'tional Red Cross, Washington, D. C, get a packetof dressings for small cuts, etc., and one of fingeidressings. The former dressing is a gauze com

176 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTuntil the gauze is saturated with the iodine, clapdirectly to the surface of the wound, and applyeither the larger or smaller dressing. A little emergencycase of this sort is one of the most valuablepocket pieces that a man can carry on an outing.Insect " dopes " are discussed in Chapter XIV.Pocket Repair Kit.— Only a little of this andthat, fitted into a quite small wallet. A pair oftiny, sharp-pointed scissors for trimming dressings,rigging tackle, and so on ;pointed tweezers that canbe used as dressing forceps, to remove splinters, andin manipulating gut for flies or leaders; some dentalfloss for emergency repairs on rods and the like;some I -inch adhesive plaster; a needle or two, waxedlinen thread on card, spare buttons, safety pins; oneor two large rubber bands; a spare shoe lace; somestrong twine ; two feet of copper snare wire ; a shorta few assorted hooks, minnow hooksrigged fishline,with half the barb filed off, two or three split shot(tackle invaluable if you get lost) ;pipe cleaners(if you smoke) : this exhausts the list of my own selection.Toilet Articles.— A small cake of soap in anoiled silk bag or a rubber tobacco pouch is convenientfor light marching: compact, and does not rattlearound. " Grandpa's " tar soap makes a goodlather in any kind of water, hard or soft, warm orcold. Towels should be old (soft) and rather small(easy to wash and dry out). A pocket mirror ishandy not only for toilet purposes but to examinemouth and throat or in removing a foreign substancefrom the eye. Other articles as required. On ahard trip cut out all but towel, soap, toothbrush,comb, and mirror.Camera.— One cuts his coat according to hiscloth, but if you can afford a camera with quick lensand high-speed shutter, it wnll pay well in good pictures.On wilderness trips it is the rule, not the'exception, that you must *'Door.shoot " when the light is

PERSONAL KITS 177Again, you want a picture that tells a story, a truestory, and, nine times out of ten, the only way toget it is by a snapshot taken unawares. When peoplepose forare self-conscious, stiff,a camp scene or any other picture theyor showing off.Your chance to get a story-picture always popsup unexpectedly. You must work quickly, or notat all. There is no chance to manoeuvre for position,no time to wait on the sun. And if yourcamera is too large to carry in a pocket or on yourbelt, then, two to one, you haven't got it with you.So get a camera not over 3^ x 4j4> with special lensand shutter, if you can. At best you will spoil agood many exposures, and you can well afford tohave the really good ones enlarged.A handy way to carry a camera is to remove thesling, cut two slits in back of leather case, and wearit on your belt over the hip. Then it is out of theway, does not dangle when you stoop nor flop whenyou run, and yet is instantly at your service.Field Glasses.— The only satisfactory ones arethose small enough to go with you everywhere, yetwith good definition and wide field of view. Thismeans prism binoculars of moderate power, say 6diameters, or perhaps 8 for sheep or goat hunting.Opera glasses do very well for bird study.Gome other articles of personal equipment, suchas knapsacks and their substitutes, canteens, and individualcooking kits, will be discussed in Vol. IIunder the head of Walking Trips.

:When aCHAPTER XIPROVISIONSparty camps where fresh meat and farmproducts can be procured as they are wanted, itsprovisioning is chiefly a matter of taste, and callsfor no special comment here. But to have goodmeals in the wilderness is a different matter. Aman will eat five or six pounds a day of fresh foodcThat is a heavy load on the trail. And fresh meat,dairy products, fruit, and vegetables, are generallytoo bulky, too perishable. So it is up to the woodsmanto learn how to get the most nourishment outof the least weight and bulk, in materials that" keep " well.Light outfitting, as regards food, is mainly a questionof how much water we are willing to carr}' inour rations. For instance, canned peaches are 88per cent, water. Can one afford to carry so muchwater from home when there is plenty of it at camp,^The following table is suggestiveMore than % Water.Fresh milk, fruit, vegetables (e^ccept potatoes).Canned soups, tomatoeSj peaches, pears, etc.More than H Water.Fresh beef, veal, mutton, poultry, eggs, potatoefCanned corn, baked beans, pineapple.Evaported milk (unsweetened).More than Y^ Water.Fresh bread, rolls, pork chops.Potted chicken, etc.Cheese.Canned blackberries.178

i"Kuvit)iUi\:5r79Dried apples,Fruit jelly.Less than VsWater.apricots, peaches, prunes*Less than y^IVater.Salt pork. Bacon. Dried fish. Butter.Desiccated eggs. Concentrated soups.Powdered milk.Wheat flour, corn meal, etc. Macaroni.Rice, oatmeal, hominy, etc.Dried beans, split peas.Dehydrated vegetables.Dried dates, figs, raisins.Orange marmalade. Sugar. Chocolate.Nuts. Nut butter.Although this table is good in its way, it is nota fair measure of the relative value of foods. Eventhe solid part of some foodstuffs contains a gooddeal of refuse (fresh potatoes 20 per cent.), whileothers have none.Nutritive Values.— The nutritive elements offoodstuffs are protein, a little mineral matter, fats,and carbohydrates. Protein is the basis of muscle,bone, tendon, cartilage, skin, and the corpuscles ofthe blood. Fats and carbohydrates supply heat andmuscular energy. In other words, the human bodyis an engine; protem keeps it in repair; fats andrun it.carbohydrates are the fuel toFamiliar examples of proteids are lean meat andwhite of egg. The chief food fats are fat meat,butter, lard, oil, and cream. Carbohydrates arestarchy foods (flour, cereals, etc.) and sugar (sweetsof almost any kind).Protein is the most important element of food,because nothing else can take its place in building uptissues and enriching the fluids of the body, whereas,in emergency, it can also supply power and heat, andthus run the human machine for a while withoutother fuel.Men can live on foods deficient in protein, suchas rice and potatoes, but they become anemic, weak,and subject to beriberi, pellagra, or other serious

'i8oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdisease. Anyone can observe for himself the evileffects of a diet poor in protein but rich in heatingpower by traveling through our " hog and hominybelt." Fat pork contains hardly any protein;neither do the cabbage and potatoes that usuallyflank it on the negro's or poor-white's table. Asfor corn bread, when made as a plain hoecake orthe like, it is in much the same class, and whatprotein it does contain is difficult to digest.On the other hand, an undue proportion of leanmeat, fish, dried beans, and other high-proteid foods,brings another train of ills. As Dr. Atwater says,"A dog can live on lean meat: he can convert itsmaterial into muscle and its energy into heat andmuscular power. Man can do the same; but sucha one-sided diet would not be best for the dog, anditwould be still worse for the man."The problem of a well-balanced ration consistsin supplying daily the right proportion of nutritiveelements in agreeable and digestible form. Theproblem of a campaign ration is the same, but cuttingout most of the water and waste in which freshfoods abound. However, in getting rid of thewater in fresh meats, fruits, and vegetables, w**.lose, unfortunately, much of the volatile essencesthat give these foods their good flavors. This loss— and it is a serious one — must be made up bythe camp cook changing the menu as often as he can,by varying the ingredients and the processes of cooking.Variety is quite as welcome at the camp boardas anjovhere else — in fact more so, for it is harderto get. Variety need not mean adding to the load-It means substituting, say, three 5-lb. parcels for one15-lb. parcel, so as to have something "different"from day to day.There is an old school of campers who affect toscorn such things."'We take nothing with us,"they say, " but pork, flour, baking powder, salt,sugar, and coffee — our guns and rods furnish ws\^Jirietv." This sounds sturdy, but there is a dea^

PROVISIONSi8iof humbug In it. A spell of bad weather may defeat the best of hunters and fishermen. Even grantingthat luck is good, the kill is likely to be of onekind at a time. With only the six articles named,nobody can serve the same game in a variety ofways. Now, consider a moment. How would youlike to sit down to nothing but fried chicken andbiscuit, three times a day? Chicken everlastinglyfried in pork grease — and, if you tire of that, well,eat fried " sow-belly," and sop your bread in thegrease! It is just the same with trout or bass asit is with chicken ; the same with pheasant or duck,rabbit or squirrel or bear. The only kind of wildmeat that civilized man can relish for three consecutivemeals, served in the same fashion, is venisonof the deer family. Go, then, prepared to lendvariety to your menu. Food that palls is bad food— worse in camp than anywhere else, for you can'tescape to a restaurant.Food as a Source of Energy.— The energydeveloped by food is measured in calories. A calorieis the amount of heat required to raise one poundof water through four degrees Fahrenheit. A manat moderately active muscular work requires about3,400 calories of food-fuel a day; one at hard muscularwork, about 4,150; one at very hard work,about 5,500 calories (Atwater's figures).According to the latest data supplied me by theU. S. Department of Agriculture (February, 19 16)the fuel value of protein is about 1,815 calories perpound, that of carbohydrates is the same, and thatof fats is about 4,080 calories per pound." A pound of wheat flour, which consists largelyof starch, has an average fuel value of about 1,625calories, and a pound of butter, which is mostly fat,about 3,410 calories. These are only about oneeighthwater. Whole milk, which is seven-eighthsw^ater,has an average fuel value of 310 calories perpound; cream, which has more fat and less water,865 calories, and skim milk, which is whole milkafter the cream has been removed, 165 calories.

i82CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThis high fuel value of fat explains the economy otnature in storing fat in the body for use in case ofneed. Fat is the most concentrated form of bodyfuel."of the food materials.— oAVERAGE NUTRIENTS OF FOODSREMAINING PERCENTAGES CONSISTFood materials(as purchased)Animal FoodBeef, fresh:Loin oRibsRoundBeef, cured:CornedDriedSalted (mess beef)Tongue, pickled .Beef, canned:BoiledCornedRoastTongue, ground . .Pork, cured:Bacon, smoked . .Ham smoked ....Salt porkLardPork, canned:Ham, deviled ....r^ausage:BolognaSummersausage, canned:FrankfortOxfordPorkSoups, canned (notdried):BeefChickenCream of celery.TomatoPoultry, fresh:Chicken.9Per ct.16.113-919.014.326.41 1.2II.25-526.325-919-59.114.21.919.018.224-514.99.91454.42.92.11.8FatPer ct.17-521.212.823.86.939-919.222.518.714.823.262.233-486.2100.34-119.742.!9.958.521.60.43-314.4 12.6Table continuedOF WATER AND REFUSEPer ct.0.61.15-15-05.6AshPer ct.0.90.7i.o4.68.95-94-31-34.01-34.04.14.23-92-2,3-87.02.S2. I1.81.61-51-50,7FuelvalueperpoundI have compiled the following table of food values,with special reference to the camp commissariat,from various reports of the U. S. Department ofAgriculture. Some of the figures for fuel value, Iam informed, were computed by using the factorsgiven above ; others were derived from actual determinationsof the heat of combustion and the digestibilityProteinCarbohydratesCalorics51,0251,135890i,24o7901,8901,0101, 4-' 1,2801,1051,3402,71*.1,6353.5554,0801,7901,1552,2306952,6651,180120300235i8S

PRUVISIONS1^3Food materials

i84..1oo1CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTFood materials(as purchased)FatProteinCarbohydratesAshBread, etc.:Boston brownbreadCake, sweetCrackers, soda . >Hoecake (plaincorn bread) . .JohnnycakeRye breadWheat bread, whiteWhole-wheat breadSweets:Candy, plainCane molasses . . .Cherry jellyHoneyMaple sirupOrange marmaladeSugar, granulated.Vegetables, fresh:OnionsPotatoesV^egetables, canned:Beans, baked ....Corn, sweetPeasTomatoerV^egetables, dried:Beans, navyCarrots, desiccatedPeas, splitNuts:AlmondsCocoanut, desiccatedPeanutsPeanut butter ....PecansFruits, fresh:ApplesBananasCranberriesLemonsOrangesFruits, canned:BlackberriesCherries .Olives, pickled .PeachesPineapplesFruits, dried:ApplesApricotsDates, pittedFigsPrunes, pitted . . .RaisinsMiscellaneous:ChocolateCocoaOlive OilPer ct.6.36.39.84.07.89.09.29 70.61.41.86.92.83.61.222.57-724.621.46.329.829-312.10.41-30.4i.o0.8u,8I.II.I0.70.41.64.72.14-32.2.612.921.6Per ct.9.09.10.62.20.61.30.90.30.12.51.20.20.21.80.61.054.457-443.546.570.70.50.60.60.70.22.10.127.60.10.72.21.02.80.33.348.728.9100.Per ct.45-863.373-140.257-753 -53-149-796.070.077.281.071.484.5100.8.914.719.619.09.84.059.680.362.016.831.517. 11 7.12.214.222.09-98.5II. 656.421. 1II. 610.836.468.162.578.474.273-376.130.337-7Per ct.1.91.52.12.42.91-5I.I1-30.70-30.50.82.10.9I.I0.63.54.92.92.51-32.25-01.60.30.80.20.50.50.70.51-70.30.72.02.41.32.42.33-42.27.2

IPROVISIONS 185Coffee, " cereal coffee," tea, condiments, and commonbeef extracts contain practically no nutriment, their functionbeing to stimulate the nerves and digestive organs, toadd agreeable flavor, or, in the case of salt, to furnisha necessary mineral ingredient.Digestibility.— In applying the above table wemust bear in mind the adage that " we live notupon what we eat but upon what we digest." Somefoods rich in protein, especially beans, peas, andoat meal, are not easily assimilated, unless cookedfor a longer time than campers generally can spare.A considerable part of their protein is liable toputrefy in the alimentary canal, and so be worsethan wasted. An excess of meat or fish will do thesame thing. Other foods of very high theoreticalvalue are constipating if used in large amounts, ascheese, nuts, chocolate.The protein of animal food is more digestible thanthat of vegetable food by about 13 per cent, (average),and the protein of wheat is more easily assimilatedthan that of corn or oats. I quote thefollowing from an article on army rations by Dr.Woods Hutchinson:" Every imaginable grain, nut, root, pith or pulp thatcontains starch has been tried out as a substitute for it[wheat] because these are either cheaper in proportionto their starch content than wheat or can be grown inclimates and latitudes where wheat will not flourish.Corn has been tried in the subtropics, rice in the tropics,oats, rye and barley in the north temperate zone, potatoes,sago from the palm, and tapioca from the manioc root." Only the net result can be given here, which is that nocivilized nation that can raise the money or provide thetransportation to get wheat will allow its army to live onany other yet discovered or invented grain or starch.Rice, corn meal, potatoes, sago and tapioca are, of course,ruled out at once, because they contain only starch andnothing to match in the slightest degree the twelve orfourteen per cent, of gluten, or vegetable meat, that giveswheat itssupreme value."After our first food analyses a desperate attempt wasmade to substitute corn for wheat, because it containedfrom five to seven per cent, of protein — called zein — aperfectly good protein in *h^ books and in the l^iboratories/

1 86 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbut it simply would not work in the held. Armies itd onit promptly showed signs of nitrogen starvation; aid,about thirty years later, up came our physiologists withthe belated explanation that, though zein was a rightenoughprotein in composition and chemical structure, onlyabout a third of it could be utilized in the human body."Even the purely Oriental nations — the Japanese, Chineseand Hindus — born and brought up on rice, haveformally abandoned it in their army ration and have endeavoredto substitute wheat for it, though expense and theinborn prejudices of their soldiers have proved considerableobstacles. Troops or nations fed on rice are subjectto beriberi and are cured by a diet rich in protein^either vegetable or animal, wheat or meat. Meat andwheat in the ration have wiped out four-fifths of the beriberiin the Japanese army and navy. Those fed on cornbecome subject to pellagra, which is ravaging our SouthernStates to-day." As for the northern grains, barley, rye and oats,which also contain some gluten, these are all Inferior towheat — rye and barley on account of their low proteincontent and considerable bulk of innutritions, gelatinousand gummy materials, which disturb the digestion; andoats on account of the irritating bitter extractives withwhich their high percentage of protein is combined. Nobodybut a Scotchman can live on oatmeal as his solebreadstuff; and it has taken generations of training andgallons of whisky on the side to enable him to dc it."This is not saying that the grains here condemnedare not good and proper food when used in the rightcombination with other nutrients; but it is sayingthat neither of them is fit for continuous use as themainstay of one's rations.Food Components.— Let us now consider thematerial of field rations, item by item.Bacon.— Good old breakfast bacon worthily headsthe list, for it is the campaigner's stand-by. Itkeeps well in any climate, and demands no specialcare in packing. It is easy to cook, combines wellwith almost anything, is handier than lard to frythings with, does just as well to shorten bread orbiscuits, Is very nutritious, and nearly everybodylikes it. Take It with you from home, for you canseldom buy it away from railroad towns. Get theboneless, in 5 to 8-lb. flitches. Let canned bacon—

PROVISIONS 187alone: it lacks flavor, and costs more than it isworth. A little mould on the outside of a flitchdoes no harm, but reject bacon that is soft andwatery, or with jellow fat, or with brownish orblack spots in the lean.Salt Pork {alias middlings, sides, bellies, OldNed, et al.).— Commendable or accursed, accordingto how it is used. Nothing quite equals it in bakingbeans. Savory in some boiled dishes. Whenfried, as a piece de resistance, it successfully resistsmost people's gastric juices, and is nauseous to many.Purchaseable at most frontier posts and at manybackwoods farms.Smoked Ham.— Small ones generally are toughand too salty. Hard to keep in warm or dampweather; moulds easily. Is attractive to blow-flies,which quickly fill it with " skippers," if they canget at it. It kept in a cheesecloth bag, and hungin a cool, airy place, a ham will last until eaten up,and will be relished. Ham will keep, even in warmweather, if packed in a stout paper bag so as toexclude flies. It will keep indefinitely if sliced,boiled, or fried, and put up in tins with melted lardpoured over it to keep out air.Dried Beef.— Cuts from large hams are best.Of limited use in pick-up meals. A notorious thirstbreeder.Not comparable to *' jerked " beef, which,unfortunately, is not ia the market. (For the processof jerking venison, see Chapter XV.)Canned Meats and Poultry of all descriptionsare quite unfit for steady diet. Devilled or pottedham, chicken, tongue, sausage, and the like, areendurable at picnics, and valuable in emergencies,as when a hard storm makes outdoor cooking impossible.Canned corned beef makes a passablehash.There is a great difference in quality of cannedmeats. The cheaper brands found in every grocerystore are, generally, abominations. Common canned" roast beef," for example (which has never been'toasted at all. but boiled) is stringv, tasteless, and

i88CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTrepugnant. Get catalogues from well-known grocersin the large cities who handle first-class goods.Never eat meat that has been standing in anopened can: it soon undergoes putrefactive changes.A bulged can (unless frozen) indicates spoiled contents.If ever you have to treat a case of ptomainepoisoning you will not soon forget it.Canned Soups.— These are wholesome enough,but the fluid kinds are very bulky for their meagrenutritive value. However, a few cans of consommeare fine for " stock " in camp soups or stews, andHere, as with cannedinvaluable in case of sickness.meat, avoid the country grocery kind.Condensed Soups.— Soup powders are a greathelp in time of trouble — but don't rely on themfor a full meal. There are some that are completein themselves and require nothing but 15 to 20minutes' cooking; others take longer, and demand(in small type on the label)the addition of ingredientsthat generally you haven't got. Try variousbrands at home, till you find what you like.Cured Fish.— Shredded codfish, and smoked hali"but, sprats, boneless herring, are portable and keepwell. They will be relished for variety sake.Canned Fish.— Not so objectionable as cannedmeat. Salmon and sardines are rich in protein.Canned codfish balls save a great deal of time inpreparation, and are sometimes welcome when youhave no potatoes for the real thing. But go light:these things are only for a change now and then,or for emergency use in bad weather.Eggs.— To vary the camp bill of fare, eggs aresimply invaluable, not only by themselves, but asingredients in cooking. Look at the cook's timetableat the end of this volume and observe howmany of the best dishes call for eggs in making themup.When means of transportation permit, fresh eggsmay be carried to advantage. A hand crate holding\:i dozen weighs about 24 pounds, filled.E^gs can be packed along in winter without dai?-

PROVISIONS 189ger of breakage by carrying them frozen. Do nottry to boil a frozen egg: peel it as you would a hardboiledone, and then fry or poach.To test an egg for freshness, drop it into coldwater; if it sinks quickly it is fresh, if it stands onend it is doubtful, if it floats it is surely bad.To preserve eggs, rub them all over with vaseline,being careful that no particle of shell is uncoated.They will keep good much longer than if treatedwith lime water, salt, paraffine, water-glass or anyof the other common expedients.On hard trips it is impracticable to carry eggs inthe shell. Some campers break fresh eggs and packthem in friction-top cans. The yolks soon break,and they will keep but a short time. A good brandof desiccated eggs is the solution of this problem.It does away with all risk of breaking and spoiling,and reduces bulk and weight very much, as will beseen below.Desiccated eggs vary a great deal in quality accordingto material and process emplo3\"d. Condemnedstorage eggs have been used by unscrupulousmanufacturers, and so, it is said, have the eggs ofsea-fowl. I have tried some brands that w^ere uneatableby themselves, nor did they improve anydish I combined them with. On the other hand, Ihave had five or six years' experience with evaporatedeggs made by an Iowa firm which make excellentomelettes and scrambled eggs and are quiteequal to fresh ones in bakestuffs and for variousother culinary purposes. They are made fromfresh hens' eggs {ivhole, but with sometimes moreyolk added) by a strictly sanitary process. A i-lb.can, equal to about 3 dozen fresh eggs, measures6x3x3 inches and weighs i lb. 5 oz. gross. Itcosts little more than fresh eggs, and the powderwill never spoil if kept dry. Of course, it cannotbe used as fried, boiled, or poached eggs. Foromelettes, etc., the powder must soak about an hourin cold or lukewarm water before using; it can beused dry in mixing dough. Thanks to this inven*

190 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtion,horror.the camp flapjack need no longer be a culinaryDesiccatefl eggs made of the yolks only are merelyuseful as ingredients in cooking.Milk.— Sweetened condensed milk (the " salve "of the lumberjacks) is distasteful to most people-Plain evaporated milk is the thing to carry — anddon't leave it out if you can practicably tote it. Thenotion that this is a " baby food," to be scorned byreal woodsmen, is nothing but a foolish conceit.Ftw things pay better for their transportation. Itwill be allowed that Admiral Peary knows somethingabout food values. Here is what he says inThe North Pole: "The essentials, and the only essentials,needed in a serious arctic sledge journey, nomatter what the season, the temperature, or theduration of the journey — whether one month or«ix — are four: pemmican, tea, ship's biscuit, condensedmilk. . . . The standard daily ration forwork on the final sledge journey toward the Poleon all expeditions has been as follows: i lb. pemmican,I lb. ship's biscuit, 4 oz. condensed milk,3/2 oz. compressed tea."Milk, either evaporated or powdered. Is a veryimportant ingredient in camp cookery. Look againat the cook's time-table previously mentioned.Years ago I used to get an excellent powderedmilk ^rom a New York outfitter. It dissolvedreadily, was quite creamy rich, and had none of thescalded taste that one notices in most brands ofevaporated milk. Then it went out of the market,and I have looked for it in vain. It was made ofwhole milk, retaining the butter fat. That waswhy it was rich, and that is why it was not a commercialsuccess, for it would not keep well in storage— the fatty part would turn rancid, or atgrow stale.leastI do not know of any but skim milk powder?now on sale, excepting certain high-priced ones sole!as food for infants or invalids, and none of thesehas the fresh milk flavor of the kind I got from the

PROVISIONS 191outfitter. However, skim milk powder is useful incooking, and I would carry it where evaporated milkwould be too heavy.Butter.— This is another '* soft " thing that paysits freight. Look up its nutritive value in the tablealready given.There is a w^estern firm that puts up very goodbutter hermetically sealed in 2-lb. cans. It will.keep indefinitely.For ordinary trips it suffices to pack butter firmlyinto pry-up tin cans which have been sterilized bythorough scalding and then cooled in a perfectlyclean place. Keep it in a spring or in cold runningwater (hung in a net, or weighted with a rock)whenever you can. When traveling, wrap the coldcan in a towel or other insulating material.If I had to cut out either lard or butter, I wouldkeep the butter. It serves all the purposes of lardin cooking, is wholesomer, and, beyond that, it isthe most concentrated source of energy that one canuse with impunity.Cheese.— Cheese has nearly twice the tuel valueof a porterhouse steak of equal w^eight, and it containsa fourth more protein. It is popularly supposedto be hard to digest, but in reality is not so,if used in moderation. The best kind for campersis potted cheese, or cream or *' snappy " cheese putup in tin foil. If not so protected from air it soondries out and grows stale. A tin of importedCamembert w^ill be a pleasant surprise on some occasion.Bread, Biscuits.— It iswell to carry enough yeastbread for two or three days, until the game countryis reached and camp routine is established. To kee;it fresh, each loaf must be sealed up in VN^axed paptior parchment paper (the latter is best, because it istough, w^aterproof, grease-proof). Bread freezeseasily; for cold-weather luncheons carry toastedbread.Hardtack (pilot bread, ship biscuit) can be recommendedonly for such trips or cruises as do not

192 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpermit baking. It is a cracker prepared of plaiC'flour and water, not even salted, and kiln-dried to achip, so as to keep indefinitely, its only enemiesbeing weevils. Get the coarsest grade. To makehardtack palatable, toast it until crisp, or soak inhot coffee and butter it, or at least salt it.Swedish hardtack, made of whole rye flour, isgood for a change.Plasmon biscuit, imported from England, is themost nutritious breadstuff I have ever used. It isa round cracker, firm but not hard, of good flavor,containing a large percentage of the protein of milk,six of the small biscuits holding as much proteid asa quarter of a pound of beef. Plasmon will be discussedin Volume II, under Emergency Rations.Flour.— Graham and entire-wheat flours containmore protein than patent flour, but this is offset bythe fact that it is not so digestible as the protein ofstandard flour. Practically there is little or no differencebetween them in the amount of protein assimilated.The same seems to be true of theirmineral ingredients.Many campers depend a good deal on self-raisingflour because it saves a little trouble in mixing.But such flour is easily spoiled by dampness, it doesnot make as good biscuit or flapjacks as one can turnout in camp by doing his own mixing, and it willnot do for thickening, dredging, etc.Flour and meal should be sifted before startingon an expedition : there will be no sieve in camp.Baking Powder.— Get the best, made with purecream of tartar. It costs more than the alum powders,and does not go so far, bulk for bulk ; but itis much kinder to the stomach. Baking soda willnot be needed on short trips, but is required forlonger ones, in making sour-dough, as a steady dietof baking-powder bread or biscuit will ruin thestomach, if persisted in for a considerable time.Soda also is useful medicinally.Corn Meal.— Some like yellow, some preferwhite. y\\t flavor of freshly ground meal is best,

";PROVISIONS 193but the ordinary granulated meal of commerce keepsbetter, because it has been kiln-dried. Corn mealshould not be used as the leading breadstuff, forreasons already given, but johnnycake, corn pancakes,and mush, are a welcome change from hotwheat bread or biscuit, and the average novice atcooking may succeed better with them. The mealIs useful to roll fish in, before frying.Breakfast Cereals.— These according to taste, andfor variety sake. Plain cereals, particularly oatmeal, require long cooking, either in a double boileror with constant stirring, to make them digestibleand then there is a messy pot to clean up. Theydo more harm than good to campers who hurrytheir cooking. So it is best to buy the partiallycooked cereals that take only a few minutes to prepare.Otherwise the " patent breakfast foodshave no more nutritive quality than plain grain;some of them not so much. The notion that branhas remarkable food value is a delusion: it actuallymakes the protein of the grain less digestible. Asfor mineral matter, to " build up bone and teeth andbrawn," there is enough of It in almost any mixeddiet, without swallowing a lot of crude fiber.Rice, although not very appetising by Itself, combinesso well in stews or the like, and goes so wellin pudding, that It deserves a place in the commissariat.Macaroni, etc.— The various paste (pas-tay), a*the Italians call them, take the place of bread, maybe cooked In many ways to lend variety, and areespecially good in soups, which otherwise wouldhave little nourishing power. Spaghetti, vermicelliand noodles, all are good In their way. Breakmacaroni into Inch pieces, and pack so that Insectscannot get Into it. It is more wholesome than flapjacks,and it " sticks to the ribs."Sweets.— Sugar Is stored-up energ}^, and Is assimilatedmore quickly than any other food. Men/n the open soon get to craving sweets„The '' substitute " variously known as saccharin.

194 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsaxin, crystallose, is no substitute at all, save in meresweetening power (in this respect one ounce of itequals about eighteen pounds of sugar). This drug,which is derived from coal tar, has medicinal qualitiesand injures one's health if persistently taken.It has none of the nutritive value of sugar, andsupplies no energy v/hatever. Its use in food productsis forbidden under the Federal pure-food law.Maple sugar is always welcome. Get the softkind that can be spread on bread for luncheons.Sirup is easily made from it in camp by simplybringing it to a boil with the necessary amount ofwater. Ready-made sirup is mean to pack around.Sweet chocolate (not too sweet) has remarkablesustaining power. It will be mentioned further inVolume II, under Emergency Rations.When practicable, take along some jam and marmalade.The commissaries of the British army werewise when they gave jam an honorable placein Tommy Atkins' field ration. Yes: jam for soldiersin time ot war. So many ounces of it. substituted,mind you, for so many ounces of the porky,porky, porky, that has ne'er a streak of lean. So,a little currant jelly with your duck or venison isworth breaking all rules for. Such conserves canbe repacked by the buyer in pry-up cans that havebeen sterilized as recommended under the headingButter.Fresh Vegetables.— The only ones worth takingalong are potatoes and onions. Choose potatoeswith small eyes and of uniform medium size, evenif you have to buy half a bushel to sort out a peck.They are very heavy and bulky in proportion totheir food value; so you cannot afford to be burdenedwith any but the best. Cereals and beanftake the place of potatoes when you go light.Fresh onions are almost indispensable for seasoningsoups, stews, etc. A few of them can be takenalong almost anywhere. I generally carry at leastone, even on a walking trip. Onions are good forthe suddenly overtaxed system, relieve the inordinate

PROVISIONS 195thirst that one experiences the first da}^ or two,and assist excretion. Freezing does not spoilonions if they are kept frozen until used.Beans.— A prime factor in cold weather camping.Take a long time to cook ("soak all dayand cook all night" is the rule). Cannot becooked done at altitudes of five thousand ^eet andupward. Large varieties cook quickest, but thesmall white navy beans are best for baking. Pickthem over before packing, as there is much waste.Split Peas.— Used chiefly in making a thick,nourishing soup.Dehydrated Vegetables.— Much of tht flavorof fresh vegetables is lost when the juice is expressedor evaporated, but all of their nutrimentis retained and enough of the flavor for them toserve as fair substitutes when fresh vegetables cannotbe carried. They help out a camp stew, andmay even be served as side dishes if one has butter\and milk to season them. Generally they requiresoaking (which can be done overnight) ; thenthey are to be boiled slowly until tender, takingabout as much time as fresh vegetables. If cookingis hurried they will be woody and tasteless.Dehydrated vegetables are very portable, keep inany climate, and it is well to carry some on tripsfar from civilization.Canned Vegetables.— In our table of food valuesit will be noticed that the least nourishing articlefor its weight and bulk is a can of tomatoes. Yetthese " airtights " are great favorites with outdoorsmen,especially in the West and South, where frequentlythey are eaten raw out of the can. It isnot so much their flavor as their acid that is gratefulto a stomach overtaxed with fat or cannedmeat and hot bread three times a day. If wantedonly as an adjuvant to soups, stews, rice, macaroni,etc., the more concentrated tomato puree will servevery^w^ell.Canned corn (better still, '' kornlet," which is

196 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe concentrated milk of sweet corn) Is quitenourishing, and everybod}^ likes it.A few cans of baked beans {without tomatosauce) will be handy in wet weather. The B. &M. ^-Ib. cans are convenient for a lone camperor for two going light.Nuts.— A handful each of shelled nuts andraisins, with a cake of sweet chocolate, will carrya man far on the trail, or when he has lost it. Thekernels of butternuts and hickory nuts have thehighest fuel value of our native species; peanutsand almonds are very rich in protein ; Brazil nuts,filberts, and pecans, in fat. Peanut butter is aconcentrated food that goes well in sandwiches.One can easily make nut butter of any kind (exceptalmonds or Brazil nuts) for himself by usingthe nut grinder that comes with a kitchen foodchopper,and can add ground dates, ground popcorn,or whatever he likes; but such preparationswill soon grow rancid if not sealed air-tight. Nutbutter is more digestible than kernels unless thelatter are thoroughly chewed.Fruits.— All fruits are very deficient in proteinand (except olives) in fat, but dried fruit is richin carbohydrates. Fruit acid (that of prunes, driedapricots, and dehydrated cranberries, when freshfruit cannot be carried) is a good corrective of atoo fatty and starchy or sugary diet, and a preventiveof scurvy. Most fruits are laxative, andfor that reason, if none other, a good proportion-of dried fruit should be Included In the ration, nomatter how light one travels; otherwise one islikely to suffer from constipation when he changes" from town grub to trail grub."Among canned fruits, those that go farthest arepineapples and blackberries.Excellent jelly can be made in camp from driedapples (see recipe in Chapter XXII).There is much nourishment in dates, figs (thosedried round are better than layer figs) and raisinsc

PROVISIONS 197Pitted dates are best for light outfits. And do notdespise the humble prune ; buy the best grade in themarket (unknown to landladies) and soak overnightbefore stewing; it will be a revelation. Take a varietyof dried fruits, and mix them in different combinations,sweet and tart, so as not to have the samesauce twice in succession; then you w^ill learn thatdried fruits are by no means a poor substitute forfresh or canned ones.In hot weather I carry a few lemons wheneverpracticable. Limes are more compact and bettermedicinally, but they do not keep well. Lime juicein bottles is excellent, if you can carry it.Citric acid crystals may be used in lieu of lemonswhen going light, but the flavor is not so good asthat of lemonade powder that one can put up forhimself. The process is described by A. W. Barnard:''Squeeze out the lemons and sift into theclear juice four to six spoonfuls of sugar to a lemon;let stand a few days if the weather is dry, or aweek if wet, till it is dried up, then pulverize andput up into capsules." Gelatin capsules of any size,from i-oz. down, can be procured at a drugstore.They are convenient to carry small quantities ofspices, flavorings, medicines, etc., on a hike.Vinegar and pickles are suitable only for fixedcamps or easy cruises.Fritures.— Lard is less wholesome than oliveoil, or *' Crisco," or the other preparations of vegetablefat. Crisco can be heated to a higher temperaturethan lard without burning,thus ensuring the"surprise" (see Chapter XVI), which preventsgetting a fried article sodden with grease ; it doesas wxU as lard for shortening; and it can be usedrepeatedly without transmitting the flavor of onedish to the next one. Olive oil is superior as afriture, especially for fish, but expensive.Beverages.—^The best coffee can only be madefrom freshly roasted berries. Have it roasted andground the day before you start, and put up in

198 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsmall air-tight canisters. It loses strength rapidlyafter a tin has been opened. If jou are a connoisseuryou will never be tempted more than onceby any condensed coffee or substitute.Tea is a better pick-me-up than coffee or liquor.Even if you don't use it at home, take along onyour camping trip enough for midday meals. Teatabloids are not bad, but I advise using the realthing. On a hike, with no tea-ball, I tie up enoughfor each pint in a bitof washed cheesecloth, loosely,leaving enough string attached whereby to whiskit out after exactly four minutes' steeping.However it may be with you at home, leadinga sedentary life, you probably will find that teaand coffee do you a world of good when workingheartily out-of-doors.There are exceptions, to be sure ; but old campaignersgenerally will agree with Dr. Hutchinsonwhen, having discussed the necessary solids for asoldier's ration, he says this:"But is even this dietetic trinity of bread, beef and su-^•^ar, with greens and dessert on the side, sufficient? Theresults of a hundred campaigns have shown that it is not.Man is not merely a stomach and muscles — he is also abundle of nerves; and they require their share of pabulum.In the early days ^he nerve-steadier in the soldier's dietused to be supplied in the form of grog, beer, wine, whisky;^nd up to about one hundred years ago alcohol in someform was considered to be an absolutely indispensable partof thearmy ration." Gradually, however, and by bitter experience, it wasrealized that alcohol's way of steadying and supportingthe nerves was to narcotize them, which practically meanspoison them; that it gave no nourishment to the bodyand, instead of improving the digestion and utilization offood, really hindered and interfered with them. Manmust have something to drink as well as to eat; but what^an be found as a substitute?" About two centuries ago two new planets swam intoour human ken above the dietetic horizon — tea and coffee.They were looked on with great suspicion at first,partly because they were attractive and partly becauseihey were new. They were denounced by the Puritan be-

PROVISIONS 199cause they were pleasant, and by the doctor because theywere not in the pharmacopoeia; but, in spite of bitter opposition,they won their way." It is doubtful whether any addition to the comfort ofcivilized man within the last two hundred years in therealm of dietetics can be mentioned that equals them.Certainly, if we take into consideration the third new articleof food, which came in and still goes down with them— sugar — it would be impossible to match them with anythingof equal value,"Cocoa is not only a drink but a food. It isbest for the evening meal, because it makes onesleepy, whereas tea and coffee have the oppositeeffect.Get the soluble kind, if j^ou want it quickly prepared.Condiments.— Do not leave out a small assortmentof condiments wherewith to vary the tasteof common articles and serve a new sauce or gravyor pudding now and then.Salt is best carried in a w^ooden box. Theamount used in cooking and at table is small, butif pelts are to be preserved or game shipped out,considerably more will be needed.White pepper is better than black. Some Cay^enne or Chili should also be taken. Red pepper ifnot only a good stomachic, but also is fme for achill (made into a tea with hot water and sugar).Among condiments I class beef extract, bouilloncubes or capsules, and the like. They are of nouse as food, except to stimulate a feeble stomachor furnish a spurt of energy, but invaluable forflavoring camp-made soups and stews when youare far away from beef. The powder calledOystero yields an oyster flavor.When one is not going into a game country, itIS worth while to carn^ Worcestershire sauce andpure tomato catchup, to relieve the monotony ofcured and canned meats or of too much fish.Mustard is useful not only at table but for medicinalpurposes ; cloves, not only for its more obvious

200 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpurposes, but to stick in an onion for a stew, andperchance for a toothache.Celery and parsley can now be had in dehydratedform. Some sage may be needed for stuffing.If you aim at cake-making and puddings, gingerand cinnamon may be required. Curry powder isrelished by many; its harshness may be temperedwith sweet fruits or sugar.Finally, a half-pint of brandy is worth its weight,for brandy-sauce — but keep it where it can't befilched, or somebody will invent a bellyache instanter.On short tripSv salt and pepper will meet allrequirements.Ration Lists.— A ration list showing how muchfood of each kind is required, per man and perweek, cannot be figured out satisfactorily unless oneknows where the party is going, at what season ofthe year, how the stuff is to be carried, whetherthere is to be good chance of game or fish, and somethingabout the men's personal tastes. Still, I mayoffer some suggestions.Our army garrison ration often is used as aguide. Introducing the permissible substitutions inratios given below, it works out as follows: — -U. S. ARMY GARRISON RATIONSrOR ONE MAN ONE WEEKMeats, Etc.:Lbs. Oz.{^2 time) Fresh meats, @ 20oz. per day 4 6(^) Cured or canned, @ 12 oz. 2 10Lard, @ 0.64 oz4^Milk, evaporated, @ 0.5 oz,.. .. 3^2Butter, @ 0,5 oz 3Bread, Etc.:Lbs. Oz.(^) Hard bread, @ 16 oz i 12(f^) Flour, meal, @ 18 oz.... 5 14^Baking powder, @ ioz. per lb.7 lbs. ii]/2 oz.flour 6[Yz] Rice, hominy, @ i.6 oz5^^— 8 lbs. 6 02,

.PROVISIC^20^Vegetables:{]/2) Beans, @ 2.4 ozPotatoes, canned tomatoes, etc@ 20 ozPrunes, dried apples or peaches,O, ^VJk ^^''*^'jam, (a)i.28oz. 9''VVV^Vinegar, @ 0.16 gillSugar, Etc.:Lbs.4^^Oz.i3>4 ftitSugar, @ 3.2 oz . . 1 6J/2Sirup, @ 0.32 gill 10— 2 lbs. 5^ ozBeverages:Lbs. Oz.i%) @ CoflFee, 1.12 oz5^(i/J) Tea, @ 0.32 oz 2/4— 6 oz.Condiments:Lbs. Oz.Salt, @ 0.64 oz4V2Pepper, 0.04 oz 34Spices, @ 0.014 ozYiQFlavoring extracts, @ 0.028 oz. .—%5 oz.One man one week 28 lbs. 15 oz.One man one day 4 lbs. 2 oz.This Is a very liberal ration, but would be somonotonous, if strictly adhered to, that much ofit would be unused. Accordingly the soldier'smess is allowed to commute its surplus of staplesfor luxuries in which the ration is deficient.For some years it was my practice to weigh personally,and note down at the time, the amountof provisions taken on my camping tours, and oftenI recorded the quantities left over at the end ofthe trip. I have also collected many ration listscompiled by practical woodsmen, and have spentconsiderable time in studying and comparing them.These varied remarkably, not so much in aggregateweights as in the proportions of this and that

202 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTStill, a few general principles have been workedout:1. When going as light as practicable, and takingthe most concentrated (water-free) foods that willdigest properly and sustain a man at hard workin the open air, the ration should not be cut downbelow 2j4 pounds (a ration being one man's foodfor one day). This is the minimum for mountaineering,arctic exploration, and wherever equipmentmust be " pared to the bone," This sort ofprovisioning will be considered in Volume II.2. People leading an easy life in summer campdo not require so much actual nutriment as thoseengaged in hard travel, big game hunting, andthe like; but they should have plenty of fruitsand vegetables, and these things are heavy andbulky.3. Men working hard in the open, and exposedto the vicissitudes of wilderness life, need a dietrich in protein, fats (especially in cold weather),and sweets. This may not agree with theories ofdieticians, but it is the experience of millions ofcampaigners who know what their work demands.A low-proteid diet may be good for men leadingsoft lives, and for an occasional freak outdoorsman,but try it on an army in the field, or on a crew oflumberjacks, and you will face stark mutiny.As a basis upon which the supplies for a partymay be calculated, I offer, in the following table,tw^o ration lists, called '* light " and " heavy," forone man, one week. The first figures out about4,900 calories, and the second about 5,300 calories,per man, per day. Either of these is sufficient fora man engaged in hard outdoor work; so the terms" light " and '^ heavy " do not refer to food valuesbut to actual weights, the first being 3 pounds, andthe second a bit over 5 pounds, per man, per day.The difference is due chiefly to canned goods andfresh vegetables.Observe that both of these lists include fresh

.PROVISIONS 203CRUISER'S AND CAMPER'S RATIONSFOR ONE MAN ONE WEEK(Weights are net, not including tins, bags, wrappers.)LIGHT.Meats, Etc.: Lbs. OzFresh meat 3Bacon 3Canned meat, poultry, fish .4Cured fish 4Canned soupsDried soups 2Fresh eggsDried eggs 4Butter 8Cheese 4Crisco 4Evaporated milk 6HEAVY.Lbs. Oz.10 (i can)44128 (i doz.)7 4Bread, Etc.: Lbs. Oz,Biscuits (crackers) orfresh breadiWheat flour 4Corn mealiBaking powderMacaroni, etcRice ,Other cereal9 6Lbs.Oz.Vegetables:Fresh potatoesFresh onionsCanned tomatoesCanned cornDried beansDehydrated vegetables . .7 6Lbs.Oz.7 6Lbs.5Oz.. , (i can)10 iYz can)meat. It Is assumed that the travelers will goeither where they can supply this with game killedor where they can buy fresh meat as It Is needed.Otherwise, substitute two-thirds Its weight In curedmeat.For men not undergoing great strain, the **light '*ration may be reduced, say to 2^ pounds a day-T-T-

204 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTLIGHT.Fruits, Acids, Nuts:Lbs.Fresh lemonsLemonade capsulesCanned fruitsDried apples, apricots,prunes, cranberries ....Raisins, dates, figsPickles (sour)Shelled nuts, or nut butter..Oz.12HEAVY.Lbs.IOz.(^doz.)(2 cans)14Siveets: Lbs. Oz.Sugar (granulated) 14Maple sugar (soft) 8Chocolate (medium sweet) . . 12Jam, jelly, marmalade6Lbs.Oz.88122 22 lOBeverages:Coffee ..Tea ....Lbs.Oz.Lbs.Oz,81Condiments:Lbs.*SaltWhite pepper .Red pepper ....Mustard (mixed]Celery, parsley (dehydrated)Bouillon cubesNutmeg, cloves, cinnamon,ginger, curry powder. .Worcestershire sauceTomato catsupOne man one week 21One man one day 3Oz. Lbs.4VaVs%3559Oz.4y%VanIf butter 16 not carried, its weight in bacon shouldbe added to the list; similarly other substitutionscan be made to suit taste and circumstances.The second list provides enough eggs and milk* Not allowing for preparing skins and salting horses.

PROVISIONS-205to allow their use liberally in cooking. Its rationis of about the same weight as that of the U. S.Navy.Packing Food.— Meat of any kind will quicklymould or spoil if packed in tins from w^hich airis not exhausted. Wrap your bacon, pork, etc.,in parchment paper, which is grease-proof (youcan buy it from a mail-order house — for smallquantities get parchment paper ice blankets andcut to suit), then enclose the meat in loose cheeseclothbags that can be hung up in camp, secure frominsects.Flour should not be carried in the original sacks:they wet through or absorb moisture from the air,snag easily, and burst under the strain of a lashrope.Pack your flower, cereals, vegetables, driedfruits, etc., in the round-bottomed paraflSned bagssold by outfitters (various sizes, from 10 lbs. down),which are damp-proof and have the further meritof standing up on their bottoms instead of alwaysfalling over. Put a tag on each bag and labelit in ink. These small bags may then be stowedin 9-inch waterproof canvas provision bags (seeoutfitter's catalogues), but in that case the thingyou want is generally at the bottom. A muchhandier pack for horse or canoe is the side-openingone shown in Fig. 10 1.Butter, lard, ground coffee, tea, sugar, jam,m.atches, go in pn-up tin cans, sold by outfitters(small quantities in mailing tubes), or in commoncapped tins with tops secured by surgeon's plaster.Get pepper and spices in shaker-top cans, or, if youcarry common shakers, cover tops with cloth andsnap stout rubber bands around them.Salt, as it draws moisture, is best carried in awooden box or in mailing tubes.Often it is well to carry separately enough foodto last the party between the jumping-off place andthe main camp site, as it saves the bother of breakingbulk en route.

2o6CA:\IPIiNG and WOODCRAFl'When transportation is easy it pays to pack tliebread, bags of flour, etc., in a tin wash-boiler oftwo, which are wrapped in burlaps and crated.These make capital grub boxes in camp, securingtheir contents from wet, insects and rodents. Antsin summer and mice at all times are downrightpests of the woods, to say nothing of the wily coon,the predatory mink, the inquisitive skunk, and thefretful porcupine. The boilers are useful, too, onmany occasions, to catch rain-water, boil clothes,waterproof and dye tents, and so forth. After allthese things have been done inthem they are properlyseasoned for cooking a burgoo.Camp chests are very convenient when it ispracticable to carry them. In fixed camp an oldtrunk will do ; but if you are traveling from placeto place, the boxes should be small, weighing notover fifty or sixty pounds each when packed, so thatone man can easily handle them unassisted. If theyare specially made, Cottonwood is the best material(if thoroughly seasoned boards can be had—otherwiseit warps abominably). It is the strongest andtoughest wood for its weight that we have, andwill not splinter. For the ends and lids of smallchests, ^-inch stuf¥ is thick enough, and ^-inchfor the sides, bottoms and trays. The bottomshould have a pair of ^/^-inch cleats for risers andthe top a similar pair to keep it from \A'arping, unlessthe chests are to go on pack animals. Straphingesand hasp, a brass padlock and broad leatherend-straps (not drop-handles) should be provided,and the chest painted.The best size is 24x18x9 inches, this beingconvenient for canoes and pack-saddles. A pinegrocery box of this size, with ^-inch ends and^-inch sides, top, and bottom, weighs only lOpounds, and will answer the purpose very well.Screw a wooden handle on each end, say 5x2inches, with a hand-hold gouged out of the underside

PROVISIONS 207Chests intended to be used as hanging cupboard?in camp should have shelf boards packed in them,and a bread board for rolling out biscuit dough andpastry. One box should be selected with a viewto using it as a camp refrigerator or spring box(see Chapter XII). For a trip by wagon a regular" chuck box " may be built, with a drop frontfor serving table (held by light chains when open).This box is carried upright at the rear end of thewagon a la cow outfit.When cruising where there are no portages itsaves lots of time and bother if you build beforehanda light mess chest partitioned to hold utensilsand all the food needed for, say, a week. Thismay be fitted with detachable legs, and the lidso fitted that it is supported level when opened,forming a table.A Last Look Around.— Check off every articlein the outfit as it is stowed, and keep the inventoryfor future reference Then note what is left overat the end of the trip. This will help in outfittingfor the next season.There are several things to be looked after ingood season before starting on a camping trip. Ifyour shoes are new, oil them and break them in.If your rifle is new, do not dream of carrying itinto the wilderness until you have " sighted it up,"testing the elevations at various ranges, and makingsure that the sights are accurately aligned. Ifyour fishing tackle is old, overhaul and test itthoroughly. If you have a hollow tooth, get itfilled. Pare your nails closely, or they will soonbe badly broken. Get your hair cropped short.See that you have a good supply of small change^vhen you start. Don't carry off j^our bunch ofkeys. Be on hand early at the station and see toit personally that your humble but precious duffelall gets aboard.And now, bon voyage!

CHAPTER XIICAMP MAKINGAs a rule, good camp sites are not found alongthe beaten road. Of course, water is the primeessential, and in a country where water is scarce,you will stop at an old camping ground ; otherwiseit is best to avoid such a place: for one thing,you don't want to be bothered with interlopers,and for another, the previous occupants will havestripped the neighborhood of good kindling anddownwood, and may have left a legacy of rubbishand fleas.A pleasant stopping-place is seldom far to seekin a hilly country that is well wooded. There areexceptions, as in the Ozarks, where the rock is aporous limestone, the drainage mostly is underground,and there are no brooks, nor are springsas common as one would expect, though when youdo strike one it is a big one. Here a traveler mustdepend for water chiefly on the creeks and rivers,which may be miles apart.In a level region, whether it be open plain ortimbered bottom land, good water and a high anddry site may be hard to find.In any case, when men are journeying througha wild country that is strange to them, they shouldbegin at least two hours before sunset to keep abright lookout for a good place on which to spendthe night, and when such is found they had betteraccept it at once than run the risk of *' murderinga night ' farther on, wherever the powers of darknessmay force them to stop.?iteCamp Sites.— The essentials of a good campare these:208

1. Pure water.CAMP MAKING 2092. Wood that burns well. In cold weather thereshould be either an abundance of sound downwoodor some standing hardwood trees that are not toobig for easy felling.3. An open spot, level enough for the tent andcampfire, but elevated above its surroundings soas to have good natural drainage. It must be wellabove any chance overflow from the sudden riseof a neighboring stream. Observe the previousflood marks.4. Grass or browse for the horses (if there areany) and bedding for the men.5. Straight poles for the tent, or trees convenientfor attaching the ridge rope.6. Security against the spread of fire.7. Exposure to direct sunlight during a part ofthe day, especially during the early morning hours.8. In summer, exposure to whatever breezes mayblow^; in cold weather, protection against the prevailingwind.9. Privacy.Water, wood, and good drainage may be allyouneed for a " one-night stand," but the other points,too, should be considered when selecting the sitefixed camp.foraWater.— Be particularly careful about thdpurity of your water supply.You come, let us say,to a mountain brook, that issues from thick forest.It ripples over clean rocks, it bubbles with air, it isclear as crystal, and cool to your thirsty throat.*'Surely that is good water." But do you knowwhere it comes from? Every mountain cabin isbuilt close to a spring-branch. Somewhere up thatbrook there may be a clearing; in that clearing, ahouse ; in that house, a case of dysentery or typhoidfever. I have known several cases of infection fron>just such a source. It is not true that running wate/purifiesitself.When one must use well-water let him note the

2IOCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsurrounding drainage. If the well is near a stableor outhouse, or if dishwater is thrown near it, letit alone. A well in sandy soil is more or less filteredby nature, but rocky or clayey earth may conductdisease germs a considerable distance underground.Never drink from the well of an abandonedfarm: there is no telling what may havefallen into it.A spring issuing from the living rock is worthyof confidence. Even if it be but a trickle you canscoop out a basin to receive it that soon will clearitself.Sometimes a subaqueous spring may be found nearthe margin of a lake or river by paddling close inshoreand trailing your hand in the water. Whena cold spot is noted, go ashore and dig a few feetback from the water's edge. I have found suchspring exits in the Mississippi some distance fromthe bank, and, by weighting a canteen, vying a stringto it and another to the stopper, have brought upcool water from the river bed.Disease germs are of animal, not vegetable, origin.Still waters are not necessarily unwholesome, eventhough there be rotting vegetation in them: thewater of cedar and cypress swamps is good to drink,'.vherever there is a deep pool of it, unless pollutedfrom some outside source. Lake water is safe if nosettlements are on its border; but even so large abody as Lake Champlain has been condemned bystate boards of health because of the sewage thatruns into it.When a stream is in flood it is likely to be contaminatedby decayed animal matter.Alkaline Water.— When traveling in an alkali:ountry,carry some vinegar or limes or lemons, or(better) a glass-stoppered bottle of hydrochloricicid. One teaspoonful of hydrochloric (muriatic)neutralizes about a gallon of water, and if thereshould be a little excess it will do no harm, butrather assist digestion. In default of acid, you may

;CAMP MAKING 211add a little Jamaica ginger and sugar to the water,making a weak ginger tea.Muddy Water.— I used to clarify Mississippiwater by stirring cornmeal in it and letting it settle,or by stirring a lump of alum in it until the mudbegan to precipitate, and then decanting the clearwater. Lacking these, one can take a good handfulof grass, tie it roughly in the form of a cone sixor eight inches high, invert it, pour water slowly intothe grass, and a runnel of comparatively clear waterwill trickle down through the small end.The following simple method of purifying muddywater is recommended by H. G. Kegley:" Dip up what is needed, place it in such vessels as areavailable, and treat it to condensed milk, in the proportionof two tablespoonfuls of milk to five gallons of water. Thesediment settles in a very short time. Next morning, if youdesire to carry some of the water with you through the day,pour it from the settlings, and then boil the water and skimit. In that way the cream and any possibility of sournesswill be removed. Water thus clarified remains palatableso long as it lasts."Stagnant Water.— A traveler may be reduced tothe extremity of using stagnant or even putrid waterbut this should never be done without first boilingit. Some charred wood from the camp fire shouldbe boiled with the water; then skim off the scum,strain, and set the water aside to cool. Boilingsterilizes, and charcoal deodorizes.I quote the following incident from Johnson'sGetting Gold.—" I once rede forty-five miles with nearly beaten horsesto a native well, or rock hole, to find water, the next stagebeing nearly fifty miles further. The well was found, butthe water in it was very bad ; for in it was the body of adead kangaroo, which had apparently been there for weeks.The wretched horses, half frantic with thirst, did manageto drink a few mouthfuls, but we could not. I filled ourlargest billycan, holding about a gallon, slung it over thefire and added, as the wood burnt down, charcoal, till th«top Avas covered to a depth of two inches. With the charcoalthere was, of coursCa a little ash containing bi-car-

212 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbonate of potassium. The effect was marvellous. So soonas the horrible soup came to the boil, the impurities coag'ulated, and after keeping it at boiling temperature forabout half an hour, it was removed from the fire, thecinders skimmed out, and the water allowed to settle, whichit did very quickly. It was then decanted off into anordinary prospector's pan, and some used to make tea (theflavor of which can be better imagined than described);the remainder was allowed to stand all night, a few piecesof charcoal being added. In the morning it was bright,clear, and absolutely sweet."Filters are not to be depended upon to purifywater. At best they only clarify ; they do not sterilizeit. A filter, to be of any use, must be cleanedout every da}^ or two, and the sand forming the upperlayer must be thoroughly washed or replaced;otherwise the filter itself becomes a breeding-placefor germs.To Cool Water,— Travelers in arid regions carrywater bags of heavy canvas or linen duck. These,when filled, constantly ** sweat " or exude enoughmoisture to cool the contents of the bag by evaporation.Wet canteens do the same. A covered pailor other vessel can be used: wrap cloths around it,keep them wet, and hang in a current of air.Fuel.— In summer camping little firewood isused, but in cold weather an abundance is required.Some kinds of wood make fine fires, others are poorfuel or worthless: they are classified in the nextchapter. In any case there should be plenty ofsound dead wood to cook with.When traveling with a team where fuel is scarce,make a practice of tossing into the wagon any goodchunks that you may find along the road.Tent Ground.—Avoid low ground. Seek anopen spot that is level enough for the purpose, butone that has good natural drainage. Wherever youmay be, pitch your tent on a rise or slight slope insteadof in a depression where water will gatherif it rains. Don't trust a fair sky.If you camp on the bank of a stream, be sure to

CAMP MAKING 213get well above the flood-marks left by previousfreshets or overflows. Observe the more or lesscontinuous line of dead grass, leaves, twigs, mud,and other flotsam or hurrah's-nests left in bushesalong the water-front.Precautions as to elevation and drainage areespecially needful inare subject to cloudbursts.those parts of our country thatI have seen a ravine thathad been stone-dry for months fill fifteen feet deep,in a few minutes, with a torrent that swept trees andbowlders along with it; and it is quite common inmany parts of the West for wide bottoms to beflooded in a night. When I was a boy in Iowa, a'*mover " camped for the night on an island in CoonRiver, near our place.He had a bag of gold coin,but was out of rations. A sudden flood left himmarooned the next morning on a knoll scarce bigenough for his team and wagon. He subsisted fora week, like his horses, on the inner bark of cottonwood,and when a rescue party found him he waskicking his bag of gold over the few yards of dryground that were left of his domain.Bottom lands, and deep woods where the sunfor they are damp lairs at best, and in warmrarely penetrates, should be avoided, when practicable,weather they are infested with mosquitoes. Keepthey are stifling andaway from thickets in summer :" buggy."A ravine or narrow valley between steep hills istrap for fog, and the cold, heavy air from the headof the hollow pours down it at night, while an undertowof warmer air drawing upward now andthen makes the smoke from one's camp-fire shiftmost annoyingly. Besides a ravine gets too littlesunlight.New clearings in the forest are unhealthy, forthe sun gets in on plants that are intolerant of stronglight, they rot, and poisonous gases arise from theirdecay, as well as from the recently disturbed soil.a

214 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTIf one is obliged to camp in a malarial region heup andshould not leave the camp-fire until the sun isthefog dispelled.Sandy beaches, and low, gravelly points, are likelyto swarm in summer with midges.Sandy soil does not afford good holding-groundfor the tent pegs; neither does a loamy or clayeysoil after it gets soaked from rain. The best groundis gravelly earth: it holds well, and permits therapid filtering through of surface water. A claytop-soil holds water and is soon trodden into stickymud after a rain.Precautions Against Fire.— If the camp siteis strewn with leaves, cut an evergreen branch, or,with some other makeshift broom or rake, clear allthe ground of leaves, pile them in the bare spot,and burn rhem, lest a spark set the woods afire. Inevergreen or cypress forests there is often a thickscurf on the ground (dead needles, etc.) that isvery inflammable. Always scrape this away beforebuilding a fire. In a dry forest carpet, or in apunky log, fire may smoulder unnoticed for severaldays; then, when a breeze fans it into flame, it maystart a conflagration. One cant be too carefulabout fire in the woods. Never leave a camp fireor a cooking fire to burn itself out. Drench it withwater, or smother it absolutely by stamping earthupon it.Neighborhood of Trees.— It is a commonblunder to pitch the tent directly under the " naturalshelter " of a big tree. This is pleasant enough atmidday, but makes the tent catch drip from dew andkeeps it from drying after a rain ; besides, it maybe positively dangerous. One of the first thingsto do in choosing the tent site is to see that it is notwithin reach of falling limbs. A tree branch fallingforty or fifty feet, and striking a tent at night, issomething to be remembered — If you survive.Shun the neighborhood of tall trees that are shallowmoored,and of those with brittle limbs (the aspens,

-CAMP MAKING 215poplars, Cottonwood, catalpa, butternut, yellow locust,silver maple), and anj^ with unsound branches.Dead trees are always unsafe. Every woodsmai?has often known them to come thundering downwithout the least warning when there was not sqmuch as a zephyr astir. A tree that leans towardcamp from a steep hillside hard by is a menace, andso is any near-by tree with a hollow butt.Trees and Lightning.— I have never seen, noiheard of, a beech tree that had been struck by lightning, although beeches are plentiful on many battlescarredmountains where stricken trees of otherspecies can be noted by the score. Miss Keeler sayson this point: " There was so firm a belief amongthe Indians that a beech tree was proof againstlightning that on the approach of a thunder-stormthey took refuge under its branches with full assuranceof safety. . . . This popular belief has recentlyhad scientific verification. . . . The general conclusionfrom a series of experiments is that trees*poor in fat ' like the oak, willow, poplar, maple,elm and ash, oppose much lessresistance to the electriccurrent than trees ' rich in fat ' like the beech,chestnut, linden and birch."In this connection I may note that there is notruth in the old adage that " lightning does notstrike twice in the same place." At Takoma Park,a suburb of Washington, on July 19, 19 15, a bolt oflightning struck an oak tree standing in the gardenbefore the administration building of the SeventhDay Adventists. After the storm had passed, severalpeople w^ent out from the building to view thedamage done to the tree. Three of them lingered.A second bolt, from a clear sky, struck the sametree, killed two of the people under it, and knockedthe other unconscious.Electricity follows not only the trunk of a tree butalso the drip that falls from it in a rain.Shade.— In summer it is well to camp whereone's tent will be shaded from the afternoon sun.

2i6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTas otherwise it will get very hot, but morning sunshould strike the tent fairly, to dry it, lest the canvasmildew and the interior get damp and musty.The wetter the climate, and the thicker the surroundingforest, the greater need of such exposure.Mildew attacks leather first, then woolens, and cottonslast of all.Exposure.— As a general rule, an easterly orsoutheasterly frontage is best, not only to admit earlysunlight and rouse you betimes, but also because, inmost regions, it is the quarter least given to highwinds and driving rains. Sudden and violent stormsusually come up out of the southwest. This is truenearly everywhere: hence the sailor calls his tarphat a " sou-wester."Other considerations may govern the case. Innot weather we want exposure to whatever coolbreezes may blow, and they are governed by localfeatures. Late in the season we will take advantageof whatever natural windbreak we can find,the edge of a forest, the lee of a cliff,such asof a large rock,or of an evergreen thicket. This may make a differenceof 10° 0/ 15° in temperature. A rock absorbsthe sun's heat slowly all day and parts with itslowly at night.A grassy glade or meadow is colder than bareearth, sand, or rock. The air on a knoll is considerablywarmer than that of flat land only a fewfeet below it.Privacy.— A camp should not be exposed to viewfrom a public road nor be in the track of picnickers,idle countrymen, vagabonds, or other unwelcomeguests. One can save much annoyance by a littleforethought in this matter.Good Camp Sites.— Often in traveling a partymust put up for the night on unfavorable ground;but granting that there is much choice in thematter, then select, in summer, an open knoll, a lowridge, or, better, still,a bold, rocky point jutting outinto a rive»" or lake. A low promontory catches the

CAMP MAKING 217breezes from both sides, which disperse fog andinsects, and it is soon dried whenever the sun shines.In cold weather seek an open, park-like spot inthe forest, where surrounding trees will break thewind; or a "bench" (natural terrace backed by acliff) on the leeward side of a hill. In the lattercase, build your fire against the cliff, and shield thetent with a wind-break. The rock will reflect heatupon the tent, and will serve as a smoke-conductoraswell.On a hillside that is mostly bare, if there be athicket or a cluster of evergreen trees, get on thedownhill side of it. The stream of cold air fromabove will jump this obstacle and will leave aneddy of comparatively warm, still air immediatelybelow it.The best site for a fixed camp is near a river orlake, or on a bold, wooded islet, with a bathingbeach, boating and fishing waters. A picturesqueoutlook is desirable, of course, but not if it makesthe camp too prominent a landmark and so robs itof the privacy that refined people appreciate in campas anywhere else.System in Camping.— The celerity with whicha camp is made depends upon the training and willingnessofthe men, and the system by which theirduties are parceled. Let us suppose that there arefour in the party, besides the teamster or packer.Then let No. i, who is cook, get out the provisionsand utensils, rig up the fireplace, build ?. fire, andprepare the food for cooking, while No. 2 is rustlingwood and water. Meantime Nos. 3 and 4 clearthe ground and smooth it off, cut tent pegs and poles,unpack the tent, and summon all hands for a minute,if they are needed, to assist in raising the tent andpegging it " square." Then the cook goes on withhis proper duties, the axeman cuts and beds a chopping-blockand gets in night-wood, and the canvasmenturn bed-makers. Thus, by the time supper isready, which will be within an hour, or less, the

2i8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcamp will be properly made, and every one's vv^orkis done save the unfortunate scullion's.When camping with a pack-train, pile the packsneatly together and cover them with canvas, and similarlypile and protect the saddles, making especiallysure that the lash ropes cannot get wet, and thatnothing will be buried out of sight, off somewhereby itself, if snow falls during the night. Soldierlysystem in all such matters pays a big dividend intime and good temper.Even when stopping overnight, have a place foreverything and let everything be in its place.Novices or shiftless folk strew things about :.nd can'tfind them when needed. That is one reason why ittakes them twice as long as it should to make orbreak camp, and it is why they are forever losingthis and that, or leaving them behind and forgettingthem tillthey reach the next stopping place.If obliged to pitch the tent where there is notgood natural drainage, trench it, if the weather beat all dubious. It is miserable business to crawlout into a driving storm at night and dig a ditch bylantern-light — worse still to awake to a realizationthat trenching is too late to save your soakingpossessions. " Make yourself ready in your cabinfor the mischance of the hour, if so it hap."Dining Place.— It is wearisome to eat from theground; and as Thoreau says, " None is so poor thathe need sit on a pumpkin — that is shiftlessness.'^If stopping more than a day in one place, set up arustic table and benches, away from the tent andnear the cooking fire. Drive four stakes into theground for legs, nail cleats across the ends, andcover the top with boards or straight sticks. If youhave no nails, use forked stakes.By the way, nearly every made-up picture ot acamp shows crotches cut like Fig. 109. Why,good artists — why ? You may hunt half a day inthe woods to find such a natural crotch, and, if youshould find it, the thing would be good-for-nothing

CAMP MAKING 219as a stake, because you couldn't drive It withoutsplitting it. A fork like Fig. no can be foundanj'where; cut it as shown by the dotted lines, andFig. 109 —Rare NaturalCrotchFig. no —CommonCrotchTo Make a ^"O^Crutch '"C^ 4^it will drive all right. If somebody is injured andneeds a crutch, pick out a sapling with limbs grov/-ing opposite, as in Fig. in, cut out the centralstem, trim, and shave down.A comfortable height for the table is 30 inches,for the benches 18 inches. The latter are made inthe same way as the table. Three widths of 10-inch boards make a good table top, and one sufficesfor each bench.If you have a spare tent fly or tarpaulin, rig itover the dining table as a canopy. If no treesstand convenient for stretching it, set up two forkedposts, lay a ridge pole on them, and guy out thesides to similar frames or to whatever may growhandy. To set a long stake, sharpen the butt end,hold the pole vertically, and make a hole in theground by working the stick up and down as aquarryman does a long drill.A table, bench, or shelf, can easily be set upwherever two trees grow close enough together.Nail a cross-piece from one to the other, and asimilar one at same level on the other side, thencover with straight sticks or pieces of board.Commissariat.— If food is carried in side-openingbags, suspend them from a horizontal pole runfrom tree to tree or from forked stakes. A ciip-

220 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTboard made from packing boxes can be hung upthe same way, to keep vermin out. If ants aretroublesome, the edibles can be hung up bj^ wires,in a place where they will be sheltered from sun andrain.In a stationary camp there should be a separatecommissary tent, preferably of the baker style, asits door makes a good awning to work under in wetweather. Do not set boxes or bags of provisionson the ground, but on sticks, to keep dampnessaway from them.Racks or hangers for utensils, dish towels, etc.,are improvised in many ways: a bush trimmed withstubs left on, and driven in the ground where itis wanted, inverted crotches nailed to a tree, andso on. Pegs of hard wood whittled to a bluntpoint can be driven into the trunk of a softwoodtree by first making a vertical axe gash at the spotwhere the peg is to go.Cold Storage.—Butter and milk should noi bestored near anything that has a pronounced odor,for they would be tainted. As soon as the campground is reached the butter tin or jar should beplaced in a net or bag and sunk in the spring orcold brook, the string being tiednto the bank so thata freshet may not carry the food away or bury itout of sight. Later, if you stay in that place, alittle rock-lined well can be dug near the spring,and covered securely so that 'coons and porcupinescannot plunder it.Meat and fish may be kept fresh until consumedby digging a hole and putting a packing box in it,surrounding the sides and bottom of the box withsix inches or more of gravel, and covering top ofbox with burlap or something similar. Keep thegravel and the burlap wet, and cover all with wetevergreen boughs.If you have ice, a refrigerator can be made likethe fireless cooker described in Chapter IV; or borea few holes for drainage in the bottom of a box

CAMP MAKING 221or barrel, sink it in the ground to its top, and coverwith burlap or a blanket.At a cabin in the Smokies, where I lived alonefor three years, I had a spring box like the oneshown in Fig. ii2, which kept things cool and safein the warmest weather, yet was easy for me to getFig. 112 — Spring Boxinto. A short iron pipe at A entered the spring;the box inclined slightly toward the outlet B; pailsand jars sat on flat rocks inside; the top was fastenedby the round stick C passing through augerholes in the upright cleats.Caches for provisions and other articles will bedescribed in Volume II.Tent Furnishings.— If staying more than anight in one place, fit up the tent with hangers fromwhich spare clothing, knapsacks and pouches, wallpockets, lantern, guns, and other loose articles maybe suspended where they are kept dry, out of theway, and handy to get at. In a wall tent, plant aforked stake at each corner and lay a pole on themalong each side, with nails in it. Guns are laidon shorter stakes underneath these. At the rearend you may set up a set of shelves for odds andends.If you have candles and no lantern, cut a sticklong enough to hold the light as high as you wantit, sharpen one end to shove in the ground, split theother end a little, put a loop of bark horizontallyin the cleft, the candle in the loop, and draw tightagainst the stick. Half a potato, with a holescooped in it, or a small can filled with earth, makesa portable candlestick.

222 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTj;Fence.— Wild hogs are literally the hetes noiresof southern campers. Your thin-flanked, long--legged, sharp-nosed razorback, with tusks gleamingfrom his jaws — he or she of the third or furtherremoved generation of feral lawlessness — is th^most perverse, fearless, and maliciously destructivebrute in America, wolverines or " Indian devils "not excepted. Shooting his tail off does not discouragehim, rocks and clubs are his amusement,and no hint to leave that is weaker than a handfulof red pepper baked inside a pone o' bread will drivehim away. A hog-proof fence around camp, unsightlythough it be, is one's only safeguard in southernwildwoods.Wash-Stand.— A shelf between two trees, madeas previously described, is best for this purpose. Itshould be so situated that wash-water will be throwndirectly into a stream, or at least where it willquickly drain away from the camp, so as not toattractflies.If one's ablutions are performed in the streamitself, drive a stick in the ground and nail the lidof a tin box to the top of it for a soap-dish.Camp Sanitation.— Nothing is cleaner, sweeter,wholesomer, than a wildvvood unspoiled by manand few spots are more disgusting than a " piggy ",camp, with slops thrown everywhere, empty cansand broken bottles littering the ground, and organicrefuse left festering in the sun, breeding diseasegerms, to be spread abroad by the swarms of flies. Ihave seen one of Nature's gardens, an ideal healthresort, changed in a few months by a logging crewinto an abomination and a pest-hole where typhoidand dysentery wrought deadly vengeance.Destroy at once all refuse that would attract fliesor bury it where they cannot get at it.Fire is the absolute disinfectant. Burn all solidkitchen refuse as fast as it accumulates. When acan of food is emptied toss it on th'^ fire and burnit out, then drop it in a sink-hole, that you have

CAMP MAKING 223dug for slops and unburnable trash, and cover itwith earth or ashes so no mosquitoes can breed init after a rainfall.The sink should be on the downhill side of camp,and where it cannot pollute the water supply.Sprinkle kerosene on it, or burn it out frequentlywith a brush fire.A latrine, as substitute for a closet, is one of thefirst things to be provided. A rude but sanitaryFig.113 — Latrineone that can be made in a short time is shown inFig. 113. The excavated earth is piled at the rear^and a paddle is left in it to cover excreta every timethe place is used. (Whoever wrote Deuteronomywas a good camper.) The log used as seat, and theback-rest, are removable, so that a fire can be builtin the trench every now and then from dead brush.Ashes and charcoal are good disinfectants in themselves.Dry earth does very well; but the trenchshould be burnt out after a rain.A muslin or brush screen six feet high may beset around the latrine on stakes. A bathing screencan be similarly arranged at the water's edge.Camp Conveniences.— A chopping-block is theThe axe, when notfirst thing needed about a camp.

224 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTin use, should alwa5'S be stuck in that particularblock, where any one can find it when wanted, andwhere it will not injure men or dogs.Do not let the axe lie outdoors on a very coldnight; the frost would make it brittle, so that thesteel might shiver on the first knot you struck thenext morning.Stretch a stout line between two trees where thesunlight will strike, and air your blankets on itevery day or two when the weather is pleasant.Against a straight tree near the tent make a rack,somewhat like a billiard-cue rack, in which fishingrods can be stood, full rigged, without danger ofbeing blown down.Of course, it takes time and brisk work to makeeverything snug and trim around camp ; but it pays,just the same, to spend a couple of days atthe startin rigging up such conveniences as I have described,and getting in a good supply of wood and kindling.To rush right off hunting or fishing, and leave thecamp in disorder, is to eat your dough before it i£baked.

CHAPTER XIIITHE CAMP-FIRE**I am a woodland fellow, sir, that always loved a greatfire."— ^//'j Well that Ends Well.Cold night weighs down the forest bough,Strange shapes go flitting through the gloom.But see — a spark, a flame, and nowhome!The wilderness is— Edivin L. Sabin.The forest floor is always littered with old leaves,dead sticks, and fallen trees. During a drought thisrubbish is so tinder-dry that a spark falling in itmay start a conflagration ; but through a great partof the year the leaves and sticks that lie flat on theground are too moist, at least on their under side, toIgnite readih'".If we rake together a pile of leaves,cover It higgledy-piggledy with dead twigs andbranches picked up at random, and set a match to It,the odds are that It will result In nothing but a quickblaze that soon dies down to a smudge. Yet thatis the way most of us tried to make our first outdoorfires.One glance at a camper's fire tells what kind of awoodsman he Is. It Is quite Impossible to preparea good meal over a heap of smoking chunks, a fierceblaze, or a great bed of coals that will warp Ironand melt everything else.If one would have good meals cooked out of doors,and would save much time and vexation — In otherwords, If he wants to be comfortable In the woods,he must learn how to produce at will either ( i ) aquick, hot little fire that will boll water In a Jiffy,223

226 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTand will soon burn down to embers that are not tooardent for frying; or (2) a solid bed of long-livedcoals that will keep up a steady, glowing, smokelessheat for baking, roasting, or slow boiling; or (3) abig log fire that will throw its heat forward on theground, and into a tent or lean-to, and will lastseveral hours w^ithout replenishing.Luncheon Fire.— For a noonday lunch, or anyother quick meal, when you have only to boil coffeeand fry something, a large fire is not wanted. Drivea forked stake in the ground, lay a green stick acrossit, slanting upward from the ground, and weightthe lower end with a rock, so you can easily regulatethe height of the pot. The slanting stick shouldbe notched, or have the stub of a twig left at itsupper end, to hold the pot bail in place, and shouldbe set at such an angle that the pot swings about afoot clear of the ground.Then gather a small armful of sound, dry twigsfrom the size of a lead pencil to that of your finger.Take no twig that lies flat on the ground, for suchare generally damp or rotten. Choose hardwood,if there is any, for it lasts well.Select three of your best sticks for kindling.Shave each of them almost through, for half itslength, leaving lower end of shavings attached tothe stick, one under the other. Stand these in atripod, under the hanging pot, with their curlsdown. Around them build a small conical wigwamof the other sticks, standing each on end andslanting to a common center. The whole affair isno bigger than your hat. Leave free air spaces betweenthe sticks. Fire requires air, and plenty of it,and it burns best when it has something to climb upon ; hence the wigwam construction. Now touchoff the shaved sticks, and in a moment you will havea small blast furnace under the pot. This will getup steam in a hurry. Feed it with small sticks asneeded.Meantime get two bed-sticks, four or five inches

THE CAMP-FIRE 227thick, or a pair of flat rocks, to support the fryingpan. The firewood will all drop to embers soonafter the pot boils. Toss out the smoking butts,leaving onl\' clear, glowing coals. Put your bedstickson either side, parallel and level. Set the panon them, and fry away. So, in twenty xTiinutesfrom the time you drove your stake, the meal will becooked.A man acting w^ithout system or forethought, ineven so simple a matter as this, can waste an hourin pottering over smoky mulch, or blistering himselfbefore a bonfire, and it will be an ill mess ofhalf-burned stuff that he serves in the end.Dinner Fire.—, First get in plenty of wood andkindling. If you can find two large flat rocks, orseveral small ones of even height, use them as andirons;other^^•ise lay down two short cuts off afive- or six-inch log,facing you and about three feetapart. On these rocks or billets lay two four-footlogs parallel, and several inches apart, as rests foryour utensils. Arrange the kindling between andunder them, with small sticks laid across the topof the logs, a couple of long ones lengthwise, thenmore short ones across, another pair lengthwise, andthicker short ones across. Then light it. Manyprefer to light the kindling at once and feed the firegradually; but I do as above, so as to have an evenglow under several pots at once, and then the stickswill all burn down to coals together.This is the usual way to build a cooking fire whenthere is no time to do better. The objection is thatthe supporting logs must be close enough togetherto hold up the pots and pans, and, being round, thisleaves too little space between them for the fire toheat their bottoms evenly; besides, a pot is liable toslip and topple over. A better way, if one hastime, is to hew both the inside surfaces and the topsof the logs flat. Space these supports close enoughtogether at one end for the narrowest pot and wideenough apart at the oth?r for the frying-Dan.

228 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTIf you carry fire-irons, as recommended in a pii»vious chapter, much bother is saved. Simply laydown two flat rocks or a pair of billets far enoughapart for the purpose, place the flat irons on them,and space them to suit the utensils.If a camp grate is used, build a crisscross firoof short sticks under it.Split wood is better than round sticks for cooking;it catches easier and burns more evenly.Camp Crane.— Pots for hot water, stews, coffee,and so on, are more manageable when hungabove the fire. The heat can easily be regulated, thepots hanging low at first to boil quickly, and thenbeing elevated or shifted aside to simmer.Set up two forked stakes about five feet apart andfour feet to the crotches. Across them lay a greenstick (lug-pole) somewhat thicker than a broomstick.Now cut three or four green crotches frombranches, drive a nail in the small end of each,or cut a notch in it, invert the crotches, and hangthem on the lug-pole to suspend kettles from. Thesepot-hooks are to be of different lengths so that thekettle can be adjusted to different heights abovethe fire, first for hard boiling, and then for simmering.If kettles were hung from the lug-pole itself,this adjustment could not be made, and j'ou wouldhave to dismount the whole business in order toget one kettle off. ** It is curious how many different names have been bC'atowed upon the hooks by which kettles are suspended overa fire. Our forefathers called them pot-hooks, trammels, hakes,hangers, pot-hangers, pot-claws, i)ot-crooks, gallows-crooks, potchips,pot-brakes, gibs or gib-crokes, rackan-crooks (a chain oipierced bar on which to hang hooks was called a rackan orreckon), and I know not what else besides. Among Mainelumbermen, such an implement is called a lug-stick, a hook forlifting kettles is a hook-stick, and a stick sharpened and driveninto the ground at an angle so as to bend over the fire, tosusi)end a kettle from, is a wambeck or a spygelia — the RedGods alone know why! The frame built over a cooking-fire iscalled by the Penobscots kdchi-plak-wagn, and the_ Micmacs callthe lug-stick a chiplok-waiigan, which the white guides have partiallyanglicized into waugan-stick. It is well to know, andheresy to disbelieve, that, after boiling the kettle, it brings badluck to leave the waugan or spygelia standing._If this catalogue does not suffice the amateur cook to expresshis ideas about such things, he may exercise his jaws with theRomany (gipsy) term for pot-hook, which is kkkauviscoe sasteK_

;THE CAMP-FIRE 229If forked stakes are not readily found in theneighborhood, drive straight ones, then split thetops, flatten the ends of the cross-pole and insertthem in the clefts of the stakes.You do not want a big fire to cook over. Manyand many a time I have watched old and experiencedwoodsmen spoil their grub, and their tempers, too,by trying to cook in front of a roaring winter campfire,and have marveled at their lack of commonsense.Off to one side of such a fire, lay your bedlogs,as above ; then shovel from the camp-fire enoughhard coals to fill the space between the logs withinthree inches of the top. You now have a steady,even heat from end to end ; it can easily be regulatedthere is level support for every vessel; and you canwield a short-handled frying-pan over such an outdoorrange without scorching either the meat oryourself.Fire for Baking.— For baking in a reflector, orroasting a joint, a high fire is best, with a backingto throw the heat forward. Sticks three feet longcan be leaned against a big log or a sheer-faced rock,and the kindling started under them.Often a good bed of coals is wanted. The campfiregenerally supplies these, but sometimes they areneeded in a hurry, soon after camp is pitched. Toget them, take sound hardwood, either green or dead,and split it into sticks of uniform thickness (say i)4-inch face). Lay down two bed-sticks, cross thesenear the ends with tvA^o others, and so on up untilyou have a pen a foot high. Start a fire in thispen. Then cover it with a layer of parallel sticks(aid an inch apart. Cross this with a similar layerat right angles, and so upward for another foot.The free draft will make a roaring fire, and all willburn down to coals together.The thick bark of hemlock, and of hardwoodigenerally, will soon yield coals for ordinary cookingṪo keep coals a long time, cover them with ashes,

230 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTor with bark which will soon burn to ashes. Inwet weather a bed of coals can be shielded by slantingbroad strips of green bark over it and overlappingthem at the edges.Fire in a Trench.— In time of drought wheneverything is tinder-dry, or in windy weather, especiallyif the ground be strewn with dead leavesor pine needles, build your fire in a trench. This isthe best way, too, if fuel is scarce and you must deoendon brushwood, as a trench conserves heat.Dig the trench in line with the prevailing wind.The point is to get a good draught. Make the windwardend somewhat wider than the rest, and deeper,sloping the trench upward to the far end. Linethe sides with flat rocks, if they are to be found, asthey hold heat a long time and keep the sides fromcrumbling in. Lay other rocks, or a pair of greenpoles, along the edges to support vessels. A littlechimney of flat stones or sod, at the leeward end,will make the fire draw well. If there is somesheet-iron to cover the trench a quite practical stoveis made, but an open trench will do very well ifproperly managed.The Hunter's Fire.— Good for a shiftingramp in the fall of the year, because it affords firsta quick cooking fire with supports for the utensils,and afterwards a fair camp-fire for the night whenthe weather is not severe. Cut two hardwood logsnot less than a foot thick and about six feet long.Lay these side by side, about fifteen inches apartat one end and six or eight inches at the other.Across them lay short green sticks as supports, andon these build a crisscross pile of dry wood and setfire to it. The upper courses of wood will soonburn to coals which will drop between the logs andBet them blazing on the inner sides. (If the bedlogs were elevated to let draught under them theywould blaze all around, and would not last long.)After supper, lay two green billets, about eight'Hches thick, across the bed logs, and aut nisht-wood

. THECAMP-FIRE 231on A, to be renewed as required. In the morningthere will be fine coals with which to cook breakfast.Winter Camp-Fire.— Let " Nessmuk " describehow hfe and a companion kept an open camp comfortabJywarm through a week in winter, with noother cutting tools than their hunting hatchets:' We first felled a thrifty butternut tree ten inches indianneter, cut off three lengths of five feet each, and carriedthem to camp. These were the back-logs. Two stoutstaKes were driven at the back of the fire, and the logs, ontop of each other, were laid firmly against the stakes. Thelatter were slanted a little back, and the largest log placedai. bottom, the smallest on top, to prevent tipping forward.A couple of short, thick sticks were laid with the endsagainst the bottom log by way of fire-dogs; a fore-stickfive feet long and five inches in diameter; a well built pyramidof bark, knots and small logs completed the camp-fire,which sent a pleasant glow of warmth and heat to thefurthest corner of the shanty. For night-wood we cut adozen birch and ash poles from four to six inches across,trimmed them to the tips, and dragged them to camp.Then we denuded a dry hemlock of its bark by aid of ten^foot poles flattened at one end, and packed the bark tocamp. We had a bright, cheery fire from the early eveninguntil morning, and four tired hunters never slept moresoundly."We stayed in that camp a week; and, though theweather was rough and cold, the little pocket-axes kept uswell in firewood. We selected butternut for back-logs, because,when green, it burns very slowly and lasts a longtime. And we dragged our smaller wood to camp inlengths of twenty to thirty feet, because it was easier to lay'them on the fire and nigger ' them in two than to cut themshorter with light hatchets. With a heavj* axe we shouldhave cut them to lengths of five or six feet."The first camp I ever made was built exactly afterthe " Nessmuk " pattern, shanty-tent, camp-fire withbutternut back-logs, and all (see chapters III. andIV. of his Woodcraft). My only implement, besidesknives, was a double-bitted hatchet just likehis, of surgical instrument steel, weighing, with itstwelve-inch handle, only eighteen ounces. I wasalone. I stayed in that camp five weeks, in Octoberand November; and I was snug and happy all the

232 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtime. But then I was camping just for the fun oiIt. It Is quite a different matter to come In at nightfall,dog-tired, and have to get In night-wood witha mere hatchet. Don't try that sort of campingwithout a full-size axe.If there is a big, flat-faced rock or ledge on thecamp site, take advantage of it by building your fireagainst it, with the tent In front. Or build a wallof rocks for a fire-back, with stone " andirons."Wooden ones must be renewed every day or so.But if logs must be used, and you have an axe, cutthe back-logs from a green tree at least a foot thick,choosing wood that Is slow to burn. Plaster mudin the crevices between the logs, around the bottom''of stakes, and around the rear end of handjunks" or billets used as andirons; otherwise thefire will soon attack these places. The fire-backreflects the heat forward Into the tent, conductsthe smoke upward, and serves as a windbreak infront of camp; so the higher It is, within reason, thebetter.Novices generally erect the fire-back too far fromthe tent. Conditions vary, but ordinarily the faceof the back-logs should not be more than five feetfrom the tent front; with a small fire, well tended,it need not be over four feet.The Indian's Fire.— Best where fuel Is scarce,or when one has only a small hatchet with which tocut night-wood. Fell and trim a lot of hardwoodsaplings. Lay three or four of them, on the ground,butts on top of each other, tips radiating from thiscenter like the spokes of a wheel. On and aroundthis center build a small, hot fire. Place butts ofother saplings on this, radiating like the others. Asthe wood burns away, shove the sticks In toward thecenter, butts on top of each other, as before. Thissaves much chopping, and economizes fuel. Builda little v/indbreak behind you, and lie close to thefire. Doubtless you have heard the Indian's dictum(southern Indians express It just as the northern

THE CAMP-FIRE 233and western ones do): "White man heap fool;make um big fire — can't git near: Injun make umlittle fire — git close. Uh, good! "Kindling.—The best kindling is fat pine, or thebark of the paper birch. Fat pine is found in thestumps and butt cuts of pine trees, particularly thosethat died on the stump. The resin has collectedthere and dried. This wood is usually easy to split.Pine knots are the tough, heavy, resinous stubs oflimbs that are found on dead pine trees. They, aswell as fat pine, are almost imperishable, and thoseiticking out of old rotten logs are as good as any.In collecting pine knots go to fallen trees that havealmost rotted away. Hit the knot a lick with thepoll of the axe and generally it will yield ; if youmust chop, cut deep to get it all and to save the axeedge. The knots of old dead balsams are similarlyused. Usually a dead stump of pine, spruce, or baUsam, all punky on the outside, has a core very richin resin that makes excellent kindling.Hemlock knots are worthless and hard as glass —keep your axe out of them.The thick bark of hemlock is good to make glowingcoals in a hurry; so is that of hardwoods generally-Good kindling, sure to be dry underneaththe bark in all weathers, is procured by snappingoff the small dead branches, or stubs of branches,that are left on the trunks of small or medium-sizedtrees, near the ground. Do not pick up twigs fromthe ground, but choose those, among the downwood,that are held up free from the ground. Where atree is found that has been shivered by lightning,or one that has broken off without uprooting, goodsplinters of dry wood will be found. In everylaurel thicket there is plenty of dead laurel, and,since it is of sprangling growth, most of the brancheswill be free from the ground and snap-dry. Theyignite readily and give out intense heat.The bark of all species of birch, but of paperbirch especially, is excellent for kindling and for

234 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtorches. It Is full of resinous oil, blazes up at once,will burn in any wind, and wet sticks can be ignitedwith it.Tinder, and methods of getting fire withoutmatches, will be considered in Volume II.Making Fire in the Wet.— It is a good testof one's resourcefulness to make a fire out-of-doorsin rainy weather. The best way to go about it dependsupon local conditions. If fat pine can befound the trick is easy: just split it up, and startyour fire under a big fallen log. Dry fuel and aplace to build the fire can often be found under biguptilted logs, shelving rocks, and similar naturalsiiclters, or in the core of an old stump. In defaultof these,look for a dead softwood tree that leans tothe south. The wood and bark on the under sidewill be dry — chop some off, split it fine, and buildyour fire under the shelter of the trunk.Lighting a Match.— When there is nothingdry to strike it on, jerk the tip of the match forwardagainst your teeth.To light a match in the wind, face the wind.Cup your hands, with their backs toward the wind,and hold the match with its head pointing towardthe rear of the cup — i. e., toward the wind. Removethe right hand just long enough to strike thematch on something very close by; then instantlyresume the former position. The flame will runup the match stick, instead of being blown away fromit, and so will have something to feed on.Fire Regulations.— On state lands and onNational forest reserves it is forbidden to use anybut fallen timber for firewood. Different Stateshave various other restrictions, some, I believe, notpermitting campers to light a fire in the woods afall unless accompanied by a registered guide.In New York the regulations prescribe that" Fires will be permitted for the purpose of cooking,warmth, and insect smudges; but before such firesare kindled sufficient snace around the spot where

:IHL CAMP-FIRE 235the fire is to be lighted must be cleared from allcombustible material; and before the place is abandoned,fires so lighted must be thoroughly quenched."In Pennsylvania forest reserves no fire may bemade except in a hole or pit one foot deep, the pitbeing encircled by the excavated earth. In someof California, no fire at all may be lighted withoutfirstprocuring a permit from the authorities.Fire regulations are posted on all public lands,and if campers disregard them they are subject toarrest.These are wise and good laws. Every camperw^ho loves the forest, and who has any regard forpublic interests,will do his part by obeying them tothe letter. However, if he occupies private propertywhere he may use his own judgment, or if he travelsin a wilderness far from civilization, where thereare no regulations, it will be useful ^or him to knowsomething about the fuel value of all kinds of w^ood,green as well as dead, and for such people the followinginformation is givenThe arts of fire-building are not so simple as theylook. To practice them successfully in all sorts ofwild regions we must knovv the different species oltrees one from another, and their relative fuelvalues, which, as we shall see, vary a great deaLWe must know how well, or ill, each of them burnsin a green state, as well as when seasoned. It isimportant to discriminate between wood that makeslasting coals, and such as soon dies down to ashes.Some kinds of wood pop violently when burning andcast out embers that may burn holes in tents andbedding or set the neighborhood afire; others burnquietly, with clear, steady flame.Some are stubbornto split, others almost fall apart under the axe.In wet weather it takes a practiced woodsman tofind tinder and dry wood, and to select a naturalshelter where fi.re can be kept going during a stormof rain or snow, when a fire is most needed.There are several handy little manuals by which

236 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTone who has no botanical knowledge can soon leariihow to identify the different species of trees by^nerely examining their leaves ; or, late in the season,by their bark, buds, and habit of growth.But no book gives the other information that Ihave referred to; so J shall offer, in the present chapter,a little rudimentary instruction in this im.portantbranch of woodcraft.It is convenient for our purpose to divide the treesinto two great groups, hardwoods and softwoods,using these terms not so loosely as lumbermen do,but drawling the line between sycamore, yellowbirch, yellow pine, and slippery elm, on the oneside, and red cedar, sassafras, pitch pine and whitebirch, on the other.As a general rule, hardwoods make good, slowburningfuel that yields lasting coals, and softwoodsmake a quick, hot fire that is soon spent.But each species has peculiarities that deserve closeattention. The knack of finding what we wantin the woods lies a good deal in knowing whatwe don't want, and passing it by at a glance.Uninflammable Woods.— The followingwoods will scarcely burn at all when they aregreen: basswood, black ash, balsam, box elder, buckeye,cucumber, black or pitch pine and white pine,poplar or aspen, )^ellow poplar or tulip, sassafras,service berry, sourwood, sycamore, tamarack, tupelo(sour gum), water oak. Butternut, chestnut,red oak, red maple, and persimmon burn veryslowly in a green state. Such woods, or those ofthem that do not spit fire, are good for backlogs,hand-junks or andirons, and for side-logs in a cookingfire that is to be used continuously. Yellowbirch and white ash, on the contrary, are better fora campfire when green than when seasoned. Adead pine log seldom burns well unless split. Theoutside catches fire readily, but it soon chars andgoes out unless a blazing fire ^^ sticks is kept upagainst it.

THE CAMP-FIRE 237Green wood burns best in autumn and winter,when the sap is down. Trees that grow onhigh, dry ground burn better than those of thesame species that stand in moist soil. Chestnutcut on the summits of the Appalachians burnsfreely, even when green, and the mountain beechburns as ardently as birch. Green wood growingalong a river bank is very hard to burn.Spitfire Woods.— Arbor-vitae (northern ''whitecedar") and chestnut burn to dead coals that donot communicate flame. They, as well as box elder,red cedar, hemlock, sassafras, tulip, balsam, tamarack,and spruce, make a great crackling and snappingin the fire. All of the soft pines, too, areprone to pop. Certain hardwoods, such as sugarmaple, beech, white oak, and sometimes hickory,must be watched for a time after the fire is started,because the embers that they shoot out are longlived,and hence more dangerous than those of softwoods;but they are splendid fuel, for all that.Stubborn Woods.— The following woods arevery hard to split: Blue ash, box elder, buckeye,cherry, white elm, winged elm, sour gum, hemlock(generally), liquidambar (sweet gum), honeylocust, sugar maple, sycamore, tupelo. Some woods,however, that are stubborn when seasoned arereadily split when green, such as hickory, beech,dogwood, sugar maple, birch, and slippery elm.The Best Fuel.—Best of all northern firewoodsis hickory, green or dry. It makes a hotfire, but lasts a long time, burning down to a bedof hard coals that keep up an even, generous heatfor hours. Hickory, by the way, is distinctly anAmerican tree; no other region on earth produces it.The live oak of the South is most excellent fuel,50 is holly. Foliow^ing the hickory, in fuel value,^re chestnut oak, overcup, white, blackjack, post^nd basket oaks, pecan, the hornbeams (ironwoods),and dogwood. The latter burns finally to a beautifulwhite ash that is characteristic; apple wood

238 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdoes the same. Black birch also ranks here; it hasthe advantage of " doing its own blowing," as aCarolina mountaineer said to me, meaning thatthe oil in the birch assists its combustion so thatthe wood needs no coaxing. All of the birches aregood fuel, ranking in about this order: black, yellow,red, paper, and white. Sugar maple was thefavorite fuel of our old-time hunters and surveyors,because it ignites easily, burns with a clear,steady flame, and leaves good coals.Locust is a good, lasting fuel; it is easy to cut,and, when green, splits fairly well; the thick barktakes fire readily, and the wood then burns slowly,with little flame, leaving pretty good coals; henceit is good for night-wood. Mulberry has similarqualities. The scarlet and willow oaks are amongthe poorest of the hardwoods for fuel. Cherrymakes only fair fuel. White elm is poor stuff, butslippery elm is better. Yellow pine burns well, asits sap is resinous instead of watery like that of thesoft pines.In some respects white ash is the best of greenwoods for campers' fuel. It is easily cut and split,is lighter to tote than most other hardwoods, andis of so dry a nature that even the green woodcatches fire readily. It burns with clear flame,and lasts longer than any other free-burning woodof its weight. On a wager, I have built a bullyfire from a green tree of white ash, one match, andno dry kindling whatever. I split some of thewood very fine and " frilled " a few of the littlesticks with my knife.Softwoods.- •Most of the softwoods are goodonly for kindling, or for quick cooking fires, andthen only when seasoned. For these purposes,however, some of them are superior, as they splitand shave readily and catch fire easily.Liquidambar, magnolia, tulip, catalpa, and willoware poor fuel. Seasoned chestnut and yellowpoplar make a hot fire, but crackle and leave no

THE CAMP-FIRE 239coals. Balsam fir, basswood, and the white andloblolly pines make quick fires but are soon spent.The gray (Labrador) pine or jack pine is consideredgood fuel in the far North, where hardwoodsare scarce. Seasoned tamarack is good.Spruce is poor fuel, although, being resinous, itkindles easily and makes a good blaze for " brandingup " a fire. Pitch pine, which is the most inflammableof all woods when dry and " fat," willscarcely burn at all in a green state. Sycamore andbuckeye, when thoroughly seasoned, are good fuel,but will not split. Alder burns readily and givesout considerable heat, but is not lasting.The dry wood of the northern poplar (largetoothedaspen) is a favorite for cooking fires, becauseit gives an intense heat, with little or nosmoke, lasts well, and does not blacken the utensils.Red cedar has similar qualities, but is ratherhard to ignite and must be fed fine at the start.The best green softwoods for fuel are white birch,paper birch, soft maple, cottonwood, and quakingaspen.As a rule, the timber growing along the marginsof large streams is softwood. Hence driftwoodis generally a poor mainstay, unless there isplenty of iton the spot; but driftwood on the seacoastis good fuel.Precautions.— I have already mentioned thenecessity of clearing the camp ground of inflammablestuff before starting a fire on it, raking ittoward a common center and burning all the deadleaves, pine needles, and trash; otherwise it maycatch and spread beyond your control as soon asyour back is turned. Don't build your fire againsta big old punky log: it may smoulder a day or twoafter you have left, and then burst out into flamewhen a breeze fans it.Never leave a spark of fire when breaking camp,or when leaving it for the day. Make absolutelysure of this, by drenching the camp-fireJ:horoughly,

240 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTor by smothering it completely with earth or sand.Never drop a lighted match, a burning cigar stub,or the hot residue of your pipe, on the ground withoutstamping it out. Have you ever seen a forestfire? It is terrible. Thousands of acres are destroyed,and many a time men and women andchildren have been cut off by a tornado of flameand burned alive. The person whose carelessnessstarts such a holocaust is worse than a fool — he isa criminal, and a disgrace to the good earth hetreads.

CHAPTER XTVPESTS OF THE WOODSSummer twilight brings the mosquito. In fact,when we go far north or far south, we have himwith us both by day and night. Rather I shouldsay that we have her; for the male mosquito is agentleman, who sips daintily of nectar and mindshis own business, while madame his spouse is awhining, peevish, venomous virago, that goes aboutseeking whose nerves she may unstring and whoseblood she may devour. Strange to say, not amongmosquitoes only, but among ticks, fleas, chiggers,and the whole legion of bloodthirsty, stinging fliesand midges, it is only the female that attacks manand beast. Stranger still, the mosquito is not onlya bloodsucker but an incorrigible wine-bibber aswell — it will get helplessly fuddled on any swet*-wine, such as port, or on sugared spirits, while olgin it is inordinately fond.Such disreputable habits — the querulous sing'song, the poisoned sting, the thirst for blood, andthe practice of getting dead drunk at every opportunity,are enough of themselves to make the mosquitoa thing accursed; but these are by no mean.;the worst counts in our indictment against it. Wehave learned, within the past few years, that all thesuffering and mortality from malaria, yellow fever,and filariasis (including the hideous and fatalelephantiasis of the tropics) is due to germsthat are carried in no other way than by njosquitoes.Flies spread the germs of typhoid fever aii-d malig^^ant eye diseases; fleas carry the bubon'^ piaguCf'241

242 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe sleeping-sickness of Africa istransmitted by insects.There is no longer any guesswork about this:it is demonstrated fact. Professor Kellogg, summingup what is now known of the life history ofmalaria-bearing mosquitoes {Anopheles) says:**When in malarial regions, avoid the bite of amosquito as you would that of a rattlesnake — onecan be quite as serious in its results as the other."The worst of it, from a sportsman's view-point,is that the farther we push toward the arctics orthe tropics, the worse becomes the pest of dangerousinsects. It is into just such countries that, nowadaysand in future, we must go in order to getreally first-class hunting and fishing. Consequentlythe problem of how best to fight our insectenemies becomes of ever increasing importance toall who love to hunt over and explore the wildplaces that are still left upon the earth.Mosquitoes are bad enough in the tropics, butthey are at their worst in the coldest regions of theMosquitoes.— Harry de Windt reports thatearth.Verkhoyansk, in Siberia, which is the arctic pole ofcold (where the winter temperature often sinksto -75° Fahr., and has been known to reach -8i°)the mosquitoes make their appearance before thesnow is off the ground, and throughout the threesummer months, make life almost unbearable tothe wretched natives and exiles. The swamps andshoaly lakes in the surrounding country breed mosquitoesin such incredible hosts that reindeer, sledgedogs,and sometimes even the natives themselves,are actually tormented to death by them.Throughout a great part of central and westernCanada, and Alaska, there are vast tundras of bogmoss, called by the Indians muskegs, which in summerare the breeding-grounds of unending clouds ofniosquitoes whose biting powers exceed those of anyinsects known in the United States. Even if themuskeg land were not a morass, this plague ofat

PESTS OF THE WOODS^^^mosquitoes would forever render it uninhabitablein summer. The insects come out of their pupaeat the first sprouting of spring vegetation, in May,and remain until destroyed by severe frosts in September.In Alaska, all animals leave for the snowlineas soon as the mosquito pest appears, but theenemy follows them even to the mountam tops aboverimber-line. Deer and moose are killed by mosquitoes,which settle upon them in such amazingswarms that the unfortunate beasts succumb fromliterally having the blood sucked out of their bodies.Bears are driven frantic, are totally blinded, mirein the mud, and starve to death. Animals that survivehave their flesh discolored all through, and eventheir marrow is reduced to the consistency of bloodand water. The men who penetrate such regionsare not the kind that would allow toil or privationto break their spirit, but they become so unstrungfrom days and nights of continuous torment inflictedby enemies insignificant in size but infinite in number,that they become savage, desperate, and sometimeseven weep in sheer helpless anger.In regions so exceptionally cursed with mosquitoesno mere sportsman has any business until wintersets in. But even in the more accessible woodlandsnorth and south of us the insect pest is byfar the most serious hardship that fishermen andother summer outers are obliged to meet. Headnetsand gauntlets are all very well in their way,but one can neither hunt, fish, paddle, push throughthe brush, nor even smoke, when so accoutered.Consequently everybody tries some kind or otherof " fly-dope," by which elegant name we mean anypreparation which, being rubbed over the exposedparts of one's skin, is supposed to discourage insectsfrom repeating their attacks.The num.ber of such dopes is legion. They maybe classified in three groups:( I ) Thick ointments that dry to a tenacious gla^e

244 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT(2) Liquids or semi-fluid unguents that are supposedto protect by their odor alone, and must berenewed several times a day;(3) Insecticides, which poison the little beasts.Glazes.— Among the glazes, Nessmuk's recipe,published in his Woodcraft, is perhaps as wellknown and as widely used as any. He says thisabout it:"I have never known it to fail: 3 oz. pine tar, 2 oz.

PESTS OF THE WOODS 245Simmer for half an hour, and when cooladdOil pennyroyal i ounce.There arc many others of similar nature, but the aboveare as good as any. . . . Now as to use of above: applyfreely and frequently to all exposed parts of person, anddo not ^as/i off until leaving the place where the pestsabound. You can wash your eyes in the morning, andwash the palms of your hands as often as may be necessary,but if you wish to be immune, don't wash any other exposedparts. , . . When you get accustomed to it you willfind some compensating comfort. ... I have had to contendwith mosquitoes, deer-flies, black-flies, and midges . . . andhave found " dope " with tar in it the best. I know thatwhere mosquitoes are not very bad, oil of citronella, oil ofverbena or of lemon-grass or of pennyroyal mixed withvaselin will keep them ofi^, if the mixture is applied frequently.These essential oils are quickly evaporated, however,by the heat of the body. Camphorated oil is also usedby some; this is simply sweet oil with gum camphor dissolvedin it: the camphor is volatile and soon evaporates.. . . Now I don't much like tar dope because I can notwash my face and hands as often as I could wish ; but whenit is necessary to get some trout, without being worried toomuch by the insects, I can stand the tar for a few days."Doctor L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau ofEntomolog}^ U. S. Department of Agriculture,recommends the following tar dope:" Fishermen and hunters in the North Woods will findthat a good mixture against mosquitoes and black-flies canbe made as follows: Take 2^ pounds of mutton tallow,melt and strain it. While still hot add 5^ pound black tar(Canadian tar), stir thoroughly, and pour into the receptaclein which it is to be contained When nearly coolstir in 3 ounces of oil of citronella and ij^ ounces of pennyroyal."It is my own experience that tar glazes do thework when the weather is comparatively cool, butwhen it is so hot that one perspires freely both bynight and day there is no chance for a glaze to beestablished. The stuff melts and runs in your eves.A hard rain will wash it off. Thick dopes, more orless sticky, are unpleasant at all times, and especiallyat night. For these reasons, and for appearance*sake, most people will prefer to use a fluid or un-

246 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTguent that is less disagreeable, even though it mustbe renewed every hour or two.Essential Oils.— As for protective liquids, it issafe to say that everything in the pharmacopoeiathat seemed the least promising has been tried.Theoils of pennyroyal, cloves, lavender, citronella, eucalyptus,cedar and sassafras are used singly or incombination. Spirits of camphor is offensive toinsects but soon evaporates.Citronella is the favorite. All insect pests dislikeit; but some people, too, find the odor intolerable.The oil of lavender flowers (genuine) has apleasant odor, and is equally effective, but it isquite expensive. Both of these oils are bland,whereas most of the others are irritant and willmake the eyes smart if the least bit comes in contactwith them. Artificial oil of lavender is worthless.The protection afforded by a given oil dependssomewhat upon locality (number, species, persistenceof insects), and, apparently, the personal equationcuts some figure, for what works satisfactorilyivith one man affords no immunity to another.Hence the more popular dopes are " shot-gun prescriptions,"compounded on the principle that if nneingredient misses another may hit.The trouble with all the essential oils is thattheir protective principles are volatile. To retardevaporation, add double or treble the amount ofcastor oil, which has a good body and is itself repugnantto the whole created kingdom. After mixing,put up some of this thick liquid in a smallcapped oil can (bicycle oiler), to carry in the field.Thicker dopes, which can be put up in collapsibletubes like artists' colors, are made by mixing theoil with carbolated vaseline, or with borated lanolin.The latter is a particularly good base becauseit is not only antiseptic but it is also the best preventiveof sunburn, excellent for blistered feet, anda particularly good application for slight woundsand abrasions. Add enough oil of lavender flowerr

:PESTS OF IHE WOODS 247to give it a strong odor, and put it up in tubes tokeep out moisture. I know nothing better in theline of " elegant preparations " to keep off mosquitoes.Insecticides.— One of these is creosote. Anotheris the tincture of ledum palustre (wild rosemary, aEuropean relative of our Labrador tea). Oil ofcassia (i.e., oil of cinnamon) is said to be an irritantpoison to all kinds of insects, and " its powerremains a long time after it has dried."Another thing that flies of all sorts find bad fortheir systems is quassia. It is used as an ingredientof fly poisons, as a parasiticide, and in some flydopes. Either the fluid extract or the solid may beemployed, according to the base.Carbolic acid in sweet oil (i to 16) is often usedwhere insects are very insistent. It has the obviousadvantage of being a good antiseptic as well. Ona trip to Hudson Bay, Dr. Robert T. Morris employeda very strong solution, of which he reported" We depended upon the mixture of one part of carbolicacid and nine parts of sweet oil to keep off various thingsthat sought our acquaintance. A very little of this mixtureon the face and hands was effective. It is a preparationthat I learned to use in Labrador, where none of the commonapplications would suffice."Doctor Durham, of the English Yellow FeverCommission, Rio de Janeiro, told Dr. L. O. Howardthat" He and the late Dr. Myers found that a 5 per cent, solutionof sulphate of potash prevented mosquitoes frombiting, and that they were obliged to use this mixture whileat work in their laboratory in Brazil to prevent themselvesfrom being badly bitten."I judge this vvould also be a good preventive ofattacks from ticks and chiggers, as they cannotstand sulphur.Plain kerosene is certain death to all sorts of insectpests, so long as they have not burrowed beneaththe skin, and one of the best preventives of their

248 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTattacks. It is used everywhere by men whose constantexposure renders them less fastidious aboutpersonal greasiness and aroma than they are solicitousfor comfort and health. Dr. W. H. Dade,an army surgeon in the Philippines, found that theaddition of one part oil of bergamot to sixteen ofkerosene made the odor less disagreeable and addedenough body to prevent evaporation in less than sixto eight hours. I have used Japanese oil of camphorfor the same purpose.Some Dopes.— The following mixtures may beparticularly recommendedMr. C. A. Nash's.Oil of citronella i oz.Spirits of camphor i oz.Oil of cedarJ/2 oz.Doctor Howard says this is the most effective mixturehe has tried. " Ordinarily a few drops on a bath towelhung over the head of the bed will keep Culex pipiens awayfor a whole night. Where mosquitoes are very persistent,however, a few drops rubbed on the face and hands willsuffice."Dr. Edivard Beck's.Pine tar 3 oz.Olive (or castor) oil 2 oz.Oil pennyroyal i oz.Oil citronella i oz.Creosote i oz.Camphor (pulverized) i oz.Carbolated vaseline large tube.Heat the tar and oil and add the other ingredients;simmer over slow fire until well mixed. The tar may beomitted if disliked, or for ladies' use. Above will rathermore than fill a pint screw-top tin flask. This mixture notonly discourages insect attacks but is also a good counterirritantafter being bitten. One may substitute for thyolive oil its weight in carbolated vaseline and thus makean unguent that can be carried in collapsible tubes, and theDoctor now recommends this.Col.Crojton Fox's.Oil pennyroyal i dram.Oil peppermint i dram.Oil bergamot i dram.:

PESTS OF THE WOODS 249Oil cedar i dram.Quassia i dram.Gum camphor4 drams.Vaseline, yellow 2 drams.Dissolve camphor in vaseline by heat; when cold addremainder.I doubt if peppermint adds anything to the efficacyof this formula, and would substitute citronellaor lavender.The principles to be observed in compoundinga dope of one's own are ( i ) choose your repellentsor insecticides, or both; (2) add enough lanolin,vaseline, castor oil,or other base to give the desired**body." It is well to incorporate some good antisepticw^ith the stuff,to relieve irritation and poisoningfrom bites already received, and to serve as ahealing ointment for abrasions, bruises, and otherinjuries, as already mentioned. Any ingredientthat irritates the skin or makes the eyes smart shouldbe avoided, except where insects are so bad thatsuch addition may be necessary.Bites and Stings.— To relieve the itching ofinsect bites the common remedies are ammonia ora solution of baking soda. A better one is to covereach bite with flexible collodion (" New Skin ") ;but be sure the bottle is always securely stoppered,for the ether ofthe solvent evaporates very quicklyand then the stuff is useless.A bee leaves its sting in the wound, and this ofcourse should be removed ; a wasp, hornet, or yellowjacketcan sting repeatedly. For the pain, applyammonia or baking powder solution, or a weak solutionof carbolic acid, or wet salt, moistened clay, amud poultice, a slice of raw onion, or a moist quidof tobacco.Fleas.— In the high mountains of North Carolinaand adjoining States there are no mosquitoes,at least none that sing or bite; but if a man sitsdown on a log, it may be five miles from any house,the chance is good that he will arise covered withfleas. I have been so tormented by these nimble

250 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTallies of Auld Reekie, when spending a night in aherder's cabin on the summit of the Smokies, thatI have* arisen in desperation and rubbed myself fromhead to foot with kerosene. That settled the fleas.Citronella will do as well.If you catch a flea, don't try to crush it, for youcan't, but roll it between the fingers ; that break?its legs; than you can open your fingers and kill it.A good way, if water is handy, is to keep a tightgrip until you get your thumb and finger into somewater — a flea can't swim — then, if it is not alreadyfilled with blood, it will sink, and drown, andgo to meet its reward, which, let us hope, is a hot one.When you have to occupy a cabin infested withfleas, scrub it out with hot soapsuds, and see thatthe site is well wet beneath the floor. Fleas willnot stay in a wet place.Blood-Sucking Flies.—In northern forests wehave several species of flies that attack man. Thedeer-fly or '' bull-dog " is a small gad-fly that drivesher dagger-like mandibles into one's skin so viciouslythat she takes out a bit of flesh and makes the bloodflow freely. The black-fly {Similium molestum) isa stout, hump-backed, black termagant with transparentwings, from one-sixth to one-quarter inchlong. This creature is a common nuisance of theforests and along the streams of northern New England,the Adirondacks, the Lake region, and Canada.She keeps busy until late in the afternoon, poisoningeverything that she attacks, and raising a painfullump as big as a dime at every bite. Closely relatedspecies are the buffalo-gnat and turkey-gnat of theSouth, which sometimes appear in incredible numbers,driving animals frantic and setting up an inflammatoryfever that may prove fatal. Blackfliesand their ilk are easily driven away by smudges.Mosquito dopes will protect one from them.Blow-Flies.— Worst of all flies, though fortunatelyrare in the North (it has been known to reachCanada), is the screw-worm fly {Compsomyia macellaria),a bright metallic-green insect with golden re-

PESTS OF THE WOODS 251flections and four black stripes on the upper part ofthe body. This is a blow-tiy which has the sickeninghabit of laying its eggs in wounds, and even inthe nostrils of sleeping men. Several fatalities fromthis cause have been reported in our country; theyhave been much more numerous in South America.The gusanero of tropical America is described by atraveler as '* a beast of a fly that attacks you, youknow not when, till after three or four months youknow that he has done so by the swelling up of thebitten part into a fair-sized boil, from which issues amaggot of perhaps an inch and a half in length."Another Amazonian fly of similar habits is the birni,whose larva generates a grub in one's skin that requirescareful extraction, lest it be crushed in theoperation, " and then," said a native, " gentlemenoften go to o outro mundo" (the other world).The motuca of Brazil has ways similar to those ofour black-fly, and, like it, can easily be killed withone's fingers.Pests of the Tropics.—While I am on thistopic, it may add a little to the contentment of thoseouters who are unable to seek adventure in farawaylands, but must needs camp within a hundred milesor so of home, if I transcribe from the pages of awell-known naturalist the following notes on someof the impediments to travel in the tropics:"But the most numerous and most dreaded of all animalsin the middle Amazons are the insects. Nearly allkinds of articulate life here have either sting or bite. Thestrong trade wind keeps the lower Amazons clear of thewinged pests; but soon after leaving Manaos, and especiallyon the Maranon in the rainy season, the travelerbecomes intimately acquainted with half a dozen insectsof torture:(i) The sanguinary mosquito. . . . There are severalspecies, most of them working at night; but one black fellowwith white feet is diurnal. Doctor Spruce experimentedupon himself, and found that he lost, by leuing theblood-letters have their own way, three ounces of bloodper day. . . . The ceaseless irritation of these ubiquitouscreatures makes life almost intolerable. The great Cortez,afcfc^ ?l] his victories, could not forget his struggles with

252' CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT"these despicable enemies he could not conquer.with Scorpioncocked tails, spiders six inches in diameter, and c^entlo'fmos^^uitoes' ?". !^^ '°^^"^' ^'' "^ ^^'^ ^ ^^^ - ^ ^Kid.Ji'i ^^^ ^•"'"^. o^„ sand-fly, a species ofcalled tromhidiummosquito in Peru. It is a minute,dipterdark-coloredwith two triangular, horny lancets,mall, which leavecircular ared spot on the skin. It works bylie/ingday rethe mosquito at sunrise. It is the great scourge ofIn ,W "'""k ^'"^ ^ paradisiac spotanis%onverted^in°oinferno by its presence. There are severalwhich speciesfollow one another in succession through theall of them daybeing diurnal. Their favorite regionto be on is saTdthe Cassiquiare and upper Orinoco. (3.)The maruim, which resembles the pium.infinitely The- arenumerous on the Jurua. Humboldt estimatedthere were a million to a cubic foot of air where he was.^otucac^Wtd tabono/.iv on the. NMaranon {Hadruslepidotus) resembling a small horse-fly, of a bronze-blackcolor with the tips of the wings transparent, andmidable a for-proboscis, ...(5) The moquim ... a microscopic scarlet acarus resembhnga minute crab under the glass. It swarm's onweeds and bushes and on the skin causes an intolerableItching. An hour's walk through the grassy streets of1 effe was sufficient to cover my entire bodv with mvriadsoi moquims, which it took a week, and repeated bathingwith rum, to exterminate.{e) Carapdtos or ticks {ixodes), which mount to thetips of blades of grass, attach themselves to the clothes ofpassersby,_and bury their jaws and heads so deeplv in theflesh that It IS difficult to remove them without leaving theproboscis behind to fret and fester. In sucking one's bloodthey cause no pain; but serious sores, even ulcers often'result. ...These few forms of insect life must forever hinder thesettlement of the valley. . . . Besides there are ants . .innumerable in species and individuals, and of all sizestrom the little red ant of the houses to the mammoth to'-kandera, an inch and a half long. , . . Thelatterbites fiercely, but rarely causes death. Doctor Spruce likensthe pain to a hundred thousand nettles. ... On the Tapajoslives the terrible fire-ant . . . whose sting is likenedto the puncture of a red-hot needle. The saiihas are notcarnivorous, but they make agriculture almost impossible.. . .There are black and yellow wasps. . . . The largehairy caterpillars should be handled with care as theirritation caused by the nettling hairs is sometimes a seriousmatter. Cockroaches are great pests in the villages. Licehnd a congenial home on the unwashed Indians of every^nbe. but particularly the Andean. Jiggers and fleas prefer

—PESTS OF THE WOODS 253they are accordingly most aboundingdry, sandy localities;on the mountains. The Pacific slope is worthy of beingcalled flea-dom." Orton, The Andes and the Amazons,pp. 484-487.Northern Chiggers.— The moquim mentionedabove answers the description of our own chigger,jigger, red-bug, as she is variously called, which is anentirely different beast from the real chigger or•chigoe of the tropics. I do not know what may bethe northern limit of these diabolic creatures, buthave made their acquaintance on Swatara Creek inPennsylvania. They are quite at home on theorairies of southern Illinois, exist in myriads on theOzarks, and throughout the lowlands of the South,and are perhaps worst of all in some parts of Texas.The chigger, as I shall call it, is invisible on one'sskin, unless you know just what to look for. Get iton a piece of black cloth, and you can distinguishw^hat looks like a fine grain of red pepper. Put itunder a microscope, and it resembles, as Orton says,a minute crab. It lives in the grass, and on the underside of leaves, dropping off on the first man orbeast that comes its w^ay. Then it prospects for agood place, where the skin is thin and tender, andstraightway proceeds to burrow, not contenting itself,like a tick, w^ith merely thrusting its head in andgetting a good grip, but going in body and soul, toreturn no more. The victim is not aware of whatis in store for him until he goes to bed that night.Then begins a violent itching, which continues for aweek or two. I have had two hundred of thesetormenting things in my skin at one time.If one takes a bath in salt water every night beforeretiring, he can keep fairly rid of these unwelcomeguests. A surer preventive is to rub keroseneon the waists, neck, ankles, and abdominal region.Powdered sulphur dusted into one's drawers andstocking legs will do if one keeps out of the bushes.Naphthaline may be used successfully in the sameuianner.The country ReppJ.e sometimes rub themselves

254 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwith salty bacon-rind before going outdoors, andclaim that this is a preventive; also that kerosenewill do as well.If one keeps an old suit of clothesexpressly for chigger-time, puts the suit in a closet,and fumigates it thoroughly with the smoke of burningtobacco stems, no chigger will touch him. Alas!that the preventives should all be so disagreeable.When chiggers have burrowed underneath theskin, neither salt, nor oil, nor turpentine, nor carbolizedointment, nor anything else that I have triedwill kill them, save mercurial ointment or the tinctureof stavesacre seed, both of which are dangerousif incautiously used. After much experiment, Ifound that chloroform, dropped or rubbed on eachseparate welt, will stop the itching for several hours.It is quite harmless, and pleasant enough to apply.Moderately strong ammonia, or a saturated solutionof baking soda, will suffice if applied as soon asthe itching is felt, but they are useless if treatmentis delayed. In the latter case, I would use tinctureof iodine. It is said that collodion brushed oveieach welt will act as a specific, but I have had nochance to try it.The chigger seems particularly fond of the butterfly-weedor pleurisy-root. It is seldom much ofa nuisance until the middle of June, and generallydisappears in the latter part of September.Tropical Chigoes.—The chigoe or sand-flea ofMexico, Central America, and South America, is alarger and more formidable pest than our little redbug.It attacks, preferably, the feet, especially underthe nail of the great toe, and between the toes.The insect burrows there, becomes encysted, swellsenormously from the development of her young, andthus sets up an intolerable itching in the victim'sskin. If the female is crushed or ruptured in thetumor she has formed, the result is likely to be amputationof the toe, if nothing worse. She shouldbe removed entire by careful manipulation with aneedle. This chigoe is a native of tropical America,but seems to be gradually spreading northward.

PESTS OF THE WOODS 255About 1872 it was introduced into Africa, andspread with amazing rapidity over almost the entirecontinent. It will probably soon invade southernEurope and Asia.Ticks.—The wood-ticks that fastenon man are,like the chiggcrs, not true insects, but arachnids, relatedto the scorpions and spiders. They are leathery-skinnedcreatures of about the same size andshape as a bedbug, but of quite different color andhabits. They *' use " on the under side of leaves oflow shrubs, and thence are detached to the person ofa passer-by just as chiggers are. They also aboundin old mulchy wood, and are likely to infest anylog that a tired man sits on. They hang on likegrim death, and if you try to pull one off your skin,its head will break off and remain in the epidermis^to create a nasty sore. The ticks that infest birds,bats, sheep, and horses, are true insects, in no wiserelated to the wood-ticks, dog-ticks, and cattle-ticks.The cattle-tick is responsible for the fatal diseaseamong cattle that is known as Texas fever.Preventive measures are the same as for chiggers.To remove a tick without breaking off its head,drop oil on it, or clap a quid of moistened tobaccoon it, or touch it with nicotine from a pipe, orstand naked in the dense smoke of a green-woodfire, or use whiskey externally, or hot water, orflame ; in either case the tick will back its way out.The meanest ticks to get rid of are the young, whichare known as " seed-ticks." They are hard to discoveruntil they have inflamed the skin, and thenare hard to remove because they are so small andfragile. A man may find himself covered with hundredsof them. In such case let him strip and rubhimself with kerosene, or, lacking that, steep sometobacco or a strong cigar in warm water and do thesame with it. They will drop off.PuNKiES.—The punkie or '* no-see-um " of ournorthern wildwoods, and its cousins the biting gnatsand stinging midges of southern and western forests,are minute bloodsuckers that, according to my

256 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlearned friend Professor Comstock, live, " underthe bark of decaying branches, under fallen leaves,and in sap flowing from wounded trees."With all due deference to this distinguishedentomologist, I must aver that they don't live therewhen I am around; they seem particularly fond ofsap flowing from wounded fishermen. Dope willkeep them from biting you, but it won't keep themout of your eyes. Punkies are particularly annoyingabout sunset. They seem to know just whenand where you will be cleaning the day's catch oftrout, and that you will then be completely at theirmercy. At such times you will agree that they beatall creation for pure, downright cussedness. Oil ofcitronella will protect your face and neck, but youcan't have it on your hands when cleaning the fish,Punkies can't stand a smudge.Insects in Camp.— The common house-fly,which, as Dr. Howard suggests, should be calledthe typhoid-fly, is often a great nuisance in camps.Screening of tents and of food supplies is the onlysure remedy. Burning insect powder (pyrethrum)will drive them out of a tent or cottage,also a good way to get ridand that isof the wood cockroachesthat sometimes are attracted by the lights of thecamp and proceed to make themselves offensively athome.Sometime you may elect to occupy an abandonedlumber camp while on an outing. My adviceis, pass it by : not all its inhabitants have movedaway. Any shack in the woods may harbor bedbugs.If you must use such a place, don't forgetthe kerosene can.If ants are troublesome about camp, try to findthe nest by following the workers; then pour keroseneor boiling water into it. Red pepper or oil ofsassafras sprinkled about may discourage them, butrepellent substances are not to be depended upon.Kerosene is the sovereign remedy.Smudges.— A good smudge is raised by usingcedar ''cigars," made as follows*. Take long

PESTS OF THE WOODS 257strips of cedar bark and bunch them together intoa fagot six or eight inches in diameter, about onestrip in three being dry and the others watersoaked; bind them with strips of the inner bark ofgreen cedar. Ignite one end at the camp-fire, andset up two or more such cigars on different sidesof the camp, according as the wind may shift.Punky wood piled on a bed of coals is also good.The ammoniacal vapors from a smudge of driedcow-dung is particularly effective. I have elsewherereferred to smudges made of dried toadstools;these are peculiarly repellent to punkies. Atoadstool as large as one's two fists will hold firefor six or eight hours. A piece of one can be carriedsuspended by a string around one's neck, theburning end out. If the fungus is too damp atfirst, it can soon be dried out by placing it beforethefire.Scorpions.— Scorpions are not uncommon as^ar north as Missouri. I often used to find themin the neighborhood of St. Louis — little red fellowsabout 4 inches long. In the southwest, wherethey abound, they grow to a length of 6 or 7inches. They hide by day under flat rocks, indead trees, and in moist, dark places generally, anddo their foraging at night. They are very belligerent,always fighting to the death. They carrytheir tails curled upV/ard and forward, and canonly strike upward and backward. They aresometimes unpleasantly familiar around camp,especially in rainy weather, having a penchant forcrawling into bedding, boots, coat sleeves, trouserslegs,etc.The sting of a small scorpion is about as severeas that of a hornet; that of a large one is moreserious, but never fatal, so far as I know, except tosmall children. After a person is stung a fewtimes he is inoculated, and proof against the poisontnereafter. If you get stung, take a hollow keyor small tube, press the hollow with force over thejuncture, causing- th**. poison and a little blood to

258 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTexude, hold firmly in place for several minutes,and, if the scorpion was a large one, you have agood excuse for drinking all the whiskey you want.Ordinarily a quid of moist tobacco locally appliedeases the pain and reduces the swelling. Tobaccojuice, by the way, is fatal to scorpions, tarantulas,and centipedes, and will set a snake crazy.An uncommonly severe bite should be treatedlike snake-bite (see Volume II).Tarantulas.— I first witnessed the leapingpowers of a tarantula one night when I was alonein a deserted log cabin in southern Missouri. Thecabin had noi; been occupied for fifteen years, andthere was no furniture in it. I had scarcely mademy bed on the board floor when a tornado struckthe forest. It was a grand sight, but scared mestiff. Weli, the electric plant w^as working finely;just then, the lightning being almost a continuousglare. A tarantula that spread as broad as myhand jumped out of the straw that I was lying onand — it was hard to tell which was quicker, he orthe lightning. He seemed disturbed about something.Not being able lo fight the tornado, I tooLafterthe big spider with an old stumpy biroom thathappened to be in the cabin. When the broomwould land at one side of the room, the tarantulawould be on the other side. I was afraid he wouldspring for my face, but presently he popped intoa hole somewhere, and vanished.The cabin somehowstuck to terra firma, and I returned to mypallet.The tarantula's habits are similar to the scorpion's.The fangs are in its mouth. The bJte 13very severe, but not fatal to an adult. Cases ofmen being injured by either of these venomousarachnids are extremely rare, considering \'-i*.eabundance of the pests in som.e countries, and theirhabit of secreting themselves in clothes and bedding.If you want to see a battle royal, drop ascorD'pn and a tarantula into the same box. They

PESTS OF THE WOODS 259will spring for each other in a flash, and both areabsolutely game to the last.Centipedes.— I have had no personal experiencewith centipedes. Paul Fountain says:" The centipedes were an intolerable nuisance for theyhad a nasty habit of hiding among the bed-clothes and underthe pillows, attracted there to prey on the bugs, as Isuppose ;one evil as a set-off to another. But the reiitipedeswere something more than a mere nuisance. Jt is allvery well to be blandly told by gentlemen who think theyknow all about it that the bites of centipedes and scorpionsare not dangerous. It may not be particularly dangerousto have a red-hot wire applied to your flesh, but it is confoundedlypainful. Yet that is to be preferred to a centipedebite, which will not only make you dance at the timeof infliction, but leave a painful swelling for many day?after, accompanied by great disturbance of the system."The cowpunchers' remedy for centipede bites, ac-^wording to Mr. Hough, was " a chaw of tobacco onthe outside and a horn of whiskey on the inside,both repeated frequently. "Porcupines.—In northern woods the porcupineis a common nuisance. It is a stupid beast, devoidof rear, and an inveterate camp marauder. Youmay kick it or club it unmercifully, yet it will returnagain and again to forage and destroy. The*'porky " has an insistent craving for salt, and willgnaw anything that has the least saline flavor, anythingthat perspiring hands have touched, such asan axe-handle, a gunstock, a canoe paddle, and wnllruin the article. He is also ford of leather, andwill chew up your saddle, bridle, shoes, gloves,belts, the sweat-band of your hat, or any sweatycloth or rope. Foodstuffs that are salty or greasyare never safe from him unless hung up on wires-Porcupine quills, being barbed, are hard to extract.When they break off they work deep intothe flesh. They are poisonous, in a way, and causeseverepain.The porcupine is not found south of the Canadianfaunal zone, which extends well down into9ur northern States.

26oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSkunks.— Another notoriously fearless pest isthe skunk. It will turn tail quickly enough, butnothing on earth will make it run. If a skunktakes itinto his head to raid your camp he will stepright in without any precautions whatever. Thenhe will nose through all of your possessions, walkover you if you be in his way, and forty men cannotintimidate him.Once when I was spending the summer in aherder?' hut, on a summit of the Smoky Mountains,a skunk burrowed under the cabin wall and cameup through the earthen floor. It was about midnight.My two companions slept in a pole bunkagainst the wall, and I had an army cot in themiddle of the room. It was cold enough for anall-night fireon the hearth.I awoke with the uneasy feeling that some intruderwas moving about ia the darkness. Therewas no noise, and my first thought was of rattlesnakes,which were numerous in that region. I satup and lit the lantern, which hung over my head.One glance was enough. " Boys," I warned in astage whisper, " for the love of God, don't breathe;there's a skunk at the foot of my bed !"The animal was not in the least disconcerted bythe light, but proceeded leisurely to inspect thepremises.It went under my cot and nosed aroundthere for five mortal minutes, while I lay rigid asa corpse.Then Doc sneezed. I heard Andy groan fromunder his blanket: "You damn fool: now we'llget it!"But we didn't. Madame Polecat waddled totheir bunk, and Ihad a vision of two fellows sweatingblood.Then she moved over to the grub chest, foundsome excelsior lying beside it, and deliberately wentto work making anest.An hour passed. I simply had to take a smoke.My tobacco was on a shelf right over the skunk.I risked all, arose very quietly, reached over the

PESTS OF THE WOODS 261beast, got my tobacco, and retired like a ghost tothe other end of the cabin to warm myself at thefire. We were prisoners; for the only door was aclapboard affair on wooden hinges that skreekedlike a dry axle.The visitor, having made its bed, did not yetfeel like turning in, but decided to find out whatfor a bare-legged, white-faced critter I was, anyhow.It came straight over to the fireplace andsniffed my toes. The other boys offered all sortsof advice, and I talked brimstone back at them —we had found that pussy didn't care a hang forhuman speech so long as it was gently modulated.That was a most amiable female of her species.True, she investigated all our property that waswithin reach, but she respected it, and finally shecuddled up in the excelsior, quite satisfied with hernew home.To cut an awfully long story short, the polecatheld us spellbound until daybreak. Then shecrawled out through her burrow, and we instantlyfled through our skreeky door. Doc had a shotgunin his hand and murder in his heart. Not beingwell posted on skunk reflexes, he stepped up withinten feet and blew the animal's head clean off by asimultaneous discharge of both barrels. Did thatheadless skunk retaliate? It did, brethren, it did!Many methods have been reported effective indeodorizing clothing that has been struck by theskunk's efliiuvium. Burying the clothes In earth isof no use unless they are leftthere long enough torot them (they will smell again every time they getwet). Chloride of lime Is objectionable for thesame reason. Ammonia Is said to neutralize theodor, and benzine or w^ood alcohol to extract it.An old trappers' remedy Is to wrap the clothes infresh hemlock boughs and leave them out-of-doorsfor twenty-four hours. A writer in one of thesportsmen's magazines states that, having met disasterIn the shape of a skunk, he took an old farmer'sadvice, put some cornmeal on top of a hot stove,

262 e^r.rriNG AND WOODCRAFTand, when it began to char and smoke, he heldthe clothes In the smoke for somewhat less than fiveminutes, by which time the scent was gone, nor didit ever reappear, even when the clothes were damp.Personally I never have had occasion to try any ofthese remedies.The belief that skunk-bite Is likely to cause hydrophobiais common in the Southwest, and to someextent it is borne out by the reports of army surgeons.A considerable number of soldiers andplainsmen bitten by the spotted or rock skunk ofthat region, which Is a particularly aggressive creature,have undoubtedly died of hydrophobia. Yetthe facts seem to be, as explained by W. Wade inthe American Naturalist, that although men andother animals have been stricken mad by skunkbiteand have died therefrom, still this has onlyhappened during an epidemic of rabies, in whichskunks, being slow-moving and utterly fearlesscreatures, fell easy prey to rabid dogs or wolves.Becoming mad, in their turn, they would bite mensleeping in the open, and their bites would usuallybe inflicted upon the men's faces, hands and otherexposed parts of their persons. In such cases, sincenone of the poisonous saliva was wiped off by clothing,the result was almost certain death. Butrabies is very exceptional among skunks, and thebite of a healthy animal isnot a serious matter.The best insurance against skunks and predatorybeasts in general is a good camp dog.Wolverines.— The wolverine, also called glutton,carcajou, skunk bear, and Indian devil, Is thechampion thief of the wilderness. Lacking thespeed of most of his family, the weasel and nii^rtertribe, and devoid of special means of defence suchas have been given the skunk and the porcupine, hehas developed a diabolic cunning, which, coupledwith his great strength and dogged persistence,makes him detested beyond all other creatures luthe wild Northland that he inhabits. He systematicallyrobs hunters of their game, trappers cf

PESTS OF THE WOODS 263their bait, and breaks into caches that defy almostany other animal. If he finds more food than hiscapacious paunch will hold, he defiles the rest sothat no beast, however hungry, will touch it. Sofar as I know, the wolverine is practically extinctin our country except in the northwestern Statesbordering on Canada.Other Camp Thieves.—The bushy-tailedpack rat of the West is noted for carrying oft anyand everything that he can get away with, but theeastern wood rats and wood mice seldom do muchdamage about a camp beyond chewing up canvasor other cotton goods to build nests with — a tricktiiat flying-squirrels also are prone to play.I have never been, bothered by 'coons, althoughliving where they are abundant. But " Nessmuk "had a difterent experience. Many years ago hetold in Forest and Stream of his troubles with themin northern Pennsylvania." A strong cache ... is indispensable in this region, forthere is not a night during the open season in which youcan lay by meat, fish, or butter, where hedgehogs and'coons will not find it. Their strength and persistence indigging out your larder is something surprising. I havea butter cup with a tight-fitting cover, and a square tincase for keeping pork, also with a tight cover. Timeand again I have had these tins raided by raccoons, nosedaround, wallowed in the mud, and moved yards away fromthe cache; but the covers stuck like burs, and it must drivea 'coon frantic to work half the night in unearthing abutter cup, and then, wuth onh' one thickness of tin betweenhis nose and the longed-for butter, be unable toget a taste of it. Unless the 'coon dialect has plenty ofcuss-words I don't see how he could ever get over it"—

CHAPTER XVDRESSING AND KEEPING GAMEAND FISHButchering is the most distasteful part of ahunter's work—a job to be sublet when you can;but sometimes you can't.When an animal is shot, the first thing to do isto bleed it, unless the bullet itself has gone cleanthrough and left a large hole of exit through whichmuch blood has drained.Even birds and fish should be bled as soon assecured. The meat keeps better, and, in the caseof a bird, the feathers are more easily plucked.Speaking, now, of large game, do not drop yourgun and rush in on a dying beast to stick it, for itmight prove an ugly customer in its death struggle.First put a bullet through its heart or spine.To cut a deer's throat would ruin the head formounting. Twist its head to one side, with thethroat downhill, if possible, so that blood will notflow over the hide; then stick your knife in at thepoint of the breast, just in front of the sternumor breastbone, and work the point of the knife twoor three inches back and forth, close up to the backbone,so as to sever the great blood-vessels. Thenif you must hurry on, perhaps after another animal,toss some brush over the carcass, or hang a handkerchiefover it, to suggest a trap, and make a brushblaze here and there as you go along, to guide youback to the spot.If practicable, remove the entrails at once. Todo this, it is not necessary to hang the animal up.264

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 263If you are in a hurry, or if the camp is not far away,it will do merely to take out the paunch and intestines; but if this is neglected gas will accumulateand putrefaction will soon set in. A bear, especially,^vill soon spoil, because the fur keeps in thevital heat, so that the body will smoke when opened,even after it has lain a long time in hard-freezmgweather.If the animal is not to be butchered on the spot,slit the skin only from vent to stomach, using thenoint of the knife, and taking care not to rupturethe paunch. Sever the intestine at the rectum, cutthe genitals free, then cut off the gullet as highas you can above the stomach, and pull all out.The carcass should lie so that this is done towardthe downhill side.Dragging a Deer.— If the ground is not toorough, nor the distance too great, a deer may becamp over the snow or leaves; but dragdragged toit head-foremost; if pulled the other way every hairwill act as a barb against the ground. Betorestarting, tie the front legs to the lower jaw. i hecarcass will slide easier, and the hide will not beso disfigured, if you first drop a bush or small treeby cutting through the roots, leaving a stub ot aroot projecting for a handle, jhen tie the animalon the upper side of the bush, and drag away.Packing Deer on a Saddle.— To pack a deeion horseback: first, if your horse is green in thebusiness, let him smell the deer, pet him, and, itnecessary, blindfold him until you get the carcasslashed in place. Even then you may h^ve trouble^I have seen a mule get such a conniption ht at thesmell of blood that he bucked himself, deer, andsaddle, off a cut-bank into a swift river; the girthhvokt, and that saddle is going yet.It may be necessary to smear some ot the deer sblood on your horse's nose to kill the scentIf the animal is antlered, remove the head andmak*^ a separate parcel of it.Re-cinch your saddle, and, if the deer is too

266 -^ CAMPINGAND WOODCRAFTheavy to lift upon the horse's back, fasten youi:picket-rope to the deer's hind legs, throw the lineover the saddle, get on the other side, and haulaway until the deer's hocks are up even with thesaddle; then quickly snub the rope around the saddle-horn,go around, swing the burden over the saddle,balancing it evenly, and lash it fast. Or, ifyou wish to ride, move the deer behind the saddleand lash it there, bringing the legs forward oneither side and tying them to the rings of the cinch.For thongs, if the saddle has none, cut strips frointhe skin of the deer's fore legs. Be sure to fastenthe load securely, so that it cannot slip, or youwill have a badly frightened horse. By skinningthe legs from hoofs to ankles, partly disarticulatingthe latter, and then tying the legs snugly, theywill not dangle and scare the horse, nor catch inunderbrush.Another way is to place the deer in the saddleseat, back to horn, legs to rear. Tie one end of ashort rope to latigo ring, pass rope around deerback of shoulders and once more through the ring.Bring rope out in front of deer's breast, take a halfturn with it in rope back of shoulders, and pull alltight. Take two half hitches on saddle horn. Repeaton opposite side, but bring rope up betweenhind legs of deer, take the half turn, and fasten tosaddle horn as before. Now tie deer's head on topof load. This method of packing is recommendedby W. G. Corker, who says '* no horse alive canbuck it off."A simpler but secure way is to cut slits for thongsabove the hocks and knees and another slit alongthe brisket. Place the deer on the saddle in suchmanner that the saddle horn sticks through the slitbrisket. Tie down the legs at their middle jointsto the cinch-ring on each side. (Emerson Hough.)Carrying on a Litter.— Tw^o men can carrya deer on a pole Ny tying its legs together in pairs,slipping the pole through, and tying the head totheonle. Unless the carcass is tied snugly ^o the pole-

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 267such a burden will swing like a pendulum as youtrudge along, especially if the pole is at all springy.A more comfortable way is to make a litter oftwo poles by laying them parallel, about two andone-half feet apart, and nailing or tying cross-piecesathwart the poles. Whittle the ends of the polesto a size convenient for your hands, and fasten toeach end of the litter a broad strap, in such a waythat it may pass over the shoulders of the carrierand thus take up much of the weight. Then lashthe animal securely to the top of the litter.Carrying Single-handed.—One man cancarry a small deer entire by dragging it to a fallentree, boosting it up on the log, lengthwise and backdown, then grasping one or both hind legs with onehand and the fore legs with the other, and carryingthe load so tha^ its weight is on the back of hisneck and shoulders.Or you may prop the deer on the log breastdown, squat with back of your neck against thebody, put one arm under near front leg, the othejunder near hind leg, get the carcass on your shoulders,and arise.A better scheme is to cut a slit through the lowerjaw and up through the mouth, and another slitthrough each of the legs between the tendons, justabove the hoof; tie the head and legs together, bm.not too close, and then, by the loop thus formed,swing the burden over your shoulder.To carry a larger animal pickaback: gut it, cutoff the head and hang it up to be called for later,skin the legs down to the knees and hocks, cut offthe shinbones, tie the skin of each fore leg to thehind leg on the same side, put the arms through theloops thus formed, and " git ep !" Or, remove thebones from the fore legs from knee to foot, leavingthe feet on, tie the hind legs together and the forelegs to them., thrust your head and one armthrough, and carry the burden as a soldier does ablanket-roll.The Indian Pack.— When one has a long way

268 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTto go, and can only carry the hide and the choiceiparts of the meat, the best way is to make up anIndian pack, as shown in Fig. 114. Skin the deer,place a stick athwart the inside of the skin, packFig. 114 — Indian Deer Packthe saddles, hams, and tid-bits in the latter, androll up and tie in a convenient bundle.Hanging to Butcher.— It is not necessary tohang a deer up to skin and butcher it ; but that isthe more cleanly way. One man, unassisted, canhang a pretty heavy animal in the following way:Drag it headforemost to a sapling that is just limberenough to bend near the ground when you climbit. Cut three poles, ten or twelve feet long, withcrotches near the ends. Climb the sapling and trimoff the top, leaving the stub of one stout branchnear the top. Tie your belt, or a stout withe orflexible root, into a loop around the deer's antlersor throat. Bend the sapling down until you canslip the loop over the end of the sapling. Thelatter, acting as a spring-pole, will lift part of thedeer's weight. Then place the crotches of the polesunder the fork of the sapling, butts of poles radiatingoutward, thus forming a tripod. First pushon one pole, then on another, and so raise the carcassfree from the ground. If you do not intendto butcher it immediately, raise it up out of reachgf roving dogs and " varmints."

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 269It Is common practice to hang deer by gambrelswith the head down ; but, when hung head up, theanimal is easier to skin and to butcher, drains better,and does not drop blood and juices over thehead and neck, which you may want to havemounted for a trophy. Dried blood is very hardto remove from hair or fur. If the skin is strippedol^ from rear to head it will be hard to grain. Andif the animal is not to be skinned for some time itis best hung by the head, because the slope of thehair then sheds rain and snow instead of holdingthem, and the lung cavity does not collect blood,rain, or snow.The more common way of skinning a deer, whenthe head is not wanted for mounting, is to hangit up by one hind leg and begin skinning at thehock, peeling the legs, then the body, and finallythe neck, then removing the head with skin on (forbaking in a hole), after which the carcass is swungby both legs and is eviscerated.If there is no time to hang the deer, open It,throw the entrails well off to one side, then coverthe carcass with boughs as if it were a trap, orhang a handkerchief, or the blown-up bladder ofthe animal, over it, to scare away marauders.Place the deer so it will drain downhill. Anddon't neglect to blaze your way out, so you canfind it again.Butchering Deer.— Now let us suppose thatyou have killed a deer far away from camp, andthat you wish to skin and butcher it on the spot,saving all parts of it that are good for anything.You are alone. You wish to make a workmanlikejob of it. You carry only the choicer parts withyou that evening, and must fix the rest so it willnot be molested overnight.Of course, you have a jack-knife, and either apocket hatchet or a big bowie-knife — probably thelatter, if this is your first trip. First hang thedeer, as described above. By the time you arethrough cutting those poles with the knife your

270 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFThand will ache between thumb and forefinger; atomahawk would have been better.Skinning.—- This is your first buck, and youwish to save the head for mounting. For this theskin of the whole neck must be preserved, clearback to the shoulders. Cleanse away any bloodthat may have issued from the nose and mouth, andstuff some dry moss, or other absorbent, in thebeast's mouth. Stick your big knife into a logalongside; it is only to look at, for the present.Open your jack-knife, insert the point, edge up,where the neck joins the back, and cut the skin ina circle around the base of the neck, running fromthe withers dow^n over the front of the shoulderbladeto the brisket or point of the breast on eachside. Do not skin the head at present—you maynot have time for that. Insert the point of the1knife through the skin over the paunch, and, followingthe middle line of the chest, slit upwardto meet the cut around the neck. Then reverse,and continue the slit backward to the end of thetail, being careful not to perforate the walls of thebelly. Then slit along the inside of each leg fromthe hoof to the belly-slit. If you wish to save thefeet for mounting, be particular to rip the skin ina straight line up the under side of the leg, startingby inserting the point of the knife betweenthe heel-pads.Now comes a nice trick, that of severing theshanks. Nearly every inexperienced person startstoo high. Study the accompanying illustrationsFig. 115 — The Place to Use Your Knife. From Forestand Stream{)i these joints, noting where the arrow points,'*^hich is the place to use your knife. In a

;DRESSING GAME AND FISH 271deer the joint is about an inch and a half belowthe hock on the hind leg, and an inch below theknee on the fore leg. Cut square across throughskin and muscles, in front, and similarly behindthen, with a quick pull backward against your knee,snap the shank off. The joint of the fore leg isbroken in a similar manner, excepting that it issnapped forward.Having stripped the vertebrae from the tail, nowpeel the skin off the whole animal, from the shouldersdownward, assisting with your closed fist, and,where necessary, with the knife; but wherever theknife is used be careful to scrape the skin as cleanas you can, without cutting it, for every adheringbit of fat, flesh, or membrane must be thoroughlyremoved before the skin is ready for tanning, andthat is easier to do now than after it dries. Thewhole operation of skinning is much easier whilethe animal is still warm than after the body hasbecome cold. To skin a frozen animal is a desperatelymean job. I have known four old huntersto work nearly a whole afternoon in skinning afrozen bear.The skin of the body and limbs having been removed,stretch it out flat, hair side down, alongsideof you to receive portions of the meat as it isbutchered.Gralloching.— Now take up your big knife,insert its point alongside the breastbone, and cutthrough the false ribs to the point of the sternum.In a young animal this is eas}-; but in an old onethe ribs have ossified, and you must search for thesoft points of union between the ribs and the sternum,which are rather hard to find. Here yourknife's temper, and perhaps your own, will be putto the test. The most trifling-looking pockethatchet would do the trick in a jiffy.Open the abdominal cavity, taking care not torupture anything, and prop the chest open a fewinches with a stick, or by merely pulling the ribsaway from each other. Cut the diaphragm free

272 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTat both sides and at the back. (It ^'s the membranethat separates the organs of the :hest fromthose of the abdomen.) Everything now is freefrom the body except at the throat and anus.Reach in and take in your grasp all the vesselsthat run up into the neck. With knife in the otherhand, cut them across from above downward, takingcare that you do not cut yourself. Now pullhere and there withaway gradually, helping a littlethe knife until all the contents of the visceral cavitylie at your feet, save the lower end of the rectum,which is still attached. With a hatchet, ifyou had one. you would now split the pelvis. Thething can be done with a large knife, if the animalis not too old, by finding the soft suture at the highestpart of the bone and rocking the knife-edge onit. But you may not be able to accomplish thisjust now. So reach in with the jack-knife, cutcarefully around the rectum and urinary organs,keeping as close to the bone as possible, and freeeverything from the cavity. If water is near, washout the cavity and let it drain, or wipe with a drycloth if 5^ou have one. Be particular to leave noclotted blood.To remove the head ; flay back the skin for severalinches at base of neck, cut through flesh, etc.,to the backbone. Search along this till you findthe flat joint between the faces of two vertebrae,separate these as far as you can ; then twist the attachedpart of the body round and round, until itbreaks off.Directions how to skin a head for mounting aregiven in Volume II.In butchering, save the liver, heart, brain, milt(spleen), kidneys, and the caul fat. The caul isthe fold of membrane loaded with fat that coversmost of the intestines. In removing the liver youneed not bother about a gall-bladder, for a deerhas none. Many a tenderfoot has been trickedinto looking for it. In the final cutting up, savethe marrow-bones (especially of elk) for eating;

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 273the ligaments that lie on either side of the backbone,from the head backward, for sinew thread ithe hoofs for glue (if you are far from supplystoresand expect to remain a good w^hile) ; andperhaps the bladder, paunch, large intestine, andpericardium (outer skin) of the heart, for pouchesand receptacles of various kinds, and to make catgut.The scrotum of a buck, tanned with the hairon, makes a good tobacco-pouch.Butchering on the Ground.— If one Is in ahurry, and Is not particular about the hide, he cando his butchering on the ground. In that case,lay the animal on sloping ground, with its headuphill ; or bend its back over a log or rock ; or turnIt on Its back with its head twisted around andwedged under one side. The old-time way ofbutchering a buffalo was to turn the carcass on Itsbelly, stretching out the legs on either side to supportIt. A transverse cut was made at the napeof the neck; then the workman, gathering the longhair of the hump in one hand, separated the skinfrom the shoulder, laid It open to the tail, alongthe spine, freed It from the sides, and pulled Itdown to the brisket. While the skin was thusstill attached to the belly It was stretched uponthe ground to receive the dissected meat. Thenthe shoulder was severed, and the fleece, which isthe mixed fat and lean that lies along the loin andribs, was removed from along the backbone, andthe hump ribs were cut off with a tomahawk.These portions were placed on the skin, togetherwith the boudins from the stomach, and the tongue.The rest of the meat was left to feed the wolves.Elk and Moose.— Such large animals are generallybutchered on the ground. If the beast hasantlers, first remo^^e the head. Then turn the bodyon its back and prop it in position with a coupleof three-foot stakes sharpened at both ends, a holebeing dug for a moose's withers. Sometimes onlythe haunches, sirloins and tongue are saved, these

274 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbeing cut away without skinning or gutting thecarcass.If there is a horse, or several men with a rope,to elevate the body, the animal's lower legs areskinned, the shanks removed, the hide split fromthroat ' o tail, the sides skinned free, the windpipeand p'jllet raised, the pleura and diaphragm cutloose and the carcass then raised high enough sothat the hide can be removed from the rump andback. The rectum, small intestines, and paunchare then loosened and allowed to roll out on theground. The gullet is cut, the liver taken out,and the diaphragm, lungs and heart removed.Then the skinning Is finished over the shouldersand fore legs.It is best not to cut up the meat until It Is quitecold and firm. Then split the carcass in halvesalong the backbone, and quarter it, leaving one ribon each hind quarter. The meat may then be puton a scaffold, and covered w^ith the skin to protectit from moose-birds.Two men can raise a very heavy animal clearof the ground with three stiff poles, say twelve feetlong, which are sharpened at the butts and notchedat the tips. Lay these on the ground with notchedends together over the animal's hind quarters andthe sharpened ends radiating outward and equidistantfrom each other. Tie the notched endsrather loosely together with a short piece of rope,the other end of which Is tied to a gambrel thrustthrough the hind legs under the hamstrings (orattach to antlers, nose, or through lower jaw).Lift the tripod until the rope is taut, shove onepole forward a few Inches, then another, stickingthe butts In the ground as you progress, until thehindquarters are raised, and so on until the beastswings free.Bears.— These beasts, too, are generally butch'ered on the ground. In skinning, begin the Incisionsat the feet, and leave at least the scalp, Ifnot the skin of the whole head, attached. It I?

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 275quite a task to skin a bear, as the beast usually iscovered with fat, which adheres to the hide andmust be scraped free. All of the caul fat shouldbe saved for rendering into bear's oil, which isbetter and wholesomer than lard. The brain,liver, and milt (spleen) are good eating.Owing to its greasiness, the skin of a bear isvery likely to spoil unless carefully scraped, especiallyat the ears. Slit the ears open on the inside,skin them back almost to the edge, and fill withsalt; also salt the base of the ears. The feet likewisemust be skinned out and well salted.Preserving Skins.— If a hide is to be preservedfor some time in a green state, use nothingon it but salt. Spread it out flat, hair side down,stretch the legs, flanks, etc., and rub all partsthoroughly with salt, particular pains being takento leave no little fold untreated. A moose-hidewill take ten or even fifteen pounds of salt. Assoon as the salting is done, fold in the legs androllthe hide up.Methods of tanning, and of making buckskinand rawhide, will be discussed in Volume II.Care of Meat.— When a deer has merelybeen eviscerated and is hung up to be skinned, andcut up at a more convenient season, prop open theabdomJnal cavity with a stick, so that it may dryout quickly. If the weather is warm enough atany hour of the day for flies to come out, keep asmudge going under the carcass.* It takes fliesbut a few minutes to raise Ned with venison. Ifblows are discovered on the meat, remove them,looking especially at all folds and nicks in themeat, and around the bones, for the blows workinto such places very quickly. So long as theyhave not bored into the flesh they do it no harm,A surer way is described by Doctor Breck:* This means in ramp, where there is someone to look afterit. Do not leave a smudge to take care of itself out in thewoods: a wind springing up in your absence may cause it toset the forest afire.

——276 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT" It is my practice to carry with me three or four yard'sof cheesecloth (which has been dipped in alum-water athome), and this I wrap closely round whatever parts ofthe animal I especially wish to preserve. If a round ofvenison is thus done up, preferably with a needle andthread, it is safe from fly-blows, which are the bane ofhunters. If unskinned, a head may also be kept clean inlike manner. The cheesecloth takes up little more roomthan a napkin, and amply repays the small bulge in thecoat-pocket." The Way of the Woods.I always carry cheesecloth on fishing trips, too.It may be said here that even smoked bacon isnot immune from blows, and it should not be hungup without a cheesecloth cover. The fly thatblows meats is the common '' blue-bottle." Itseggs hatch into " skippers" within twelve hours.Curing Venison.— Venison keeps a long timewithout curing, if the climate is cool and dry.To cure a deer's ham, hang it up by the shank,divide the muscles just above the hock, and inserta handful of dry salt. The meat of the deer tribegets more tender and better flavored the longer itis hung up. In warm weather dust flour all overa haunch or saddle of venison, sew it up in a loosebag of cheesecloth, and hang it in a shady placewhere there is a current of air. It will keep sweetfor several weeks, if there is no crevice in the bagthrough which insects can penetrate. Ordinarilyit is best not to salt meat, for salt draws the juices.Bear meat, however, requires much salt to cure it —more than any other game animal.Hornaday recommends the following recipe forcuring venison :The proportions of the mixture Iuse are:Salt 3 lbs.Allspice4 table-spoonfuls.Black Pepper 5 table-spoonfuls,all thoroughly mixed.Take a ham of deer, elk, or mountain sheep, or fallkilledmountain goat, and as soon as possible after killing,dissect the thigh, muscle by muscle. Any one canlearn to do this by following up with the knife the natural

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 277divisions between the muscles. With big game like elk,some of the muscles of the thigh are so thick they requireto be split in two. A piece of meat should not exceedfive inches in thickness. Skin off all enveloping membranes,so that the curative powder will come in directcontact with the raw, moist flesh. The flesh must be sufficientlyfresh and moist that the preservative will readilyadhere to it. The best size for pieces of meat to be curedby this process is not over a foot long, by six or eightinches wide and four inches thick.When each piece has been neatly and skilfully preparedrub the powder upon every part of the surface, and letthe mixture adhere as much as it will. Then hang up eachpiece of meat, by a string through a hole in the smallerend, and let it dry in the wind. If the sun is hot, keepthe meat in the shade; but in the North the sun helps theprocess. Never let the meat get wet. If the weather israiny for a long period, hang your meat rack where itwill get heat from the campfire, but no more smoke thanis unavoidable, and cover it ai night with a piece of canvas.Meat thus prepared is not at its best for eating untilit is about a month old ; then slice it thin. After thatno sportsman, or hunter, or trapper can get enough ofit. . . .No; this is not "jerked" meat. It is many times better.It is always eaten uncooked, and as a concentrated, stimulatingfood for men in the wilds it is valuable.{Camp-fires in the Canadian Rockies, 201-203.)It is a curious fact that blow-Hies work closeto the ground, and will seldom meddle with meatthat is hung more than ten feet above the ground.Game or fish suspended at a height of twenty feetwill be immune from " blows," if hung on atrimmed sapling well away from any foliage.Jerked Venison.— " jerky " or jerked meathas nothing to do with our common word " jerk."It is an anglicized form of the Spanish charqui,which is itself derived from the Quichua (Peruvian)ccharqui, meaning flesh cut in flakes anddried without salt. It is the same as the Africanbiltong. Those who have not investigated thematter may be surprised to learn that the roundof beef is 61 per cent, water, and that even thecommon dried and smoked meat of the butcheishoos contains 54 per cent, water. To condense

—278 CAAIPING AND WOODCRAFT'the nutritive properties of these substances, thewater, of course, must be exhausted. In ordinarydried beef this Is onl)^ partially done, because thepieces are too thick.In the dry air of uninhabited plains, meat doesnot putrefy, even w^hen unsalted, and It may bedried In the sun, without fire. Elk flesh dried Inthe sun does not keep as well as that of deer.As I have said, real jerky has been dried withoutsalt; but It Is common practice nowadays touse some salt In the process, proceeding as follows:If you can afford to be particular, select only thetender parts of the meat; otherwise use all of thelean. Cut it In strips about half an inch thick.If you have time, you may soak them a day Instrong brine. If not, place the flakes of meat onthe inside of the hide, and mix with them about apint and a half of salt for a w^hole deer, or two orthree quarts for an elk or moose; also some pepper.These condiments are not necessary, but areadded merely for seasoning. Cover the meat withthe hide, to keep flies out, and let It stand thus forabout two hours to let the salt work In. Thendrive four forked stakes In the ground so as toform a square, the forks being about four feetfrom the ground. Lay two poles across fromfork to fork, parallel, and across these lay thinpoles about two Inches apart. Lay the strips ofmeat across the poles, and under them build a smallfire to dry and smoke the meat. Do not let thefire get hot enough to cook the meat, but only todehydrate it, so that the flesh becomes dry as achip. The best fuel Is birch, especially black birch,because It imparts a pleasant flavor. Only a thinsmoke is wanted. To confine It, if a breeze Isstirring, put up some sort of wind-break. Thiswill reduce the weight of the meat about one-half,and will cure It so that It will keep indefinitel}^You may have to keep up the fire for twenty-fouihnurs. The meat of an old bull will, of course,

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 279be as tough as sole leather; but, in any case, itwill retain its flavor and sustenance. Whenpounded pretty fine, jerky makes excellent soup;but it is good enough as it is, and a man can liveon it exclusively without suffering an inordinatecraving for bread.The breasts (only) of grouse and other^ gamebirds can be cured in the same way, and are good.Some do not like their meat smoked. A wayof jerking without smoking was described by " anold-timer" for the New York Sun:" Cut the choicest of the meat into strips ten Inches longand two inches square. Sprinkle them quite liberally withLet the salt worksalt, but not enough to make them bitter.on them for a couple of hours. While it is doing it you goand put down two logs a foot or so in diameter side byside and about the same distance apart. Between thelogs make a fire of dry hemlock bark." Hemlock, or a relative of hemlock, is always apt tobe found in deer hunting regions, and I never go intocamp without taking pains to gather up a lot of hemlockbark for use. It is the best material for the purpose becauseit will make a fire of hot coals without running toblaze or smoke. Birch bark would be ideal for the purpose,but it is all blaze with birch bark. Hickory wood couldn'tbe beat for jerking venison, but hickory wood would smokethe meat, and jerked venison isn't smoked venison, as agood many folks suppose it is, not by a long shot." Having got your bed of hemlock bark coais in fineshape, and having driven at the inside edge of the endsof each log a crotched stick long enough after it is securelydriven to have the crotch perhaps a foot above the logs,and having extended from crotch to crotch in these stickstwo poles that are thus suspended above the fire, cut asmany half inch hardwood sticks as you need, long enoughto reach across from one pole to another and rest securelyon them. On these sticks string your strips of deer meatby thrusting them through the meat near one end of thestrips, the sticks being sharpened at one end to facilitatethat operation." This will leave the strips hanging from their sticksmuch as the candles used to hang from theirs in the oldfashioned moulds, if any hunter of this generation is happyenough to have recollections of the days when we madeour own candles. Place the sticks with their pendent meatover the coals. Turn the concave sides of lengths of hem-This will keep in thelock bark over the top of the sticks.

zSoCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsteam that will presently begin to rise from the meat, asthe coals get their gradual but effective work in on it.Keep the fire down there between the logs so it won't maketoo rapid a heat, for if it does the juice will ooze out ofthe meat and be lost, and that wou'd detract from theexcellence of the finished product." If during the process of jerking your venison the meatis taken off the coals before it is done it will be soft andflabby. If it is hard when taken off it will be overdone.In either case your jerked venison might much better haveremained unjerked, for it will be a failure. To preventeither of these catastrophes the meat should be tested frequentlyby pushing a sharp knife blade or other convenientprobe into and through the strips. The moment it requiresmore than ordinary force to push the probe through, yourvenison is thoroughly and properly jerked. Then shovethe coals from under the strips and let them cool with thedying embers."Computing Weight.— Hornaday gives thefollowing rule, in his Natural History, for computingthe live weight of deer from the dressedweight: Add five ciphers to the dressed weightin pounds, and divide by 78,612; the quotient willbe the live weight in pounds.Small Mammals.— Now for what Shakespearecalls " small deer." The easiest way for anovice to skin a squirrel is the one described by" Nessmuk." —"Chop off head, tail, and feet with the hatchet;cut the skin on the back crosswise, and, insertingthe two middle fingers, pull the skin off in twoparts (head and tail). Clean and cut the squirrelin halves, leaving two ribs on the hind quarters."The objection is that, in this case, youthrow away the best part of the squirrel, the cheekmeat and brain being its special tid-bits.A better way is this: Sever the tail from below,holding your left forefinger close in behindit, and cutting through the vertebrae close up to thebody, leaving only the hide on the top side. Thenturn the squirrel over and cut a slit down alongeach ham. Put your foot on the tail, hold therear end of the squirrel in your hand, and pull,stripping the skin off to the fore legs. Peel the

:DRESSING GAME AND FISH 281skin from the hind legs, and cut off the feet, l^.encut off the fore feet. Skin to the neck; assist herea little with the knife; then skin to the ears; cutoff the butts of the ears; then skin till the blue o^the eyeballs shows, and cut; then to the nose tillthe teeth show, and cut It off. Thus you get nohair on the meat, and the w^hole thing is done inless than a minute, when you have gained deftness.In dressing mammals larger than squirrels beparticular to remove the scent glands. Even rabbitshave them. Cut directly between the fore legand body and you will find a small waxy " kernel "which is a gland. The degree to which thistaints the flesh depends a good deal on the season;but in most of the fur-bearers it is always objectionable.Dan Beard gives the following directions fordressing small animals" To prepare a musquash or any other small fur-bearinganimal for the table, first make a skinning stick of a forkedstick about as thick as your finger. Let the forks be aboutone inch to each branch, and the stick below long enoughto reach up between your knees when the sharpened lowerend is forced into the ground. If you squat on the groundthe stick should be about a foot and one-half long, butlonger if you sit on a camp stool, stump or stone. Hang themuskrat on the forks of the stick by thrusting the sharpenedends of the fork through the thin spot at the gambreljoints of the hind legs, that is, the parts which coriespondwith your own heels. Hung in this manner (with the oneand one-half foot stick), the nose of the animal will justclear the ground. First skin the game, then remove all theinternal organs, and, if it be a muskrat, not only removeall the musk glands, but cut into the inside of the forearmsand the fleshy part of the thighs, and take out a little whitesubstance you will find there which resembles a nerve.This done and the meat well washed, it may be cookedwith little fear of the food retaining a musky llavor."— {Field and Forest Handy Book.)To skin a 'coon: begin with the point of theknife in the center of one hind foot and slit upthe inside of the leg to the vent and dou'n theother leg in a like manner. Cut carefully aroundthe vent, then rip from it up to the chin. Strip

282 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe skin from the bone of the tail with a split stickgripped firmly in the hand. Then flay the animal,scrape the pelt clean, and put it on a stretcherto dry.Dressing Birds.— Turkeys, geese, ducks, andgrouse are usually dry picked. If this could bedone while the bodies were still warm, it wouldbe no job at all; but after they are cold it generallyresults in a good deal of laceration of the skin —so much so that sometimes the disgusted operatorgives up and skins the whole bird. It would bebetter to scald them first, like chickens. In drypicking, hang the bird up by one leg, pluck firstthe pinions and tail feathers; then the smallfeathers from shanks and inside of thighs; thenthe others. Grasp only a few feathers at a timebetween finger and thumb, as close to the skin aspossible, and pull quickly toward the head. Then.pick cut all pin-feathers and quills. Singe thedown off quickly, so as not to give an oily appearanceto the skin. Ordinarily the down can be removedfrom a duck's breast by grasping the birdby the neck and giving one sweep of the open handdown one side of the body and then one down theother. In plucking geese or ducks some use finelypowdered res'n to remove the pin-feathers. Thebird is plucked dry, then rubbed all over with theresin, dipped in and out of boiling water seven oreight times, and then the pin-feathers and downare easily rubbed off.To draw a bird: cut off the head, and the legsat the first joint. Make a lengthwise slit on backat base of neck and sever neck bone close to body,also the membrane which holds the windpipe-Make a lengthwise incision from breastbone tc(and around) the vent, so you can easily drawthe insides, which must be done carefully, so asnot to rupture the gall-bladder (pheasants havenone).The idea that ducks and other game birds shouldhang until they smell badly is monstrous. If you

jToDRESSING GAME AND FISH 2«3want to know where such tastes originated, read theannals of medieval sieges.Small game birds, such as snipe and plover, canbe cleaned very quickly by pressing a thumb oneach side of their breasts, and, with a swift push,break the skin back, carrying feathers, backboneand entrails with it, and leaving only the breast.Grouse can be treated in the same way if the skinof the breast is first slit. The legs and rump, ifwanted, can be removed separately.Keeping Small Game.— To ship rabbits,squirrels, etc. : do not skin them, but remove theentrails, wipe the insides perfectly dry, wrap mpaper, and pack them back dc^^'n.Never pack birds in straw or grass without ice,for in damp or warm weather this will heat orsweat them. If they freeze they must be kept so, asthey will quickly spoil after thawing. Food in abird's crop soon sours; the crop should be removed.preserve birds in warm weather for shipment:draw them, wash the inside perfectly clean,dry thoroughly, and then take pieces of charcoalfrom the fireplace, wrap them in a thin rag, andfill the abdominal cavity with this. Also fill thebill, ears, eyes, and anal opening with powderedcharcoal, to keep off flies and prevent putrefaction.Reject all pieces of charcoal that are onlyhalf-burnt or have the odor of creosote. Birdsstuffed in this way will keep sweet for a week inhot weather.Cleaning Trout.— Brook trout have no no-:iceable scales, but they should be scraped free ofilime. Rainbow trout need scaling.Remove the vent, cut the gills free from thelower jaw and back of head, and slit open f^omiiead to anal fin. Draw the inside out by thegills, and scrape the clotted blood away fio.n thebackbone. If the fish are only for the pan, not tobe exhibited, cut the heads off; then they are easierto clean. Large ones, anyway^ should have headsand tails cut off before fryingj^

284 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTA small trout may be cleaned without splitting,by cutting out the vent, tearing out the gills withthe fingers, and drawing the entrails with them.Cleaning Scaly Fish.— To scale a fish: graspit by the head (or lay it on a board and drive afork through its tail), and, using a knife that isnot over-keen, scale first one side and then theother, with swift, steady sweeps. The scales belowthe gills, and those near the fins, are removedby moving the point of the knife crosswise tothe fish's length. Next place the knife just belowthe belly fin and with a slant stroke cut ofEthis, the side fins, and the head, all in one piece.Then remove the back fin, and the spines beneathit, by making a deep incision on each side of thefin and pulling the latter out. The ventral partis removed in the same way. Open the fish, washit in cold water, scrape off the slime, and then wipeit dry with a clean cloth or towel. Large fish, forbroiling, should be split open along the back andthe spine removed.A special fish knife, with saw-tooth back forscaling, can be bought at a sporting-goods store.A good scaler is extemporized by nailing a commonbottle cap on the flattened end of a stick.A slippery, flabby fish is more easily handled forscaling if you sharpen one end of a stick as thickas your little finger and run it down through thefish's mouth about two-thirds the length of thebody.Fish taken from muddy or mossy water, or fromcedar swamps, taste strong if cleaned in the ordinaryway, unless special precautions are taken incooking (see Chapter XVIII). The taint is notremoved by scaling, for its cause is hidden deep in.the roots of the scales. Such fish should be skinned.That is also the best way to prepare yellow perch.Skinning Fish.— Grasp the fish firmly, bellydown. Cut across the nape of the neck, run theDomt of the knife along the back to the tail, and

DRESSING GAME AND FISH2B5on each side of the back fin. Remove the fin bycatching lower end between thumb and knife bladeand pulling smartly upward toward the head.Skin each side by seizing between thumb and knifethe flap of skin at nape and jerking outward anddownward; then the rest, by grasping skin as nearthe vent as possible and tearing quickly down tothe tail, bring away the anal fin. Remove thehead and the entrails will come with it. Troutand pickerel should be scraped free of slime.Large fish for frying are best steaked. RobertPinkerton gives the following directions:" Cut off the head, run the knife down either side of theoones of the back the entire length. Cut down to the backboneand continue along the ribs. This gives you two slabsof boneless meat and leaves the entrails in the skeleton.Lay the pieces, skin side down, on a paddle blade and runa sharp knife between the flesh and skin. You now haveJoneless, scaleless, skinless fish, which may be rolled inflour or cornmeal, fried in bacon grease, and eaten with aslittle difficulty as though it were moose steak."To skin a catfish or bullhead, do not scald it,for that makes the meat flabby and robs it of itsfresh flavor. Cut off the ends of the spines, slitthe skin behind and around the head, and thenfrom this point along the back to the tail, cuttingaround the back fin. Then peel the two cornersof the skin well down, sever the backbone, and,holding to the corners of the skin with one hand,pull the fish's body free from the skin with theother. A pair of pliers will be appreciated here.Or, cut through the skin clear around the necknear the gills. Stick a large table fork into thegills and pin the fish to a board by its backbone.Then catch the skin at neck between thumb andknife-blade, and .strip it off by a steady pull.To skin an eel: drive a fork through the backof his neck (if you have no fork, roll him in ashesor dust and use a swab in the left hand), slit theskin around his neck with a sharp knife, make a

286 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT;longitudinal slit half the length of the body, peelthe skin back at the neck until you get a good hold,and then strip it off.Another way is to rub the tail under your footuntil the skin splits, or nail the eel up by the tail,cut through the skin around the body just forwardof the tail and work its edges loose, thendraw the skin off over the head ; this takes outall of the fin bones, and strips off the skin entire.To Keep Fish.— It is very bad practice tostring fish together through the gills and keepthem in water till you start for home. It makesthem lose blood and torments them till they dieof suffocation. Why sicken your fish before youeat them? If you must use a stringer, push itspoint through the fish's lower jaw. Then it canbreathe freely. A single fish on a good length ofline, strung in this way, can fight off turtles tillyou notice the commotion.If you are not fishing from a boat, with livebox or net, then by all means kill your fish asfast as you catch them. Some do this by givingthe thing's head a quick jerk backward, breakingits neck ; others hit it a smart rap on the back ofthe head with the handle of a sheath-knife (manyEnglish fishermen carry a " priest," which is aminiature bludgeon, for this very purpose). It isbetter to break the fish's throat-latch (the cordthat joins head to body on the under side), becausethat not only kills the fish but bleeds it, and one'sfinger does thr. trick in a second.The reason for killing fish at once is two-foldfirst, it is humane ; second, it keeps the meat firm,as it should be for the pan, and it will not spoilso soon as if the fish smothered to death.Fish spoil from exposure to sun and moisture,especially the latter. They keep much better ifwiped dry before carrying away. Never use fishthat have been lying in the sun or that have begunto soften. Ptomaines work in a mysterious buteffectual way.

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 287To keep fish in camp: scale, behead, and cleanthem ; then string them by a cord through theirtails and hang them, head down, in a shady, breezyplace. They drain well when hung in this way,and that is important.If you stay long in one place, it will pay to sinka covered box in the sloping bank of a stream, tqkeep your fish in. Such a bank is always cool,Hang the fish up separately in the box with rod?or cords. If you lack a box, make a rock-linedcache, covered with flat stones tu keep out mini;and other robbers.Trout may be kept bright, with their spots show^ing lively, for many hours, if each is w^iped andwrapped separately in some absorbent paper, suchas toilet paper, as soon as caught.To keep fish that must be carried some distance,in hot weather: clean them as soon as you can afterthey are caught, and zuipe them dry. Then ruba little salt along their backbones, but nowhereelse, for salt draws the juices. Do not pile themtouching each other, but between layers of paper,cheesecloth, basswood leaves, or ferns.If you are to pack fish in ice, the best way is tohave with you some parchment paper (any mailorderhouse) to keep them from direct contact withthe ice. This paper is strong and waterproof.Everybody ought to know that when fish get wetfrom ice the best of their flavor is stolen. Forthe same reason it is bad practice to carry fish indamp moss or grass. Keep them dry, whether 3^uuhave ice or not.There is a very good thing called a refrigeratorgrip, to be bought of dealers in sporting goods.Outside it looks like a common handbag. Withinare two metal compartments. The upper sectionis filled with cracked ice and the cover is screwedon. The lower one contains food and drink foran outing, and holds your fish on the trip home.It is surrounded by a metal shell into which the

288 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwater drips as the ice melts. No ice or watercomes in contact with what you carry.If you have no ice, and yet wish to transportyour catch a considerable distance, try the followingmethod recommended a good many years agoby Colonel Park (he says It is also a good way topack venison). Some of my correspondents haveenthusiastically given me credit for inventing it,but I got it out of a little Sportsmen s Handbookby the above-named gentleman, printed, as I remember,In Cincinnati, of which I have seen butone copy. For brevity's sake, I paraphrase thedescription.—Kill the fish as soon as caught; wipe them clean and dry;remove the entrails; scrape the blood off from around thebackbone; remove the gills and eyes; wipe dry again;split the fish through the backbone to the skin, from theinside; fill this split with salt; spread the fish overnighton a board or log to cool. In the morning, before sunrise,fold the fish in dry towels, so that there is a fold oftowel between each fish and its neighbor; carefully wrapthe whole package in a piece of muslin, and sew it up intoa tight bag, and then in woolen blanketing, sewing up theends and sides. Now put the roll in a stout paper bag,such as a flour sack. " Fish prepared in this way can besent from Maine to New Orleans in August, and will remainfresh and nice."Sugar, as It has antiseptic qualities, is a goodpreservative. Doctor O. M. Clay gives the followingprocess for keeping trout a week or two:"Clean well; remove heads; wash thoroughly; dry withcloth. Cook a syrup of sugar and water until it begins tocandy. In this dip the fish, one at a time, and lay them ona board to glaze. Pack in a box. Before using, soak overnightin cold water."To dry fish for future use: split them along theback, remove the backbones and entrails, and soakthem in a weak brine overnight. Make a conicalteepee of cloth or bark, suspend the fish in it, anddry and smoke them over a small fire for a coupleof days. This Is tedious, as the fire requires close

DRESSING GAME AND FISH 289attention; but it pays when many fish are to bedried.To salt fish: dress them as above, wash clean,and roll in salt. " Place them in a wooden vesselin a cool place for several days; then turn themout and let the brine drain off. Clean the vesseland put the fish back. Cover them with brinemade strong enough to carry an egg or potato.Trout preserved in this way are excellent." (E.Kreps, Camp and Trail Methods.)The following method of preserving fish isquoted from Outdoor Life:" Put two handfuls of salt in two or three quarts ofwater. Let it come to a boil. Then put fish on a pieceof cheesecloth or other white cloth so as to be able tohandle them, and dip them in this water, allowing themto remain in it five to seven minutes, according to size offish. Water should not boil after the fish are put in. Thenput them in vinegar, allspice, cloves and bay leaves — usingenough vinegar to submerge the fish. Leave them inthis solution until used. We believe you will find fish preservedin this way the sweetest-tasting that you ever ate."

CHAPTER XVICAMP COOKERYMeatsThe main secrets of good meals in camp areto have a proper fire, good materials, and then toimprison in each dish, at the outset, its naturaljuice and characteristic flavor. To season freshcamp dishes as a French chef would is a blunderof the first magnitude. The raw materials usedin city cuisine are often of inferior quality, fromkeeping in cold storage or with chemical preservatives; so their insipidity must be corrected by spices,herbs, and sauces to make them eatable. In cheaprestaurants and boarding houses, where the chef'sskill is lacking, " all things taste alike " from havingbeen penned up together in a refrigerator andcooked in a fetid atmosphere.In my chapter on Provisions I advised that afew condiments be taken along, but these aremostly for seasoning left-overs or for desserts —not for fresh meat, unless we have but one kind,to the surfeiting point. In the woods our fish isfreshly caught, our game has hung out of doors,and the water and air used in cooking (most importantfactors) are sweet and pure. Such viandsneed no masking. The only seasoning requiredis with pepper and salt, to be used sparingly, andnot added (except in soups and stews) until thedish is nearly or quite done. Remember this: saltdraws the juices.The juices of meats and fish are their mostpalatable and nutritious ingredients. We extractthem purposely In making soups, stews, and gravies^2Q0

MEATS 291but in so doing we ruin the meat itself. Any fisK,flesh, or fowl that is fit to be eaten for the goodmeat's sake should be cooked succulent, by firstcoagulating the outside (searing in a bright flameor ina very hot pan, or plunging into smoking hotgrease or furiously boiling water) and then removingfarther from the fire to cook gradually tilldone. The first process, which is quickly performed,is ** the surprise." It sets the juices, and,in the case of frying, seals the fish or meat in agrease-proof envelope so that it will not becomesodden but will dr}^ crisp when drained. Thehorrors of the frying-pan that has been unskillfullywielded are too well known. Let us campers, towhom the frying-pan is an almost indispensableutensil, set a good example to our grease-afilictedcountry by using it according to the code of healthand epicurean taste.Meat, game, and fish may be fried, broiled,roasted, baked, boiled, stewed, or steamed. Fryingand broiling are the quickest processes; roasting,baking, and boiling take an hour or two; a stewof meat and vegetables, to be good, takes half aday, and so does soup prepared from the raw materials.Tough meat should be boiled or braisedina pot.Do not eat freshly killed meat if you can help it.Game should hang at least two days; otherwise itwill be tough and tasteless. Venison eaten beforeit has completely cooled through will cause diarrhoeaand perhaps nausea.Frying.— Do not try to fry over a flaming fireor a deep bed of coals ; the grease would likely burnand catch aflame. Rake a thin layer of coals outin front of the fire; or, for a quick meal, make yourfire of small dry sticks, no thicker than your finger,boil water for your coffee over the flame, and thenfry over the quickly formed coals.If you have a deep pan and plenty of fryingfat, it is much the best to immerse the materialcompletely in boiling grease, as doughnuts are fried.

292 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTLet the fat boil until little jets of smoke arise(being careful not to burn the grease). Whenfat begins to smoke continuously it is decomposingand will impart an acrid taste. When a breadcrumb dropped in will be crisp when taken out, thefat is of the right temperature. Then quickly dropin small pieces of the material, one at a time so asnot to check the heat. Turn them once whilecooking. Remove when done, and drop them amoment on coarse paper to absorb surplus grease,or hang them over a row of small sticks so they candrain. Then season. The fry will be crisp, anddry enough to handle without soiling the fingers.This is the way for small fish.Travelers must generally get along with shallowpans and little grease. To fry (or, properly, tosaute) in this manner, without getting the articlesodden and unfit for the stomach, heat the dry panvery hot, and then grease it only enough to keepthe meat from sticking (fat meat needs none).The material must be dry when put in the pan(wipe fish with a towel) or it will absorb grease.Cook quickly and turn frequently, not jabbing witha fork for that would let juice escape. Seasonwhen done, and serve piping hot.Lard used for frying fish must not be used againfor anything but fish. Crisco does not transmitthe flavor of one food to another. Surplus fat canbe kept in a baking powder can, sealed, for transit,with surgeon's plaster.Chops, fat meats, squirrels, rabbits, and thesmaller game birds are best sauted or fricasseed andserved with gravy. A fricassee is made of meat orbirds cut into small pieces, fried or stewed, andserved with gravy. Sausage should be fried overa very gentle fire.Bear meat is best braised (see under that heading); if to be fried, it should first be soaked foran hour in a solution of one tablespoon baking sodato a quart of water, then parboiled until tender,Broii ^ng.— Fresh jnct that is tender enougl) to

MEATS 293escape the boiling pot or the braising oven shouldeither be broiled or roasted before a bed of clear,hard coals. Both of these processes preserve thecharacteristic flavor of the meat and add thatpiquant, aromatic-bitter " taste of the " fir^^'. whichno pan nor oven can impart. Broil when you arein a hurry, but when you have leisure for a goodjob, roast your meat, basting it frequently withdrippings from the pan below, so as to keep thesurface moist and flexible and insure that precisedegree of browning which delights a gourmet.For broiling, cut the meat at least an inch thick.Only tender pieces are fit for broiling. Venisonusually requires some pounding, but don't gash itin doing so. Have a bed of bright coals free fromsmoke, with clear flaming fire to one side. Searoutside of meat by thrusting for a moment in theflame and turning; then broil before the fire,rather than over it, so as to catch drippings in apan underneath. Do not season until done, or, ifyou do salt It, observe the rule for chops, givenbelow. A steak i inch thick should be broiled fiveminutes, i^ inches ten minutes, 2 inches twentyminutes. Serve on hot dish with drippings pouredover, or buttered.To broil on a forked, green stick, tie the splitopenbird, or whatever it be, to the fork with hemlockrootlets or others that do not burn easily.To broil enough for a party, when you have nobroiler, clean the frying-pan thoroughly and getit almost red hot, so as to seal pores of meat instantly.Cover pan. Turn meat often, withoutstabbing. A large venison steak will be done inten minutes. Put on hot dish, season with pepperand salt, and pour juices over it. Equal tomeat broiled on a gridiron, and saves the juices.To broil by completely covering the slice of meatwith hot ashes and embers is a very good way.To grill on a rock, take two large flat stones ofa kind that do not burst from heat (not moist orseamy ones)* wipe them clean of grit, place them

294 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTone above the other, with a few pebbles betweento keep them apart, and build a fire around them.When they are well heated, sweep away the ashes,and place your slices of meat between the stones.Before broiling fish on an iron they should bebuttered and floured to prevent sticking; or, greasethe broiler.There is no chop like an English mutton chop.It should be cut thick. How to cook it is told byan English camper, Mr. T. H. Holding, in hisCampers Handbook:" First let the pan get warm, then rub with a pieceof the fat from the meat. As this fat warms and mehson the bottom, put in the chop and sHghtly increase yourflame [he is assuming that you cook on a Primus stove],and let it cook rapidly. Put a very free sprinkling of salton the top of the chop. I will explain this. The salt thatisso distributed melts, and runs into the pores of the meatand gets through it. As the heat forces up the blood, sothe salt in melting trickles down till it fills the chop, so tosay. Directly the latter begins to look red on the top, turnit over smartly and cleanly. Now the heat will drive backthe blood to meet the fresh supply of salt that is put onthe new * ' side. Cook it gently, moving it at intervals.Presently this salt will disappear, and in its place blood willbegin to make its appearance and show the chop is cooked." Now, the hungry one who knows how to enjoy a chop,will be delighted with one thus cooked. It will be tender,tasty, and soft, if the meat is good. A chop should not becooked till it is pale inside; if it loses its redness it losesits character and its flavor." The fat of a chop should not be cut off, unless there istoo much of it. It will pay to cook it and so help to makegravy, into which a piece of bread or slices of potato maybe put and fried. . . ." If a couple of potatoes be peeled and washed, cut inslices not more than an eighth-of-an-inch in thickness, putin the pan around the chop, and the whole covered overwith a plate, they will be cooked by the time the chop isdone. I am free to say from experience that never dopotatoes taste so sweet as when cooked under these conditions.. . . But to cut these potatoes thick is to foil theobject, because they have not time then to cook through."Chops of mountain sheep and other game maybe cooked in the same way.Roasting.— I'o roast is to cook by the direcr

MEATS 295heat of the fire, as on a spit or before a high bedof coals. Baking is performed in an oven, pit, orclosed vessel. No kitchen range can compete withan open fire for roasting.Build a rather large fire of split hardwood (sottwoodsare useless) against a high backlog or wallof rocks which will reflect the heat forward.Sear the outside of the roast (not a bird or fish)in clear flames until outer layer of albumen iscoagulated. Then skewer thin slices of pork toupper end; hang roast before fire and close to itby a stout wet cord; turn frequently; catch drippingsin pan or green-bark trough, and baste withthem. This is better than roasting on a spit overthe fire, because the heat can be better regulated,the meat turned and held in position more easily,the roast is not smoked, and the drippings areutilized.• 1 •Just before the meat is done, baste it and sprinklewith flour, then brown it near the fire, andmake gravy as directed on page 303.A whole side of venison can be roasted by plantingtwo stout forked stakes before the fire, a stubof each stake being thrust through a slit cut betweenthe ribs and under the backbone. The forwardpart of the saddle is the best roasting piece.Trim off flankv parts and ends of ribs, and splitbackbone lengthwise so that the whole will hangflat. To roast a shoulder, peel it from the side,cut off leg at knee, gash thickest part of flesh,pressbits of pork into them, and skewer some slices toupper part.When roasting a large joint, a turkey, or anythingelse that will require more than an hour ofsteady heat, do not depend upon adding wood fromtime to time, unless you have a good supply ofsound, dry hardwood sticks of stove-wood size. Ifgreen 'wood or large sticks muct be used, build abonfire of them at one side of your cooking-fire,and shovel coals from it as required. It will notdo to check the cooking-fire.

296 CAMFING AND WOODCRAFTKabobs.— When in a hurry, cut a i^ or 2 inchportion from the saddle or other tender part, breakup the fiber by pounding, unless the animal wasyoung, and divide the meat into several small fragments.Impale one of these on a sharpened stick,salt and pepper it, plunge it for a moment into aclear bright flame, then toast it slow^ly over theembers. Salt, in this case, is glazed on the surfaceand cannot draw the juice.bit, toast another.While eating oneRoasting in the Reflector.— Pin thin slices ofpork or bacon over the roast. Put a little waterin the bake-pan, lay the meat in, and set the bakerbefore the fire. Baste occasionally. When thefront is done, reverse the pan. Make gravy fromthe drippings.Barbecueing.— To barbecue is to roast an animalwhole, and baste it frequently with a specialdressing, for which the following recipe is borrowedfrom Frank Bates:" One pint of vinegar, half a can of tomatoes, two teaspoonfulsof red pepper (chopped pepper-pods are better),a teaspoonful of black pepper, same of salt, twotablespoonfuls of butter. Simmer together till it is completelyamalgamated. Have a bit of clean cloth or spongetied on the end of a stick, and keep the meat well bastedwith the dressing as long as it is on the fire."Dig a pit somewhat longer and wider than thespread-out carcass of the animal. Build a log firein it of hardwood. When this has burned to coals,and one onplace a green log at each end of the piteach side of it, near the edges. Over the side logslay green poles to support the meat, thick enoughnot to burn through (when it can be procured, asheet of wire netting is laid over this frame).Tough meat is previously parboiled in large pots.Braising.— Tough meat is improved by braisingin a Dutch oven, or a covered pot or saucepan.This process lies between baking and frying. It ispre-eminently the way to cook bear meat, venisonshoulders and rounds. Put the meat in the oven or

MEATS 297pot with about two inches of hot water in the bottom,and a bit of bacon or pork (but not for bear).Add some chopped onion, if desired, for seasoning.Cover and cook about fifteen minutes to the pound.A half hour before the meat is done, season it withsalt and pepper.The gravy is made by pouring the grease fromthe pot, adding a little water and salt, and rubbingflour into it gradually with a spoon.Baking Meat.— Baking in a Hole.—This is amodification of braising. Dig a hole in the ground,say 18x18x12 inches. Place kindling in it, andover the hole build a cob house by laying split hardwoodsticks across, not touching each other, thenanother course over these and at right angles tothem, and so on till you have a stack tw^o feet high.Set fire to it. The air will circulate freely, andthe sticks, if of uniform size, will all burn downto coals together.Cut the fowlj Or whatever it is, in pieces, season,add a chunk of fat pork the size of your fist,put in the kettle, pour in enough water to cover,put lid on kettle, rake coals out of hole, put kettlein, shovel coals around and over it, cover all witha few inches of earth, and let it alone over night.It beats a bake-oven. In case of rain, cover withbark.Experiment with this two or three times beforeyou risk much on it; for the right heat and thetime required can only be learned by experience.Grouse and the like can be cooked nicely by puttingone in the bean-pot when baking beans.Baking an Animal in Its Hide.— If the beast istoo large to bake entire, cut off what you wantand sew it up in a piece of the hide. In this caseit is best to have the hole lined with flat stones.Rake out embers, put meat in, cover first with greengrass or leaves, then with the hot coals and ashes,and build a fire on top. When done, remove theskin.A deer's head Is placed in the pit, ntck down,

^9BCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTand baked in the same way: time about six hours.Baking in Clay.— This hermetically seals themeat while cooking, and is better than baking ina kettle, but requires experience. Draw the animal,but leave the skin and hair on. If it be alarge bird, as a duck or goose, cut off head andmost of neck, also feet and pinions, pull out tailfeathers and cut tail off (to get rid of oil sac),but leave smaller feathers on. If a fish, do notscale. Moisten and work some clay till it is likesoftened putty. Roll it out in a sheet an inchthick and large enough to completely encase theanimal. Cover the latter so that no feather or hairprojects. Place in fire and cover with good bedof coals and let it remain with fire burning on topfrom y^. of an hour, for a small bird or mediumtrout, to two hours for a pheasant or duck. Largeranimals require more time, and had best be placedin bake-hole over night.When done, break open the hard casing of bakedclay. The skin peels off with it, leaving the meatperfectly clean and baked to perfection in its ownjuices. This method has been practiced for agesby the gipsies and other primitive peoples.Frank Bates recommends another way: "Havea pail of water in which stir clay until it is of theconsistency of thick porridge or whitewash. Takethe bird by the feet and dip into the water. Theclay will gather on and between the feathers. Repeattill the bird is a mass of clay. Lay this inthe ashes, being careful to dry the outside. . . .Bake till the clay is almost burned to a brick."Baking in the Embers.— To bake a fish, cleanit — if it is large enough to be emptied through ahole in the neck, do not slit the belly — season withsalt and pepper, and, if liked, stuff with Indianmeal. Have ready a good bed of glowing hardwoodcoals ; cover it with a thin layer of ashes, thatthe fish may not be burnt. Lay the fish on this,and cover it with more ashes and coals. Half anhour, more or less, is required, according to size.

MEATS 299On removing the fish, pull off the skin, and theflesh will be found clean and palatable.A bird, for example a duck, is baked in muchthe same way. Draw it, through a small slit atthe vent, but do not remove the feathers. If youlike stuffed duck, stuff with bread crumbs or brokenbiscuit, well seasoned with salt and pepper. Wetthe feathers by dipping the bird in water; then buryit in the ashes and coals. A teal will require abouthalf an hour; other birds in proportion.Boiling.— The broader the pot, and the blackerIt is, the quicker it boils. Fresh meats should bestarted in boiling water; salt or corned meats, andthose intended for stews or soups, in cold water.The meat (except hams) should be cut into chunksof not over five pounds each, and soup bones wellcracked. Watch during first half hour, and skimoft' all scum as fast as it rises, or it will settle andadhere to meat. Fresh meat should be boiled unfilbones are free, or until a fork wnll pierce easily(ten pounds take about two and a half hours).Save the broth for soup-stock, or make gravy ofit by seasoning with pepper and thickening withflour. (See page 303.)Meat that is to be eaten cold should be allowedto cool in the liquor in which it was boiled. Atablespoonful or two of vinegar added to the boilingwater makes meat more tender and fish firmer.Turn the meat several times while boiling. If thewater needs replenishing, do it w^th boiling, notcold, water. Season a short time before meat isdone. If vegetables are to be cooked with themeat, add them at such time that they will justfinish cooking when the meat is done (potatoestwenty to thirty minutes before the end ; carrotsand turnips, sliced, one to one and a half hours).Remember this: put fresh meat in hard boilingwater for only five minutes, to set the juices; thenremove to greater height over the fire and boilvery slowly — to let it boil hard all the time wouldmake it tough and indigestible. Salt or corned

300 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT;meats go in cold water at the start and are graduallybrought to a boil; thereafter they should beallowed barely to simmer.Fish go in boiling salted water. Boiling meatmust be kept covered.In heating milk beware that you do not burn it.,Bring it gradually to the simmering point, but donot let it actually boil.At high altitudes it is impossible to cook satisfactorilyby boiling, because water boils at a lowerand lower temperature the higher we climb. Thedecrease is at the rate of about one degree for every550 feet up TO one mile, and one degree for 560 feetabove that, when the temperature is 70°. Withthe air at 32° F., and the barometer at 30 inches,water boils at 212° at sea-level, 202.5° at 5,000feet, 193.3° at 10,000 feet, and 184.5° at 15,000feet. These figures vary somewhat according tothe purity of the water, the material of the vessel,etc.To parboil is to boil only until tender, beforecooking some other way.Stewing.— This process is slow, and should bereserved for tough meats. Use lean meat only.First brown it with some hot fat in a frying-panor put a couple of ounces of chopped pork in a kettleand get it thoroughly hot; cut your meat into smallpieces; drop them into the fat and "jiggle" thekettle until the surface of the meat is coagulated bythe hot fat, being careful, the while, not to burn it.Add a thickening of a couple of ounces of flour andmix it thoroughly with the fat; then a pintof water or soup-stock. Heat the contents of thekettle to boiling and season with salt, pepper, andchopped onion. Curry powder, if you like it, isproper in a stew. Now cover the kettle closely andhang it where it will only simmer for four or fivehours. Stews may be thickened with rice, potatoes,or oatmeal, as well as with flour. Add condimentsto suit the taste. A ragout is nothing buta highly seasoned stew. The greater the variety

MEAT^^ 301cf meats and vegetables, the better. Rice and tomatoesare especially suitai)lo"'^dacaroni, spaghetti,vermicelli, and noodles; cife Utee in stews;you will need little or no bread if j^^iave suchpastes or some dumplings inthe f>?\^.\'^^fcr^ry theflavor of game stews, add beef '

302 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTMeat Gravies and Sauces.— A gravy is seasonedwith nothing but salt and pepper, the objectbeing to preserve the flavor of the meat. A sauceis highly seasoned to disguise poor meat, or madeoverdishes, or whatever has been served so oftenthat itbegins to pall on the appetite.An abundance of rich gravy is relished bycampers who do not carry butter. They havenothing else to make their bread '' slip down."Good gravy cannot be made from meat that hasbeen fried properly or broiled, because the juice isleft in the meat. Our pioneer families seldom hadbutter, yet they had to eat a much larger componentof bread than we do, from lack of side dishes.Hence the ''fried-to-a-chip " school of cookery.In such case, the right way is obvious, grantingthat you have plenty of meat. Fry properlyenough meat for the party and leave enough morein the pan to make gravy. Gash or mince this remainder,cook all the juice out of it without scorching,throw out the refuse meat, rub in a thickeningprepared in advance as directed belou^, salt and pepper,then thin to the desired consistency with boiling water. The thickening is made by rubbingcold milk, or water, or broth, a little at a time, intoa spoonful of flour, until a smooth paste is formedthat will just drop from a spoon ; or thicken withroux. Chopped liver improves a gravy.Roux (pronounced "roo") is a thickening foigravy or soups that can be prepared at any timeand kept ready for emergencies. It v^'ill keep goodfor months in a covered jar. A teaspoonfulthickens half a pint of gravy, or a pint of soup.Brown roux is made thus: Melt slowly ^ lb.of butter, skim it well, let it stand for a minuteto settle, and pour it off from the curd. Put theclear oily butter into a pan over a slow^ fire, shakeinto it enough sifted flour (7 or 8 oz.) to make athick paste. Stir constantly and heat slow^ly andevenly until it is very thick and of a bright browncnlnr. Put it ieto a jar. White roux is made in

MEATS 303the same way except that it is stirred over a verjgentle fire until it is thoroughly baked but no\browned. It is used for white gravy on fish, etc.Gravy for Boiled Meat.— Some of the liquor inwhich the meat was cooked can be thickened bymelting a piece of butter the size of a small egg,mixing with it very smoothly a tablespoonful offlour, heating until lightly browned, adding themeat liquor and letting it boil up. Flavor to ta^tSJ^Vj.and serve separately from the meat.0;i^^Gravy for Roast Meat.— Use the drippings awabove, and thin with boiling water in which halfateaspoonf\iI of salt has been dissolved.Dripping is the fat that drops from meat whenroasting.Gravy from Extract of Beef. — When there is novenison in camp, it will not be long before the mencrave the taste of beef. Liebig's extract, or Bovril,or Steero, dissolved in boiling water and liberallysalted will make a good beef gravy by letting itboilup, then simmer, and thicken in one of the ways describedabove.Onion Gravy.— Rub up flour in water to a bat-€/; salt it. Chop some onion very fine and fry ita little in the meat juice. Pour the batter on this,and stir till the flour is done.Cream Gravy for Meat or Fish.—J4pint milk.1 tablespoonful butter.y2 tablespoonful flour.J^ tablespoonful salt.y^ tablespoonful pepper.Heat butter in frying-pan. Add flour, stirringuntil smooth and frothy. Draw pan back andgradually stir in the milk. Then return the pan tothe fire. Add salt and pepper. Stir until sauceboils. This must be used at once, and everybody'splate should be hot, of course.Sauces.— A camp cook nearly always lacks thesweet herbs, fresh parsley, mushrooms, capers,anchovies, shrimps, tarraapn, wine, and many other

304 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcondiments to which standard sauces owe theircharacteristic flavors. He must make shift withspices and perhaps lemon, Worcestershire, vinegar,mustard, curry powder, or celery seed. How touse these to the best advantage cannot be taught ina book. Personal tastes and the materials at handmust govern. I give here the recipes for threesimple sauces for meat. Others will be found inthe chapters on Game, Fish, and Desserts.Mustard Sauce.— Brown two teaspoonfuls offlour in a pan with a little butter. Put two tablespoonfulsof butter on a plate and blend with it thebrowned flour, a teaspoonful of mustard, and a littlesalt. When these are smoothly mixed stir theminto 34 pi^t boiling water. Simmer five minutes.Add enough vinegar or lemon juice to flavor.Venison Sauce.— Stir together one tablespoonfulof butter with a teaspoonful of mustard and threetablespoonfuls of jelly (preferably currant).When these are well blended, add three tablespoonfulsof vinegar, some grated nutmeg, and a dash ofCayenne pepper. Heat together. When the sauceboils add three tablespoonfuls chopped pickles.Serve at once. Currant jelly alone goes well wuthvenison.Sauce for Broiled Venison.— Make the steakdishvery hot. Put on it for each pound of venison3^ tablespoonful of butter, a tablespoonful of currantjelly, one of boiling water, and a little pepperand salt. Turn the broiled steaks in the sauce onceor twice and serve very hot.Parsley Butter.— I confess to a weakness for theflavor of parsley. The fresh herb, of course, wecannot have in camp, but the dehydrated kind, orC. & B. dried parsley, will do very well. Make athin mixture of flour and water, salt it, and adda pat of butter (not really necessary). Boil thisuntil the rawness is gone from the flour, and use itwith fish, flesh, or fowl, particularly the latter.

CHAPTER XVIICAMP COOKERYGameThe following additional details are supplementaryto what has gone before, and presuppose a carefulreading of the preceding pages.Game and all other kinds of fresh meat shouldbe hung up till they have bled thoroughly and havecooled through and through — they are tendererand better after they have hung several days. Venisonespecially is tough until it has hung a week.In no case cook meat untilthe animal heat has leftit: if you do, it is likely to sicken you. This doesnot apply to fish. P'rozen meat or fish should bethawed in very cold water and then cooked immediately— warm water would soften it and stealits flavor.All mammals from the 'coon size down, as well'as duck and grouse, unless young and tender, orunless they have hung several days, should be parboiled(gently simmered) from ten to thirty minutes,according to size, before frying, broiling, orroasting. The scent glands of mammals and theoil sacs of birds should be removed before cooking.In small mammals look for pea-shaped, waxy orreddish kernels under the front legs and on eitherside of the small of the back.As game has little natural fat, it requires frequentbasting and the free use of butter or bacongrease in cooking.Venison.— (Deer of all species, elk, moose t,caribou.).305

3o6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTFried Venison.— See page 291.Boiled Venison.— See page 292.Roast Venison.— See page 294.Braised Venison.— See page 296.Baked Venison.— See page 297.Boiled Venison.— See page 299.Stewed Venison.— See page 300.Steamed Venison.— See page 301.Baked Deer's Head.— See page 297.Braised Bear.— See page 296.Fried Bear.— See page 292.Brains.— Clean and wash them well. Yry ; 01boil slowly half an hour.Brains and Eggs.— Desiccated eggs will do aswell as fresh ones. Soak them as directed on can.Chop fine some bacon and enough onion to season.Dice the brains into about ^-inch cubes.Fry bacon and onion together until brown. Addthe brains, and cook until nearly done; then addthe eggs, beaten slightly, and fry until they arescrambled. Season with salt and pepper.Heart.— Remove valves and tough, fibrous tissue;then braise,or cut into small pieces and use insoups or stews.Kidneys, Fried.— Halve them, slit twice thelong way on the inside, but do not cut clearthrough; leave the fat on the kidneys. Fry^ untilall blueness has disappeared.Kidneys, Stewed.— Soak in cold water one hour.Cut into small pieces, and drop each piece into coldwater, as cut. Wash well; then stew, seasoningwith onion, celery (dehydrated), cloves, salt andpepper.Liver.— Carefully remove the gall-bladder ifthe animal has one — deer have not. Parboil theliver and skim off the bitter scum that rises. Slicerather thin ;put one slice of bacon in the pan andfry from it enough grease to keep liver fromsticking. Salt the liver and fry until half done;then add more bacon and fry all until done. Livershould be thoroughly cooked; if you put all the

GAME 307bacon in with it at the start the latter would beruined before the liver was done.Another way: cut liver into slices ^-inch thick,soak it one hour in cold salt water, rinse well inwarm water, wipe dry, dip each slice in flour seasonedwith salt and pepper, and fry as above.If in a hurry, put the liver on a green hardwoodstick for a spit, skewer some of the caul fat aroundit,and roast before the fire.Marrow Bones.— Cover ends with small piecesof plain dough made with flour and water, overwhich tie a floured cloth; place bones upright inkettle, and cover with boiling water. Boil twohours. Remove cloth and paste, push out marrow,and serve with dry toast.Milt (Spleen).— Skewer a piece of bacon to it,and broil.Moose Muffle (nose and upper lip).— Boil likepig's head. Add an onion.Tonffue.— Soak for one hour ; rinse in freshwater; put in a kettle of cold water, bring to aboil, skim and simmer two hours, or until tender.A blade of mace and a clove or two improve thegravy; so also Worcestershire sauce.Croquettes.— Two cups minced meat or gameof any kind, ^ cup bread or cracker crumbs, i^egg, melted butter. Roll meat, seasoning, andenough of the butter to moisten, into pear-shapedbails. Dip in beaten eggs and crumbs. Fry, withenough butter, to a nice brown.Venison Sausages.— Utilize the tougher parts ofthe deer, or other game, by mincing the raw meatwith half as much salt pork, season w^ith pepper andsage, make into little pats, and fry like sausages.Very good.Game Pot Pie.— Take J^ teaspoonful bakingpowder to >4 pint of flour, sift together, and adda teaspoonful lard or butter by rubbing it m, alsoa pinch of salt. Make a soft biscuit dough of this,handling as little as possible and being careful notto mix too thin. Roll into a sheet and cut into

3o8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTjstrips about i^ inches wide and 3 inches long, cuttingtwo or three little holes through each to letsteam escape. Meantime you have been boilingmeat or game and have sliced some potatoes.When the meat is within one-half hour of beingdone, pour off the broth into another vessel and liftout most of the meat. Place a layer of meat andpotatoes in bottom of kettle, and partially coverwith strips of the dough ; then another layer ofmeat and vegetables, another of dough, and so onuntil the pot is nearly full, topping off with dough.Pour the hot broth over this, cover tightly, and boilone-half hour, without lifting the pot cover, which,by admitting cold air, would make the dough" sad." Parsley helps the pot, when you can get it.Dumplings.— These add zest to a stevv' or toboiled meat of any kind. Plain dumplings aremade of biscuit dough or the batter of droppedbiscuit (recipes in chapter on Bread). Drop theminto the pot a short time before meat is done. Seealso page 358.Bear, Braised.— See page 296.Small Game.—Jambolaya.— This is a delicious Creole dish,easily prepared. Cut up any kind of small gameinto joints, and stew them. When half done, addsome minced ham or bacon, ^ pint rice, and seasonwith pepper and salt. If rabbit is used, add onions.Serve with tomatoes as a sauce.Curry of Game.— Cut some birds or other smallgame into rather small joints. Fry until lightlybrowned. Score each joint slightly, place a littlecurry powder in each opening, and squeeze lemonjuice over it. Cover the joints with brown gravyand simmer gently for twenty minutes. Servewith rice around the dish. (See also Curry Saucepage 320.)^Game Pie.— Make a plain pie crust as directedin the chapter on Desserts. Cut the game intojoints. Season rather highly. Moisten the joints

GAME 309with melted butter and lemon juice, or put a fewthin strips of bacon in with them. Cover withtop crust like a fruit pie and bake not too long;time according to size.Squirrels, Fried.— Unless they are young, parboilthem gently for Yz hour in salted water.Then fry in butter or pork grease until brown. Adash of curry powder when frying is begun improvesthem, unless you dislike curry. Make gravyas directed on page 303.Squirrels, Broiled.— Use only young ones. Soakin cold salted w^ater for an hour, wipe dry, andbroil over the coals with a slice of bacon laid overeach squirrel to baste it.Squirrels, Stewed.— They are best this way, orfricasseed. For directions see pages 300 and 292.Squirrels, Barbecued.— Build a hardwood firebetween two large logs lying about two feet apart.At each end of the fire drive two forked stakesabout fifteen inches apart, so that the four stakeswill form a rectangle, like the legs of a table.Theforks should all be about eighteen inches above theground. Choose young, tender squirrels (if oldones must be used, parboil them until tender butnot soft). Prepare spits by cutting stout switchesof some wood that does not burn easily (sassafrasis best — beware of poison sumach), peel them,sharpen the points, and harden them by thrustingfor a few moments under the hot ashes. Impaleeach squirrel by thrusting a spit through flank,belly, and shoulder, on one side, and another spitsimilarly on the other side, spreading out the sides,and, if necessary, cutting through the ribs, so thatthe squirrel will lie open and flat.Lay two poles across the fire from crotch tocrotch of the posts, and across these lay your spittedsquirrels. As soon as these are heated through,begin basting with a piece of pork on the end of aswitch. Turn the squirrels as required. Cookslowly, tempering the heat, if needful, by scatteringashes thinly over the coals: but remove the

3IOCAZvlPING AND WOODCRAFTashes for a final browning. When the squirrelsare done, butter them and gash a little that thejuices may flow.Rabbit, or Hare.— Remove the head ; skin anddraw, cut out the waxy glands under the front legswhere they join the body ; soak in cold salted waterfor one hour ;rinse in fresh cold water and wipe dry.It is better, however, unless the animals are quiteyoung, to parboil them for about fifteen minuteswith salt, pepper, and an onion. Rabbits are notreally good to eat until several days after killing.To fry: parboil first, cut off legs at body joint,and cut the back into three pieces. Sprinkle withflour and fry brown on both sides. Remove rabbitto a dish kept hot over a few coals. Make a gravyas follows: Put into the pan a small onion previouslyparboiled and minced and add one cup boilingwater. Stir in gradually one or two tablespoonfalsof browned flour; stir well, and let it boilone minute. Season with pepper, salt, and nutmeg.Pour it over the rabbit.To roast in reflector: cut as above, lay a sliceof pork on each piece, and baste frequently. Therabbitmay be roasted whole before the fire.To bake in an oven: stuff with a dressing madeof bread crumbs, the heart and liver (previouslyparboiled in a small amount of water), some fatsalt pork, and a small onion, all minced and mixedtogether, seasoned with pepper, salt, and nutmeg,and slightly moistened with the water in whichheart and liver were parboiled. Sew up the openingclosely; rub butter or dripping over rabbit,dredge with flour, lay thin slices of fat pork onback, and place it in pan or Dutch oven, back uppermost.Pour into pan a pint or more of boilingwater (or stock, if you have it), and bake withvery moderate heat, one hour, basting every fewminutes if in pan, but not if in Dutch oven. Preparea gravy with the pot juice, as directed above.Rabbit is good stewed with onion, nutmeg, pep-

GAME 311per, and salt for seasoning. Also curried, after themanner already described.*The rabbity taste can be eliminated by putting a tablespoonfulof vinegar in the water in which the rabbit isboiled Hard boiling will toughen the meat; allow it tosimmer gently for one or two hours. When tender add aminced onion and some bacon grease to the liquor and placein the baker to brown.._"The Germans prepare rabbit in a more ambitiousmanner, but one that well repays. The disjointed rabbit issimmered until tender. Pour the meat and liquor into adressing made as follows: Fry until brown three or fourpieces of bacon which have been diced. Add to this atablespoonful of flour, a teaspoonful each of sugar and salt,a tablespoonful of vinegar, and a few cloves if possible.Stir well to keep from burning.,, . •,u oK" In both cases time can be saved by simmering che rabbitin the evening, and, on the following day, browningin a baker or serving with the German dressing. {KatlirenePinkerton.)Rabbits are unfit to eat In late summer as theirbacks are then infested with warbles, which are thelarvs of the rabbit bot-fly.Ipossum.— To callour possum an opossum, outrideof a scientific treatise, is an affectation l^ossumis his name wherever he is known and hunted,this country over. He is not good until you havefreezing weather; nor Is he to be served withoutsweet potatoes, except in desperate extremity, i hi^is how to serve " possum hot." —Stick him, and hang him up to bleed until morn^ino- A tub is half filled with hot water (not quitescalding) into which drop the possum and hold himby the tail until the hair will strip. Take him outiJy him on a plank, and pull the hair out with youfingers. Draw, clean, and hang him up to freeze?or two or three nights. Then place him in aS-gallon kettle of cold water, into which throwtwo pods of red pepper. Parboil for one hour inthis pepper-water, which Is then thrown out andthe kettle refilled with fresh water, wherein he isboiled one hour.

3iaCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTWhile this is going on, slice and steam somQsweet potatoes. Take the possum out, place himin a large Dutch oven, sprinkle him with blackpepper, salt, and a pinch or two of sage. A dashof lemon will do no harm. Pack sweet potatoesaround him. Pour a pint of water into the oven,put the lid on, and see that it fits tightly. Bakeslowly until brown and crisp. Serve hot, withoutgrav}^ Bourbon whiskey is the orthodox accompaniment.If you are a teetotaler, any plantationdarky can show you how to make " gingertea " out of ginger, molasses, and water. Cornbread, of course.It is said that possum is not hard to digest evenwhen eaten cold, but the general verdict seems tobe that none is ever left over to get cold.When you have no oven, roast the possum beforea high bed of coals, having suspended him bya wet string, which is twisted and untwisted togive a rotary motion, and constantly baste it witha sauce made from red pepper, salt, and vinegar.Possum may also be baked in clay, with his hideon. Stuff with stale bread and sage, plaster overhim an inch of stiff clay, and bake as previouslydirected. He will be done in about an hour.Coon.— It is likewise pedantic to call this animala raccoon. Coon he always has been, is now,and shall ever be, to those who know him best.Skin and dress him. Remove the " kernels(scent glands) under each front leg and on eitherside of spine in small of back. Wash in cold water.Parboil in one or two waters, depending upon theanimal's age. Stuff with dressing like a turkey.If you have a tart apple, quarter it and add to thedressing. Bake to a delicate brown. Serve withfried sweet potatoes.Porcupine.— I quote from "Nessmuk:" "And donot despise the fretful porcupine; he is better thanhe looks. If you happen on a healthy young specimenwhen you are needing meat, give him a showbefore condemning: him. Shoot him humanely in"

GAME 313the head, and dress him. It is easily done; thereare no quills on the bell]^, and the skin peels asfreely as a rabbit's. Take him to camp, parboilhim for thirty minutes, and roast or broil him to arich brown over a bed of glowing coals. He willneed no pork to make him juicy, and you will findhim very like spring lamb, only better."The porcupine may also be baked in clay, withoutskinning him; the quills and skin peel off withthe hard clay covering. Or, fry quickly.As I have never eaten porcupine, I will do somemore quoting — this time from Dr. Breck: "Itmay be either roasted or made into a stew, in themanner of hares, but must be parboiled at least ahalf-hour to be tender. One part of the porcupineis always a delicacy — the liver, which is easilyremoved by making a cut just under the neck intowhich the hand is thrust, and the liver pulled out.It may be fried with bacon, or baked slowly andcarefully in the baker-pan with slices of bacon."Muskrat.— You may be driven to this, some day^and w^ill then learn that muskrat, properly preparedis not half bad. The French-Canadiansfound that out long ago. Remove the musk glandsand the white stringy substance found on the insideof the forearms and thighs. I do not rememberwhere Ipicked up the following recipe:''Skin and clean carefully four muskrats, beingparticular not to rupture musk or gall sac. Takethe hind legs and saddles, place in pot with a littlewater, a little julienne (or fresh vegetables, if youhave them), some pepper and salt, and a few slicesof pork or bacon. Simmer slowly over fire untilhalf done. Remove to baker, place water from potin the baking pan, and cook until done, basting frequently.This will be found a most toothsomedish."Muskrat may also be broiled over the hot coals,basting with a bit of pork held on a switch abovfthe beastie.Woodchuck.— I asked old Uncle Bob Flowers,

314 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTone of my neighbors in the Smokies: "Did youever eat a woodchuck ?"" Reckon I don't know what them is."" Ground-hog."" O la ! dozens of 'em. The red ones hain'tgood, but the gray ones! man, they'd jest make yermouth water!""How do you cook them!"" Cut the leetle red kernels out from under theirforelegs ; then bile 'em, fust — all the strong is leftin the water — then pepper 'em and sage 'em, andput 'em in a pan, and bake 'em to a nice rich brown,and — then I don't want nobody there but me! "According to J. Alden Loring, "The only wayto cook a woodchuck properly is to roast him wholeon a stick over a camp-fire, turning him from timeto time until he is well done. The skin keeps thefat from broiling out, and enough sinks into theflesh to make it tender and juicy."Beaver Tail.— This tid-bit of the old-time trapperswill be tasted by few of our generation, more'sthe pity. Impale the tail on a sharp stick and broilover the coals for a few minutes. The rough, scahhide will blister and come off in sheets, leaving thetail clean, white, and solid. Then roast, or boiluntil tender. It is of a gelatinous nature, tastessomewhat like pork, and is considered verystrengthening food. A young beaver, stuffed andbaked in its hide, is good ; old ones have a peculiarflavor that is unpleasant to those not accustomed tosuch diet.Beaver tail may also be soused in vinegar, afterboiling, or baked with beans. It makes a good soupif part of the backbone is added.The liver, broiled on a stick and seasoned withbutter, salt, and pepper, is the best part of theanimal.Birds.— If game birds are not hung a few daysafter killing they are likely to be tough; but, as Ihave remarked elsewhere, this should not be overdone.

GAME315^Game Birds, Fried.— Birds forfrying should becut in convenient pieces, parboiled until tender ina pot with enough water to cover, then removed,,saving the liquor. Sprinkle with salt, pepper, andflour (this for the sake of the gravy), fry in meltedpork fat, take out when done, then stir into thefrying fat one-half cupful dry flour till a darkbrown, add parboiling liquor, bring to a boil, putgame in dish, and pour gravy over it, or serve withone of the sauces described below.Game Birds, Broiled.— Split them up the back,broil over the coals, and baste with a piece of porkon tined stick held over them. Fillets of ducks orother large birds may be sliced off and impaled onsticks wi^h thin slices of pork.Game Birds, Fricasseed.— Any kind of bird maybe fricasseed as follows: Cut it into convenientpieces, parboil them in enough water to cover;when tender, remove from the pot and drain,fry two or three slices of pork until brown.Sprinkle the pieces of bird with salt, pepper, andflour, and fry to a dark brown in the pork fat.Take up the bird, and stir into the frying fat halfa cup, more or less, of dry flour, stirring until itbecomes a dark brown ; then pour over it the liquorin which the bird was boiled (unless it was a fisheater),and bring the mixture to a boil. Put thebird in a hot dish, and serve with the gravy pouredover it.Wild Turkey, Roasted.— Pluck, draw, andsinge. Wipe the bird inside and out. Rub theinside with salt and red pepper. Stuff the cropcavity, then the body, with either of the dressingsmentioned below, allowing room for the filling toswell. Tie a string around the neck, and sew upthe body. Truss wings to body with woodenskewers. Pin thin slices of fat pork to breast insame way. Suspend the fowl before a high bed ofhardwood coals, as previously described, and placea pan under it to catch drippings. Tie a cleanrag on the end of a stick to baste with- Turn and

3i6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbaste frequently. Roast until well done (two tothree hours). (See also page 294.)Meantime cleanse the gizzard, liver, and heartof the turkey thoroughly in cold water; mincethem; put them in a pot with enough cold waterto cover, and stew gently until tender; then placewhere they will keep warm until wanted. Whenthe turkey is done, add the giblets with the waterin which they were stewed to the drippings in pan;thicken with one or two tablespoonfuls of flourthat has been stirred up in milk or water andbrowned in a pan ; season with pepper and salt, andserve with the turkey. If you have butter, thefowl may be basted with it (melted, of course),and when stewing the giblets add a tablespoonfulof butter and half a teacupful of evaporated milk.Stuffing for Turkey.— ( i ) If chestnuts are procurable,roast a quart of them, remove shells, andmash. Add a teaspoonful of salt, and some pepper.Mix well together, and stuff the bird withthem.(2) Chop some fat salt pork very fine; soakstale bread or crackers in hot water, mash smooth,and mix with the chopped pork. Season with salt,pepper, sage, and chopped onion. No game birdsave the wild turkey should be stuffed, unless youdeliberately wish to disguise the natural flavor.Wild Turkey, Boiled.— Pluck, draw, singe,wash inside with warm water, and wipe dry. Cutoff head and neck close to backbone, leaving enoughskin to turn over the stuffing. Draw sinews fromlegs, and cut off feet just below joint of leg. Presslegs into sides and skewer them firmly. Stuffas above. Put the bird into enough hot water tocover it. Remove scum as it rises. Boil gently oneand one-half to two hours. Serve with giblet sauceas above.Waterfowl have two large oil glands in the tail,with which they oil their feathers. The oil inthese glands imparts a strong, disagreeable flavor*^^ the bird soon after it is killed. Hence the

GAME 317'tail should always be removed betore cooking.To cook a large bird in a hurry.— Slice off sev^eral fillets from the breast ; impale them, with slicesof pork, on a green switch; broil over the coals.Wild Goose, Roasted.— A good way to suspenda large bird before the fire is described by DillonWallace in his Lure of the Labrador Wild:**George built a big fire — much bigger than usual. Atthe back he placed the largest green log he could find. Justin front of the fire, and at each side, he fixed a forked stake,and on these rested a cross-pole. From the center of thepole he suspended a piece of stout twine, which reachednearly to the ground, and tied the lower end into a noose."Then it was that the goose, nicely prepared for thecooking, was brought forth. Through it at the wingsGeorge stuck a sharp wooden pin, leaving the ends toprotrude on each side. Through the legs he stuck a similarpin in a similar fashion. This being done, he slippedthe noose at the end of the twine over the ends of one ofthe pins. And lo and behold! the goose was suspendedbefore the fire."It hung low — just high enough to permit the placingof a dish under it to catch the gravy. Now and thenGeorge gave it a twirl so that none of its sides mighthave reason to complain at not receiving its share ofthe heat. The lower end roasted first; seeing which,George took the goose off, reversed it, and set it twirlingagain."Time-table for Roasting Birds.— A goose or amiddling-sized turkey takes about two hours toroast, a large turkey three hours, a duck aboutforty-five minutes, a pheasant twenty to thirty minutes,a woodcock or snipe fifteen to twenty minutes.M^ild Duck, Baked.— The bird should be drypicked,and the head left on. Put a little pepperand salt inside the bird, but no other dressing.Lay the duck on its back in the bake-pan. Putno water in the pan. The oven must be hot, butnot hot enough to burn ; test with the hand. Bastefrequently with butter or bacon. A canvasbackrequires about thirty minutes; other birds accordingto size. When done, the duck should be plump,and the flesh red, not blue.This is the way to bring out the distinctive flavor

3i8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof a canvasback. Seasoning and stuffing destroyall that. A canvasback should not be washedeither inside or outside, but wiped clean with a drycloth. Duck should be served with currant jelly,if you have it. (See also page 297.)Wild Duck, Stewed.— Clean well and divideinto convenient pieces (say, legs, wings, and fourparts of body). Place in pot with enough coldwater to cover. Add salt, pepper, a pinch of mixedherbs, and a dash of Worcestershire sauce. Cutup fine some onions and potatoes (carrots, too, if5^ou can get them). Put a few of these in the potso they may dissolve and add body to the dish(flour or corn starch may be substituted for thickening).Stew slowly, skim and stir frequently.In forty-five minutes add the rest of the carrots,and in fifteen minutes more add the rest of theonions and potatoes, also turnips, if you have any.Stew until meat is done.A plainer camp dish is to stew for an hour inwater that has previously been boiled for an hourwith pieces of salt pork. (See also page 300.)Fish-eating Fowls.— The rank taste of these canbe neutralized, unless very strong, by using plentyof pepper, inside and out, and baking with an onioninside. Or, skin, draw, and immerse overnight ina solution of ^^ small teacup of vinegar to a gallonof water; then fry or bake.Coots, sheldrake or old-squaw are rid of theirfishy taste, without sacrificing the game flavor, bya process described by Mary Walsh:"Pluck and draw the birds immediately; don't allo-wthem to hang with the entrails in. Wash thoroughlywith cold water both outside and in. Cut off the tailfor about one inch with the fatty tissue at the base.Sprinkle with pungent white pepper both inside and out,using two teaspoonfuls to each bird. Place in the ice-boxbut not touching the ice, and keep for at least one week,better ten days. Then wash with salt water (handful tothe pint), dry and roast for twenty minutes with anapple placed in each bird. Then serve, removing theapple before placing on the table."

GAME 319'1 ne breast ol ?. coot or rail may be broiled oveithe embers. Cut slits in it, and in these stick slicesof fat salt pork. The broiled breast of a youngbittern is good.Grouse, Broiled.— Pluck and singe. Split downthe back through the bone, and remove the trail.Wipe out with damp towel. Remove head andfeet. Rub inside with pepper and salt. Flattenthe breast, brush over with melted butter, or skewerbacon on upper side, and grill over a hot bed ofcoals.Grouse, Roasted.— Dress and draw, but do notsplit. Place a piece of bacon or pork inside, andskew^er a piece to the breast. Roast before thefire as described for turkey, or in a reflector.Deviled Birds.— If drumsticks and breasts ofbirds are left over, they are better deviled thanserved cold. Mix up with a knife half an ounceof butter, half a teaspoonful each of mustard andsalt, some white or black pepper, and enough cayenneor chile to give it " snap." Slit the meat, andinsert this mixture, or chop the meat fine and addthe seasoning. Heat well in the frying-pan, andserve.Small Birds (quail, woodcock, snipe, plover,etc.).— These are good roasted before a bed ofcoals, searing them first as in broiling meat. Impaleeach bird on a green stick, with a slice ofbacon on the point of the stick over the bird.Thrust butt of stick into the ground, and inclinestick toward the fire. Turn frequently.When a number of birds are to be roasted, abetter way is to set up two forked stakes and across-pole before the fire. Hang birds from thepole, heads downward, by wet strings. Baste asrecommended for turkey, and turn frequently.Serve very hot, without any sauce, unless it beplain melted butter and a slice of lemon.To grill in a pan : pin a bit of bacon to thebreast of each bird with a sliver like a toothpick;hold the pan close over the coals at first for searing;

320 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthen cook more slowly, but not enough ^o dry outthe meat.Such birds can also be served in a ragout. (Seepage 300.)Woodcock are not drawn. The trail shrivels upand is easily removed at table.Sauces for Game. (See abo page 303.)—Giblet Sauce.— See under Wild Turkey,Roasted.Celery Sauce.— Having none of the vegetableitself, use a teaspoonful of celery seed freshly powdered,or five drops of the essence of celery on apiece of sugar. Flavor some melted butter withthis, add a little milk, and simmer ten minutes.Cranberry Sauce.— Put a pound of ripe cranberriesin a kettle with just enough water to preventburning. Stew to a pulp, stirring all thetime. Then add syrup previously prepared byboiling a pound of sugar in % pint of water.Canned or dehydrated cranberries will answer.Curry Sauce.— This is used with stewed smallgame or meat (especially left-overs) that is servedin combination with rice. (See page 308.)Put a large spoonful of butter in a pan overthe fire; add one onion cut into slices; cook untilthe onion is lightly browned. Then stir in oneteaspoonful of curry powder and add gradually agenerous cup of brown gravy, or soup stock, orthe broth in which meat has been stewed, or evaporatedmilk slightly thinned. Boil fifteen minutes,and strain. Curry may be varied indefinitely byfurther flavoring with lemon juice, red pepper, nutmeg,mace, or Worcestershire sauce.

;CHAPTER XVIIICAMP COOKERYFish and ShellfishFish of the same species vary a great deal inquahty according to the water in which they arecaught. A black bass taken from one of the overflowlakes of the Mississippi bears no comparisonwith its brother from a swift, clear, spring-fedOzark rive/. But however pure its native watersrnay be, no fish is good to eat unless it has beenproperly cared for after catching (see ChapterXV); and the best of fish is ruined if fried sog^ywith grease (see Chapter XVI under Frying).Fish, Fried.— Small fish should be fried whole,with the backbone severed to prevent curling uplarge fish may be steaked (see Chapter XV);m.edium ones should have heads and tails removedso they will lie flat in the pan, and have the backbonecut intwo or three places.It is customary to roll fish in cornmeal or breadcrumbs, thinly and evenly, before frying. Thaibrowns them, and keeps them fromi sticking to thepan; but it is best only for coarse fish; trout is ofbetter flavor if simply wiped dry.Fry in plenty of very hot grease to a goldenbrown, sprinkling lightly with pepper and salt justas the color turns. If the fish is not naturallytull-flavored, a few drops of lemon juice will improveit.Olive oil is best to fry fish in, especially smallones that can be quite immersed in it; but Crisco,bacon, salt pork, butter, or lard will do very well.n2\

322 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTWhen butter Is used, less salt Is required. If thefish has not been wiped dry It will absorb toomuch grease. If the frying fat Is not very hotwhen fish are put In It they will get soggy withit: put the pieces In one at a time so as not tocheck the heat.Fish, Broiled.— (See also Chapter XVI.) If abroiling Iron is used, first rub it with fat bacon toprevent fish from sticking to It. When broilinglarge fish, remove the head, split down the backinstead of the belly, and lay on the broiler withstrips of bacon or pork laid across. Broil over arather moderate bed of coals so that the Inside willcook done, but beware of cooking dry and " chippy."Small fish are best broiled quickly over ardent coals.They need not have heads removed.When done, sprinkle with salt and pepper, spreadwith butter (unless you have been basting withbacon), and hold again over fire until butter melts.If you have no broiler, sharpen a small greenstick, thrust this through the mouth ^nd into theDody, and keep turning over the coals while youbaste with the drippings from a bit of bacon heldon another sticl: above the fish.Fish, Skewered.— Sm?i\l fish may be skeweredon a thin, straight, greenwood stick, sharpened atthe end, with a thin slice of bacon or pork between(every two fish, the stick being constantly turnedover the coals like a spit, so that juices may notbe lost.Another way Is to cut some green hardwoodsticks, about three feet long, forked at one end,and sharpen the tines. Lay a thin slice of Pork m-side each fif.h lengthwise, drive tmes through fishand pork, letting them through between ribs nearbackbone and on opposite sides of the latter — thenthe fish won't drop off as soon as It begins to softenand curl from the heat. Place a log lengthwiseot edge of coals, lay broiling sticks on this suppori;slanting upward over the fire, and lay a small lo(iover their butts. Large fish should be oUnked.

FISH AND SHELLFISH 323Fish Roasted in a Reflector.— This process issimpler than baking, and superior in resultingflavor, since the fish is basted in its own juices, andis djelicately browned by the direct action of thelire. The surface of the fish is lightly moistenedwith olive oil (first choice) or butter; lackingthese, use drippings, or bacon grease, or lard.Then place the fish in the pan and add two or threemorsels of grease around it. Roast in front of agood fire, just as you would bake biscuit. Be carefulnot to overroast and dry the fish by evaporatingthe gravy. There is no better way to cooka large fish, unless it be planked.Fish, Planked.— More expeditious than baking,and better flavored. Split and smooth a slab ofsweet hardwood two or three inches thick, two feetlong, and somewhat wider than the opened fish.Prop it in front of a bed of coals till it is sizzlinghot. Split the fish down the back its entire length,but do not cut through the belly skin. Clean andwipe it quite dry. When plank is hot, grease it,spread fish out like an opened book, tack it, skin sidedown, to the plank and prop before fire. Bastecontinuously with a bit of pork on a switch heldabove it, or with butter. Reverse ends of plankfrom time to time. If the flesh is flaky whenpierced with a fork, it Is done. Sprinkle salt andpepper over the fish, moisten with drippings, andserve on the hot plank. No better dish ever was>et before an epicure. Plenty of butter improvesit at table.Fish, Stuffed and Baked.— Clean, remove fins,but leave on head and tail. Prepare a stuffing asfollows: put a cupful of dry bread-crumbs in afrying-pan over the fire with two tablespoonfuls ofdrippings, or the equivalent of butter, and stirthem until they begin to brown. Then add enoughboiling water to moisten them. Season this stuffingrather highly Vvith salt, pepper, and eithercelery seed, or sage, or a teaspoonful of finelychopped onion. StuS the fish with this and sew up

324 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe opening, or wind string several times aroui>dthe fish. Lay several strips of salt pork or baconin the pan, and several over the top of the fishSprinkle over all a little water, pepper, salt, andbread crumbs (or dredge with flour). Bake in ahot oven, basting frequently. When flakes of fishbegin to separate, it will be done. This is best forcoarse fish.Fish, Steamed.— Smear some tissue Manilapaper with butter. Clean the fish, leaving headand fins on. Season with salt and cayenne pepper.Roll each fish separately in a piece of thebuttered paper. Place the fish in a pile and envelopthem in a large sheet of paper. Then wrapthe bundle in a newspaper, and dip this in waterfor five minutes, or long enough to saturate thenewspaper. Scrape a hole in the middle of a bedof coals, and bury the package in the embers.Leave it there ten to twenty minutes, dependingupon size. The newspaper will scorch, but the innerwrappers will not. The result is a dish fit forOlympus, {Up De Graff.)Doctor Breck says of this dish:" I am so fond of steamed trout that I never fail to takewith me a dozen sheets of parchment paper (the kmd mwhich butter is sold) in which to wrap my hsh. . ..* Steam-baked ' trout are the ne plus ultra of woods cookery."Small fish can be steamed in wet basswoodleaves, or other large leaves, without buttering.For another method of steaming, see page 301.Fish, Boiled.— None but fish of good size shouldbe boiled. If the fish is started in cold water andnot allowed to boil hard, it will be less likely tofall apart, but the flavor will not be so good. Itis better to wrap the fish in a clean cloth and dropit into boiling water well salted. A tablespoonfulof vinegar, or the juice of a lemon, improves thedish. Leave the head on, but remove the hns.Boil verv gently until the fish will easily part fromthe bones. Skim off the scum as it rises, lime

FISH AND SHELLFISH 325depends on species; from eight to ten minutes perpound for thick fish, and five minutes for small ones.Boiled fish require considerable seasoning and arich sauce, or at least melted butter, to accompanythem. Besides vinegar or lemon, onions, carrots,cloves, etc., may be used in the water. Recipes^or sauces follov/. (See also pages 303 and 304.)Butter Sauce.—2 heaped tablespoonfuls butter.I heaped tablespoonful flour.1 teaspoonful salt.y^ teaspoonful pepper.Put the butter in a cold pan, and rub Into it theflour, salt, and pepper, beating well. Then pouron a scant half-pint boiling water. Cook tw^o min*utes. L^se immediately.White Sauce.—2 tablespoonfuls butter.2 heaped tablespoonfuls flour.I pint milk.Y2 teaspoonful salt.]/% teaspoonful pepper.For two, use half this.Cook butter until it bubbles. Add flour, andcook thoroughly, until smooth. Remove from directheat of fire, but let it simmer, and add the milkIn thirds, rubbing Into a smooth paste each time asIt thickens. Season last. Thick white sauce ismade by doubling the flour.Cold fish that has been left over Is good whenheated In this sauce. It can be served thus, or bakedand some chopped pickles sprinkled over the top.India Sauce.— Make a white sauce as above, adda teaspoonful of curry powder, and some pickles,chopped small, with a little of the vinegar.Lemon Sauce.—Ilemon.3 tablespoonfuls sugar.y2 pint milk.I scant tablespoonful butter.

326 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTPut the milk, sugar, and thin rind of the lemoninto a pan and simmer gently ten minutes. Thenadd the juice of the lemon and the butter rolledin flour. Stir until butter is dissolved and strainor pour off clear.Mustard Sauce (best for coarse fish).— Meltbutter size of large egg in pan and stir in i tablespoonfulflour and Yi teaspoonful mustard. Boilup once, and season (Breck).Fish Chowder.— Cut the fish into pieces theright size for serving, and remove all the bonespossible. For 5 or 6 lbs. of fish take 3^ lb. clearfat salt pork, slice it, and fry moderately. Slicetwo good-sized onions and fry in the fat. Haveready ten potatoes pared and sliced. Into yourlargest pot place first a layer of fish, then one ofpotatoes, then some of the fried onion, wath pepper,salt, and a little flour, then a slice or two ofthe pork. Repeat these alternate layers until allhas been used. Then pour the fat from the frying-panover all. Cover the whole with boilingwater, and cook from twenty to thirty minutes,according to thickness of fish. Five or ten minutesbefore serving, split some hard crackers and dipthem in cold water (or use stale bread or biscuitssimilarly), add them to the chowder, and pour inabout a pint of hot milk.The advantage of first frying the pork andonion is that the fish need not then be cooked overdone,which is the case in chowders started withraw pork in the bottom of the kettle and boiled.Another Fish Chowder.—Clean the fish, parboilit, and reserve the water in which it was boiled.Place the dry pot on the fire ; when it is hot, throwin a lump of butter and about six onions slicedfinely. When the odor of onion arises, add thefish. Cover the pot closely for fish to absorbflavor. Add a very small quantity of potatoes, andsome of the reserved broth. When cooked, leteach man season his own dish. Ask a blessing andeat.CKenealv.X

FISH AND SHELLFISH 327Fish Cakes.— Take fish left over from a previousmeal and either make some mashed potatoes (boilthem, and mash with butter and milk) or use justthe plain cold boiled potatoes.Remove bones fromfish and mince it quite fine. I\Iix well, in proportionof one-third fish and two-thirds potato. Seasonwith salt and pepper. Then mix in thoroughlya well-beaten egg or two (or equivalent ofdesiccated egg). If it seems too dry, add m.oreegg. Form into flat cakes about aj/^ x ^ inches,and fry with salt pork, or (preferably) in deepfat, like doughnuts.Fish, Creamed.— See page 337. A good way ofutilizing fish left over.Fish from Muddy Waters.— To clean themproperly, see directions in Chapter XV. Anothermethod is here copied from the Outer's Book:" Remove the scales, head, fins and intestines, wash andclean well, then place the fish in a large dishpan and pourboiling water over them, let them remain in this water forone minute, two minutes if the fish are very large, takeiliem out of the water and remove the skin. When theikin is removed the meat will be clean and free from moss,mud or tule taste. All fish caught from lakes or streamswhere fishfrequent places where moss or tules grow, will.aste of the moss unless they are scaled and the skin removed;the moss taste is under the scales and in the skin.Fish that live in swift running water will not have themoss taste, "^nd will not have to be scalded."When it is necessary to eat fish caught in muddystreams, rub a little salt down the backbone, laythem in strong brine tor a couple of hours beforecooking, and serve with one of the sauces describedabove. Carp should have the gills removed, as theyare always muddy from burrowing.Ed, Broiled.— Skin, clean well with salt to removeslime, slit down the back and remove bone,cut into good-sized pieces, rub inside with egg»if you have it, roll in cornmeal or dry breadcrumbs,season with pepper and salt, and broil toa nice brown. Some like a dash of nutmeg withtjieseasoning.

328 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT*Eel, Stewed.— Skin the eel, remove backbone,and cut the eel into pieces about two inches long;put in the stew-pan with just enough water toCover, and add a teaspoonful of strong vinegar or\'k slice of lemon, cover stew-pan and boil moderntelyuntil flesh will leave the bones (20 minutesto half an hour). Then remove, pour off water,iJrain, add fresh water and vinegar as before, andiilew until tender. Now drain, add cream enougl;for a stew, season with pepper and salt (no butter),boil again for a few minutes, and serve on hot, drytoast.(Up De Graff.)Parsley butter (see page 304) is a good dressing.Stew the eel until done, add parsley butter, andcontinue stewing until it thickens and the parsleyis cooked.An eel is too oily for direct frying; but afterstewing until quite done it may be put in a panand fried to a nice brown.A. plain stew is made by adding only a little saltand a bit of butter, simmer gently till done, thenput enough fine bread or cracker crumbs in thewater to make a thick white sauce.Fish Roe.— Parboil (merely simmer) fifteenminutes; let them cool and drain; then roll inflour, and fr}^Miscellaneous.— Frog Legs.— First, afteriskinning, soak them an hour in cold water to w^hichvinegar has been added, or put them for two minutesinto scalding water that has vinegar in itDrain, wipe dry, and cook as below:To fry: roll in flour seasoned with salt and pepperand fry, not too rapidly, preferably in butteror oil. Water cress is a good relish wnth them.To grill: Prepare three tablespoonfuls meltedbutter, one-half teaspoonful salt, and a pinch ortwo of pepper, into which dip the frog legs, thenT'oll in fresh bread crumbs, and broil for threetnlnutes on each side.To cream: same process as for codfish (page 336)except -ti'r ^ream until simmering, season with pep-

TISH AND SHELLFISH 329per, salt, and nutmeg, cover and cook twentyminutes.Turtles.— All turtles (aquatic) and most tortoises(land) are good to eat, the common snappeibeing far better than he looks. Kill by cuttingor (readier) shooting the head off. This does notkill the brute immediately, of course, but it suffices.The common way of killing by dropping aturtle into boiling water I do not like. Let theanimal bleed. Then drop into a pot of boilingW'ater for a few seconds. After scalding, the outerscales of shell, as well as the skin, are easily removed.Turn turtle on its back, cut down middleof under shell from end to end, and then across.Throw away entrails, head, and claws. Salt andpepper it inside and out. Boil a short time in theshell. Remove when the meat has cooked freefrom the shell. Cut up the latter and boil slowlyfor three hours with some chopped onion. If astew is preferred, add some salt pork cut into dice,and vegetables. (See page 300.)Crayfish.— These are the " craw-feesh!" of ourstreets. Tear off extreme end of tail, bringing theentrail w-ith it. Boil whole in salted water till thecrayfish turns red. Peel and eat as a lobster, dippingeach crayfish 'at a time into a saucer of vinegar,pepper, and salt.Shellfish.-" Oysters, Stewed.— Oysters shouldnot be pierced ivith a fork, but removed from theliquor with a spoon. Thoroughly drain the juicefrom a quart of shelled oysters. Add to the juiceenough wa^er (if needed) to make one-half pint.Place juice Bver fire, and add butter the size of awalnut, R'imove all scum that arises when thejuice boils. Put in the oysters. Let them cookquickly until the beards wrinkle, but not untiloysters shrivel — they should remain plump. Addtwo-thirds pint of milk, let all scald through, removefrom fire, and season to taste. Never boiloystf.Ts in milk.Ojnt/'rs. Fried.— Drain the oysters, and dry

330 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthem on a soft cloth (then they will not absorbgrease). Have some desiccated egg prepared, orbeat light the yolks of two or three eggs. Haveenough smoking hot grease in the pan to cover allthe oysters. Dip an oyster into the egg, then intorolled cracker or dry crumbs, and repeat this. Lay05'sters in the pan one at a time, so as not to checkthe heat. When one side is brown, turn, andbrown the other side. Serve piping hot.Oysters, Scalloped.— Cover bottom of greasedbake-pan with a layer of drained oysters, dotthickly over with small bits of butter, then coverwith finely crumbled stale bread, and sprinkle withpepper and salt. Repeat these layers until the panis full, with bread and butter for top layer. Thebread crumbs must be in very thin layers. Bakein reflector or oven until nicely browned.Oysters, Saute.— Drain the oysters. Melt a littlebutter in the frying-pan, and cook the oystersin it. Salt when removed from pan.Oysters, Roasted.— Put oysters unopened onbroiler, and hold over the coals. When they open,put a little melted butter and some white pepperon each oyster, and they are read3^Clams, Baked.— Lay down a bed of stones indisk shape, and build a low wall almost around it,forming a rock oven open at the top. Build abig fire in it and keep it going until the wood hasburned down to embers and the stones are veryhot. Rake out all smoking chunks. Throw alayer of sea-weed over the embers, and lay theclams quickly on this. Roasting ears in the husks,or sweet potatoes, are a desirable addition. Coverall with another layer of sea-weed, and let steamabout forty minutes, or until clams will slip in theshell. Uncover and serve with melted butter, pepper,salt, and perhaps lemon or vinegar.ClaTn Choivder.— Wash the clams, put them ina kettle, and pour over them just enough boilingwater to cover them. When the shells open, pouroff the liquor, saving it, cool the clams, and shell

FISH AND SHELLFISH 331them. Fry two or three slices of pork in bottomof kettle. When it is done, pour over it two quartsof boiling clam liquor. Add six large potatoes,sliced thin, and cook until nearly done. Turn inthe clams, and a quart of hot milk. Season withsalt and pepper. When this boils up, add crackersor stale bread, as in fish chowder. Remove fromfire and let crackers steam in the covered pot untilsoft.Fried sliced onion and a can of tomatoes willimprove this chowder. Cloves, allspice, red pepper,Worcestershire sauce, and other condiments,may be added according to taste.Shellfish, Steamed.— See page 301.Crabsj Deviled.— Boil hard-shell crabs a fewminutes until red. Remove the back shells, andshred out the white meat. Meantime make a pasteof flour rubbed up in cold water, to which add afew drops of olive oil and some chopped green peppers.Mix swiftly with the crab meat, add a dashof cayenne, and stuff back into the shells. Bakeuntil done.(Fortiss.)

CHAPTER XIXCAMP COOKERYCured Meats, Etc.— EggsBacon, Frkd.— Slice quite thin. Remove therind, as it not only is unsightly but makes theslices curl up in the pan. Put pan half full ofwater on fire; when water is warm, drop the baconin, and stir around until water begins to simmer.Then remove bacon, throw out water, ivy oververy few coals, and turn often. Remove sliceswhile still translucent, and season with pepper.They will turn crisp on cooling. Some prefer nottoparboil.Bacon, Broiled.— Slice as above. Turn broilerrepeatedly until bacon is of a light brown colon,Time, three to four minutes.Bacon, Boiled.— Put in enough cold water tojust cover. Bring to a boil very gradually. Removeall scum as it arises. Simmer gently untilthoroughly done. Two pounds take i]^ hours;each additional pound, ^ hour.Bacon, Toasted.— Cut cold boiled bacon intothin slices. Sprinkle each with fine bread crumbspeppered with cayenne. Toast quickly in wirebroiler.Bacon and Eggs.— Poach or fry the eggs and laythem on fried bacon.Bacon Omelet.— See Ham Omelet, near end ofchapter.Bacon Gravy, Thin.— Pour off the fat and saveit for future use. Pour in enough water to supplythe quantity of gravy desired. Add the juice of alemon. Boil and pour upon the bacon. If a1^2

CURED MEATS 333richer gravy is desired, follow recipe given below.Pork Gravy, Thickened.— This can be madev\nth ham or salt pork, as well as with bacon. Tomake gravy that is a good substitute for butter,rub into the hot grease that is left in the pan 2tablespoonful of flour, keep on rubbing untilsmooth and brown; then add two cups boilingwater and a dash of pepper. A tablespoonful ofcatchup may be added for variet5\ If you havemilk, use it instead of water (a pint to the heap'ing tablespoonful of flour), and do not let theflour brown ; this makes a delicious white gravy.Salt Pork, Fried.— Same as fried bacon, above.Pork should be firm and dr}^ Clammy pork isstale.Salt Pork, Broiled.— Same as bacon ; but it isusually so salty that it should be parboiled first,or soaked at least an hour in cold water.Salt Pork, Boiled.— Nearly always cooked withvegetables or greens; hence need not be soakedor parboiled. See page 299.Pork Fritters.— Make a thick batter of cornmealone-third and flour two-thirds, or of flouralone. Fry a few slices of salt pork or bacon untilthe fat is tried out. Then cut a few more slices,dip them in the batter, drop them in the bubblingfat, season with salt and pepper, fry to a lightbrown, and eat while hot. It takes the stomachof a lumberjack to digest this, but it is a favoritevariant in frontier diet.Pork and Hardtack.— Soak hardtack in wateruntil it is partly softened. Drop it into hot porkfat, and cook. A soldier's resource.Hajn, Fried.— Same as bacon. Parboil, first,for eight or ten minutes, if hard and salty.Ham and Fggs.— Same as bacon and eggs.Ham, Broiled.— If salty, parboil first. Cutrather thick slices, pepper them, and broil five minutes.Ham that has been boiled is best for broiling.A little mustard may be spread on the sliceswhen served.

334 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTHam, Boiled.— Wash the ham, and let it soakover night in cold water. In the morning, coverit well with fresh water, bring to a boil, and hangthe kettle high over the fire where it will boilgently until dinner time. When the bone on theunder side leaves the meat readily, the ham is done.If you have eggs, the nicest way to serve a boiledham is to remove the skin, brush over the top ofham with yolk of egg, sprinkle thickly with finelygrated crumbs or cracker-dust, and brown in anoven.Ham and Macaroni,— " Boil an inch-thick sliceof ham half an hour, at the same time boiling therequired amount of macaroni in salted water.When the macaroni is done, drain off the water andput in a baking dish and pour over it a can oftomatoes, which should be seasoned with salt andpepper. Place slice of ham on top, and bake halfan hour. A little grated cheese is an improvementwhen mixed with the macaroni, before adding thetomatoes." {Arthur Chapman.)Ham Chow.— Slice the required amount of potatoesin thin slices, season with salt and pepper^and place in baking dish. Add one can of tomatoes.Cover and cook for an hour. Then placeslices of boiled ham, or some well seasoned chops,over the potato and tomato mixture, return ^o theoven without the cover, and bake half an hour.Thinly sliced bacon will take the place of ham orchops, but must only be left in the oven a fewminutes. (Same.)Pork Sausages.— Cut links apart, prick eachwith a fork so it will not burst in cooking, andbroil on forked stick; or, lay in cold frying-pan,and fry fifteen to twenty minutes over a slow fire,moving them about so they will brown evenly allover. Serve with mashed potatoes, over whichpour the fat from the pan. Apples fried to a lightbrown in the sausage grease are a pleasant accompaniment.Corned Beef, Boiled.— Put the ham mto ^enough

CURED MEATS 335cold water to cover it. Let it come slowly to aboil, and then merely simmer until done. Time,about one-half hour to each pound. Vegetablesmay be added toward the end, as directed on page299. If not to be used until the next day, leavethe meat in its liquor, weighted down under thesurface by a clean rock.Corned Beef Hash.— Chop some canned cornedbeef fine with sliced onions. Hash up with freshlyboiled potatoes, two parts potatoes to one of meat.Season highly with pepper (no salt), and somemustard if liked. Put a little pork fat in a fryingpan,melt, add hash, and cook until nearly dryand a brown crust has formed. Dehydrated potatoesand onions can be used according to directionson packages.Stew luith Canned Meat.— Peel and slice someOnions. If the meat has much fat, melt it ; if not,melt a little pork fat. Add onions, and fry untilbrown. Mix some flour into a smooth batter withcold water, season with pepper and salt, and pourStir the whole well together.into the camp kettle.Cut meat into slices, put into the kettle, and heatthrough.Lobscouse.— Boil corned beef as above (if verysalty, parboil first, and then change the water),.^^bout thirty minutes before it is done add slicedV^otatoes and hardtack.SluTugullion.— When the commissariat is reducedto bacon, corned beef, and hardtack, try thissailor's dish, described by Jack London: Fry halfd dozen slices of bacon, add fragments of hardtack,then two cups of water, and stir briskly overthe fire; in a few minutes mix in with it slicesof canned corned beef; season well with peppeiand salt.Dried Beef, Creamed.— Slice 3 oz. of dried beefinto thin shavings, or chop fine. Pour over it apint of boiling water, and let it stand two minutes.Turn off water, and drain beef dry. Heat aheaped tablespoonful of butter in *:he frying-pan;

336 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthen add the beef. Cook three minutes, stirring allthe time. Then pour on 34 pi^^t cold milk. Mix4 tablespoonfuls milk with i teaspoonful flour, andstir into the beef in the pan. Add an egg, if youhave it. Cook two minutes longer and serve atonce.Canned Meats.— Never eat any that has beenleft standing open in the can. It is dangerous.If any has been left over, remove it to a cleanvessel and keep in a cool place.Canned corned beef and the like should not beeaten cold out of the can if you can help it. Placethe can in water and boil it about ten minutes: themeat is more wholesome this way.Cured Venison.— " Cut off the worst of theblackened casing and slice into steaks an inch thick.Dredge these with flour, salt, and pepper, and layin hot bacon grease in a frying-pan. Pour in asmall cup of water, cover tightly, and allow tosteam until the water is gone. Then remove thecover, and brown." {Kathrene Pinkerton.)Cured Fish.— Salt Fish requires from twelveto thirty-six hours' soaking, flesh downward, in coldwater before cooking, depending on the hardnessand dryness of the fish. Change the water two orthree times to remove surplus salt. Start in coldwater, then, and boil until the flesh parts from thebones. When done, cover with bits of butter, orserve with one of the sauces given in the chapteron Fish.Broiled Salt Fish.— Freshen the flakes of fishby soaking in cold water. Broil over the coals, andserve with potatoes.Stewed Codfish.— Soak over night in plenty ofcold water, or one hour in tepid water. Put inpot of fresh, cold water, and heat gradually untilsoft. Do not boil the fish or it will get hard.Serve with boiled potatoes, and with white saucedirected under Fish.made as(2) Put two tablespoonfuls of butter in a pan;when melted add one tablespoonful of flour, stir'

CURED MEATS 337ring constantly; then a cup of rich milk and somppepper; then half a pint of desiccated codfish. Stiruntil boiling. Serve on toast, if you have lightbread.Codfish Hash.— Prepare salt codfish as above,When soft, mash with potatoes and onions, seasonwith pepper, and fry like corned beef hash.Codfish Balls.— Shred the fish into small pieces.Peel some potatoes. Use one pint of fish to onequart of raw potatoes. Put them in a pot, coverwith boiling water, cook till potatoes are soft,drain water off, mash fish and potatoes together,and beat light with a fork. Add a tablespoonfulof butter and season with pepper. Shape into flattenedballs, and fry in very hot fat deep enoughto cover.Smoked Herrings.— (i) Clean, and remove theskin. Toast on a stick over the coals.(2) Scald in boiling water till the skin curiaup, then remove head, tail, and skin. Clean well.Put into frying-pan with a little butter or lard.Fry gently a few minutes, dropping in a littlevinegar.Smoked Sprats.— Lay them on a slightly greasedplate and set them in an oven until heated through.Canned Salmon, Creamed.— Cut into dice.Heat about a pint of them in one-half pint milk.Season with salt and Cayenne pepper. Cold cookedfish of any kind can be served in this w^a)^Canned Salmon, Scalloped.— Rub two teaspoonfulsof butter and a tablespoonful of flour together.Stir this into boiling milk. Cut two pounds ofcanned salmon into dice. Put a layer of the saucein bottom of a dish, then a layer of salmon.Sprinkle with salt, Cayenne pepper, and gratedbread crumbs. Repeat alternate layers until dishis full, having the last layer sauce, which is sprinkledwith crumbs and bits of butter. Bake in very hotoven untrl browned (about ten minutes).Canned Salmon on Toast.— Dip slices of stalebread in smoking-hot lard,. They will brown at

338 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTonce. Drain them. Heat a pint of salmon, pickedinto flakes, season with salt and Cayenne, and turninto it a cupful of melted butter. Heat in pan. Stirin one egg, beaten light, with three tablespoonfulsevaporated milk not thinned. Pour the mixture onthe fried bread.Sardines on Toast.— Fry them and give them adash of red pepper. They are better if wiped freeof oil, dipped into whipped egg, sprinkled thicklywith cracker crumbs, fried, and served on butteredtoast.(2) Drain and remove skins from one dozensardines, put a tablespoonful of butter in the pan,with two teaspoonfuls anchovy paste, and a littletabasco. Lay the sardines carefully in the pan.When well heated through, serve each on a tinystrip of toast.Eggs.—Desiccated Egg.— The baker's egg mentioned inthe chapter on Provisions is in granules about thesize of coarse sand. It is prepared for use by firstsoaking about two hours in cold or one hour in lukewarmwater. Hot water must not be used. Solutioncan be quickened by occasional stirring. Theproportion is one tablespoonful of egg to two ofwater, which is about the equivalent of one fresh egg.Use just like fresh eggs in baking, etc., and forscrambled eggs or omelets. Of course, the desiccatedpowder cannot be fried, boiled, or poached.Fried Eggs.— Have the frying-pan scrupulouslyclean. Put in just enough butter, dripping, orother fat, to prevent the eggs sticking. Break anegg with a smart but gentle crack on the side of acup, and drop it in the cup without breaking yolk.Otherwise you might drop a bad one in the pan andspoil the whole mess. Pour the egg slowly into thepan so that the albumen thickens over the yolk in-'stead of spreading itself out like a pancake. Thefire should be moderate. In two or three minute?they will be done. Eggs fried longer than this, oron both side§8 are, leathery and unwholesomcc

oURED MEATS 339Scrambled Eggs.— Put into a well-greased panas many eggs as it will hold separately, each yolkbeing whole. When the w^hites have begun to set,stir from bottom of pan until done (buttery, notleathery). Add a piece of butter, pepper, and salt.Another way is to beat the eggs with a spoon. Tofive eggs add one-fourth teaspoonful salt. Heat onetablespoonful butter in the frying-pan. Stir in theeggs, and continue stirring until eggs set. Beforethey toughen, turn them out promptly into a warmdish.Scrambled Eggs, Fancy,— After turning in fiveeggs as above, add a cupful of canned tomatoes,drained and chopped quite fine ; or, chopped ham orbacon instead of tomatoes.Plain Omelet.— It is better to make two or threesmall omelets than to attempt one large one.Scrape the pan and wipe it dry after each omeletis made. Use little salt: it keeps the eggs fromrising. Heat the fat in the pan very gradually, butget it hot almost to the browning point.Beat four eggs just enough to break them well;or, break into a bowl with four tablespoonfuls milk,and w^hip thoroughly. Add a little salt. Put twoheaped teaspoonfuls of butter in the pan and heatas above. Pour egg into pan, and tilt the panforward so that the egg flows to the far side. Assoon as the egg begins to set, draw it up to theraised side of the pan with a knife. Beginningthen at the left hand, turn the egg over in smallfolds until the lower part of the pan is reached, andthe omelet has been rolled into a complete fold.Let the omelet rest a few seconds, and then turn outinto a hot dish. Work rapidly throughout, so thatthe omelet is creamy instead of tough. It shouldbe of a rich yellow color.Ham Omelet.— Cut raw ham into dice. Fry.Turn the beaten eggs over it and cook as above.Bacon can be used instead of ham.Fancy Omelets.— Take tender meat, game, fish,or vegetable, hash it fine, heat it in white sauce

340 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT(see page 325), and spread this over the omeletbefore you begin to fold it; or they can be put inwith the eggs. Jam, jelly, or preserved fruit maybe used in a similar way (two tablespoonfuls, say,of marmalade to six eggs).Rum Omelet.— Beat three eggs, add a very smallpinch of salt, a teaspoonful of powdered sugar, aslice of butter, and a tablespoonful of rum. Fryas described above. Lay the omelet on a hot dish,pour around it one-half tumberful of rum that hasbeen warmed in a pan, light it, and serve with itsblue flame rising round it.Poached Eggs.— Put a pint of water in the fryingpan, with one-half teaspoonful of salt. If youhave vinegar, add two teaspoonfuls to the water:it keeps the whites from running too much. Bringthe water to a gentle boil. Break the eggs separatelyinto a saucer and slide them into the waterLet the water simmer not longer than three minutes,meantime ladling spoonfuls of it over the yolks.Have toast already buttered on a very hot plate.Lay eggs carefully on it. Eat at once. This maybe varied by moistening the toast with hot milk.Eggs, Boiled.— Eggs are boiled soft in two andone-half to three minutes, depending upon size andfreshness. If wanted hard boiled, put them in coldwater, bring to a boil, and keep it up for twentyminutes. The yolk will then be mealy and wholeiome.Eggs boiled between these extremes areeither clammy or tough, and indigestible. To boileggs, soft, if you have no watch : put them in coldwater and set the pot over the fire. Watch thewater; when it begins to sing slightly, or when thefirst little bubbles arise, the eggs are done to a turn.Eggs, Roasted.— This can be done by coveringthe eggs with hot ashes and embers, but the shellsat one end to prevent themmust be cracked a littleexploding.Eggs, Stirred.— Make half a cup of rich gravy.Melt a tablespoon of butter in a pan and add the^riivv. When hissing hot. stir in five beaten pcrcrs'

CURED MEATS 341until they thicken. Season with half a teaspoonfulof salt, a dash of pepper, sprinkle with parsley, andserve on toast-/

CHAPTER XXCAMP COOKERYBreadstuffs and CerealsWhen men must bake for themselves they generallymake biscuit, biscuit-loaf, flap-jacks, or cornbread. Bread leavened with yeast is either beyondtheir skillor too troublesome to make out of doors;so baking powder is the mainstay of the camp.Generally the batch is a failure. To paraphraseTom Hood,Who has not met with camp-made bread,Rolled out of putty and weighted with lead?It need not be so.Just as good biscuit or johnnycake can be baked before a log fire in the woods asm a kitchen range. Bread making is a chemicalprocess. Follow directions; pay close attention todetails, as a chemist does, from building the fire totesting the loaf with a sliver. It does require experienceor a special knack to guess quantities accurately,but none at all to measure them.In general, biscuit or other small cakes should bebaked quickly by ardent heat ; large loaves requirea slow, even heat, so that the outside will not hardenuntil the inside is nearly done.The way to bake in a reflector or in a '' baker "has been shown in the chapter on Meats. If youhave neither of these utensils,there are other ways.Baking in a Dutch Oven.— This is a cast-ironpot with flaring sides and short legs, fitted with athick iron cover, the rim of which is turned up to342

5READS1'UFFS 343hold a layer of coals on top. If it were not for it;weight it would be the best oven for outdoor use,since it not only bakes but cooks the meat or ponein its own steam.Place the Dutch oven and its lid separately or.the fire. Get the bottom moderately hot, and thelid very hot (but not red, lest it warp). Greasethe bottom and sprinkle flour over it, put in thebread or biscuits, set cover on, rake a thin layer ofcoals out in front of the fire, stand oven on them,and cover lid thickly witii more live coals. Replenishoccasionally. Have a stout pot-hook to liftlid with, so you can inspect progress of baking onceor twice.The sheet-steel oven mentioned in Chapter VIIcan be used in a similar way, or one of the potsmade for fireless cookers, or a pudding pan invertedover a slightly smaller one ; but with such thin utensilsyou must use a more moderate heat, of course,and watch the baking carefully lest you burn it.Baking in a Kettle.— Every fixed camp that hasno stove should have a bake-hole, if for nothing elsethan baking beans. The hole can be dug anywhere,but it is best in the side of a bank or knoll, so thatan opening can be left in front to rake out of, andfor drainage in case of rain. Line it with stones,as they hold heat and keep the sides from crumbling.Have the completed hole a little larger than youibaking kettle.Build a hardwood fire in and above the hole anikeep it going until the stones or earth are veryhot (not less than half an hour). Rake out mostof the coals and ashes, put in the oake-pot, whichmust have a tight-fitting lid, cover with ashes andthen w^ith live coals; and, if a long heating is required,keep a small fire going on top. Close themouth of the oven with a flav rock. This is theway for beans or for braising meat.Bread is not to be baked in the kettle alone, be-*cause the sides are vertical and you would have asweet time getting the bread out; but if you have a

344 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpudding-pan that will go inside the kettle,well andgood. Put three or four pebbles in the bottom ofthe kettle for the pan to rest on, so the dough willnot burn.A shifty camper can make bread in almost anything. I have even baked beans to perfection in 9thin, soldered lard-pail, by first encasing it in clay.Baking in the Ashes.— Build a good fire on alevel bit of ground. When it has burned to coalsand the ground has thoroughly heated, rake aw^aythe embers, lightly drop the loaf on the hot earth,pat it smooth, rake the embers back over the loaf(some hot ashes first), and let it bake until nodough will adhere to a sliver thrust to the centerof the loaf. This is the Australian damper. Ashcakes are similarly baked (see page 352). Dirty?No it isn't; try it.Baking in a Frying-pan.— Grease or flour a frying-panand put a flat cake of biscuit-dough in it.Rake some embers out in front of the fire and putpan on them just long enough to form a little cruston bottom of loaf. Then remove frorri embers, and,with a short forked stick, the stub of which willenter hole in end of handle, prop pan up before fireat such angle that top of loaf will be exposed to heat.Tu^n loaf now and then, both sidewise and upsidedown. When firm enough to keep its shape, removeit, prop it by itself before the fire to finishbaking, and go on with a fresh loaf. A tin platemay be used in place of the frying-pan.If you have in your kit a shallow pudding-panof the right size, invert it over the dough in the panand heap embers on top ; or a second frying-pan canbe used in the same way. Another way, with onepan and no cover, is described by Kathrene Pinkerton:" Make a rich, moist baking-powder biscuit dough,using double the amount of lard. The dough should beso thin it can be smoothed with a knife. Heat a little lardin a frying-pan and pour in the dough. A bannockshould never be baked in less than twenty-five minutes.

BREADSTUFFS345With a good cooking fire, the pan should be held thr e feetabove the blaze until the bannock has risen to twice itsoriginal height. Then lower the pan and brown. Shakethe pan occasionally to see that the bannock is not burning.When one side is done, slide the bannock onto a plate, heatmore lard in the pan, gently replace the bannock upsidedown and brown again. The result is a golden-browoloaf."Baking on a Slab.— Heat a thick slab of nonresinousgreen wood until the sap simmers. Thenproceed as with a frying-pan.Baking on a Stick.— Work dough into a ribbontwo inches wide. Get a club of sweet green wood(birch, sassafras, maple), about two feet long andthree inches thick,peel large end, sharpen the otherand stick it into ground, leaning toward fire.When sap simmers wind dough spirally aroundpeeled end. Turn occasionally. Several sticks canbe baking at once. Bread for one man's meal canbe quickly baked on a peeled stick as thick as abroomstick, holding over fire and turning. This iscorkscrew bread."Clay Oven.— In fixed camp, if you have no oven,*'f. good substitute can soon be made in a clay bankor steep knoll near by. Dig down the bank to avertical front. Back from this front, about 4feet, drive a 4 or 5-inch stake down to what willbe the bottom level of the oven. Draw the stakeout, thus leaving a hole for flue. It is best to drivethe stake before excavating, as otherwise it mightcause the roof of your oven to cave in from theshock of driving. Now, from the bottom of theface, dig a horizontal hole back to the flue, keepingthe entrance as small as you can, but enlarging theinterior and arching its top. When the oven is finished,wpt the whole interior, smooth it, and builda small fire in the oven to gradually dry and hardenit.To bake in such an oven : build a good fire in it ofsplit hardwood sticks, and keep it burning hard fcran hour or tvso; then rake out the embers, lay your^Jough on broad gre'^.n leaves (basswood- ^'-om

,346 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTchoice) or on the naked floor, and close both thedoor arid the flue with flat stones or bark.If no bank or knoll lies handy, build a form foiyour oven by first setting up a row of green-stickarches, like exaggerated croquet wickets, one behindthe other, and cover with sticks laid on horizontallylike a roof. At the rear, set up a round stake ascore for the chimney. Now plaster wet clay thicklyover all except the door. Let this dry naturally foia day in hot sunlight, or build a very small firewithin and feed it only as needed to keep up amoderate heat. When the clay has hardened, giveit another coating, to fill up the cracks that haveappeared. Then give it a final firing.To Mix Dough Without a Pan.— When barkwill peel, use a broad sheet of it (paper birch, basswood,poplar, Cottonwood, slippery elm, etc.). It ijeasy to mix unleavened dough in the sack of flouritself. Stand the latter horizontally where it can'tfall over. Scoop a bowl-shaped depression in topof flour. Keep the right hand moving round whileyou pour in a little water at a time from a vesselheld in the left. Sprinkle a little salt in. When athick, adhesive dough has formed, lift this out andpat and work itinto a round cake about 2^ inchesthick.Wheat Bread and Biscuits.— When bakingpowder is used, the secret of good bread is to handlethe dough as little as possible. After adding thewater, mix as rapidly as you can, not with the warmhands, but with a big spoon or a wooden paddle.To knead such bread, or roll it much, or even tomould biscuits by hand instead of cutting them out,would surely make your baking " sad." As soon aswater touches the flour, the baking powder beginsto give off gas. It is this gas, imprisoned in thedough, that makes bread light. Squeezing ormoulding presses this gas out. The heat of thehands turns such dough into Tom Hood's " putty.'Biscuit Loaf.— This is a standard camp bread,because it bakes quickly. It is good so long as it

:BREADSTUFFS 347is not, but it dries out soon and will not keep. Forfourmen3pints flour,3heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder,1 heaping teaspoonful sah,2 heaping tablespoonfuls cold grease,I scant pint cold water.Amount of water varies according to quality offlour. Baking powders vary in strength; followdirections on can.Mix thoroughly, w^ith big spoon or wooden paddle,first the baking powder with the flour, andthen the salt. Rub into this the cold grease (whichmay be lard, cold pork fat, drippings, or bear'sgrease), until there are no lumps left and no greaseadhering to bottom of pan. This is a little tedious,but don't shirk it. Then stir in the water and workit w^ith spoon until you have a rather stiff dough.Have the pan greased. Turn the loaf into it, andbake. Test center of loaf with a sliver when youthink it probably done. When no dough adheres,remove bread. All hot breads should be brokenwith the hands, never cut.To freshen any that is left over and dried out,sprinkle a little water over it and heat through.This can be done but once.Biscuit.— These are baked in a reflector (i 2-inchholds I dozen, 1 8-inch holds i^ dozen), unless acamp stove is carried or an oven is dug. Build thefire high. Make dough as in the preceding recipe,which is enough for two dozen biscuits, i^lop themass of dough to one side of pan, dust flour on bottomof pan, flop dough back over it, dust flour ontop of loaf. Now rub some flour over the breadboard, flour your hands, and gently lift loaf onboard. Flour the bottle or bit of peeled saplingthat you use as rolling-pin, also the edges of can orcan cover used as biscuit cutter. Gently roll loafto three-quarter-inch thickness. Stamp out thebiscuit and lay them in pan.cnake biscuit of them, too.Roll out the culls andBake until enee oi front

348 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTrow turns brown ; reverse pan and continue untilrear row is similarly done. Time, twenty totwenty-five minutes in a reflector, ten to fifteenminutes in a closed oven.Dropped Biscuit.— These do away with breadboard,rolling-pin, and most of the work, yet areabout as good as stamped biscuit. Use same proportionsas above, except turn in enough water tomake a thick batter — one that will drop lazilyfrom a spoon. In mixing, do not stir the battermore than necessary to smooth out all lumps. Dropfrom a big spoon into the greased bake-pan.Army Bread.— This is easier to make than biscuitdough, since there is no grease to rub in, but it takeslonger to bake. It keeps fresh longer than yeastbread, does not dry up in a week, nor mould, andis more wholesome than biscuit. It is the onlybaking-powder bread I know of that is good to eatcold — in fact, it is best that way.1 quart flour,I teaspoonful salt,I tablespoonful sugar,z heaped teaspoonfuls baking powder.Mix the dry ingredients thoroughly. Then stirIn enough cold water (about i^ pints) to make athick batter that will pour out level. Mix rapidlywith spoon until smooth, and pour at once intobake-pan. Bake about forty-five minutes, or untilno dough adheres to a sliver. Above quantitymakes a i^-pound loaf (say 9x5x3 inches).For variety, substitute for the sugar two or threttablespoonfulsof molasses, and add one to two tea'spoonfuls of ginger.Breakfast Rolls.—1 quart flour,2 level tablespoonfuls butter,I egg,I teaspoonful baking powder,1 pint cold milk (or enough to make a soft dough).Rub butter and flour well together, add beaten

BREADSTUFFS 349egg, a pinch of salt, and the milk, till a soft doughis mixed. Form into rolls and bake quickly.Salt-rising Bread.— This smells to heaven whileit is fermenting, but is a welcome change after along diet of baking-powder breadstulis. For abaking of two or three loaves take about a pint ofmoderately warm water (a pleasant heat to thehand) and stir into it as much flour as will make agood batter, not too thick. Add to this one-halfteaspoonful salt, not more. Set the vessel in a panof moderately warm water, within a little distanceof a fire, or in sunlight. The water must not beallowed to cool much below the original heat, morevvarm^ water being added to pan as required.In six to eight hours the whole will be in activefermentation, when the dough must be mixed withit, and as much warm water (milk, if you have it)as you require. Knead the mass till it is tough anddoes not stick to the board. Make up your loaves^and keep them warmly covered near the fire tillthey rise. They must be baked as soon as this secondrising takes place ; for, unless the rising is usedimmediately on reaching its height, it sinks to riseno more.Sour-dough Bread.— Mix a pail of batter fromplain flour and w^ater, and hang it up in a warmplace until the batter sours. Then add salt andsoda (not baking powder) and a spoonful of sugar,thicken with flour to a stiff dough, knead thoroughly,work into small loaves, and place thembefore the fire to rise. Then bake.The following is by Mrs. Pinkerton;" The sour-dough can ranks high in the Hst of woodstime-savers. It is easy to manipulate, will supply yeastfor both cakes and bread, and requires only one start, forit improves with age. Our sour-dough pail has now beengoing continuously for nine months and is getting betieiall the time." To make the ' sourings,' stir two cups of flour, twotablespoons of sugar and one of salt in sufficient waterto make a creamy batter. Stir in a tablespoonful of vinegarand set near a fire or in the sun to sour. One author

350 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFThas said ' it requires a running start of thirty-six hours.'Two days' souring is better. Do not be dismayed by theodor. The woods axiom is, the sourer the ' better,' and itwill not be at its best the first few days. Its great advantagefor campers lies in the fact that it will raise eitherbread or pancakes in any temperature above freezing." Pancakes should be set in the evening. Beat untilsmooth ; water and flour in proper proportions for batter.Stir this into the sourings ' ' in the sour dough can. Thisrises overnight. In the morning the amount of batternecessary for breakfast should be taken out, leavingenough A^east for the next day. Into enough batter fortwo we stir two tablespoons of molasses, one teaspoon ofsalt, and one half teaspoon of soda, the last two dissolvedin hot water. Then, small cakes are better and moreeasily handled than those the size of the frying pan." A quick, hot fire is necessary for pancakes, although,when frying in a pan, care must be taken or they willburn. Once a cake has burned to the pan you may as wellstop and clean the pan thoroughly or every succeedingcake will be spoiled." Uneaten pancakes should be broken up and droppedinto the sourings. It improves the cakes. Some woodsmenare almost superstitious about the mixture, and, withthem, the sour dough pail rivals the garbage can as a receptaclefor uneaten foods. When the yeast loses its sournessfrom overwork a tablespoon of vinegar will revive it.'The sourings can be carried ' in a pail or in a push-toptin. If you use the latter be sure to allow plenty of roomfor expansion. VVe still carry '^n a blanket evidences oftoo active sourings.' "'To Raise Bread in a Pot.— Set the dough to riseover a very few embers, keeping the pot turned asthe loaf rises. When equally risen all around, puthot ashes under the pot and upon the lid, takingcare that the heat be not too fierce at first.Lungwort Bread.— On the bark of maples, andsometimes of beeches and birches, in the northernwoods, there grows a green, broad-leaved lichenvariously known as lungwort, liverwort, lunglichen,and lung-moss, which is an excellent substitutefor yeast. This is an altogether differentgrowth from the plants commonly called lungwortand liverwort — I believe its scientific nameis Sticta pulmonacea. This I'chen is partly madeup of fungus, which does the business of raising

,IBREADSTUFFS 351dough. Gather a little of it and steep it over nightin lukewarm water, set near the embers, but notnear enough to get overheated. In the morning,pour off the infusion and mix it with enough Hourto make a batter, beating it up with a spoon. Placethis " sponge " in a warm can or pail, cover with acloth, and set it near the fire to work. By eveningit will have risen. Leaven your dough with this(saving some of the sponge for a future baking),let the bread rise before the fire that night, and bymornmg it w^U be ready to bake.It takes but little of the original sponge to leavena large mass of dough (but see that it neverfreezes), and it can be kept good for months.Unleavened Bread.— Quickly made, wholesome,and good for a change. Keeps like hardtack.2^ pintsflour,tablespoonful salt (scant),I tablespoonful sugar.Mix with water to stiff dough, and knead andpull until lively. Roll out thin as a soda cracker,score w>th knife, and bake. Unleavened bread thatis to be carried for a long time must be mixed withas little water as possible(merely dampened enoughto make it adhere), for if any moisture is left in itafter baking, it will mould.A teaspoonful of lard worked in with the flouiimproves the taste, but the bread will not keep forever,as it would without the lard. If lard is used,you may as well make a good imitation of Marylandbiscuit while you are about it. Lay the dough outon a board and beat it lustily with a paddle until itbecomes elastic, then bake.Dough Gods.—'' Take ^ cupful of flour, Ismall teaspoonful of baking powder, ^4 teaspoonfulof salt, and a slice of fat bacon minced fine as possible.Mix thoroughly in your bread-pan and addwater slowly, stirring and w^orking till you have atairly stiff dough. Flour the loaf, top and bottom,flour your hands and pat the dough out into a couple

3S2CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof big cakes about half an inch thick. Bake in theashes, or in the frying-pan, . . . This is the old wayof baking with bacon instead of rendered grease orlard, used by men who carried nothing they could dowithout, and whose only food staples were flour,bacon, baking-powder, and salt." {Edivard Cave.)Corn Bread.— Plain corn bread, without flour,milk, or egg, is hard to make eatable without aDutch oven to bake it in. Even so, it is generallyspoiled by being baked too fast and not long enoughto be done inside.Corn Pone.—Iquart meal,I teaspoonful salt,I pint i.varm (but not scalding) water (ij^ pints forold meal).Stir together until light. Bake to a nice brownall around (about forty-five minutes), and let itsweat fifteen minutes longer in the closed oven,removed from the fire. Yellow meal generally requiresmore water than white. Freshly groundmeal is much better than old.Corn Dodgers.— Same as above, but mix to astiff dough, and form into cylindrical dodgers fouror five inches long and i}4 inches diameter, by rollingbetween the hands. Have frying-pan very hot,grease it a little, and put dodgers on as you rollthem out. As soon as they have browned, pu^t themin oven and bake thoroughly.Ash Cake.— Same kind of dough. Form it intcballs as big as hen's eggs, roll in dry flour, lay in hotashes, and cover completely with them.Johnny-eake.—'' Mix at home, before starting, iquart of yellow, granulated corn meal, i pint ofwhite flour, '^ cup of sugar, i teaspoonful of salt, 4teaspoonfuls of baking-powder. In camp it shouldbe mixed in the pan to make a fairly heavy batterand allowed to stand for a few minutes before fryingso that it becomes light and puffy. It should thenbe dropped by spoonfuls, without further stirring,

.BREADSTUFFS 353into the hot, greased pan, and not turned until thetop has begun to set. The bacon grease takes theplace ofbutter." If less water is used, the entire mixture may beput in the frying-pan at once, baked from the bottomup over coals until the top has set, and thenturned. It makes delicious johnny-cake. Tryrolling the trout in a little of the dry mixture."{Warwick S. Carpenter.)Corn Bread {Superior)Ipint corn mea),1 pint flour,—3 tablespoonfuls sugar,2 heaped tablespoonfuls butter,3 teaspoonfuls baking powder,r teaspoonful salt,2 eggs,I pint (or more) milk.Rub butter and sugar together. Add the beateneggs ; then the milk. Sift the salt and baking powderinto the meal and flour. Pour the liquid overthe dry ingredients, beating well. Pour batter intowell-greased pan, and bake thirty to forty minutesin moderately hot oven. Can also be made intomuffins.Corn Batter Bread.—1 pint corn meal,2, pints milk (or water),2 eggs,1 teaspoonful salt.Beat the eggs light; add the salt; then the mealand milk, gradually, until well blended. Bakeabout thirty minutes. This is the standard breakfastbread of the South, easily made, and (if themeal is freshly ground) delicious. A little boiledrice, or hominy grits, may be substituted for oartof the meal.Snow Bread.— After a fall of light, featherysnow, superior corn bread may be made by stirringtogether

354 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTI quart corn meal,Yz teaspoonful soda,I teaspoonful salt,I tablespoonful lard.Then, in a cool place where the snow will notmelt, stir into above one quart light snow. Bakeabout forty minutes in rather hot oven. Snow, forsome unknown reason, has the same effect on breadas eggs have, two tablespoonfuls of snow equalingone egg. It can also be used in making batter forpancakes, or puddings, the batter being made ratherthick, and the snow mixed with each cake just beforeputting in the pan.Substitute for Baking Soda.— Take the white ofwood ashes, same quantity as you would use of soda,and mix dry with the flour. It makes bread risethe same as soda, and you can't tell the difference.The best ashes are those of hickory, dogwood, sugarmaple, and corncobs ; but the ashes of beech, ash,buckeye, balsam poplar, and yellow poplar are alsogood."Gritted Bread.'*— When green corn has justpassed from the tucket, or soft and milky stage, andhas become too hard for boiling, but is still too softfor grinding into meal, make a " gritter," as follows:Take a piece of tin about 7 x 14 inches (unsoldera lard pail by heating, and flatten the sides) ;punch holes through it, close together, with a largenail; bend the sheet into a half cylinder, rough sideout, like a horseradish grater; nail the edges to aboard somewhat longer and wider than the tin.Then, holding the ear of corn pointing lengthwisefrom you, grate it into a vessel held between theknees.The meal thus formed will need no water, butcan be mixed in its own milk. Salt it, and bakequickly. The flavor of " gritted bread " is a blendof hot pone and roasting ears — delectable ! Hardcorn cap be grated by first soaking the ears overnight.

Pancakes.—PlainFlapjacks.—I quart flour,BREADSTUFF? 3551 teaspoonful salt,2 teaspoonfuls sugar, or 4 of molasses,2 level tablespoonfuls baking powder.Rub in, dry, two heaped tablespoonfuls grease.]f you have no grease, do without. Make a smoothbatter with cold milk (best) or water — thinenough to pour from a spoon, but not too thin, or itwill take all day to bake enough for the party.Stirwell, to smooth out lumps. Set frying-pan levelover thin bed of coals, get it quite hot, and greasewith a piece of pork in split end of stick. Pan mustbe hot enough to make batter sizzle as it touches,and it should be polished. Pour from end of a bigspoon successively enough batter to fill pan withinone-half inch of rim. When cake is full of bubblesand edges have stiffened, shuffle pan to make surethat cake is free below and stiff enough to flip.Then hold pan slanting in front of and away fromyou, go through preliminary motion of flapping onceor twice to get the swing, then flip boldly so cakewill turn a somersault in the air, and catch it upsidedown. Beginners generally lack the nerve totoss high enough. Grease pan anew and stir batterevery time before pouring. This is the " universalpancake " that '* Nessmuk " derided. Much betterand wholesomer are:Effff Pancakes.— Made same as above exceptingthat you add two eggs, or their equivalent in desicc'atedegg.Snow Pancakes.— Instead of eggs, in the aboverecipe, use four tablespoonfuls of freshly fallensnow. Make the batter rather thick, and add someclean, dry snow to each pancake before putting itthepan.Mixed Cakes.— When cold boiled rice is leftover, mix it half and half with flour, and proceedas wjth flmjacks. It makes them tender. The bat-in

356 CAMPING AND WOOt?CRAP-rter IS best mixed with the water in which the rictwas boiled. Oatmeal, grits, or cold boiled potatoes,may be used in the same way. Stewed dried fruitis also a good addition; mix the flour with theirjuice instead of water.Corn Batter Cakes.—y2 pint corn meal,J4 pint flour,I heaped teaspoonful baking powder,I heaped teaspoonful sugar or 2 molassfew,1 level teaspoonful salt.After mixing the dry ingredients thoroughly, addcold water, a little at a time, stirring briskly, untila rather thick batter results. Bake like flapjacksWholesomer than plain flour flapjacks. These arebetter with an egg or two added, and if mixed withmilk instead of water. Snow can be substitutedfor eggs, as described above.Buckwheat Cakes.—1 pint buckwheat flour,Yz pint wheat flour,2 tablespoonfuls baking powder,J/2teaspoonful salt.Mix to a thin batter, preferably with milk. Acouple of eggs make them light, or make snow cakes.Syrup.— Mix maple or brown sugar with justenough water to dissolve it, and heat until clear.If white sugar is used, caramel it by putting it dryin a pan and heating until browned ; then add waterto dissolve it.Toast, Fritters, Dumplings, Etc.—Stale Bread.— Biscuit or bread left over and driedout can be freshened for an hour or two by dippingquickly in and out of water and placing in the bakeruntil heated through; or, the biscuit may be cutopen, slightly moistened, and toasted in a broiler.If you have eggs, make a French toast by dippingthe slices in whipped eggs and frying them.With milk, make milk toast: heat the milk, add a

BREADSTUFFS 357chunk of butter and some salt, toast the bread, andpour milk over it. Heat the milk gradually to thesimmering point, but do not let it boil, lest it burn.Stale bread may also be dipped into smoking hotgrease. It will brown immediately. Stand it edgewiseto drain, then lay on hot plate. Cut into dicefor soups.Fried Quoits.— Make dough as for biscuit.Plant a stick slanting in the ground near the fire.Have another small, clean stick ready, and a fryingpanof lard or butter heated sissing hot. Theremust be enough grease in the pan to drown thequoits. Take dough the size of a small hen's egg,flatten it between the hands, make a hole in the centerlike that of a doughnut, and quickly work it(the dough, not the hole) into a flat ring of abouttwo inches inside diameter. Drop it flat into thehot grease, turn almost immediately, and in a fewseconds it will be cooked.When of a light brown color, fish it out with yourlittle stick and hang it on the slanting one beforethe fire to keep hot. If the grease is of the righttemperature, the cooking of one quoit will occupyjust the same time as the molding of another, andthe product will be crisp and crumpety. If thegrease is not hot enough, a visit from your oldestgrandmother may be expected before midnight.(Adapted from Lees and Clutterbuck.)Fritters.— A dainty variety is added to the campbill-of-fare by fritters of fruit or vegetables, fish,flesh, or fowl. They are especially relished in coldweather, or when the butter supply is low. Beingeasily made and quickly cooked, they fit any time orplace.The one essential of good and wholesome frittersis plenty of fat to fry them in, and fat of the righttemperature. (The best friture is equal parts ofbutter and lard.)heat slowly until needed; then closer over the fireSet the kettle where the fat willuntil a bluish smoke rises from the center of the-kettle. Drop a cube of bread into ;*- ^^ ^ tajrns

358 CAMPING AND WOODCTvAFTgolden-brown in one minute, the fat is right. Thenkeep the kettle at just this temperature. Make batteras follows:Fritter Batter.—I pint flour,4 eggs,I tablespoonful salt,I pint water or milk,3 tablespoonfuls butter or other grease.Blend the salt and the yolks of the eggs (ordesiccated egg). Rub the butter into this; then theflour, a little at a time ; then the water. Beat well,and, if you have time, let it stand a while. If fresheggs are used, now beat the whites to a stiff frothand stir them in. When using, drop even spoonfulsinto the fat with a large spoon. When goldenbrown,lift fritter out with a forked stick (not piercing),stand it up to drain, and serve very hot. Thebase may be almost anything: sliced fruit, mincedgame or meat, fish or shellfish, grated cheese, boiledrice, grated potato or green corn, etc. Anythingcut to the size of an oyster is dipped in the batterand then fried ; if minced or grated it is mixed withthe batter. Jam is spread on bread, covered withanother slice, the sandwich is cut into convenientpieces, and these are dipped in the batter. Plainfritters of batter alone are eaten with syrup. Thosemade of corn meal instead of flour (mixed withwarm milk and egg) are particularly good. Thevariety that can be served, even in camp, is wellnighendless.Dumplings.— Those of biscuit dough have alreadybeen mentioned. Wlien specially preparedthey may be made as follows:J/2pint flour,I teaspoonful baking powder,J4 teaspoonful salt,y2 teaspoonful sugar,% pint milk=The stew that they are tooe cooKed with should

BREADSTUFFS359^be nearly done before the dumplings are started.Then mix the dry ingredients thoroughly. Wetwith the milk and stir quickly into a smooth ball.Roll into a sheet three-quarters of an inch thick,and cut like biscuit. Meantime bring the stew to asharp boil. Arrange dumplings on top of it, coverthe vessel, and cook exactly ten minutes.Macaroni.—Boiled Macaroni.— For one-half pound macaronihave not less than three quarts of salted water boilingrapidly. Break the macaroni into short pieces,and boil thirty-five minutes for the small, forty-fiveminutes for the large. Then drain, and pour sauceover it, or bake it. It is better if boiled in goodbroth/ instead of water.1 omato Sauce.—Iquart can tomatoes,1 tablespoonful butter,2 tablespoonfuls flour,I teaspoonful salt,y% teaspoonful pepper,I teaspoonful sugar.Rub the flour into the butter until they blend.Brown this in a pan. Add the tomatoes and simmerthirty minutes. Stir frequently. Add the seasoning,along with spices, if you wish. This makesenough sauce for i^ pounds macaroni, but it keepswell in cold weather, and can be used with otherdishes. Good in combination with the following:Macaroni with Cheese.— After the macaroni isboiled, put it in a pan with a little butter and somegrated cheese.Stir gently, and as soon as the cheeseis melted, serve ; or, pour the above sauce over it.Macaroni, Baked.— Boil first, as above. Drain.Place in a deep pan, add a cupful of cold milk,sprinkle in three tablespoonfuls grated cheese andone tablespoonful butter. Then bake until brown.Spaghetti.— This has the advantage over macaroniof not being so bulky to carry ; but some do notlike it so well. Speaking of bulk, if you cannot

36oCAMPING AND WOODCf>AFTcarry canned tomatoes, a very good sauce is madeof Franco-American tomato puree (usually listedunder soups in grocers' catalogues) which is put upin cans as small as ^ pint." Dice one large onion and ^4 lb. of bacon andcook in a frying-pan until the onion is a lightbrown. Mix with this one small can of tomatopuree, and, if you have it, a half cup of gratedcheese. Season well and combine this with thespaghetti, which has been boiled, and blanched incold water. Place in the baker in moderate heatfor an hour. We buy plain American cheese andgrate after drying: it should be packed in a push-toptin well lined with oiled paper." {Mrs. Pinkerton.)Porridge.—Corn Meal Mush.— Mix two level tablespoonfulssalt with one quart meal. Bring four quartsof water (for yellow meal, or half as much for freshwhite meal) to a hard boil in a two-gallon kettle.Mix the salted meal with enough cold water to makea batter that will run from the spoon ; this is toprevent it from getting lumpy. With a large spoondrop the batter into the boiling water, adding gradually,so that water will not fall below boiling point.Stir constantly for ten minutes. Then cover potand hang it high enough above fire to insure againstscorching. Cook thus for one hour, stirring occasionally,and thinning with boiling water if it getstoo thick.Fried Mush.— This, as Father Izaak said ofanother dish, is " too good for any but very honestmen." The only drawback to this gastronomicjoy is that it takes a whole panful for one man.As it is rather slow to fry, let each man performover the fire for himself. The mush should havebeen poured into a greased pan the previous evening,and set in a cool place over night to harden.Cut into slices one-third of an inch thick, and fryin very hot grease until nicely browned. Eat withsyrup, or au naturel.

Polenta.— An ItalianBREADSTUFFS 361dish made from our native."orn and decidedly superior to plain boiled mush.Cook mush as above for one hour. Partly fill thebake-pan with it, and pour over it either a goodbrown gravy, or the tomato sauce described undermacaroni. Then sprinkle with grated cheese. Setthe pan in the oven three minutes, or in the reflectorfive minutes, to bake a little.Oatmeal Porridge.— Rolled oats may be cookedmuch more quickly than the old-fashioned oatmeal;the latter is not fit for the human stomach until ithas been boiled as long as corn mush. To twoquarts boiling water add one teaspoonful of salt,stir in gradually a pint of rolled oats, and boil tenminutes, stirring constantly, unless you have a doubleboiler. The latter may be extemporized bysetting a small kettle inside a larger one that containssome water, with a few pebbles at the bottomto keep them apart.Cereals.—Rice, Boiled.— Good precedent to the contrarynotwithstanding, I contend that there is but oneway to boil rice, and that is this (which is describedin the words of Captain Kenealy, whoseYachting Wrinkles is a book worth owning) :''To cook rice so that each grain will be plump,dry, and separate, first, wash the measure of ricethoroughly in cold, salted water. Then put it ina pot of furiously boiling fiesh water ( i cupfulto 2 quarts water), no salt being added. Keep thepot boiling hard for twenty minutes, but do notstir. Then strain off the water, place the rice overa very moderate fire (hang high over camp-fire),and let it swell and dry for half an hour, in an uncoveredvessel. Remember that rice swells enormouslyin cooking."Plain boiled rice is not an appetising dish, particularlywhen you have no cream to eat it with;but no other cereal lends itself so well to variedcombinations, not only as a breakfast food but also

362 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTm soups and stews, in puddings, cakes, etc. Boiledrice with raisins is a standard dish; other driedfruit may be used. As a left-over, rice can be fried,a scoremade into pancakes or muffins, or utilized inof other ways, each dish tasting different from theothers.Rice, Fried.— When boiled rice is left over,spread 'it in a dish. When cold, cut it into cakesand fry it, for a hasty meal. It is better, though,inmuffins.Rice Muffins.— Mash very smooth half a pmtboiled rice.Add slowly, stirring to a thinner paste,half a pint of milk, three beaten eggs, salt. Thenmake into a stiff batter with flour. Bake likedropped biscuits.Rice with Onions.— A very good dish, quicklymade, is boiled rice mixed with onions which havebeen chopped up and fried.Spanish Rice.—*' Mix two cupfuls of boiled rice,a large diced onion, and a can of tomato puree.Season with plenty of cayenne pepper and bake inthe reflector for an hour." {Mrs. Pinkerton.)Jlisotto.— Fry a sliced onion brown in a tablespoonfulof butter. Add to this a pint of hotwater and half a pint of washed rice. Boil untilsoft, adding more hot water if needed. Heat halfa pint canned tomatoes, and stir into it a teaspoonfulof sugar. When the rice is soft, salt it; addthe tomato; turn into a dish and sprinkle over it aheaped tablespoonful jf grated cheese.Rice, Curried.— Same as Risotto, but put a teaspoonfulof curry powder in the tomatoes and omitcheese.Grits, Boiled.— Put in plenty of boiling unsaltedwater. Boil about thirty minutes; then salt anddrain.Grits, Fried.— Same as fried rice.''Breakfast Foods."'— According to directionson packages.Left-over Cereals.— St^ Mixed Cakes, page355-

CHAPTER XXICAMP COOKERYVegetables.— SoupsFresh Vegetables.— Do not wash them until justbefore they are to be cooked or eaten. They loseflavor quickly after being washed. This is true«ven of potatoes.Fresh vegetables go into plenty of fast-boilingsalted water. Salt prevents their absorbing toomuch water. The water should be boiling fast,and there should be plenty of it. They shouldbe boiled rapidly, with the lid left off the pan. Ifthe water is as hot as it should be, the effect issimilar to that which we have noted in the caseof meats: the surface is coagulated into a waterproofenvelope which seals up the flavor insteadof letting it be soaked out. In making soup, therule is reversed.Dried Vegetables.— Beans and peas are to becooked in unsalted water. If salted too soon theybecome leathery and difficult to cook. Put themin cold, fresh water, gradually heat to the boilingpoint, and boil slowly.Dehydrated Vegetables.— When time permitsthey should first be soaked in cold water, accordingto directions on package; this makes them moretender. The onions and soup vegetables, however,can be boiled without previous soaking. Heatgradually to the boiling point and cook slowly in acovered vessel until done. When served alone theyrequire butter for seasoning.Canned Vegetables.— The liquor of canned peas,string beans, etc., is unfit for use and should be363

364 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthrown away; this does not apply to tomatoes.Cleaning Vegetables.— To clear cabbage, etc.,immerse them, stalk upward, in plentyfrom insects,of cold water salted in the proportion of a largetablespoonful to two quarts. Vinegar may be usedinstead of salt. Shake occasionally. The insectswill sink to bottom of pan.Storing Vegetables.— To keep vegetables, putthem in a cool, dry place (conditions similar tothose of a good cellar). Keep each kind awayfrom the other, or they will absorb each other'sflavor.Potatoes, Boiled.— Pick them out as nearly aspossible of one size, or some will boil to pieces beforethe others are done; if necessary, cut them toone size. Remove eyes and specks, and pare asthinly as possible, for the best of the potato lies justunder the skin. As fast as pared, throw into coldwater, and leave until wanted. Put in furiouslyboiling salted water, then hang kettle a little higherwhere it will boil moderately, but do not let itcheck. Test with a fork or sliver. When thetubers are done(about twenty minutes for new potatoes,thirty to forty minutes for old ones) drainoff all the water, dust some salt over the potatoes(it absorbs the surface moisture, and keeps leftoversfrom souring early), and let the pot standuncovered close to the fire, shaking it gently onceor twice, till the surface of each potato is dry andpowdery. Never leave potatoes in the water afterthey are done ; they become watery.Potatoes, Boiled in Their Jackets.— After washingthoroughly, and gouging out the eyes, snip offa bit from each end of the potato; this gives a vent,to the steam and keeps potatoes from bursting open,I prefer to put them in cold water and bring itgradually to a boil, because the skin of the potatoicontains an acid poison which is thus extracted.The water in which potatoes have been boiled willpoison a dog. Of course we don't " eat 'em skinand all," like the people in the nursery rhyme; but

VEGE'lABLES 365there Is no use in driving the bitterness into a potato.Boil gently, but continuously, throw in alittle salt now and then, drain, and dry before thefire.Potatoes, Steamed.— Old potatoes are bettersteamed. A rough-and-ready method is shown onpage 30.Potatoes, Mashed.— After boiling, mash the potatoeswith a peeled stub of sapling, or a bottle,and work into them some butter, if you have it,and milk. " The more you beat 'em, the betterthey be." Salt and pepper.Potato Cakes.— Mould some mashed potato intocakes, season, and fry in deep fat. Or add egg andbake them brown.Potatoes, 5

366 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTDrying the slices avoids a splutter in the pan andhelps to keep from absorbing grease. If manyslices were dropped into the pan together, the heatwould be checked and the potatoes would get soggywith grease. When the slices begin to turn a faintbrown, salt the potatoes, pour off the grease at once,and brown a little in the dry pan. The outsideof each slice will then be crisp and the insides whiteand deliciously mealy.Potatoes, Lyonnaise.— Fry one or more slicedonions until they are turning yellowish, then addsliced or diced potatoes, previously boiled; keeptossing now and then until the potatoes are friedsomewhat yellow ; salt and pepper to taste ;you mayadd chopped or dehydrated parsley. Drain andserve.Potatoes, Creamed.— Cut I pint cold potatoesin cubes or thin slices; put in pan and cover withmilk; cook gradually until milk is absorbed. Thenadd I tablespoon butter, 1/2 teaspoonful salt, somepepper, and parsley. Stir a few moments, andserve.Potatoes au Gratin.— " Chop cold boiled potatoesrather fine. Rub a tablespoonful of butter with oneof flour, add 3^ pint of milk, and season with saltand pepper. When this mixture has boiled, mix itwith potatoes and turn into a baking dish. Sprinklegrated cheese over the top, pressing it down intothe cream sauce. Bake in a quick oven until agolden brown." (Arthur Chapman.)Potatoes, Stewed.— Cut cold boiled potatoes intodice, season with salt, pepper, butter, and stewgently in enough milk to cover them. Stir occasionallyto prevent scorching. Or, peel and slicesome raw potatoes. Cover with boiling water andboil until tender. Pour off the water. Roll a largepiece of butter in flour, heat some milk, beat thesetogether until smooth, season with salt and pepper,and bring to a boil. Then stew together fiveminutes. Serve very hot.Sweet Potatoes.. Boiled.— Use a kettle with lid.

VEGETABLES 367Select tubers of uniform size; wash; do not cut orbreak the skins. Put them in boiling water, andcontinue boiling until, when you pierce one with afork, you find it just a little hard in the center.Drain by raising the cover only a trifle when kettleis tilted, so as to keep in as much steam as possible.Hang the kettle high over the fire, cover closely, andlet steam ten minutes.Sweet Potatoes, Fried.— Skin the boiled potatoesand cut them lengthwise. Dust the slices with saltand pepper. Throw them into hot fat, browningfirst one side, then the other. Serve very hot.Potatoes and Onions, Hashed,— Slice two potatoesto one onion. Parboil together about fifteenminutes in salted water. Pour off water, and drain.Meantime be frying some bacon. When it is done,remove it to a hot side dish, turn the vegetables intothe pan, and fry them to a light brown. Then faljto, and enjoy a good thing!Beans, Boiled,—Pick out all defective beans, andwash the rest. It is best to soak the beans overnight; but if time does not permit, add one-quarterteaspoonful of baking soda to the parboiling water.In either case, start in fresh cold water, and parboilone quart of beans (for four men with hearty appetites)for one-half hour, or until one will pop openwhen blown upon. At the same time parboil separatelyone pound fat salt pork. Remove scunffrom beans as it rises. Drain both; place beansaround pork, add two quarts boiling water, and boH-slowly for two hours, or until tender. Drain, andseason with salt and pepper.It does not hurt beans to boil all day, providedboiling water is added from time to time, lest theyget dry and scorch. The longer they boil the moredigestible they become.Left-over beans heated in a frying-pan with alittle bacon grease have a pleasant and distinctiveflavor.Beans, Baked.— Soak and parboil as above, boththe beans and the pork. Then pour off the water

368 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfrom the pork, gash the meat with a knife, spreadhalf of it over the bottom of the kettle, drain thebeans, pour them into the kettle, put the rest ofpork on top, sprinkle not more than one-half teaspoonfulof salt o/er the beans, pepper liberally, andif you have molasses, pour a tablespoonful over all;otherwise a tablespoonful of sugar. Hang the kettlehigh over the fire where it will not scorch, and bakeat least two hours; or, add enough boiling water tojust cover the beans, place kettle in bake-hole as directedon page 297, and bake all night, being carefulthat there are not enough embers with the ashes toburn the beans.If a pail with thin lid must be used for a beanpot,cover its top with a two or three-inch layer ofbrowse or green twigs before shoveling on the embers.Baked beans are strong food, ideal for active menin cold weather. One can work harder and longeron pork and beans, without feeling hungry, than onany other food with which I am acquainted, savebear meat. The ingredients are compact and easyto transport; they keep indefinitely in any weather.But when one is only beginning camp life he shouldbe careful not to overload his stomach with beans,for they are rather indigestible until you have tonedup your stomach by hearty exercise in the open air.'*Baked Beans for Transport.— Cook the amoun-ybthought necessary and, when finished, pour off everylast drop of water, spread them out on plates, andlet them dry over a slow fire, stirring constantly.When dried they can be carried in a sack or anyother receptacle, and can be prepared to be eatenwithin five minutes by the addition of hot water. Ifthe weather is cold, do not dry them, but spread themout and stir around with a stick. They will freeze,and if constantly stirred will be so many individualbeans, hard and frozen ; they can be handled orcarried like so many pebbles, and will keep indefinitely.Add hot water and, as soon as thawed out.,they are ready to eat." {Edward Ferguson.)

VEGETABLES 369Onions, Boiled.-— More wholesome this way thanfried or baked. Like potatoes, they should be of asuniform size as possible, for boiling. Do not boilthem in an iron vessel. Put them in enough boilingsalted water to cover them. Cover the kettle andboil gently, lest the onions break. They are cookedwhen a straw will pierce them (about an hour). Ifyou wish them mild, boil in two or three waters.When cooked, drain and season with butter or dripping,pepper, and salt. Boiled milk, thickened, is agood sauce.Green Corn.— If you happen to camp near a farmin the " roasting-ear " season, you are in great luck.The quickest way to roast an ear of corn is to cutoff the butt of the ear closely, so that the pith ofthe cob is exposed, ream it out a little, impale thecob lengthwise on the end of a long hardwood stick,and turn over the coals.To bake in the ashes: remove one outer husk,stripping off the silk, break off about an inch of thesilk end, and twist end of husks tightly down overthe broken end. Then bake in the ashes and embersas directed for potatoes. Time, about onehour.To boil: prepare as above, but tie the ends ofhusks ; this preserves the sweetness of the corn Putin enough boiling salted water to cover th« ears.Boil thirty minutes. Like potatoes, corn is injuredby over-boiling. When cooked, cut off the bulf, andremove the shucks.Cold boiled corn may be cut from the coband fried, or mixed with mashed potatoes ai7dfried.Kedgeree.— Soak i pint split peas overnight?drain them, add i pound rice, some salt, pepper, and3^ teaspoonful ginger. Stir, and cover with i quartwater. Stir and cook slowly until done and almostdr>\ Make into a mound, garnished with friedonions and sliced hard-boiled eggs.Greens.— One who camps early in the season canadd a toothsome dish, now and then, to his menu

370 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTby gathering fresh greens in the woods and marshes.*As a salad (watercress, peppergrass, dandelion,wild mustard, sorrel, etc.) : wash in cold saltedwater, if necessary, although this abstracts some ofthe flavor; dry immediately and thoroughly. Breakinto convenient, pieces, rejecting tough stems. Preparea simple French dressing, thus:I tablespoonful vinegar,3 tablespoonfuls best olive oil,J/2teaspoonful salt,%. teaspoonful black pepper.Put salt and pepper in bowl, gradually add oil,rubbing and mixing till salt is dissolved; then addby degrees the vinegar, stirring continuously oneminute. In default of oil use cream and meltedbutter; but plain vinegar, salt, and pepper will do.Pour the dressing over the salad, turn the latterupside down, mix well, and serve.A scalded salad is prepared in camp by cuttingbacon into small dice, frying, adding vinegar, pepper,and a little salt to the grease, and pouring this,scalding hot, over the greens.Greens may be boiled with salt pork, bacon, orother meat. To boil them separately: first soakin cold salted water for a few minutes, then drainwell, and put into enough boiling salted water tocover, pressing them do\i'n until the pot is full.Cover, and boil steadily until tender, which maybe from twenty minutes to an hour, depending uponkind of greens used. If the plants are a littleolder than they should be, parboil in water towhich a little baVing soda has been added ; thendrain, and continue boiling in plain water, salted.Some greens are improved by chopping fine afteiboiling, putting in hot frying-pan with a tablespoonfulof butter and some salt and pepper, andstirring until thoroughly heated.Poke stalks are cooked like asparagus. They* Nearly a hundred edible wild plants, besides mushrooms andfruits, are discussed in Volume II, under head of EdiblePlants of the Wilderness-

VEGETABLES 371should not be over four inches long, and shouldshow only a tuft of leaves at the top; if mucholder than this, they are unwholesome. Wash thestalks, scrape them, and lay in cold water for anhour; then tie loosely in bundles, put in a kettle ofboiling water, and boil three-fourths of an hour,or until tender; drain, lay on buttered toast, dustwith pepper and salt, cover with melted butter, andserve.Jerusalem artichokes must be watched whenboiling and removed as soon as tender; if leftlonger in the water they harden.Dock and sorrel may be cooked like spinach:pick over and wash, drain, shake, and press outadhering water; put in kettle with one cup water,cover kettle, place over moderate fire, and steamthus twenty minutes; then drain, chop very fine,,and heat in frying-pan as directed above.Mushrooms.— Every one who camps in summetshould take with him a mushroom book, such asGibson's, Atkinson's, or Nina Marshall's. (Sucha book in pocket form, with colored illustrations,is a desideratum.) Follow recipes in book. Mushroomsare very easy to prepare, cook quickly, andoffer a great variety of flavors. The followinggeneral directions are condensed from Mcllvaine'sOne Thousand American Fungi:To Cleanse Mushrooms.— As they are found, cut loosewell above attachment. Keep spore surface doivn untiltop is brushed clean and every particle of dirt removedfrom stem. If stem is hard, tough, or wormy, remove it.Do all possible cleaning in the field.When ready to cook, wash by throwing into deep pan ofwater. Pass fingers quietly through them upward; letstand a moment for dirt to settle; then gather them fromthe water with fingers as a drain. Remove any adheringdirt with rough cloth. Thus wash in two or three waters.Lay to drain.The largest amount of flavor is in the skin, the removalof which is seldom justifiable.Concise Rule.— Cook in any way you can cook an oyster.Broiling.— Use well-spread caps only. Place caps oadouble broiler* gilU down. Broil two minutes. Ture,

372 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTand broil two minutes more. While hot, season with saltand pepper, butter well, especially on gill side. Serve ontoastt.Frying.— Heat butter boiling hot in frying-pan. Fryfive minutes. Serve on hot dish, pouring over them thesauce made by thickening the butter with a little flour.Hunter's Toast.— Carry a vial of olive oil, or a smallcan of butter, and some pepper and salt mixed. Make fireof dry twigs. Split a green stick (sassafras, birch, oispicewood, is best) at one end; put mushroom in the cleft,broil, oil or butter, and eat from stick.Camp Bake.— Cover bottom of tin plate with the caps,spore surface up. Sprinkle with salt and pepper. Placea bit of butter on each- Put another tin plate on top. Seton coals, or on a heated stone, fifteen minutes. No betterbaking will result in the best oven.All mushrooms on the following list are delicious:Coprinus comatus.Lactarius 'volemus.Hypholoma appendiculatum. " deliciosus.Tricholoma personatum. Russula alutacea.Boletus subaureus. " 'virescens." bovinus. Cantharellus cibarius." subsanguineous. Marasmius oreades.Clavaria botrytes.Hydnum repandum."cinerea " Caput-Medusa."'vermicularis. Morchella esculenta."inaqualis."deliciosa."pistillaris.Canned Tomatoes.— To a pint of tomatoes addbutter twice the size of an egg, some pepper, verylittle salt, and a tablespoonful of sugar. Boilabout five minutes. Put some bread crumbs ortoast in a dish, and pour tomatoes over them. Buttercan be omitted. Some do not like sugar intomatoes.Canned Corn.— Same as tomatoes ; but omitsugar and bread. Add a cup of milk, if you haveit.Miscellaneous Vegetables.— Since campers veryseldom have any other fresh vegetables than potatoesand onions, I will not take up space withspecial recipes for others. The following time^table mav some time be useful:

VEGETABLES 373Boiling of Vegetables.Asparagus 20 to 25 minutesCabbage 20 to 25 minutesCarrots 30 to 40 minutesCauliflower , 20 to 25 minutesCorn (green) 15 to 20 minutesBeans (string) 25 to 30 minutesBeans (Lima) 30 to 35 minutesBeans (navy, dried)2^ to 4 hoursBeets 30 to 40 minutesOnions 30 to 40 minutesParsnips 30 to 35 minutesPeas (green) 20 minutesPotatoes (new) 20 minutesPotatoes (old) 30 to 40 minutesSpinach 20 to 25 minutesTurnips 30 to 35 minutesSoups.— When Napoleon said that "soup makesthe soldier," he meant thick, substantial soup —soup that sticks to the ribs — not mere broths ormeat extracts, which are fit only for invalids or tocoax an indifferent stomach. " Soup," says " Nessmuk,"" requires time, and a solid basis of the rightmaterial. Venison is the basis, and the best materialis the bloody part of the deer, where thebullet went through. We used to throw thisaway; \vt have learned better. Cut about fourpounds of the bloody meat into convenient pieces,and wipe them as clean as possible with leaves or adamp cloth, but don't wash them. Put the meatinto a five-quart kettle nearly filled with water,and raise it to a lively boiling pitch."Here I must interfere. It is far better to bringthe water gradually to a boil and then at once hangthe kettle high over the fire where it will only keepup a moderate bubbling. There let it simmer atleast two hours — better half a day. It is impossibleto hasten the process. Furious boiling wouldruin both the soup and the meat." Nessmuk " continues: "Have ready a threetinedfork made from a branch of birch or beech,and with this test the meat from time to time;v/h/f.n it parts readily from the bones, slice in a

374 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlarge onion. Pare six large, smooth potatoes, cutfive of them into quarters, and drop them into thekettle; scrape the sixth one into the soup for thickening.Season with salt and white pepper to taste.When, by skirmishing with the wooden fork, youcan fish up bones with no meat on them, the soupis cooked, and the kettle may be set aside to cool."Any kind of game may be used in a similar way,provided that none but lean meat be used. Soupis improved by first soaking the chopped-up meatin cold water, and using this water to boil in thereafter.Soup should be skimmed for some timeafter it has started simmering, to remove greaseand scum.To anyone who knows petite marmite or pouleau-pot,these simple directions will seem barbarous— and so they are ; but barbarism has its compensations.A really first-class soup cannot be madewithout a full day's previous preparation and theresources of a city grocery. Mulligatawny, forexample, requires thirty-two varieties of spices andother condiments. No start can be made with anystandard soup until one has a supply of " stock "made of veal or beef, mutton or poultry, by longsimmering and skimming and straining.In camp, stock can be made expeditiously bycutting one or two pounds of venison into thinslices, then into dice, cover with cold water, boilgently twenty minutes, take from the fire, skim,and strain. A tolerable substitute is Liebig's beefextract, or beef cubes, dissolved in water.Onion, cloves, mace, celery seed, salt, and redor white pepper, are used for seasoning. Sassafrasleaves, dried before the fire and powdered, makethe gumbo file of the Creoles. Recipes for a fewsimple, nourishing soups, are given below:Venison Soup.— " Put 4 or 5 lbs. of deer ribsin a bucket of water. Cook slowly until only halfa bucket of ' stock ' remains. Add i can tomatoes,54 cup rice, and salt to taste. Cook until these aredone." (Dr. O. M. Clay.)

VEGETABLES 375(2) Take 4 lbs. of lower leg bones of deer, ormoose, caribou, sheep, goat, elk, etc., 2 lbs. of themeat, a large handful each of julienne and rice,a few pieces of pork, i teaspoonful of salt, pepperto taste, and 4 quarts of water. Crack the soupbones so that the marrow will run out, place in alarge pot with the meat, water, and julienne, andboil slowly until the meat is shredded. Take outbones, add the rest of the ingredients, add hotwater to make the desired quantity of soup, andboil until rice is cooked. (Abercrombie.)Squirrel Soup.— Put the squirrels (not less thanthree) in a gallon of cold water, with a scant tablespoonfulof salt. Cover the pot closely, bring tothe bubbling point, and then simmer gently untilthe meat begins to be tender. Then add whatevervegetables you have. When the meat has boiledto a rag, remove the bones. Thicken the soup witha piece of butter rubbed to a smooth paste in flour.Season to taste.Croutons for Soup.— Slice some stale bread halfan inch thick, remove crust, and cut bread intohalf-inch dice. Fry these, a few at a time, in deepfat of the " blue smoke " temperature, until theyare golden brown. Drain free from grease, andadd to each plate of soup when serving. (See alsopage 356.)Tomato Soup.— Take a quart can of tomatoesand a sliced onion. Stew twenty minutes. Meantimeboil a quart of milk. Rub to a paste twotablespoonfuls each of flour and butter, and addto the boiling milk, stirring until it thickens. Nowseason the tomatoes with a teaspoonful of sugar, alittle salt, and pepper. Then stir into the tomatoesone-half teaspoonful baking soda (to keep milkfrom curdling) , add the boiling milk, stir quickly,and serve.Bean Soup.— Boil with pork, as previously directed,until the beans are tender enough to crackopen ; then take out the pork and mash the beansInto a Daste. Return Dork to kettle, add a cup of

376 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTflour mixed thin with cold water, stirring it inslowly as the kettle simmers. Boil slowly an hourlonger, stirring frequently so that it may not scorch.Season with little salt but plenty of pepper.Pea Soup.— Wash well one pint of split peas,cover with cold water, and let them soak overnight. In the morning put them in a kettle withclose-fitting cover. Pour over them three quartscold water, adding one-half pound lean bacon orham cut into dice, one teaspoonful salt, and somepepper. When the soup begins to boil, skim thefroth from the surface. Cook slowly three to fourhours, stirring occasionally till the peas are all dissolved,and adding a little more boiling water tokeep up the quantity as it boils away. Let it getquite thick. Just before serving, drop in sijiallsquares of toasted bread or biscuits, adding quicklywhile the bread is hot. Vegetables may be addedone-half hour before the soup is done.Turtle Soup.— Clean the turtle as directed inChapter XV, leaving legs on, but skin them andremove the toes, as well as outer covering of shell.Place remaining parts, together with a little julienne,in fresh, hot water and boil until all the meathas left the bones. Remove bones, add hot waterfor required quantity of soup. Salt and pepper totaste. A tablespoonful each of sherry and brandyto each quart of liquid improves the flavor.Condensed Soups.— Follow directions on wrapper.Skilligalee.— The best thing in a fixed camp isthe stock-pot. A large covered pot or enameledpail is reserved for this and nothing else. Into itgo all the clean fag-ends of game — heads, tails,wings, feet, giblets, large bones — also the leftoversof fish, flesh, and fowl, of any and all sortsof vegetables, rice, or other cereals, macaroni, stalebread, everything edible except fat. This pot isalways kept hot. Its flavors are forever changing,but ever welcome. It is always ^

TTX5^TABLES 377night, for the hungry varlet who missed connectionsor who wants a bite between meals. No cookwho values his peace of mind will fail to have skillysimmering at all hours.

CHAPTER XXIIBEVERAGES AND DESSERTSCoffee.— To have coffee in perfection the berrymust be freshly roasted and freshly ground. Thiscan be done with frying-pan and pistol-butt; yetfew but old-timers take the trouble.There are two ways of making good coffee inan ordinary pot. ( i ) Put coffee in pot with coldwater (one heaped tablespoonful freshly groundto one pint, or more coffee if canned ground) andhang over fire. Watch it, and when water firstbegins to bubble, remove pot from fire and let itstand five minutes. Settle grounds with a tablespoonfulof cold water poured down spout. Donot let the coffee boil. Boiling extracts the tannin,and drives off the volatile aroma which is the mostprecious gift of superior berries. (2) Bring waterto hard boil, remove from fire, and quickly putcoffee in. Cover tightly and let steep ten minutes.A better way, when you have a seamless vessel thatwill stand dry heat, is to put coffee in, place overgentle fire to roast until aroma begins to rise, pourboiling water over the coffee, cover tightly, and setaside.Tea is best made in a covered enameled pail.Leave the lid off until the water boils hard, thendrop the tea in (one heaped teaspoonful to thepint is a common rule, but it depends on thestrength of the brand you use), remove from thefire at once, stir it to make tea settle, cover tightly,and steep aiuay from fire four minutes by the watch.Then strain into a separate vessel. A better wayis to use a tea-ball, or put the tea in a small square^78

jBEVERAGES AND DESSERTS 379of cheesecloth, tie it up in loose bag form, and leavesome string attached to remove it with.A good deal of the aroma escapes from a teapot,but little from a covered pail.If tea is left steeping more than five or six minutesthe result is a liquor that would tan skin intoleather. To boil is — well, it is like watering arare vintage. You know what tlie old Colonelsaid: " My friend, if you put water in that wine,God'U never forgive you I"Chocolate.— For each quart of boiling waterscrape up four tablespoonfuls of chocolate. Boiluntil dissolved. Then add half a pint milk. Stirwith a peeled stick until milk has boiled up once.Let each man sweeten his own cup.Cocoa.— Follow directions on can.Desserts.— Dried Fruit.— Evaporated or driedapples, apricots, peaches, prunes, etc., are misprized,under-rated, by most people from not knowing howto prepare them. The common way is to put thefruit on to stew without previous soaking, and thenboil from one-half hour to two hours until it ismore or less pulpy. It is then flat and insipid, besidesunattractive tothe eye.There is a much better way. Soak the fruit atleast over night, in clear cold water — just enoughto cover — with or without spices, as you prefer.If time permits, soak it from twenty-four to thirtysixhours. This restores the fruit to its originalsize and flavor. It is good to eat, then, withoutcooking. To stew, merely simmer gently a fewminutes in the water in which the fruit w^as soaked.This water carries much of the fruit's flavor, andisinvaluable for sauce.California prunes prepared in this way need nosugar. Dried apples and peaches have none of therank taste by which they are unfavorably known,but resemble the canned fruit. Apricots properlysoaked are especially good.Jelly from Dried Fruit.— I was present when aSouthern mountain woman did some ** experi-

38oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTencinV' with nothing to guide her but her ownwits. The result was a discovery of prime valueto us campers.followthem:Here are the details — any one canWash one pound of evaporated apples (or commonsun-dried apples of the country) in two waters.Cover with boiling water, and put them onto stew. Add boiling water as required to keepthem covered. Cook until fruit is soft (about halfan hour). Strain off all the juice (cheesecloth isconvenient), and measure it. There will be, probably,a quart. Put this juice on the fire and addhalf its own measure of granulated sugar (say ascant pound — but measure it, to make sure of theproportion).Now boil this briskly in a broad, uncovered vessel,without stirring or skimming, until the juicegets syrupy. The time varies according to qualityof fruit — generally about twenty minutes aftercoming to a full boil. When the thickened juicebegins to " flop," test it by letting a few drops dripfrom a spoon. When the drops thicken and adhereto the spoon, the syrup is done. There willbe a little more than a pint. Pour it out. As soon^s it cools it will be jelly, as good as if made fromfresh fruit and much better than what is commonlysold in the stores.The apples remaining can be spiced and used assauce, or made into pies or turnovers, or intoapplebutter by beating smooth, adding a teacupful ofsugar, spicing, and cooking again for fifteen ortwenty minutes.If preferred, a second run of jelly can be madefrom the same apples. Cover again with boilingwater, stew about fifteen minutes, add sugar bymeasure, as before. This will take less boilingthan the first juice (about seven minutes).Enough jelly will result to make nearly or quite aquart, all told, from one pound of dried apples andabout one and one-half pounds of sugar.-Xoricots or anv other tart dried fruit can be used

BEVERAGES AND DESSERTS 381instead of apples. Sweet fruit will not do, unles*lemon juice or real apple vinegar is added.Wild Fruits.— The time of ripening of Aineri--can wild fruits is given in Volume II, und

382 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsome dried apples and soak them over night.Boiluntil tender. Prepare knepp as directed for pot*pie dough, only make a thick batter of it insteadof a dough. It is best to add an egg and use noshortening. Drop the batter into the pan of stewingapples, a large spoonful at a time, not fastenough to check the boiling. Boil about 3^ hour.Season with butter, sugar, and cinnamon.Apple Dumpling,— Make a biscuit dough (seepage 347) and roll out to 34 i^ich thick. Peel andquarter some apples and remove the cores. Putfour quarters together and cover it with a globe ofdough. Put in a cloth and boil like pudding,(page 384) for 25 minutes.To bake dumplings: roll the dough quite thin,cover as above, and bake.Fruit Cobbler.— Make up your dough as directedunder Pie, excepting omit baking powder,and use 3^ pound of mixed butter and lard to 2pints flour. Mix with coldest spring water, andhave your hands cold. After putting under crustin greased pan, pour in scant 3 pints of fruit, whichmay be either fresh, canned, or evaporated (soakedas explained under Dried Fruits) yleaving out thefree juice. Cover with upper crust, bake brown,and serve with milk or pudding sauce.Doughnuts.— Mix I quart of flour with I teaspoonfulof salt, I tablespoonful of baking powder,and I pint of granulated sugar, and Yz nutmeggrated. Make a batter of this with 4 beaten eggsand enough milk to make smooth. Beat thoroughlyand add enough flour to make a soft dough. Rollout into a sheet 3^ inch thick and cut into rings orstrips, which may be twisted into shape. Fry bycompletely immersing in very hot fat; turn whennecessary. Drain and serve hot.Gingerbread.— Mix I cup molasses, I tablespoonfulground ginger, 3^ teaspoonful salt, 3^ cupmelted butter or drippings, i cup milk, 3 cups flourwith 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder mixed in it.Bake y2 houi-

BEVERAGES AND DESSERTS 383Cookies.— Mix 4 cups flour with 3 teaspoonsbaking powder and i cup sugar; pour into this 4tablespoons melted butter or drippings; add i cupraisins and i teaspoon cinnamon and cloves or allspice.Mix with enough water to make of the consistencyof biscuit dough. Roll out to about 3^inch thick (or thinner if raisins are omitted). Cutwith top of baking powder can, and bake to a lightbrown.. Puddings are either baked In an oven or reflector,or boiled in a cloth bag. Baked puddings arequickest and easiest to manage. A few examplesof simple puddings are given below. They may bevaried Indefinitely, according to materials available.Deep tin pudding pans are convenient to bake in.Snow may be substituted for eggs (see page 353).Rice Pudding.— Mix i pint cold boiled rice withI quart milk and sugar to taste. Put in a wellgreasedpan, dust nutmeg or cinnamon over thetop, and bake slowly one hour. Seeded raisins arean agreeable addition. Mix them in before baking.To stone them, keep them in lukewarm water duringthe process. A couple of eggs make the puddingricher.Fruit Pudding.— Line a deep dish or pan, wellgreased, with slices of buttered bread. Then putin a layer of fruit, dusting it with sugar and dottingwith small lumps of butter. Repeat these•alternate laj^ers until the dish Is full, the last layerbeing bread. Bake 3^ to ^ hour, with moderateheat. Eat hot, with the sweet sauce given below.Cottage Pudding.—1 pint flour,1/2 pint sugar,y2 pint milk,2 heaped tablespoonfuls butter,2 teaspoonfuls baking powder,Grated rind of a lemon,Mix thoroughly the flour and baking powder.Hub the butter and sugar to a cream, add the milk

j84CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTand egg beaten together; then the lemon rind.Add this to the flour and mix well. Butter a panwell to prevent scorching and dredge it with flouror powdered bread-crumbs. Pour in the batter,and bake about half an hour in hot oven.A richer pudding is made by using one-halipound butter and two eggs.A cupful of stoned raisins, minced figs, or dates,added to the batter, converts this into a good fruitpudding. Nutmeg, cinnamon, or other flavoringmay be substituted for lemon.Batter Pudding.—yi pint flour,I pint milk,I heaped tablespoonful butter,6 e^gs.Beat flour and milk into a smooth batter. Thenadd the eggs, beaten light. Stir all well together,adding the butter in tiny lumps. Dip a clean clothbag into hot water, dredge it with flour, pour thebatter into this, tie up firmly, and put into plentyof boiling water. Keep this boiling steadily for anhour. Then dip the bag quickly in cold water andremove cloth with care not to break the pudding.Serve very hot, with a sauce.Plain Plum Duff.—I quart flour,1 heaped teaspoonful baking powder,2 tablespoonfuls sugar,1 lb. seeded raisins.^ lb. suet (or see below).Venison suet chopped fine,minced up, will serve. Marrow is better thaneither. Mix the dry ingredients intimately. Thenmake up with half a pint of water. Put this intoa cloth bag prepared as in the preceding recipe.Since suet puddings swell considerably, the bagmust be large enough to allow for this. Place intnough boiling water to cover, and do not let itcheck boiling until done (about two hours). Addor the fat of salt pork

BEVERAGES AND DESSERTS3^3boiling water as required to keep the bag covered.Turn the bag upside down when pudding begins toset, or the fruit will all go to the bottom; turn itaround now and then to prevent scorching againstsides of pot. When done, manipulate it like cottagepudding. Serve with jiweet sauce.A richer duff can be made by spicing and addingmolasses, or the rind and juice of a lemon.Sweet Sauce for Puddings.— Melt a little butter,sweeten it to taste, and flavor with gratedlemon rind, nutmeg, or cinnamon.Brandy Sauce.— Butter twice the size of an eggis to be beaten to a cream with a pint of sugar anda tablespoonful of flour. Add a Rill of brandy.Set the cup in a dish of boiling water and beat untilthe sauce froths.Fruit Sauce.— Boil almost any fresh fruit untilit is quite soft. Squeeze it through cheesecloth,sweeten to taste, heat it, and pour the sauce overyour pudding. Spices may be added during thefinalheating.Hard Sauce.— Work 2 tablespoonfuls of butteiwith a small cupful of sugar to a cream. Flavo:with a little nutmeg, lemon juice, brandy, ni what«vtr may be your preference.

CHAPTER XXIIICOOK'S MISCELLANYDish Washing.— Gilbert Hamerton, in hisPainter's Camp, dwells lovingly upon all the littledetails of camp life,excepting this:5 p. M. Cease painting for the day. Dine. . . . Afterdinner the woeful drudgery of cleaning-up ! At this periodof the day am seized with a vague desire to espouse a scullery-maid,it being impossible to accommodate one in thehut without scandal, unless in the holy state of matrimony;hope no scullery-maid will pass the h'it when I am engagedin washing-up, as I should be sure to make her an offer.There isa desperately hard and disagreeable vi^ayof washing dishes, which consists, primarily, in" going for '* everything/ alike with the same rag,and wiping grease off one dish only to smear it onthe next one. There is another, an easier, and acleaner way: Fir^t, as to the frying-pan, whichgenerally is greasiest of all: pour it nearly full ofwater, place it level over the coals, and let it boilover. Then pick it up, give a quick flirt to emptyit, and hang it up. Virtually it has cleaned itself,and will dry itself if let alone. Greasy dishes arescraped as clean as may be, washed with scaldingwater, and then wiped. An obdurate pot is cleanedby first boiling in it (if you have no soap powder)some wood ashes, the lye of which makes a sort ofsoap of the grease; or it may be scoured out withsand and hot water. Greasy dishes can even becleaned without hot water, if first wiped with ahandful or two of moss, which takes up the grease;use first the dirt side of the moss as a scourer, thenthe top. To scour greasy knives and forks, simply

COOK'S MISCELLANY 387j'ab them once or twice into the ground. Rustyones can be burnished by rubbing with a freshly cutpotato dipped in wood ashes. The scouring rush{Equisetum hymenale), which grows in wet placesand along banks throughout the northern hemisphere,has a gritty surface that makes an excellentswab. It is the tall, green, jointed, pipe-stem-likeweed that children amuse themselves with, by pullingthe joints apart. The sooty outside of a potis readily cleaned with a bit of sod ("monkeysoap ").In brief, the art of dish washing consists first incleaning oft nearly all the grease before using yourdish-cloth on it. Then the cloth will be fit to useagain. Dish-cloths are the supplies that first runshort in an average outfit.COOK'S MEASURES45 drops water=i teaspoonful^n fluid dram.2 teaspoonfuls=i dessertspoonful.4 teaspoonfuls=i tablespoonful.2 tablespoonfuls=i fluidounce.4 tablespoonfuls=i wineglassful.8 tablespoonfuls=i gill.2 gills^i cup.4 gills=i pint (i Tb. water).2 pints=i quart (i lb. flour).4 quarts=i gallon.2 gallons (dry)=i peck.4 pecks (dry)=i bushel.OUTFITTER'S DATABaking powder i Ib.=i^ pints.Beans, dried i qt.= i^ lbs.Coffee, roasted whole i qt.= io oz.Corn meal i qt.=i^4 lbs.Flour I qt.= i tb.Macaroni i Tb.=8^^x2Hx2f^ in.Oatmeal i qt.=^ lb.Peas, split i qt.=i^ lbs.Rice I qt.=2 lbs.Salt, dry i qt.= ij^ lbs.Soda crackers are about 3 times as bulky as bread, weightfor weight.Sugar, granulated .i qt.=i^ lbs.V^a I qt.= ^ lb.

388 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTBacon, breakfast i flitch=5-8 tbs., average.Salt pork x side=30-4o lbs., average.Salt pork i belly=2o tbs., average.Butter, closely packed i Ib.=i pint.Butter, creamery i Ib.=45^x2^x2^ in.Eggs, desiccated i Ib.^6x3X3 in. ==4 doz. fresh.Eggs, fresh i doz. (average)=i^ lbs.Lard 3 lb. pail= 5x5 in.Lard 5 lb. pail=6x6 in.Milk, evaporated 7 oz. can=2>4x2j/2 in.Milk, evaporated i2 oz. can=3^x3 in.Milk, evaporated i lb. can=45^x3 in.Apples, evaporated i lb. (14 oz.)=7>^x4^x2 in,Apples, evaporated i peck=6 tbsCorn, canned 1 can=2^1bs.=r45/^x3|^ in.Fruit, canned, small can, same as corn.Fruit, canned, large can, same as tomatoes.Tomatoes, canned i can=2j^ tbs.=4%x4j/^ in.Lemons i doz.=2 tbs.=2 qts.Raisins, stemmed i tb.^i]/3 pints.Carrots i qt.=i34 tbs.Onions i qt.= i tb.Potatoes I peck=i5 lbs.Sweet potatoes 1 peck=i4 lbs.A TABLEFOR READY REFERENCE IN CHOOSING WHAT TOCOOKAll recipes in this book are here grouped underQuick J Medium, or Slow, according to the timethey take. Everything under Quick can be preparedin less than 25 minutes, and so is speciallysuitable for breakfast or luncheon.The table also shows at a glance what recipescall for milk, butter, or eggs, and what do not.The following abbreviations are used:E == Eggs required (whole or desiccated).B = Butter required.(maybe evaporated or powdered).M = Milk required£*= Eggs desirable, but may be omitted.B*= Butter desirable, but other fat may be substituted.M*= Milk desirable, but water may be substituted.* — Made over from previously cooked material.

COOK'S MISCELLANY 389Fresh Meat, Game.Quick{Under 25 minutes)Broiled meat, game. B* 292Fried meat, game 291Chops 292Kabobs 296Brains, fried 306Brains and eggs. E 306Liver, fried 306Kidneys, fried 306Milt, broiled 307Venison sausages 307HCroquettes. jB, E 307Small birds, roasted. £.* 319UDeviled birds. B 319Frog legs, broiled or fried. B* 328Fish.Fish, fried 321Fish, broiled. B* 322Fish, skewered 322Shellfish.Oysters, stewed. B, M 329Oysters, fried. E 329Oysters, scalloped. B 330Oysters, saute. B. 330Cured Meat.Bacon, broiled, fried, toasted , 332Salt pork, broiled or fried 333Ham, broiled or fried 333Bacon, or ham, and eggs. E 332Pork fritters 333Pork sausages 334Slumgullion 335Dried beef, creamed. M, B.* 335Canned meat, heated ,336Cured or Canned Fish.Smoked herring, toasted 337Smoked herring, fried. B.* 337Sprats 337Salmon, creamed. M 337Salmon, scalloped. B, M 337Salmon on toast. B, E, M 337Sardines, fried. B* E.* 338Gravies.Braising gravy o 297Frying gravy . ^ou

390 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTBroiling gravy. B.* 295Boiling gravy. B =303Roasting gravy 303Beef extract gravy 303Cream gravy. B, M 303Rabbit gravy ,310Bacon gravy, thin 332Pork gravy, thick. At.* 333Roux 302Onion gravy 3 03Eggs.Eggs, poached (fresh). B* E 3ij.cEggs, boiled (fresh). E 3:j.oEggs, fried (fresh). E 33SEggs, scrambled (fresh or desiccated). B* E 339Omelets (fresh or desiccated). B*E 339Eggs, stirred. B, E ,3 40Bread.Biscuit loaf 346Biscuits 347Dropped biscuits 348Breakfast rolls. B, E,M 348Bannocks 344Dough gods 351Unleavened bread ... 351French toast. E 356Milk toast. B, M. 356IRice muffins. E, M 362Pancakes, etc.Flapjacks, plain 355Egg pancakes. E 355Snow pancakes 355UMixed cakes3 5SCorn batter cakes. E* M* 356Buckwheat cakes. E* M.* • •356Syrup 356"Gritted" bread 3 54Fried quoits 357Fritters. B* E, M.* 3 57Dumplings. M.* 3 5^Porridge, etc.UFrled mush 360tFried grits, rice 3^2IfRice with onions 3^2Rolled oats 3iBreakfast cereals» 3^2Vegetables.Potatoes, fried - 3^5

COOK'S MISCELLANY 391Potatoes, stewed. B, M 36$UPotato cakes. E* M* 365UPotatoes, mashed. B* M 365IfPotatoes, lyonnaise 366^Potatoes, creamed 366tSweet potatoes, fried 367Potatoes and onions, hashed 367Green corn, roasted. B.* 369Greens, boiled (some kinds). B.* 369Mushrooms. B 371Canned tomatoes, stewed. B* 372Canned corn, stewed. B,* M* 372Soups.Condensed soups 376Tomato soup. B, M 375Beverages,Coffee 378Tea 378Chocolate, il/ 379Cocoa. M 379Sauces.Barbecue sauce. B.* 296Mustard sauce. B 304Venison sauce. B 304Broiled venison sauce. B 304Giblet sauce. B* M.* 316Celery sauce. B, M. 320Cranberry sauce 320Curry sauce. B, M.* 320Butter sauce. B 325White sauce. B, M 325Lemon sauce. B, M 325Parsley sauce. B.* 304India sauce B, M 325Sweet sauce. B 385Brandy sauce. B 385Fruit sauce 3^5Hard sauce. B 3^5Salad dressing 37°Medium.(^5 io 4S minutes.)Fresh Meat, Game.Cured venison, steamed 336Small mammals, roasted 294Heart, braised 306Liver, roasted 306Oarae pot pie. B.* , . 307

392 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTCurry of game. B* 30SGame pie 308Small game, barbecued 309Small game, fricasseed 315Duck, roasted or baked 317Grouse, roasted 319Game birds, boiled 320Fish.Fish, baked 323Fish, boiled. B 324Fish, roasted. B* 323Fish, planked. B* 323Fish, steamed • •324Fish chowder. B* M.* 326Fish cakes. E 327Fish roe 328Eel, stewed. M 328Frog legs, creamed. B, M 328Shellfish, etc.Clams, baked. B. 330Clam chowder. M 330Crayfish, boiled 329Crabs, deviled 331Cured Meats.Bacon and liver 306Pork and hardtack 333Corned beef hash 335Canned meat stew 335Cured Fish.Salt fish, broiled 336Codfish balls. £.* 337Bread.Army bread34^Corn pone 35^Johnny-cake35^Corn dodgers35^Ash cake35^Corn bread. B, E, M 353Corn batter bread. E, M 353Snow bread 353Cereals, etc.Rice, boiled 361Rice, curried 3^^Risotto36aGrits, boiled 362Macaroni^ boiledZSC

COCK'S x\nSCELLANY 393Vegetables.Desiccated vegetables 363Potatoes, boiled 364Potatoes, steamed 365Potatoes, baked 365iTPotatoes au gratin. B, M 366Sweet potatoes, boiled 366Green corn, boiled 369Kedgeree 369Greens, boiled (some kinds). B* 369Desserts..Pie. B.* 381Doughnuts. E, M 382Snits und Knepp. B, E.* 381Apple dumplings 382Fruit cobbler. B 382Gingerbread. B* M 382Cookies. B.* 383Cottage pudding. B, E, M 383Sauces.Tomato sauce. B 350Slow.{Over 45 minutes.)Fresh Meat, Game.Roasted meat, big game 294Braised meat, big game. . . • •296Baked meat, big game 297Boiled meat, big game 299Stewed meat, big game 300Steamed meat, big game 301Barbecued meat, big game 296Kidneys, stewed 306Marrow bones, boiled 307Moose muffle, boiled •307Tongue, boiled 307Turkey, goose, roasted 315Turkey, boiled 316lambolaya 308Turtle, boiled = 329Cured Meat.Lobscouse 335Bacon, salt pork, ham, boiled 332Ham and macaroni 360Ham chow 334Cured Fish.Salt fish, boiled 336Codfish, stewed , 336

394 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTCodfish hash3j7Bread.Sour-dough bread349Salt-rising bread 349Lungwort bread 350Porridge, etc.Corn mush 360Polenta 361Macaroni, with cheese, li359Macaroni, baked. B, M 359Spaghetti, baked3 59Rice, Spanish 362Vegetables.Beans, boiled •367Beans, baked 367Onions, boiled. B* M* 369Green corn, baked 369Greens, boiled (some kinds) . B.* 369Soups from raw materials, fi.* 373Desserts.Dried fruit, stewed 379Jelly from dried fruit 379Rice pudding. £ * M 383Batter pudding. B, E, M 384Plum duff 384Snow pudding 38}

INDEX TO VOLUME IAlmanacs, 172Ants, 220, 256Apple dumpling, 382Ash cake, 344, 352Axes, 113Care of, 114, 115, 224Bacon, 186and eggs, 332Boiled, 332Broiled, 332Fried, 332omelet, 332Toasted, 332Baking bread, 342in a hole, 297ashes, 344, 353clay, 298clay oven, 345Dutch oven, 342embers, 298frying pan, 344kettle, 343reflector, 347the hide, 297meat, 297on a slab, 345Baking powder, 346Bandages, Triangular, 174Bannocks, 344Barbecuing, 296, 309Bark as fuel, 230, 233Bean soup, 375Beans, 195Baked, 367and dried, 368with birds, 297Boiled, 367Bear, Butchering, 274Cooking, 292, 296Beaver tail, Cooking, 314Bed-bugs, 256?95Bed rolls, 136Bed tick, 134Bedding, 124Beef extract, 199Gravy from, 303Beef, Corned, 187, 334Hash, 335Beef, Dried, 187Creamed, 335Belts, 145Benches, Rustic, 218Beverages, 197, 378Birds baked in clay, 299with beans, 297Broiled, 315Deviled, 319Fricasseed, 315Fried, 315Hanging to ripen, 282,314Roasting, 317Small, To cook,To dress, 282319dry, 279keep, 283ship, 283Biscuit, 347Dropped, 348loaf, 344, 346Bites and stings, 249, 257Bittern, Cooking, 319Blanket, To roll up in,To wear, 128128Blankets, 127Airing, 224Blow-flies, 250, 275, 276Boiling, 299, 324at high altitudes, 300Boots, 156Felt, 161Brains and eggs, 306Cooking, 306

396 INDEXBraising, 296Bread, 191Army, 348Baking, 342Corn, 352, 353Fried, 357Gritted, 352Lungwort, 350Raising in pot, 350Salt-rising, 349Snow, 353Sour-dough, 349Stale, To freshen, 347,356Unleavened, 351Wheat, 346Breakfast foods, 362Breeches, 144Broiling, 292, 322Browse bag, 134Buckskin jackets, 147moccasins, 158Buckwheat cakes, 356Bunks, 53Butchering game, 264Butter, 191Care of, 220Keeping, 191Cakes, Mixed, 355Calories, i8i, 202Cameras, 176Camp conveniences, 223cookery, 290Exposure of, 216furniture, 53, 2i8making, 208pests, 24XPrivacy of, 216sanitation, 222sites, 208, 212, 2i6Camp-fires, loi, 225, 230,231Camping, 20Preparations for, 207System in, 217Candlesticks, Improvised,221Caps, i6oCapsules, 197Carbohydrates, 179Caribou hide, 131, 148, 158Carryalls, 137Catfish, To skin, 285Celluloid varnish, 73Centipedes, 259Cereals, 185, 193Cooking, 361Left-over, 362Chairs, Camp, 55Cheese. 191Chests, Camp, 206Chocolate as a beverage,379as food, 194Chopping-block, 223Chops, Cooking, 294Chowder, Clam, 330Fish, 326Chuck boxes, 207Citric acid, 197Clam chowder, 330Clams, Baked, 330Stewed, 301Cloth, Dyeing, 74Waterproofing, 72, 14^Clothes hangers, 58line, 224Clothing, 138Colors, 143, 147, 162for cold weather, 162women, 163Coals, To keep alive, 229Coats, 146Mackinaw, 162Cocoa, 199, 379Codfish balls, 337hash, 337Stewed, 336Coffee, 197Brewing, 378Cold storage, 67, 220, 287Comfort in camp, 124Comforters, 126, 12SCompass, 168Comrades and camp boreSjCo idiments, 199Cook's measures, 387miscellany, 387time-tables, 317, 373, 388Cookers, Fireless, SG

INDEX 397Cookery, Camp, 290Cookies, 383Cooking fires, 226Cooking in the rain, 47utensils, 64, 118without utensils, 293,295-299, joi, 309,314, 315, 317, 319,322-324, 330, 340.344-346, 365, 369'Coons, 263, 281Cooking, 312Corn batter bread, 353batter cakes, 352, 356bread, 352, 353Canned, Cooking, 372dodgers, 352Green, 369meal, 192mush, 360pone, 352^Coots, Cooking, 318Cot mattresses, 53Cots, 53Cow-bell for children, 60Crabs, Deviled, 331Crane, Cooking, 228Crayfish, Cooking, 329Crisco, 197, 292,Croquettes, 307Croutons, 375Crotches, 218Crutch, To make, 219Curry of game, 308Deer, Butchering, 264, 269Carrying on litter, 266pickaback, 267Dragging on ground,265Hanging to butcher, 268,274Packing on saddle, 265Skinning, 270skins. Preserving, 275Desserts, 379Dining place, 218Dish washing, 386Ditty boxes, 165Dock, Cooking, 371Dog trolley, 59Dopes, Fly, 243^Dough, To mix withoutpan, 346Dough-gods, 351Doughnuts, 382Drawers, 141Dressing game and fish,264Driftwood, 239Duck, Baked, 317in clay, 299Fish-eating, 318Stewed, 318To dress, 282,Duck, Cotton, 32316Duff, Plum, 384Dumplings, 308, 358Apple, 382Dunnage bags, 164Dutch ovens, 64Dyeing cloth, 74Economies, 24Eel, Broiled, 327Stewed, 328To skin, 285Eggs, 1 88Boiled, 340Desiccated,1S9To cook, 338Fried, 338Frozen, 189Omelets, 339, 340Poached, 340Roasted, 340Scrambled, 339Snow as substitute for,354Stirred, 340To pack, 189preserve, 189test, 189Electric flashers, 173Elk, Butchering, 273Exposure of camp, 216Eye glasses, 173Fats, 179Feet, Care of, 150Fence, 222Field glasses, 177Filters, 212

398 INDEXFire, Backlog, 231, 236Building, 235Camp, 225Cooking, 225Dinner, 227for baking, 229grates, 63Hunter's, 230in trench, 230, 235wet weather, 234Indian's, 232irons, 64, 228Luncheon, 226Precautions, 214, 234,237, 239regulations, 234Starting in stove, 63Winter camp, 231Fires, Forest, 214, 234, 239Fireless cookers, 66First aid, 59kits, 58, 174Fish, Baked, 323in clay, 298Boiled, 300, 324Broiled, 294, 322cakes, 327Canned, 188chowder, 326Cooking, 321Creamed, 327, 337Cured, 188To cook, 336Fried, 321from muddy waters, 284,327Frozen, 305Planked, 323Roasted, 323roe, Cooking, 328Salt, Cooking, 336Skewered, 324To clean, 283dry, 288keep, 286kill, 28ssalt, 189scale, 284ship, 288skin, 284steas. 28sFlapjacks, 355Flashlights, 173Fleas, 249Flies, 222, 256Blood-sucking, 250, 255Blow, 250, 275, 276Flies, Tent, 35, 51Floss, Dental, n8Flour, 192Fly dopes, 243Food, 178as a source of energyi8iCare of, 220, 259, 262,263, 275, 364Digestibility, 185Nutritive values, 179,182, 368Packing, 205Variety, 180Weights and measures,387Footwear, 150Rubber, i6iFricassees, 292Fritter batter, 358Fritters, 357Pork, 333Fritures, 197, 292, 321, 357Frog legs. Cooking, 328Fruit, 196cobbler, 382Dried, Cooking, 379Jelly from, 379Wild, 381Frying, 291, 302, 321Frying-pans, 120Fuel, 212Best, 237Driftwood as, 239Hardwoods as, 236Softwoods as, 236, 238Furniture, Camp,

INDEX 399Game.— Continued.Dressing and keeping,264Hanging to ripen, 274,282, 291, 314pie, 308pot pie, 307Shipping small, 283Small, Cooking, 308Gingerbread, 348, 382Gloves, 160Gnats, 255Goggles, 173Going light, 109Goose, Roasted,To dress, 282317Gravy, 297, 302, 303Bacon, 332Cream, 303for boiled meat, 303roast meat, 303from beef extract, 303Onion, 303Pork, 333Greens, ^^'ild, 369Grilling on a rock, 293Grits, Boiled, 362Fried, 362Gritted bread, 3^4Groundhog, Cooking, 313Ground sheets, 37, 107Grouse, Baking with beans,297Broiled, 319Roasted, 319To dress, 282, 283dry, 279Guy frames, 46Ham, 187and eggs, 333macaroni, 334Boiled, 333Broiled, 333chow, 334Fried, 333Hardtack, 191, 333, 335Hardwoods and softwoods,236Hare. See RabbitHash, Codfish, 337Corned beef, 335Potato and onion, 367Hat-bands, 139, 160Hatchets, 165Hats, 159Head nets, 160Headwear, 159Heart, Cooking, 306Herrings, Smoked, Cook>ing, 337Hitch, Magnus, 47Hobnails, 154Hogs, 222Horn, Huntsman's, 118Ice, 220, 287Insect bites and stings, 249,2S7247Insects in camp, 256Noxious, 241Jackets, Leather, 147Jackknives, 167Jambolaya, 308Jelly from dried fruit, 379Jerusalem artichokes, Cooking,371Johnny-cake, 352Kabobs, 296Khaki, canvas, 33Kedgeree, 369Kidneys, Cooking, 306Kindling, 233Kit bags, 165Knickerbockers, 145Knives, Pocket, 167Sheath, 166Lanolin, 149Lanterns, 60, 117Lard, 197Larrigans, 157Latrine, 223Leather, To waterproof,154Left-overs, 307, 319, 355,360, 362, 365, 366,376

400 INDEXLeggings, 145Lemonade powder, 197Lightning, 215Liver, Cooicing, 306Lobscouse, 335Macaroni, 193Baked, 359Boiled, 359with cheese, 359Mackinaws, 147, 162Mammals, Small, To dress,280Mapping, 169Map cases, 171Maps, 170Marrow-bones, 307Match, To light in wind,234Matchboxes, 173Matches, To waterproof,173Mattresses, 53, 134Air, 135Measures, Cook's, 387Meat, Canned, 187, 336Stewed, 335Care of, 220, 275Cooking, 290Cured, To cook, 332Curing, 276Frozen, 305"Jerked," 277Salt, Boiled, 299Medical kits, 58Mending canvas, 40Mice, 263Midges, 255Milk, Condensed, 190Powdered, 190To heat, 300Milt (spleen), To cook,307Moccasins, 157Moose, Butchering, 273muffle. To cook, 307Mosquito bars, 39, 55, 74,106dopes, 243Mosquitoes, 160, 241Mulligan (skillv), 376Munson shoe lasts, 151Mush, Boiled, 360Fried, 360Mushrooms, Cooking, 371Edible, 372Muskrat, To cook, 313dress, 281Neckerchiefs, 143" No-see-ums," 255Nut butter, 196Nuts, 196Oatmeal porridge, 361Oil, Olive, 197Oiled cloth, 71, 73Oilskins, 160Care of, 161Omelets.See EggsOnioni, 194Boiled, 369Opossum. See TossumOutfits, Individual, 112Outfitter's data, 387Outfitting, 23, 109Oven, Clay, 345Dutch, 64To use, 296, 342Reflecting, 121To use, 296, 323, 347Sheet steel, 122Overalls, 160Overshirts, 142, 162Oysters, Fried, 329Roasted, 330Saute, 330Scalloped, 330Steamed, 301Stewed, 329Pack, Indian, 267Packing, 113, 205Pacs, Shoe, 157Pancakes, Corn, 352, 356Egg, 355Snow, 355Parboiling, 300, 305Parsly butter, 304Pea soup, 376Peas, 195Pegs, To drive in tree, 220

Rice,INDEX 401Personal kits, 164Protein, 179, 185, 202Pests of the woods, 241 > Provisions. See FoodPhotography, 176'«vfcjomaine poisoning, 188,Pie, Fruit, 381286Game, 308 \Zi^'^'^^uddlng, Batter, 384Pot, 307 J'^N Cottage, 383Pillows, 135

:^02 INDEXRoux, 302Rubber clothing,footwear, i6iifoSaccharin, 193Salad dressing, 370Salads, Scalded, 370Wild, 370Salmon, Creamed, 337on toast, 337Scalloped, 337Salt, 199Sandals for wading, 157Sanitation, 222Sardines on toast, 338Sauce, 303Brandy, 385Butter, 325Celery, 320Cranberry, 320Curry, 320Fruit, 385Giblet, 316Hard, 385India, 325Lemon, 325Mustard, 304, 326Pudding, 385Tomato, 359Venison, 304White, 325Sausage, Pork, 334Venison, 307Saws, 59Scales, 115Scent glands, 305, 310, 312-Scorpions, 257Shade, 215Shear lashings, 47Shears, Tent, 47Sheath knives, 166Shellfish, Cooking, 329Steamed, 301Shelter-cloths, 97Shelves, 58Shipping fish, 288Game, 283Shirts, 142Mackinaw. 147. 162Shoe 'laces. 135, 151Shoe-pacs, 157Shoes, 151Breaking in, 152Canvas, 159Care of, 152Waterproofed, 153Sink, Camp, 223Sirup, 194To make, 356Skilligalee, 376Skins, Preserving, 275Skunk-bite, 262Skunks, 260Sleeping bags, 126, 129131, 135Slickers, 160Slumgullion, 335Smudges, 256Sneakers, 159Snipe, Cooking,To dress, 283319Snits und Knepp,Snow bread, 353381glasses, 173pancakes, 355Soap, 119, 141, 176Socks, 142German, 146, 161Soda, Substitutes for, 35JSod-cloths, 37, 74Sorrel, Cooking, 371Soup, 373Bean, 375Canned, 188Condensed (dry), 188Croutons for, 375Pea, 376Squirrel, 375stock, 374Tomato, 375Turtle, 376Venison, 374Spades, 59, 115Spaghetti, 359Spleen, Cooking, 307Sprats, Cooking, 337Spring box, 221Springs, 210Squirrel, Barbecued, 309Broiled, 309Fried, 30s

INDEX 403Squirrel.— Continued.soup, 375Stewed, 309To dress, 280Stakes, To drive, 219Stationery, 172Steaming fish, 324meat and vegetables, 301Stewing, 300Stings, 249, 257Storm set, 45Storms, 51Stove-pipe holes, 40spark arrester, 63Stoves, Cook, 60Heating, 63, 79Stove-shield, 63Stuffing for fish, 323rabbit, 310turkey, 315Sugar, 193Sweaters, 147Sweets, 193System in camping, 217Table for choosing what tocook, 388Tables, Camp, 56Rustic, 218Tarantulas, 258Tarp bed-sheet, 134Tea, 198Steeping, 378Teepees, 81Tent, Action of wind on,51canopies, 36Care of, 40door, 39weights, 39flies, 35, 51floors, cloth, 105, 107wooden, 49furnishings, 221furniture, 53ground, 212hangers, 58making, 88, 98materials, heavy, 31light, 69, 75mending, 49Tent.— Continuedon rocky or sandy ground,50shears, 46, 99, 106tripods, 83, 104parrels, 93, 96poles, 40, 45, 47, 78, 82,94rental, 41ropes, 34, 75slides, 75stakes and pins. 40, 43,50, 75striking, 43trenching, 49ventilation, 38windows, 38, 74with side bars, 4.8workmanship, 34, 74Tents, "A," 92Alpine, 94, 96Baker, 98Bell, 78Tents, Camp-fire, 100Canoe, 102Colored, 35Commissary, loi**Compac," 103Conical, 78To pitch, 79"Explorer's," 106for fixed camps, 29shifting camps, 68, 76Frazer, 84George, 85Hudson Bay, 95Insect-proof, 106Lean-to, 98Light, 68Marquee, 84Miner's, 82Pyramidal, 81Ross, 96Royce, 85Second-hand, 41Separable shelter, 96Semi-pyramidal, 84Shelter, 96Sibley, 78Snow, 105Tarpf^ylia. gS

404 INDEXTents.— Continued.Tropical, 37Wall, heavy, 29light, 76To pitch, 41Waterproof, 34, 69Wedge, 92To pitch, 92Whymper, 94Ticks, 247, 255Time-tables, Cook's, 388for boiling vegetables,373roasting birds, 317Toast, French, 356Milk, 356Toilet articles, 176Tomato soup, 375Tomatoes, 195Cooking, 372Tongue, Cooking, 307Tools, 59, 113Trees and lightning, 215Neighborhood of, 214Tropics, Pests of, 251Trousers, 144Trout, To clean, 283Turkey, Boiled, 316Roasted, 295, 315Stuffing for, 316To dress, 282Turtle, Cooking, 329Soup, 376Underclothing, 139Union suits, 141Vacations, 17Vegetables boiled withmeat, 299Canned, 195Cooking, 363Cleaning, 363Dehydrated, 195, 200Cooking, 363Dried, Cooking, 363Fresh, 194Storing, 364Time-table for boiling,37.'?Venison, Cooking, 305Cured, Cooking, 336Sauce for, 304sausages, 307soup, 374To cure, 276hang for ripening, 274^291jerk, 277ship, 288Vests, 148Waders, 157, i6iWall pockets, 58, 137Warbles, 311Wash-boilers, 206Wash-stand, 222Washing clothing, 141,142dishes, 386Watches, 169Water, 209Alkaline, 210To clarify, 211cool, 212purify, 211Waterfowl, To dress, 282,316Waterproof cloths for tents,34, 69tents, 34, 69Waterproofing cloth, 72leather, 154matches, 173Woolens, 148Waterproofs, 160Weight of game, Computing,280Weights and measures offood, 387Whistles, 170Wild, Call of the, 17Wilderness, Charm of, 21Wind, Action of, on tents,51Wolverines, 262Women, Clothing for, 163Woodcock. Cooking, 319

INDEX 405Woodchuck, Cooking, 313Woods as fuel, 236Green, as fuel, 237hard to split, 237Hardwoods and softwoods,236Spitfire, 237Uninflammable, 236Woodsman, Qualities of,24, noWool vs. cotton, 127, 128,140, 144Woolens, To waterproof,148Wounds, Treatment of, 175

CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTVol. IIWCX>DCRAF1

1THE MACMILLAN COMPANYNEW YORK • CHICAGODALLAS . ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCOLONDON . MANILABRETl-MACMILLAN LTD.TORONTO

CAMPl5

Copyright,197 fi,Bt the macmillan companyNew EditionTwo Vnliiraos in One, 1921Eighteenth Printing, 1957All rights reserved—no part of this book may bereproduced in any form without permission in writingfrom the publisher, except by a reviewer who wishesto quote brief passages in connection with a reviewwritten for inclusion in magazine or newspaper.Printed in the United States of America

CHAPTERCONTENTSPAGEI Woodcraft ...... 13II Getting Lost— Bivouacs ... 19III Pathfinding 37IV Nature's Guide Posts ... 49V Blazes— Survey Lines — Use ofTHE Compass ..... 60VI Route Sketching — Mapping—Measuring .,»... 80VII Trips Afoot ...... 97VIII Packs for Pedestrians . . .118IXHow TO Walk—A Hunter's Pack— Going Alone 136X Concentrated Foods . . . .150XI Marksmanship in THE Woods . 173XII AxEMANSHip — Qualities andUtilization of Wood . . .187XIIITomahawk Shelters—^Axemen'sCamps — Caches — MaskedCamps 215XIV Cabin Building— Rustic Furniture236XVBark Utensils— Bast Ropes andTwine— Root and Vine Cordage—^Withes and Splits . . . 256XVI Knots, Hitches and Lashings . 271

CONTENTSXVII Trophies— Pelts,.....Buckskin andRawhide 298A VII ITanning Skins— Other AnimalProducts . - . . . .321XIX Cave Exploration .... 337XX Bee Hunting ^354XXI Edible Plants of the V/ilderness 367XXII Living off the Country— InExtremis 403XXIII Accidents and Emergencies;their Backwoods Treatment . 422Index. . 470

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE1 Following the Wrong Stream .... 222 Ox-bow Bends 233 Need of Base-line ........ 394 One Blaze=/i-way from Camp .... 415 Two Blazes=To-wards Camp .... 416 Bush Mark 427 Use of Divides 468 Numbering Sections of a Township , . 669 Subdivision of Sections 6710 Compass Variation 7411 Meridian by Sun 7612 True North and South ..,.,, 1713 Big Dipper and Pole Star 7814 Route Sketch by Pacing 8115 Map by Combining Route Sketches . . 8316 Route Sketch, by C. H. Morrill .... 9017 Hitches on Measuring Line 9118 Laying Out a Right Angle 9219 Width of River by Compass .... 9320 Measuring Width without Compass . . 9321 Measuring a Height . 9422 Extemporized Level 9523 Pack Harness with Head Strap . . . 11924 U. S. A. Knapsack 12325 Rucksack with Flap 12326 Plain Rucksack 12427 Rucksack in Use 12528 29 Norwegian Knapsack 12630 Tourist's Knapsack 12731 Nessmuk Pack Sack 12732 Duluth Pack Sack 129ZZ Whelen Pack Sack 12934 Pack Basket 13235 Abercrombie Pack Frame 132Z6 Felling Tree 190Z1 Boggled Notch 19038 True Notch 19039 Logging Up . . . 192

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE40 Scoring and Hewing 20141 Maul 20242 Gluts 20243 Cross-section of Tree Trunk 20344 Rail Splits 20345 Splitting a Log 20446 Splitting out Bolts 20747 Block for Clapboards 20748 Brake for Riving Boards 20849 Splitting twith a Froe 20850 "Run-out" Rift ... 20951 Springing the Rift 20952 Double Bolting for Shingles 21053 Shaving Horse 21154 Spanish Windlass 21355 Lopped Tree Den 21756 Tripod Shelter Frame 21757 Stake Frame for Lean-to 21958 Shear Frame for Lean-to 21959 Bark Tilt 22260 Bark Lean-to 22361 Beehive Lodge Frame ....... 22362 Beehive Lodge (covered) 22363 Wikiup Frame 22464 Wattled Work 22465 Slab Camp 22666 Log and Frame Camp 22867 Camp Plan 23068 Masked Camp 23369 Log Cabin (ground plan) 23770 Saddle Notch 24271 Round Notch 24272 Tenon-shaped End 24273 "Trough" Corner 24274 Fitting Joists 24375 Log Cabin (end view) 24476 Fireplace (vertical section) 24677 Cabin Door 24978 Pole Bunk 25079 Table 25180 Stool 25281 Bench 25282 Easy Chair 25283 Split-bottom Chair 25384 Fox Wedge ..... - ; 25385 Bottoming Chair with Splits 25486 Rustic Chair 254

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE87 Folds for Water-tight Vessel 25888 Bark Kettle 25889 Bark Water Bucket 26090 Bark Trough or Basin 26091 Bark Barrel 26192 Bark Berry Pail 26193 Pocket Cup 26194 Bark Dipper 26395 Fold for Fish Bucket 26396 Bark Fish Bucket 26497 Becketing Hoops 26998 Parts of Rope 27299 Overhand Knot 211100 Double Overhand Knot 272101 Figure-of-Eight Knot 272102 Thief Knot 272103 Granny Knot 272104 Reef Knot 272105 Weaver's Knot 272106 Double Bend 272107 Carrick Bend 272108 Lapped Overhand Knot ...... 272109 Water Knot 272110 Double Water Knot 272111 Leader Knot 276112 Half Hitch 276113 Two Half Hitches 276114 Multiple Hitch 276115 Rolling Hitch 276116 Fisherman's Bend 276117 Blackwall Hitch 276118 Clove Hitch (over post) 276119 Clove Hitch (overhand) 276120 Clove Hitch and Half Hitch 276121 Magnus Hitch 276122 Cleat Tie 276123 Timber Hitch 276124 Killick Hitch 276125 Ring Hitch 276126 Lark's Head 276127 Catspaw , 276128 Latigo Lash 280129 Openhand Eye Knot 280130 Midshipman's Hitch 280131 Bowline Knot 280132 Fisherman's Eye Knot 280

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE133 Loop Knot 280134 Central Draught Loop 280135 Slip Knot 280136 Draw Knot 280137 True Bow Knot 280138 Slippery Hitch 280139 Slippery Clove Hitch 280140 Running Bowline 284141 Running Noose with Stopper 284142 Lark Boat Knot 284143 Sheet Bend with Toggle 284144 Hitching Tie 284145 Hitching Tie (another) 284146 Sheepshank 284147 Bowline on a Bight 284148 Man Sling 284149 Boatswain's Chair 284150 Plank Sling 284151 Bak Hitch . . . , 284152 Pack Sling 284153 Harness Hitch 284154 Can Sling 290155 Parcel Lashing ......... 290156 Bottle Cork Tie 290157 Handcuff Knot 290158 Ledger Lashing 290159 Putlog Lashing 290160 Malay Hitch 290161 Paling Hitch 290162 Lever Knot 290163 Necklace Tie 290164 Pole Splice 290165 Rod Winding 294166 Loop Bend 294167 Eight Bend 294168 Tarn Hitch 294169 Double Hitch 294170 Tiller Hitch 294171 Double Loop 294172 Loop to Line 294173 Loop on Knot 294174 Half Hitch Jam Knot . 294175 Common Dropper Loop 294176 Tam Knot 294177 Turle Knot 294178 Eight Knot 294179 Reverse Knot .j a .: 294

ILLUSTRATIONSPAGE180 Bow Knot , , . 294181 Taxidermist's Knife 29Q182 Skinning a Head 300183 Bear Skin Stretched to Dry 304184 Pelt Stretcher 307185 Splicing Thongs 316186 Horn Cup 328187 Lard Pail Lantern 334188 Cross-section of Cavern 342189 Map of Part of Mammoth Cave . . . 345190 Runway Snare 405191 Baited Snare 406192 Head of Rattlesnake o 437193 Surgeon's Knot o , 450

WOODCRAFTCHAPTER IWOODCRAFTFrom the autumn of 1904 to the winter of 1906I lived, most of the time, alone in a little cabin onthe Carolina side of the Great Smoky Mountains,surrounded by one of the finest primeval forests inthe world. My few neighbors were born backwoodsmen.Most of them dwelt in log cabins ofone or two rooms, roofed with clapboards rivenwith a froe, and heated by hardwood logs in widestone fireplaces. Many had no cooking-stoves, butbaked on the hearth and fried their meat over theembers.Nearly every man in the settlement was a skilledaxeman and a crack shot. Some of them still usedhome-made muzzle-loading rifles with barrels overfour feet long. Some of the women still workedat home-made spinning-wheels and looms. Coonskinsand ginseng passed as currency at the littlewayside stores. Our manner of life was not essentiallychanged from that of the old colonial frontier.To complete this historic setting, we had for neighborsthe Eastern Band of Cherokees, who still holda bit of their ancient patrimony, on the OkonaLufty. These Indians, while classed as civilized,have by no means forgotten all their aboriginal arts.You may find them, even now, betimes, slipping13

14 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlike shadows through the forest, killing small gamewith cane blow-guns, much longer than themselves,and small arrows with thistle-down wrapped roundthe butts so as to fitthe bore.To one coming from cities, it was a strange environment,almost as though he had been carriedback, asleep, upon the wings of time, and hadawakened in the eighteenth century, to meet DanielBoone in flesh and blood.*In such a situation it was natural, nay imperative,that one should pick up and practice certain,arts long lost and forgotten by civilized communitiesbut quite essential in our backwoods way of living.I began, to be sure, with the advantage of experiencegained on many hunting and camping tripsin otherlands; but in this new field I had to make shift in adifferent way, and fashion many appliances frommaterials found on the spot. The forest itself wasnot only my hunting-ground but my workshop andmy garden.Into this novel and fascinating game I enteredwith keenest zest,and soon was going even "fartherback" than the native woodsmen themselves. Igathered, cooked, and ate (with certain qualms, beitconfessed, but never with serious mishap) a greatvariety of wild plants that country folk in generaldo not know to be edible. I learned better ways ofdressing and keeping game and fish, and worked outodd makeshifts in cooking with rude utensils, orwith none at all. I tested the fuel values and otherqualities of a great many kinds of wood and bark,made leather and rawhide from game that fell tomy rifle, and became more or less adept in otherbackwoods handicrafts, seeking not novelties butpracticalresults.To what degree I was reverting to the primitivecame home to me one day when a white dame, find-*For an account of this experience, with_ descriptions of thesouthern mountains and their primitive inhabitants, seeOur Southern Highlanders, by Horace Kephart (Outing Publishing-Co.. New York},

WOODCRAFT 15ing Will Tahlahlah giving me a lesson in Cherokee,remarked rather sourly to the redskin: "You needn'tteach him anything; he's more of an Indian thanyou are."Seldom during those three years as a forest exiledid I feel lonesome in daytime ; but when supperwould be over, and black night closed in on myhermitage, and the owls began calling all the bluedevils of the woods, one needed some indoor occupationto keep him in good cheer: and that is how Icame to write my first little book on camping andwoodcraft.Since then I have spent several more years in "thesticks," at much the same kind of life, save that nowI had as partner one of the best woodsmen in thiscountry, a man so genuinely a scholar in hi? chosenlore that he could well afford to say, as once he didto me: "I've studied these woods and mountains allmy life, Kep, like you do your books, and I don'tknow them all yet, no sirree." And I now say tothe reader, for myself, just what Bob said to meabout himself, save that my experience covers a lessperiod of time.In the school of the woods there is no graduationday. What would be good woodcraft in one regionmight be bad bungling in another. A Maine guidemay scour all the forests of northeastern America,and feel quite at home in any of them ; but put himin a Mississippi canebrake, and it is long odds thathe would be, for a time.Perplexed, bewildered, till Tie scarce doth knowHis right forefinger from his left big toe.And a southern cane-cracker would be quite asmuch at sea if he were turned loose in a spruceforest in winter. But it would not take long foreither of these men to "catch on" to the new conditions;for both are shifty, both are cool-headed, andboth are keen observers. Any man may blunderonce, when confronted by strange conditions; bui

i6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTnone will repeat the error unless he be possessed bythe notion that he has nothing new to learn.Woodcraft may be defined as the art of findingone's way In the wilderness and getting along wellby utilizing Nature's storehouse. When we saythat Daniel Boone, for example, was a masterwoodsman, we mean that he could confidently enteran unmapped wilderness, with no outfit but whatwas carried by his horse, his canoe, or on his ownback, and with the Intention of a protracted stay;that he could find his way through the dense forestwithout man-made marks to guide him; that heknew the habits and properties of trees and plants,and the ways of fish and game ; that he was a goodtrailer and a good shot; that he could dress gameand cure peltry, cook wholesome meals over an openfire, build adequate shelter against wind and rain,and keep himself warm through the bitter nights ofwinter—in short, that he knew how to utilize thegifts of Nature, and could bide comfortably In thewilderness without help from outside.When one travels with a guide, It is the guldenswoodcraft that pulls him through. When he goeson his own hook, he must play the woodsman himself.Woodcraft shows at its best when we "golight" through difficult and unknown country. Itssupreme test is In an emergency, when the equipment,or essential parts of It, have been lost ordestroyed through some disaster.As for book-learning in such an art, it is usefulonly to those who do not expect too much of it.No book can teach a man how to swing an axe orfollow a faint trail. Nor is it of much account toone who merely learns by rote, without using hisown wits and common sense as he follows the pages.Yet a good book is the best stepping-stone for abeginner. Without It he might bog and floundera long time without aim or method. It gives aclear idea of general principles. It can show, atleast, how not to do a thing—and there is a good

WOODCRAFTifdeal in that—half of woodcraft, as of any other art,is in knowing what to avoid. That is the differencebetween a true knot and a granny knot, and it canbe shown by a sketch as well as with string in hand.In this work I have preferred to give full details,so far as the book goes. One's health and comfortin the wilds very often depend upon close observanceof just such details as breathless people would skipor scurry over. Moreover, since this is not a guidebookto any particular region, I have tried to keepin mind a variety of conditions existing indifferentkinds of country, and have suggested alternativemethods or materials, to be used according to circumstances.One might, perhaps, compress into avest-pocket manual all the expedients of woodcraftthat would have to be practised in one certainlocality, say the Adirondacks, but it would be oflittle use in a different sort of country.Of course, no one person is likely to find all ofthis volume directly useful to himself. I must askhim to accept my assurance, based on a considerablecorrespondence with outdoor men in many countries,that there is no chapter in it but is of interest tosomebody. Each reader is supposed to pick out forhimself what bears on his own problems.The first volume of this work. Camping, is intendedmainly for parties who go well equipped andare guided by natives of the country, and who haveadequate means of transportation, or for those whogo into fixed camp and stay there until the vacationis over. This one, on Woodcraft, is for those whotravel light, in the real wilderness, rove about a gooddeal, and sometimes scatter, every man for himself,with his life in his own hands.In the following chapters I offer suggestions onforest travel, pathfinding, route sketching, what todo if lost, outfits for trips afoot, marksmanship inthe woods, emergency foods, qualities and utilizationof wood and bark, camp making with tomahawk oraxe. cabins and rustic furniture, caches and masked

l8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcamps, knots and lashings, buckskin and rawhide,tanning pelts, bee hunting, living off the country,cave exploration, first aid to the injured, and othershifts and expedients that are handy when one isfar from shops and from hired help.I have little to say, here, about the selection ofarms and tackle, about hunting, fishing, trailing,trapping, mountaineering, and nothing about fieldphotography, canoeing, snowshoeing, or the managementof horses and pack trains, because each of thesetopics deserves a book by itself, and we now havegood ones on all of them.*Woodcraft properly relates only to the forestwilderness. The literature of outdoor sport is gettingus used to such correlative terms as plainscraft,mountaincraft, and even icecraft and snowcraft.This sort of thing can be overdone ; but we need ageneric term to express the art, in general, of gettingon well in wild regions of any and all kinds, whetherin forests, deserts, mountains, plains, tropics or arctics;and for this I would suggest the plain Englishcompound wildcraft.If any one should get the Impression from thesepages that camping out with a light outfit meanslittle but a daily grind of camp chores, questionablemeals, a hard bed, torment from Insects, and a goodchance of starvation and broken bones at the end, hewill not have caught the spirit of my intent. It Isnot here my purpose to dwell on the charms of freelife In a wild country; rather, taking all that forgranted, I would point out some short-cuts, and offera lift, here and there, over rough parts of the trail.No one need be told how to enjoy the smooth ones.Hence It Is that I treat chiefly of difficulties, andhow to overcome them.*See the series of Outing Handbooks, and lists of outdoor booksin outfitters' catalogues.

CHAPTER IIGETTING LOST—BIVOUACSWhen a man fixes up his pack and strikes outalone into strange woods, just for a little adventure,not caring where he may come out, he may be lostallthe time, in one sense, but in a better sense he isat home all the time. Not for a moment does heworry about the future ; he is exploring new territory—that is all.But if one sets out for a certain destination, expectingto reach it by a given time, and loses thetrail,he will be anxious at once, and the longer thiscontinues, the more it will get on his nerves. Stillwe would hardly call him lost, so long as he retainsa good idea of the general direction in which heshould travel.A man is really lost when, suddenly (it is alwayssuddenly), there comes to him the thudding consciousnessthat he cannot tell, to save his life, whetherhe should go north, east, south or west. This is anunpleasant plight to be in, at any time ; the first timethat it is experienced the outlook will seem actuallydesperate.Instantly the unfortunate man is overwhelmed bya sense of utter isolation, as though leagues andleagues of savage forest surrounded him on all sides,through which he must wander aimlessly, hopelessly,until he drops from exhaustion and starvation.Nervously he consults his compass, only to realizethat it isof no more service to him now than a brassbutton. He starts to retrace his steps, but no signof footprint can he detect. He is seized with a19

aoCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpanic of fear, as irrational but quite as urgent asthat which swoops upon a belated urchin when heis passing a country graveyard at night. It willtake a mighty effort of will to rein himself in andcheck a headlong stampede.Panic.—In such predicament as this, a man isreally in serious peril. The danger is not from thewilderness, which, pitiless niggard though it be tothe weak-minded or disabled, can yet be forced toyield food and shelter to him who is able-bodied andwho keeps his wits about him. No: the man'sdanger is from himself.I have heard old woodsmen say that there is nouse in offering advice to novices about what theyshould do if they get lost, because a lost man is aninsane m.an, anyway, and will remember nothingthat has been told him. Certainly it is true that ifa man in such a strait permits panic to conquer him,he is likely either to perish or to come out of thewoods a gibbering lunatic. There have been manysuch cases. But it is not true that they are the rule.Thousands of wayfarers have been lost for a day,two days, or longer, without losing their self-command.And there really is no valid excuse for anable-bodied person going out of his head from beingbewildered in the big woods so long as he has a gunand ammunition, or even a few dry matches and ajackknife. The first time I was lost, I was rattledand shook all over. Something seemed to tell methat camp lay in a certain direction, and I felt thesame impulse to rush madly toward it that one feelsto dash for the door when there is a cry of *'fire!"in a theater. But I did remember what old Barneshad told me: "If you get lost, sit downl—sit downand give yourself half an hour to think it over." Isat down, and for five minutes could not think ofanything, except cold, and rain, and hunger. Then

—BIVOUACS 21I got to drawing diagrams on the ground. Makingno headway at this, I began considering how to passthe night if I remained just where I was.This cleared my mind, robbed the woods of theirspooks, and presently I was myself again. Then theactual situation flashed upon me. I saw just howI had got into this scrape, and knew that if I madea circuit of 200 yards radius I would strike the trail.Before this it had seemed at least two miles away.Well, I found it, all right. Had I listened to thedemon of flight, in the first place, I would haveplunged into one of the worst canebrakes in all Arkansas,and might have struggled there till I diedall within a mile and a half of my own camp.I have been lost several times: in canebrakes, inflat woods of the overflow country, in the laurel,fog, above the clouds (in the sense that I did notknow on which side to descend from an aiguille orbare pinnacle of rock), and in caverns. The caveexperiences were hair-raising, but the others wereDnly incidents to chuckle over in retrospect, althoughI have scorched the back of more than one coat fromlying too near a bivouac fire. A bad record, youwill say, for one who assumes to tell others how tokeep from getting lost! Well, maybe so; but thefact that I am still on deck may be some excuse foroffering a little counsel as to what to do if youshould get lost.I do not think that one can get the best of wildlife if he does not often *'go it alone." Men whoare interested in the guiding business may say otherwise.If one does go it alone, he may as well takeit for granted that, sooner or later, he will get lostand have to stay out over night, or for several nights,alone. There is no man, white or red, who is notliable to lose his bearings in strange woods if he iscareless. If an Indian is seldom at fault as to hiscourse it is because he pays close attention to business;he does not lose himself in reverie, nor is hismind ever so concentrated on an object that he failsin

22 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTto notice irregular or uncommon things along theway. And yet, even Indians and white frontiersmensometimes get lost.I have been with a first-class woodsman when hegot mixed up on his own home hunting-ground—anoverflow from the Mississippi, flooding sixty milesinland,had swept awayPold landmarks, replacedthem with new ones,and changed the appearanceof the country;then, subsiding, ithad even altered thedrainage of the land.^. 1 T- ,1 . , At such a time theFig. 1.— Following the . r ^ -u *.,,. o. water or a tributaryWrong Stream ^ nmay actually run upstream.In fog or snowstorm anybody can get lost.You may take a professional guide from New Brunswick,let us say, or from Florida—it matters notwhere—place him in a new country where outlooksare few, and where the vegetation, the rocks andsoil, and the general features of the country, arestrange to him, and, if he does not get lost, it willbe because he thinks more about avoiding it than hedoes about anything else.Those who scout the idea of their ever losing bearingsare such as have traveled littlein strange lands,or have never ventured far without a native guide.Personally, I would rather get lost now and thenthan be forever hanging on to a guide's coat-tail. Itis a matter of taste. Anyway, I shall never againhave the willyjigs as I had 'em that first time, whenI was actually within forty rods of a plain trail.In THE Mountains.—There is little excuse forgetting lost, in fair weather, in a mountainous orundulating country where there are plenty of watercourses,unless one gets on the wrong side of a dividethat separates two streams which do not run intoeach other. Thus, in Fig. i, let ABC be a main

divide, BD a spur toBIVOUACS 23the southward separating twostreams that eventually flow in opposite directions,and let X be the location of the camp. A strangerwho had spent the day on the upper mountainsmight return toward evening to B, and, thinking tofollow the creek from / to X, might turn down atCj by mistake, and travel a considerable distance beforehe realized that he was going in the wrongdirection.Flat Woods.—In flatwoods, where the watercoursesare few and very meandering, the vegetationrank and monotonously uniform in appearance, andlandmarks rare, a man may return within 200 yardsof his own camp and pass by it, going ahead withhurrying pace as he becomes more and more anxious.In Fig. 2 a man leaves camp X in the morning, goingin the direction indicated by the dotted line. H^consults his compass at intervals during the day,tries to allow for his windings, and, returning in theevening, strikes the river at Z. If he follows itsbank in either direction,he is likely to spend thenight alone in the woods.If the camp were at A,and the homeward-boundhunter should reach thestream at B, he would bedumbfounded to find himself,apparently, on thewrong bank of the river.Another easy way to getbewildered is as follows:In Fig. 2 we will assumethat the current runs from • ^A toward Z, that a party Fig. 2.—Ox-bow Bendsunfamiliar with theriveris descending it in a boat, and that one of the menleaves the boat at Aj going ashore to hunt along thebank. At X he comes to the mouth of a deep creek,«r some other obstruction, or he starts game that

24 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTleads him back into the woods. Not long afterwardhe reaches the river again at Z, and, after hallooingand firing a shot or two, but getting no answer, hehurries on down-stream, thinking that the boat gotahead of him while he was making his detour. Theboat, meanwhile, has been rounding a great ox-bowcurve, and may be a couple of miles behind the manashore.In each of these examples the country isassumedto be fairly easy to traverse, and in each case themisadventure might have been avoided by a littleforethought. A bush bent over, here and there, ablaze on a tree where the underbrush was dense,would have saved all that. Without such precautions,there are places where a man can get badlymuddled in a forty-acre tract. This is no exaggeration.One of my companions once was lost fromearly morning until after nightfall in a thirty-acrepatch of blue cane. He struggled until almost completelyexhausted, and when we found him he lookedlike a scarecrow. At no time had he been half amile from the cabin.Thickets.—A canebrake is bad enough, but it isnot so bad as those great tracts of rhododendronwhich, in the region between Thunderhead andthe Balsam Mountains (Tennessee and North Caro*lina) cover mile after mile of steep mountainsidewhere few men have ever been. The natives call suchwastes "laurel slicks," "woolly heads," "lettuce beds,""yaller patches," and "hells." The rhododendron isworse than laurel, because it is more stunted andgrows much more densely, so that it is quite impossibleto make a way through it without cutting, foot byfoot ; and the wood is very tough. Two powerfulmountaineers starting from the Tennessee side tocross the Smokies were misdirected and proceeded upthe slope of the Devil's Court House, just east ofThunderhead. They were two days in making the ascent,a matter of three or four miles, notwithstandingthat they could see out all the time and pursued the

BIVOUACS 25shortest possible course. I asked one of them howthey managed to crawl through the thicket. "Wecouldn't crawl," he replied, "we swum," meaningthat they sprawled and floundered over the top.These men were not lost at all. In a "bad laurel"(heavily timbered), not very far from this, an oldhunter and trapper who was born and bred in thesemountains, was lost for three days, although themaze was not more than a mile square. His accountof it gave it the name that it bears today, "Muggins'shell."I could give many such instances, but these willsuffice to show that there still is virgin ground insome of our oldest States. The far West and thefar North present problems of their own. Extensiveswamps are the worst places of all, aboveground. As for caves, and how not to get lost inthem, I will have something to say in another chapterẆhat to Do.—No matter where, or in whatcircumstances, you may be,the moment you realizethat you have lost your bearings, there is just onething for you to do: STOPl Then sit down.Now any man can remember that. It is a bit of"book learning" that no man can afford to despise.It is the one and only way to clear your wits, todrive off the demon of panic, and it is sure to helpget you out of your predicament.Then, if you are a smoker, light your pipe ; if not,chew a twig. It won't take long for you to recoversense enough to know that if you stay right whereyou are until morning your companions, by thattime, will be searching for you. They will be scouringthe woods, hallooing, firing guns, scouting foryour trail. Suppose you do have to stay out allnight, alone in the woods; nothing will hurt you.The stories of bears or panthers pouncing on sleepingmen are all tommyrot. So keep your shirt on.How long has it been since you were where youzuere certain of your location? Probably not a long

26 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtime.Suppose you have traveled half an hour afterleaving a known landmark. What is half an hourin the woods? A mile, say; perhaps not so much;for one does not keep up a steady jog in the wilderness;he often pauses to look or listen, and is boundto move slowly when off a beaten path.But you don't want to stay here like a numbskulland face the sly grins or open ridicule of a searchingparty? Very well, the bugaboos are fleeing. Nowtake a stick, make a bare spot on the ground, andtry to trace your probable course from the time ofleaving camp to the time you first suspected youmight be wandering astray. Mark on it the estimatedlocation of such landmarks as you noticed.If you are not altogether a tenderfoot, you will rememberhow many streams or ridges you havecrossed. Anyway, you will recall some features ofthe country you traversed. Not unlikely, whenyour mind has recovered its equipoise, you will beable to "backtrack" without much difficulty.But in any case, no matter how confident youmay be, dont take ten steps from the place whereyou are until you have marked it. If the locationis favorable for a smoke sign (in flat woods' it is ofno avail) build a fire, with enough damp or punkystuff on it to keep up a smoke for a good while, andbank it with earth so it cannot spread. Or, blazea tree on four sides—make big blazes that can beseen from any direction. Do this even though therebe several hours of daylight ahead, and although youhave no present intention of staying here; for youdo know that this spot is only so many hours fromcamp by back trail, and that you may have goodreason to return to it. This blazed tree, moreover,will be of great assistance to your camp-mates \nsearching for you, if you should not turn up laterThen take note of the lay of the land around you,the direction of its drainage, the character of itsvegetation, and the hospitalities that it offers to ajftight-bound traveler, in the way of drinking-water.

BIVOUACS 27sound down-wood for an all-night fire,natural shelter,and browse or other bedding.Now when you start out to recjver the trail, makebush-marks as you go along (see Chapter III, Fig.6) ; otherwise it will be the easiest thing in the worldto losethe way back to that blazed tree.In trying to pick up your old footprints don't givemuch attention to dry ground, except where theremay be dusty places, or rocks where your hobnailsmight have left scratches. Look for tracks (I don'tmean run around hunting for them) in the dampplaces that you pass, mossy spots, swales, margins ofbrooks, and for "scrapes" on the tops of fallen logs.When searching for a trail, do not look close toyour feet, but three or four j^ards ahead of you ; fora faint trail is more readily seen at that angle thanby looking straight down upon it. Cast your eyesalso from side to side, bearing in mind what a trailshould look like when you walk parallel with it, aswell as when approaching at right angles.If you get a shot at a squirrel or other animal (ofcourse, you don't wander around looking for them)kill it and tie it fast to you. It is one of the littleironies of wilderness life that food may be extraordinarilyscarce when you most need it—and thatmay be to-morrow.Bu^ if you don't soon find that back track ofyours, and if no familiar landmark shows up beforethe sun is within an hour of setting, QUIT IT forthe day. It is high time, now, that you go right towork to make yourself snug for the night. Yoursuccess or failure to-morrow will depend very muchupon what kind of a night's rest you get.Bivouacs.—In nearly every story that you readof a lost man's misadventures you find him strugglingdesperately on until black night shuts down. Thenhe throws his exhausted body upon the cold, dampground, soon to awaken in bitter misery, and backhimself up against a tree, to droop there throughthe long, long hours ; or, the cold being intense, and

28 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFThe without one dry match, the man totters crazllyall night, 'round and 'round, to keep from freezing.What could he be fit for next day?Of course, if the Swiss Family Robinson shouldget turned around in the forest primeval, they atonce would find a shallow cave, a projecting ledge,a great hollow tree, or some other natural shelterready-made on the spot. We often come acrosssuch natural harborages in the wilderness—when wedon't need them. (Three of us hunters once spreadand had roomour blankets inside a hollow cypressto spare.) But no special providence looks afterlost men.It would be so easy to make a comfortable "onenightstand" if you had a knapsack of supplies onyour back! Yes, you could get along very well ifonly you had a featherweight poncho, a i2-ouncetomahawk, and several big bites of grub (next timeyou go out alone you will have them). But to-dayyou just went off to one side after a crippled deer,or something, and your outfit comprises nothing buta gun and the contents of your pockets. Prettyprospect, isn't it?"Under the greenwood tree,Who loves to lie with me" . . .is all very nice on a summer's day; but under thegreenwood tree on a cold night in the big sticks, andthe Lord knows where, with no 7ne to share who^stroubles—oh, darn Shakespeare!Well, you must rustle. Just now you need fourthings.(i)—Water.(2) A fire that won't go out till morning.(3) A windbreak to keep the other side of youwarm.(4) A bed to rest your bones and to keep off thechill of the ground.And, my friend, you want to get these things withthe least expenditure of time and effort. Night ap-

—BIVOUACS 29proaches; to-morrow may be a hard day. Besides,you are quite too tired already to waste the crook ofyour finger on non-essentials, while aimless potteringwould be your ruin. The job must be tackledmethodically.So think back along your recent route and recallthe best place where all four of those things youneed are to be found—that is, the raw materialsand go to it.I am assuming that the night is likely to be cold,but that there is no indication of rain or snowthat contingency will be considered later.In a primitive forest there are big fallen trees onnearly every acre. Find a sound one that lies flaton level ground. You might use it either as a backlogor as a windbreak; the latter in this case, sinceyou are to erect no shelter. In summer, a bed ofdead leaves piled against the log, with a small firein front, would be a good cubby for the night. Butwe assume that there will be frost.Select the spot that you intend to lie on (leewardside of the log, of course), cover it with dry brush,and set it afire. The object is to dry out the groundand heat it. If the tree is not punky it will standa considerable blaze close to it without igniting morethan little spots on the bark, which can be extinguishedwith a handful or two of dirt. But don't,on your life, kindle a fire against a decayed or hollowlog—you never could be sure of putting it out. Ifthere are no sound down-logs, build an artificialwindbreak of poles laid on top of each other andchinked with earth.You first have raked the leaves together towardthe center so that the fire cannot spread. Don'tmake too big a blaze at a time. When the groundyou are to sleep on is burned ofF, keep a fire of smallsticks going on it for half an hour, the length andwidth you are to occupy. Meantime you will bedragging in, and piling on one side, all the sound,dry wood you can get, for the night's fuel. Get

30 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlong sticks, as big as you can handle, and plenty ofthem. Perhaps there are some old pine stumps thatyou can uproot. Don't fool with soggy, decayedstuff. Probably the top of your fallen tree willfurnish a lot of broken limbs that sprangle enoughto have been kept mostly off the ground and haveseasoned hard.When you have plenty of night-wood piled up,take a pair of sticks and rake the embers of yourbrush fireforward to a place five or six feet In frontof your bed. Build there your night fire. Trampdown all embers left by the first fire, and carefullyextinguish any smoking spots on the tree. If thelog does not quite meet the ground, chink the openingswith dirt.If there are evergreen bushes at hand, they makethe best bedding (balsam, hemlock, spruce, in thatorder—even pine or cedar will do In a pinch). Youwon't have time to make a real browse bed (describedIn Chapter XIII of this book), but rememberthat the smaller the sticks under you, the betteryou will rest. If there are no evergreens, then usemoss, ferns, grass, or whatever other soft stuff youmay find. Dead leaves and pine needles are the lastchoice, as they are inflammable. If you have time,make that bed two feet deep.dryThe ground that you are going to sleep on Isand hot, and will stay so a long time, being Insulatedby the bedding stuff. The log behind you Is warm,and it will shield you from the wind. You haveeffected a double economy, because a small fire infront will suffice until the cold hours on the far sideof midnight, for which time the bulk of your fuel Isto be saved.Don't fire any distress signals until shortly beforedark ; earlier ones would be attributed to some wanderinghunter. But when the shadows begin to fall,and 5'^ou have not shown up, your comrades will beginto grow uneasy and will listen for signals.Thebest signal with a gun is g shot, a pause of teiv

BIVOUACS 31seconds, and then two shots In quick succession.The first attracts attention, the others give the direction.If the men of your party hear you they willreply instantly. But if you hear no answer, do nottry again for half an hour. Save aTninunition. Youwill need it worse to-morrow, for signalling as youtravel, and to get meat with.If your camp-fire smokes badly. It Is because It liestoo flat on the ground for air to get under It. Buildit on thick chunks, or on rocks if there are flat onesto be found.So long as It does not rain, the problem of keepingwarm without a blanket Is not serious. If morecovering is demanded, and there are enough smallbalsams in the neighborhood, one can make a deepbed of the browse, lay two or three poles over It,pile a lot of boughs on top, and then, by manipulatingthe poles, insinuate himself between the twclayers. This will help very much to prevent toorapid radiation of the bodily heat. Another goodkink is to get a number of stones, six to eight Inchesin diameter, heat them before the fire, and placethem around j^ou wherever the cold is felt. Haveothers heating in the meantime, and change fromtime to time. To lift and carry them, cut a smallforked limb close to the joint, leaving two feet ofeach fork for handles, put the crotch over the rock,and press inward with the handles.Perhaps, instead of a fallen tree, you may havethe good luck to find a big uptilted rock with flatface, long enough to serve as windbreak, or a ledge,with enough level ground in front of it for yourpurpose. Rock holds heat a long time, yet generouslyradiates It.The warm air from the camp-firewill eddy around it.A man without a blanket can bivouac In the wayhere described, and get a pretty good night's rest,even In freezing weather. If It snows, a browsebed-covering will help. But a chill fall rain Is somethingelse. Ugh ! Maybeyou can twist up enough

32 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—evergreen shrubs with your hands to build a kennelof some sort, but its slope must be steeper than 45°to do any good. If you find old logs from whichsheets of bark can be peeled with a stick whittledwedge-shape at one end, you can make a pent-roofover your bed. Slope some sticks from the far sideof the big log that serves as windbreak, forward overyour bed, weight them down with rocks or a heavystick, and shingle the bark over the upper ends. Butyou are in for a night of it—the best you can doallfor the lack of what "Nessmuk's" scoffers calledhis "limber-go-shiftless pocket axe." With the likeof it you could build a good shelter of bark or ofbrowse, such as will be described in a future chapter.Among my most valued possessions is a tiny Colclessertomahawk, of 8-ounce head and 2^ inchbitt, which, with hickory handle and home-madesheath, weighs only three-quarters of a pound. Iseldom go anywhere in the woods (unless in marchingorder with a heavier axe) without this little trick.It is all that is needed to put up a satisfactory shelterwherever there is hemlock or balsam, or bark thatwill peel, while for other service I use it oftenerthan I do my jackknife.Fire Without Matches.—So far I have takenfor granted that you have matches and that they aredry. Damp ones, by the way, may be restored byrubbing through the hair ;or, place a match betweenthe palms of your hands, with its head projecting atrifle, and roll it briskly back and forth; in a shorttime it will be dry enough to light.But suppose you have no matches. Well, with ashotgun the task of making fire is easy ; with a modernrifle, or pistol, that uses jacketed bullets, it isnot so easy, because the bullet is hard to get out ofthe shell—still you can manage it by cutting lengthwisethrough the neck of the shell and prying thebullet out.First make allpreparations needed to ensure suc-Build up vour woodcess when vou get the flame.

BIVOUACS 33leady to light, the kindh'ng being stood up on endagainst the larger sticks in a half-cone shape, withopening at the bottom, in front, for tinder. Thislast may be very dry shredded bark, fine slivers offat pine, or any dry splinters, pounded between tworocks until the fibers separate. In a rain you canget dry stuff from the inside of a hollow tree.Worry the bullet out of the cartridge; sprinklemost of the powder (smokeless, I assume) on thetinder, leaving only a few grains in the shell. Thentear a bit of dry cotton cloth (lining from yourclothing, for instance) with fluffy edges, and withthis loosely fill the nearly emptied cartridge. Putit in your gun, and fire straight up into the air.The cloth will drop close to you, and either will beaflame or, at least, burning so that you can blow itinto a blaze. Drop this quickly on your tinder, andthe trick is done. Remember, you want onlyenough pov/der in the cartridge to blow the bit ofrag a few feet into the air. Very little will do.Sparks may be struck from flint, quartz, or pyrites,by striking a glancing blow with the back of a knifeor other piece of hard steel. The chief difl^culty isto catch the sparks. Hold the flint between thumband finger of left hand, and some tinder in thehollow of the same hand. Tinder for this purposeis made by tearing (not cutting) cotton cloth intoa long, narrow strip, and rolling it up like a rollerbandage, but a bit spirally, so that the fluffy edgewill overlay a littleat each revolution, thus forminga nest of lint at one end of the roll, into which thesparks are to be struck. As soon as it catches, blowitinto a flame.The lens of a field-glass, or the outer lens of acamera, may do service as a burning glass; but it isanother of the little ironies that the sun probablyisn't shining when you get lost.As for the fire-drill so dramatically exploited bypopular lecturers, who make fire with sticks in lessthan a minute, it is all right provided you have the

34 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTright material, which must be soft, non-resinouswood, thoroughly seasoned, brash, but not the leastpunky. In most situations it would be accidentalif a lost man should find such wood. As a matterof fact, savages carry their fire-sticks with them, aswe do matches.Next Morning.—A night's rest, even thoughfitful, will have cleared your mind a good deal. Bythis time you probably will iiave a definite theoryof location,based upon what you know of the relationof the camp site to the surrounding country,and the general course of your wanderings. Andyou will feel much better at having a whole day ofsunlight ahead of you.The first effort will be to get an outlook over thesurrounding country. In the hills this is easy, butin a level country heavily timbered it is difficult.If you are a good climber, pick out a tall tree andgo up as high as you can get. Where the trunksare too thick for climbing, select a big tree that hasa slender one growing beside it from which you canclamber into the lower limbs of the old one. Butdon't risk a broken limb of your own—that mightbe fatal.Having gained your outlook, note the compassdirection of watercourses and other landmarks, mappingthem on a piece of paper; for a lost man'smemory is treacherous. The courses of smallstreams show where the main valley lies. Look forsmoke. Your comrades will have raised one, if therebe a woodsman among them.Now decide whether to try to reach camp or to"break out" to a known road or settlement. If stiDcompletely bewildered, then there is but one thingto do: work down country, either along a stream ora divide. If you do this, even in a remote district,it cannot be more than a few days until you reachhabitations of men. In the meantime you may suffer,but you certainly need not starve nor freeze. liyou have no one definite objective, but are merely

—BIVOUACS 53going down country, do not try to steer a straightcourse, but save your strength by following theeasiest way, being careful merely to keep the generaldirection. Follow divides, rather than streams, forreasons that will be given in the next chapter.But we will assume that you have an idea whichway camp lies. Take the compass direction fromyour outlook, note how the sun bears as you facethat way, pick out a mark in line with the course,and steer for it— then from this to another, and soon. But, before leaving the site of your bivouac,blaze a tree and pencil on it the time of your startThis willand the direction you intend to travel in.be invaluable to your mates if they track you up.At intervals of half an hour or so, fire a distresssignal, if you can spare the ammunition dont wasteit.As you travel, make bush marks and blazes alongthe course. It may be necessary to return; otherscan follow your trail by them; and, if you shouldcircle, you will know it when you come across yourold marks.Circling.—^When a man travels w^here there isno outlook over the surrounding country, he is aptto "circle." In going around obstacles he maychoose habitually the same side, and not makeenough allowance for this tendency when averagingup his windings. But many men have an unconscious leaning toward one side or the other, even inopen country, even on horseback, and will tend totravel in a circle unless they frequently check theircourse by compass or landmarks. Just why, we donot know. It is said that only an ambidextrousman goes straight naturally. Most men swerve tothe right, and, since most of us are right-handed, itmay be that when there is nothing else to guide u^we incline toward the stronger side.I offer this explanation for what it may be worth.Anyway, the tendency to travel in a circle is commonto most men when they are lost, Mr. C C. Filson

36 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsays that a lost man once came to his camp who hadwalked continuously for six days and nights and wasonly about six miles from his starting point. Fivehours of travel in any one direction would havetaken him out of the woods and saved him the subsequentloss of both feet by freezing.To avoid circling, one must travel by landmarks,or, where none are visible, as in thick woods, thenby compass. Consult the instrument every two orthree minutes, for a slight deviation, persisted in,soon swings you far aside. After going around anobstacle to the right, even up, by walking as far tothe left. Don't travel too fast—it would excite you,wear you out, and keep you from marking yourtrail as you went along. Keep a stiff upper lip, andassure yourself that this is not a tragedy but only aninteresting adventure—then it will turn out so.How to live off the country, in case of being outa long time, will be discussed hereafter.By the time you get out of this predicament youwill agree that the art of not getting lost is worthstudying. Let me now direct our attention to it.

CHAPTER inPATHFINDINGI never knew a native of the wilderness who useda compass to guide him. The born backwoodsmanrehes upon the sun and stars, the direction of thewind, the courses of streams, prominent landmarks,and other natural signs of direction. That kind ofpathfinding will be discussed later. It is essentialin the education even of an amateur woodsman thathe should learn to steer a course, over averageground and under ordinary conditions, without recourseto map or compass ; for one can't be potteringover them when hunting or doing anything else ofabsorbing interest. Yet he should never be withoutthem in the field; in emergencies they are simplyinvaluable.On a windless, cloudy day, when boring throughnew country, especially if it be heavily timbered, itis quite too easy to lose one's bearings if the compasshas been left behind. In thick fog or fast-fallingsnow, the best of men may go astray for lack of thefaithful needle. Make it a rule, then, an Iron rule,of wilderness life, never to leave your bed in themorning without compass, jackknife, and waterproofmatchbox filled (fill it, as a matter of habit, everytime you wind your watch). A small section ofmap showing the principal features of the countryround about is another mighty good thing to havealways on your person, no matter how you may bedressed for the day or what you may be intendingto do. There is no telling when you may be calledoff on the keen jump, nor whither you may have togo.37

38 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—For instance: one time a big buck ran rightthrough camp while we were cooking dinner; in theflurry, everybody grabbed some other fellow's gun,somebody wounded the beast, and there was a longchase without the least preparation in the world.A-gain, we were all out picketing the mountain for abear drive; the bear avoided allthe likely crossingsand slipped by within fifty yards of camp. Nowsuppose you had been left there as camp-keeper forthe day. You snatch up a gun, fire, find blood onthe trail, follow it a couple of hours, and then"where are you at?"Aside from their value in emergencies, the compassand map are particularly useful to keep you out oftrouble. The best advice in the world is "Don't getlost." The only way to make reasonably sure ofthat is to mind your P's and Q's (or rather yourN and S) m advance. For example:Base Lines.—^You have camped in a pleasant bitof flat-woods, on the margin of a stream, at A (Fig.3 ) . In the morning you decide to go out by yourselffor a look-see, not hunting, of course, but just to geta good idea of the lay of the land.You know thatthe river runs north and south. Simplest thing inthe world, then, to tramp eastward a couple of hours,and return in time for dinner. You can't cross thatriver without knowing it, and camp is right on theriver bank, you know.The forest is fairly open for the first mile or soand you steer an approximately straight course.Then you strike bogs and thickets, not bad ones norbig ones, but just enough to make you average yourwindings by glancing at the compass now and then.Presently the going is better, and you continue nearlystraight east until you reach B, when it is time toreturn. You are sure that your course has beenalmost due east, and that you are about four milesfrom camp. You take compass bearings due westas far as you can see out, and back you .^o. Bu/

PATHFINDING 39you can't trail your own foot-prints. It would takeone of Fenimore Cooper's redskins to do so overNothis firm ground covered with dry fallen leaves.matter: you have a compass, haven't you?Soon, at a point where your outbound course borea bit northerly, you pass it, unknowingly, bygoing straight back west. You feel certain that youare steering right; for that compass is in your handhalf the time.Y ^ ^ V w fFig. 3.—Need of Base lineHang it! here is a bog. To the left it looks impracticable.You go around to the right, and thencarefully even up the winding by swerving left anequal distance. Some lesser curves hereafter areallowed for in the same way. Finally you comeout on the river. You knoiu your return course hasbeen very nearly due west. But the confoundedriver doesn't look a bit like it did at camp! Youstruggle to the bank through thick undergrowth,and when you get there you can't see two hundredyards of the stream in either direction. There is ajungle to the water's edge.

40 CAMPING AND WOODCR.\FTWell, you are either above or below camp. Butwhich? Maybe old Leatherstocking could tell; butyou can't, to save your life. You might as wellpitch a penny for it. At random you turn downstream.Very soon you come to an abrupt bendgoing westward. There was no indication of sucha bend close to camp. Probably the tents are upstream,you say. So you turn about-face and gonorth. Still an utterly strange river.By one o'clock you realize that you are goingwrong. Camp couldrit be so far off from whereyou struck the river. So you turn wearily backdownstream, and, late in the afternoon you reachcamp, feeling like a fool, and silently swearing neverto tell a soul the true story of your misadventure.This is one of the simplest cases of "bumfuzzlement"that I can think of. It might have beencomplicated by any of a hundred difficulties or mis'haps that are common in the wilderness. Yet,simple as it was, it gave you no little anxiety anditended in humiliation.The trouble was that you started out in theYou should have explored a few mileswrong way.of the river first. This would have given you aknown base-line, to which you could return withperfect confidence from any direction. You couldhave marked that base-line with blazes every halfmileor thereabouts, on which were penciled thenumber of minutes' travel each location was fromcamp, the arrangement of blazes showing which waycamp lay.Where there is no river, road, or range of hills,running in a long continuous line to serve as base—nothing, say, but trackless forest—the first thing todo is to run such a line by compass, spotting thetrees, as will be described hereafter. I am assuming,here, that camp is to remain in one place for sometime.Trail Making.—Various kinds of blazedtrailswill be described in the next chapter. There is z

PATHFINDING 41way that 1 consider better for a man or a partyventuring into strange woods where there are fewif any old trails—better because it always showswhich way camp lies, and because it takes much lesslabor than spotting trees so close together that thenext blaze ahead can always be seen from the onepreceding it. At such intervals as may be required,blaze a tree here and there along the course, withone spot on the side away from camp (Fig. 4) anc*.two on the opposite side (Fig, 5), Even when aFig. 4.—One Blaze/4-way from CampFig. 5.—Two blazesTo-wavd Campman is bewildered he can remember "A blaze meansa-way from, two blazes means /o-ward."A blaze with a hack below It (simply drive thehatchet into the bark and draw it out) is easier andquite as effective. And between the blazed trees,at such intervals that you can see one from another,or as circumstances may require, make bush marks(Fig. 6). A bush mark is made by bending overthe top of a green and leafy bush in the directionyou are going, snapping the stem (if necessary clippingit half through with knife or hatchet) but lettingit adhere by part of the wood and bark so thatthe under side of the bushy top will "look at you"

42 CAMPINC5 AND WOODCRAFTwhen you return. The under side of the leaves,being of lighter shade than the upper, makes such abush sign conspicuous In the woods. Marks likethese can be made without slacking one'space.Where a bend In the trail Is made, the blazes, insteadof being opposite, should follow the bend, ofcourse.Blazing trees Is prohibited on public lands, and thepractice should be limited to remote regions wherethere are no regular trails. A blaze is everlasting,so long as the tree stands, and may cause troubleover land boundaries In years to come. Where underbrushis scarce. It may be necessary to spot thetrees, but generally It will suffice merely to hack o£Fa bit of the outer bark as big as your hand, withoutcutting into the sapwood.The snow-laden limbs ofOutgoing Course- low evergreen trees maydroop so low as to concealblazes on the trunks, anddriving snow may coverFig. 6.— Bush Markthem anyway, on any kindof tree. Consequently bushmarks are more reliablethan blazes in winter, ifthe snow Is not too deep.In average country, bushmarks alone will suffice.When ^oing out on anold trail for the first timqmake such a mark whereeveryou might be in doubton the return, as where the trail forks, or where itis overgrown or faint. If there are no bushes, jaba stick into the side of the trail, sloping towardcamp, or arrange a few stones in the form of anarrow-head, pointing the way.Of course, such precautions as these are only tobe taken on new ground, and then only according;to circumstances. Nowadays our wilderness travel

PATHFINDING 43is usually in regions where there are regular trailsthat are soon learned and which serve then as baselines,or where mountains, streams, lakes, and otherphysical features are so prominent that it is easy tolearn the lay of the land.In thick woods, canebr^^.kes, swamps, big thickets,and other places where the course is necessarily verytortuous, a compass is of little use while one is onthe march. Wherever the traveler can get an outlookhe fixes on some landmark in advance, noteshow the sun strikes him when facing the mark, andthenceforth averages up his windings as well as hecan. The compass is only of service when he canno longer see the sun, and is in doubt as to thedirection he istraveling in.In the wilderness one never knows when he maywant to retrace his steps. Hence, when passinganything that has particularly caught his eye, let himturn and see how it looks from the other side.Rough Travel.—The way to find game, or toget the best of anything else that the forest hides,not to follow well-beaten paths. One must oftenmake his own trails, and go where the going ishardest. As he travels through the unbroken woodshe may come, now and then, to a glade where thetrees do not crowd each other, where the undergrowthis sparse, and the Yitw so unobstructed thathe can see to shoot for a hundred yards in any direction; such spots may be about as common, relatively,as are safe anchorages and deep-water harbors alongthe coast. But part of the time, a wanderer in theforest primeval must pick a way for his feet overuneven ground that is covered with stubs, loosestones, slippery roots, crooked saplings, mixed downwood,and tough, thorny vines. He is forever busyseeking openings, parting bushes, brushing away cobwebs,fending of¥ springy branches, crawling over orunder fallen trees, working around impenetrabletangles, or trying to find a foot-log or a ford. Thereis no such thing as a short-cut. It is bevond theis

44 CAMl'ING AND WOODCRAFTpower of man to steer a straight course, or to keepup a uniform cadence of his steps.Unless the traveler knows his ground there is notelling when he may come to a "windfall" whereseveral acres of big timber have been overthrown bya hurricane and the great trees lie piled across eachother in an awkward snarl. Or maybe there is analder or spruce thicket or a cedar swamp in the way,or a canebrake or a cypress slough, or a laurel orrhododendron "slick," wherein a man will soon exhausthis strength to no purpose. If he be so unwiseas to try to force a passage.A brule or burnt-wood is a nasty place to passthrough. Every foot of ground that Is not coveredby charred snags, or fallen trunks and limbs, bristleswith a new growth of fireweed, blackberry and raspberrybriers, young red cherries, white birches, poplars,quaking aspens, scrub oaks, or gray pines.Where the fire has occurred on one of those barrenridges that was covered with dwarfish oaks (post,black, or blackjack), the sharp, fire-hardened stubsof limbs protrude, like bayonets, at the height ofone's face, menacing his eyes.An old "lumber works," where the trees havebeen chopped out, leaving nothing but stumps, treetops,and other debris, grows up with the same ranktenants as a burnt-wood, and is as mean to flounderthrough. As a general rule, a mile and a half anhour of actual progress is "making good time" inthe woods.Crossing Streams.—If you have to cross a deep,rocky ravine or dangerous mountain stream by passingover a high foot-log or fallen tree, then, If thelog Is tilted at an uncomfortable angle, or If its surfaceis wet, or icy, or treacherous with loose bark,or If,for any reason, you fear dizziness or falntness,don't be ashamed to get down and straddle the log,and "coon It," hunching j^ourself along with handsand thighs. Let your companions laugh, if theywill. It is not nice to break a limb when you are

PATHFINDING 45in a countr}'^ so rough that your comrades may haveto pack you out, by each, in turn, carrying you onhis own back and crawling w^ith you.Where there is no foot-log, a narrow stream maybe crossed by using a jumping-pole, or^ if it is toodeep for that, by a rope or vine swung from an overhangingtree and doubled back.Before fording, if the weather is cold, take offtrousers and drawers and tie them to your pack, butkeep your shoes on, lest you slip on smooth rocks.If the stream is swift, cut a stout pole, longer thanyourself, with which to sound ahead of j^ou and tobrace yourself against the current by planting itdownstream at each step.In flat country the shallowest part of a streamis usually where the near bank makes the longest,sharpest point, and it runs diagonally toward aprojection of the opposite bank, either up or downstream.The widest part of a river generally isthe shallowest. The inside of a sharp bend is deep.In swift-flowing streams look for fords above therifl^es.Fording swift water iseasiest with a heavy packto help hold one down ; but sling it so it will slipoff if you stumble—otherwise it may drown you.Several men in company can cross a stream too swiftfor one at a time, if they cut a long pole and crossabreast, holding the pole horizontally in front ofthem with each man grasping it.The heaviest manshould be on the downstream side.To avoid mud and quicksand, look for pebbles onthe bottom.Use of Divides.—Rivers are often spoken of a?having been man's natural highways in the daysbefore roads. This was true only to a limited extent.A few great rivers such as the Hudson, theOhio, the Mississippi, and the Missouri, were highwaysfor down-stream travel, and smaller waterwayswere, and still are, used in summer in the muskegcountry of the North, where land travel is imprac-

46 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTticable until everything freezes up. But the generalrule of aboriginal travel was to keep away fromstreams and follow the ridges between them. Thisrule stillholds good when a party travels afoot orwith pack-train in a country where there are noFig. 7.—Use of Dividesbridges. A glance at the accompanying diagram(Fig. 7) will show why.In this figure, AG represents a river,and CF themain divide or summit of watershed separating itfrom another river basin. It is assumed that a partyafoot or with horses desires to advance from A to G.Evidently, if they try to follow either bank of themain stream, they will have many fords to make, not

PATHFINDING 47only crossing tributaries here and there,but fordingor swimming the main stream itself, many times,where cliffs, bogs, or impenetrable thickets make oneof the banks impassable.If the region through which the river runs iswide bottom-land, the mouths of its tributaries arelikely to be deep, or to run over fathomless mud asdangerous as quicksand, and this will necessitatelong detours. The vegetation up to the very bankof the river will be exceedingly rank, a wretchedtangle of bushes, vines, briers, and tall grass, andfallen trees will be plentiful and large. At anytime a heavy rainstorm may send the river out of itsbanks, and the party may find itself marooned whereit can neither go forward nor backward. On theother hand, if the river runs through a mountainouscountry, it is probable that the travelers will cometo a canon that will compel them to retreat. In anycase, the party will never have an outlook; it willnever know what lies beyond the next bend of th^river.A comparatively easy way around all of thesedifficulties is shown by the dotted line ABDEG.Leaving the river by a ridge that leads to the maindivide, and following the crest to a similar abuttingridge that runs down tothe valley at the objectivepoint, there will be no fords to make, the footingwill be much better because vegetation is thinner onthe more sterile, wind-swept heights, the fallen treeswill be smaller, there will be no mud or quicksandor miry bogs, and every here and there a coign ofvantage will be climbed from which a far outlookcan be had over the surrounding country.The chief precaution to be observed in trying tofollow a divide where there is no trail, or wherethere are many intersecting trails, Is not to stray offon some abutting ridge. Thus, at the points B andD there may be in each case a gap between knolls orpeaks, and the lead to the left might easily be mistakenfor the main divide. If the X)arty were enticed

48 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTalong either of these leads, on account of itstrendingin the desired direction, it would soon find itself ina cul de sac.Celestial Guides.—The sun by day and thestars by night are Nature's chief guides for thetraveler. So long as the sun is visible anyone cantell, in a general way, the direction in which he isgoing. To find the sun on a cloudy day: hold aknife-blade or other thin, flat article perpendicularlyon the thumb-nail, watch-case, or any glossy surface,and slowly twirl it around. It will cast a faintshadow, unless the day is very dark. Choose anopen spot in the woods for this, rather than underthe trees, and don't try it near noon, when littleshadow would be cast anyway.How to find the North Star is shown at the endof Chapter V,

CHAPTER IVNATURE'S GUIDE-POSTSSameness of the Forest.—All dense woodslook much alike. Trees of most species grow verytall in a forest that has never been cut over, theirtrunks being commonly straight and slender, with nobranches within, say, forty feet of the ground. Thisis because they cannot live without sunlight for theirleaves, and they can only reach sunlight by growingtall like their neighbors that crowd around them.As the young tree shoots upward, its lower limbsatrophy and drop off. To some extent the characteristicmarkings of the trunk that distinguish the differentspecies when they grow in the open, and to agreater extent their characteristic habits of branching,are neutralized when they grow in dense forest.Consequently a man who can readily tell one. speciesfrom another, in open country, by their bark andbranching habits, may be puzzled to distinguish themin aboriginal forest. Moreover, the lichens andmosses that cover the boles of trees, in the deep shadeof a primitive wood, give them a sameness of aspect,so that there is some excuse for the novice who saysthat **all trees look alike" to him.The knowled2;e of trees that can be gained, firstfrom books and secondly from studies of trees themselvesin city parks or in country wood-lots, must besupplemented by considerable experience in the realwilderness before one can say with confidence, bymerely glancing at the bark, "that is a soft maple,and the other is a sugar-tree." And yet, I do nottinow any study that, in the long run, would be49

50 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT"more serviceable to the amateur woodsman than toget a good manual of American trees and then goabout identifying the species in his neighborhood.Having gained some facility in this, then let himturn to studying peculiarities of individual growth.Such self-training, which can be carried out almostanywhere, will make him observant of a thousandand one little marks and characteristics that aresign-boards and street-numbers in the wilds.What to Notice.—After a novice has had somepreliminary training of the kind I have indicated, sothat all things in the woods no longer look alike tohim, he will meet another difficulty. His memorywill be swamped! It is utterly impossible for anyman, whether he be red, white, black, or yellow, tostore up in his mind all the woodland marks andsigns that one can see in a mile's tramp, to say nothingof the infinite diversity that he encounters in along journey. Now, here is just where a skilledwoodcraftsman has an enormous advantage over anyand all amateurs. He knows what is common, andpays no attention to it ; he knows what is uncommon,'t catches his eye at once, and it interests him, so thathe need make no effort to remember the thing. Thisdisregard for the common elimmates at once threefourths,yes, nine-tenths, of the trees, plants,rocks, etc., from his consideration; it relieves hismemory of just that much burden. He will pass ahundred birch trees without a second glance, untilhis eye is riveted by a curly birch. Why riveted?Because curly birch is valuable. In the bottomlands he will scarcely see a sour gum, or a hundredof them ; but let him come across one such tree ontop of the ridge, and he will wonder how it chancedto stray so far from home. And so on, through allcategories of woodland features. A woodsmannotices such things as infallibly, and with as littleconscious effort,lint on her neighbor's carpet.as a woman notices the crumbs andThe Homing Instinct_(?)—^We hear much

NATGRE'S GUIDE-POSTS 51about the "innate sense of direction," the "extraordinarybump of locality," of savages and of certainwhite woodcraftsmen. "A good woodsman," we aretold, "finds his way, just as an animal does, by acertain kind of instinct." If by this is meant thatsome men are born with a "gift," a sixth sense orhoming instinct comparable to that of a carrierpigeon, I am more than sceptical. In the art ofwilderness travel, as in other things, some men aremore adept than others who have had equal advantages,and a few possess almost uncanny powers,amounting to what we call genius. To my notionthis means little more than that some individualsare quicker to observe than others, reason moresurely from cause to effect, and keep their mindsmore alert; and I believe that this is far more dueto their taking unusual interest in their surroundingsthan to any marked partiality of Mother Nature indistributing her gifts. Instinct will work as well inone place as in another, but human "sense of direction"will not.This is not saying that all men are born equal asregards the faculty of orientation; some have afcnack ; but that knack is not an instinct ; It Is worthlessuntil sharpened and trained by experience.Let me illustrate.—In the Great Smoky Mountains,which separate part of North Carolina fromTennessee, the "standers" in a bear drive are stationedalong the main divide, or near It,at elevationsof from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. We are out in allsortsof weather. The chase may continue from dawnUntil midnight, the bear perhaps running ten or fifteenmiles through the roughest of all this roughcountry. At almost any time clouds may descendupon us, or ascend from below, and the fog, as wecall it, is sometimes so thick that a man cannot seethirty feet in any direction. It may lift in fiveminutes, or It may continue for a day, two days,three days—there is no foretelling. It may be acf-ompaniedby drenching rain, or by a keen wind, or

52 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmayturn into a snowstorm ; so we cannot sit aroundwaiting on the chance of its rising.Below the balsam zone (5,000 to 6,000 feet) theleaves, in autumn and early winter, lie very thicklyupon the ground, so that a scurry of wind may atany moment obliterate the trail for some distance.When a cloud settles upon the mountain, a manhurrying along to get into the valley before nightfall,and over-confident, perhaps, of his bearings, mayeasily miss the trail and find himself on the wrongridge—where? Once of¥ the trail, there are noblazes to guide him, and the going gets worse andworse until it becomes damnable. If one couldsee out, he would not hesitate; but he cannot see atree two rods away.In such case, it is of serious Import for a man todecide, rather promptly, upon which particular ridgehe may have straggled ; for many of these ridges arevery thickety,some of them lead Into laurel "hells,"and on others one's progress is impeded by cliffs.To descend immediately into a creek valley wouldbe the worst thing he could do, for the headwatersgenerally rise in almost impenetrable thickets oflaurel and rhododendron, and their beds are roughand steep.Now, what does a mountaineer do In such dilemma?Trust to instinct? Not a bit of It. Ourstrayed man might not be able to explain the process,he probably would not even be conscious of the Infinitudeof details involved, he might lay it all to"woods sense" and let you credit him with a mysterious"gift"; but this Is what he would do: first,he would scan the trees and shrubs, closely observingtheir prevailing habit of growth ; then he w^ouldexamine the ground itself ; he would move about likea dog scenting for a track; presently he would findevidence, not single, but collective— gathered frommany sources—which his memory and reasoningpowers would combine Into a theory of locality, and,five times out of six,his theory would prove correct.I1

-NATURE'S GUIDE-POSTS 55I have known a mountaineer, on a pitch-dark night,to identify the ridge he was on by feeling the trees;and there were no blazes on those trees, either.Our mountaineers know the peculiarities andvariations of their home hunting-grounds mostthoroughly, so far as they relate to the hunter's andherdsm?.n's arts, and from this intimate local knowledgethey have gained certain general signs of directionthat are fairly reliable throughout all the mainranges of the Southern Appalachians (mountainsdensely covered with more varied forest growththan any others in the world). So they have notthe least hesitation about traveling into unknownparts for a week at a stretch, and without a compass,even though they may get into fog so thick that, asthey quaintly say, **You could nigh stick your butcher-knifeinto It and hang up your shot-pouch.'*But there Is no dog-like or pigeon-like instinctabout this. I can take one of these same men tothe city of Boston and get him thoroughly lost withinhalf a mile of his hotel. If he had the hominginstinct he could findBtreets ; but he has not the ghost of such endowment.bewildered by the maze of things new to him,He Ishis own way back on the cityas a city man Is In the forest. His attention isattracted to other things than signs of direction: sahe goes astray.Nature's Guide-Posts.—^There are tw^o questionsthat woodsmen will argue, I suppose, untildoomsday. Having given my views on one of them^I may as well tackle the other, and then have donewith controversy. Are there any natural signs ofdirection that will give a man his bearings when thesky is obscured ? Every one has heard, for example,that **moss growls thickest on the north side of atree," and nearlv every one has heard this as flatlycontradicted. The general opinion seems to be thatsuch sl^ns are ''Important If true." The Indianrand white frontiersmen of fiction never have anydifficulty in finding their way by noting where moss

54 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTgrows thickest on the trees; but when our novelreadergoes into the woods, compass in hand, andputs the thing to actual test, he probably will bedisgusted to find that, in densely shaded primevalforest, there seems to be no regularity in the growthof moss, one tree having a thick laj^er of it on thenorth side, another on the east, another on the south,and so on. He is then ready to declare that the oldsaying is a "fake."I shall endeavor to show that there is more in thismatter than is generally credited. There are certainsigns of direction that are fairly constant in givenregions, so that by their help a native, or even astranger who has good powers of observation, somepatience, and a fair knowledge of the life habits oftrees and plants, can steer his course without a compass,and without help from sun or stars. But letus clearly understand what is involved in this useof nature's compass-marks.No universal rule can be established from suchsigns as the growth of moss on trees, the preponderanceof branches on one side of a tree, or the directiontoward which the tips of tall conifers point.Such things are modified by prevailing winds,shadows and shelter of nearby mountains, depth orsparseness of forest growth, and other local conditions.Every^vhere exceptions will be found ; ifthere were none, it would be child's play, not woodcraft,to follow such signs.No one sign is infallible. A botanist can tell thenorth side of a steep hill from the south side byexamining the plant growth: but no one plant ofitself will tell him the story.So a woodsman worksout his course by a system of averaging the signsaround him. It is this averaging that demandsgenuine skill. It takes into account the prevailingwinds of the region, the lay of the land, the habitsof shade-loving and moisture-loving plants (andAiheir opposites), the tendency of certain plants to^oint their leaves or their tips persistently in a car-

NATURE'S GUIDE-POSTS 55tain direction, the growth of tree bark as influencedby sun and shade, the nesting habits of certain animals,the morning and evening flight of birds, andother natural phenomena, depending upon thegeneral character of the country traversed. Moreover,in studying any one sign, a nice discriminationmust be exercised. Let us glance at a few examples:Moss ON Trees.—First, as to the time-honoredsubject of moss—not confusing real moss with theparasitic lichens that incrust rocks and trees. Mossfavors that part of a tree that holds the most moisture;not necessarily the part that receives the mostmoisture, but the part that retains it longest. Consequentlyit grows more abundantly on the upperside of a leaning tree than on the under side, onrough bark than on smooth bark, on top of projectingburls rather than on the lower side, and in theforks of trees, and on their buttressed bases. Thesefactors are, of course, independent of the points ofthe compass.Does it follow, then, that exposure has nothingto do with the growth of moss? Not at all. Itmerely follows that a competent woodcraftsman,seeking a sign of direction from the moss on trees,would ignore leaning trees, uncommonly roughbark, bossy knots, forks of limbs, and the bases oftree trunks, just as he would give no heed to thegrowth on prostrate logs. He would single out forexamination the straight shafted old trees of rathersmooth bark, knowing that on them there would befairly even lodgment for moisture all around, andthat the wet would evaporate least from the northand northeast sides of the tree, as a general rule,and, consequently, that on those sides the moss wouldpreponderate. He would expect to find such differencemore pronoun :ed on the edge of thick foreststhan in their densely shaded interior. He wouldgive special heed to the evidence of trees that wereisolated enough to get direct sunlight throughout agood portion of the day, while those that were in

56 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe shade of cliffs or steep mountains so that theycould only catch the sunbeams in the morning or theafternoon would be ruled out of court.You see how much more swiftly and surely sucha man would reach a decision than could one whotried to take into account all kinds and conditionsof trees, regardless of surroundings, and how muchless he would have to puzzle over contradictoryevidence. Among a hundred trees he might onlyexamine ten, but those ten would be more trustworthyfor his purpose than their ninety neighbors.This is woodcraft—the genuine article—as distinguishedfrom the mysterious and infallible"sixthsense" of direction that, I think, exists nowhere outsideof Leatherstocking Tales.Tips of Conifers.—A rule that holds good in themain, wherever I have had a chance to study it, isthat the feathery tip, the topmost little branch, of atowering pine or hemlock, points toward the risingsun, that is to say, a little south of east. There areexceptions, of course, but I have generally found thisto be the case in three-fourths of the trees examined,leaving out of consideration those growing in deep,narrow valleys, or on wind-swept crests. I do notknow whether it is characteristic of all conifers,throughout their ranges; but I commend this peculiarphenomenon to travelers, for observation.Bark and Annual Rings.—The bark of oldtrees is generally thicker on the north and northeastsides than on the other sides. A more reliable indicatorof direction, though one that a traveler seldomhas opportunity to test, is the thickness of annualrings of wood growth, which is more pronounced onthe north than on the south side of a tree. Thishas been noted in widely separated parts of the earth,and has been known for many centuries. Morethan four hundred years ago it was mentioned byLeonardo da Vinci, that universal genius who wasscarcely less celebrated as an engineer and scientisttb-^n as ?n artist and litterateur. ''The rings of

•SouthwestNATURE'S GUIDE-POSTS 57trees," wrote Leonardo, ''show how many years theyhave lived, and their greater or smaller size showswhether the years were damper or drier. They alsoshow the direction in which they were turned, becausethey are larger on the north side than on thesouth, and for this reason the center of the tree isnearer the bark on the south than on the north side."In 1893 this matter was put to a definite test by theNew York State Forest Commission, which directedIts foresters to examine the regularity of the northwardthickening of annual rings in the black spruceof the Adirondacks. The foresters examined 700trees, of varying exposure, noting in each case thecompass-point toward which the longest radius ofwood growth pointed. The result was:North 471 South 1Northeast 81 SoutheastEast 106 West 276Total north and east. 658 Northwest 894%Total south and west. 426%These figures deserve more than a passing glance.Compass-Plants.—Some plants show a decidedpolarity in their habit of growth. The compassplantor rosin-weed {Silphium laciniatiun) that onceabounded on the prairies of the Mississippi valley,from Minnesota to Texas, is a conspicuous example.It is a tall plant with long, stiff leaves, that do notgrow horizontally but with their edges perpendicular.Its natural habitat is the open, shadelessprairie. If plants are examined that grow thus inthe open, especially those in the little swales wherethey are not fully exposed to fierce winds, it will befound that the great majority of them present theirradical leaves north and south. The large flowerheads on short, thick stems point, like the hemlock's"finger," to the eastward, and show no such ten-

58 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdency to follow the sun toward the west as Is characteristicof many plants. I have often used thecompass-plant as a guide, and never was led astrayby it; in fact, the old settlers on the prairies, if theychanced to get lost on a dark night, would get theirbearings by feeling the leaves of the compass-plant.The closely related prairie dock {Silphium terebinthinaceum)and that troublesome weed knownas prickly lettuce{Lactuca scariola), show a similarpolarity. This characteristic is lost if the plants aregrown where they receive much shade. Of course,terrestrial magnetism has nothing to do with thepolarity of plants; it is the sunlight, received on thetwo sides of the leaves alternately, that determinestheir position.But what think you of plant roots that persistentlygrow north and south ? The woodsmen of the GreatSmoky Mountains declare that there is a *'north-andsouthplant," as they call it, with two long rootsthat grow respectively north and south. DoctorDavis of Ware's Valley, on the Tennessee sidedescribed it to me as follows: "It resembles wildverbena, grows thigh-high, is a rare plant, andgenerally Is found in hollows on the south side ofmountains. In rocky neighborhoods, near tricklingstreams. Its leaf is serrated, i^ by i Inch, orlarger, with purple heart, yellow edges, and the resta bright red. Its roots usually do grow north andsouth. The plant is one of the most valuable medicinallythat I know of, particularly for syphiliticaffections. I do not know it by any other namethan the native one of North-and-South. I gatherit when I can find it, and use it in my practice."Many others have given me similar reports. I donot know the plant; have never hunted systematicallyfor It.Lost Arts.—I am of the opinion that there arenatural compass-signs in the forest, and on the plain,that we are Ignorant of, but that were well knownto savages In a state of nature. Such men, depend-

NATURE'S GUIDE-POSTS 59ent from childhood upon close observation of theirenvironment; but observation urged b}^ entirely differentmotives from those of our naturalists, anddirected toward different ends, would inevitably acquirea w^oodland lore different from ours, but quiteas thorough in its own way. That they should developkeen perceptive faculties is no more remarkablethan that a carpenter should hit a nail instead ofthe thumb that steadies it. That they should noticeand study signs that no modern hunter or scientistM^ould bother his head about is a matter of course.Unquestionably we have lost many arts of wildcraftthat were daily practised by our ancestors of thestone age, just as we have lost their acquaintancewith the habits of animals now extinct. Probablyno white man of the future will ever equal JimBridger as a trailer; and it is but natural to supposethat Bridger himself had superiors among thesavages from whom he learned his craft. It is asuperficial judgment to rate as an old-wives' taleevery story of exploits in the past that we cannot atpresent duplicate. However, we need not go tonovelists to find out how such things were done.There is much pleasure to be gained in seeking torecover some of the lost arts of a primitive age ; and,I believe, some profit as well.But facts such as I have cited regarding the compass-signsof the woods are of practical value onlyto men who spend much of their time in the forest,lely wholly on themselves as guides, seldom or neveruse instruments, and so have their perceptive facilitiessharpened bevond any keenness that averagesportsmen are likely to acquire. Carry a compass.

CHAPTER VBLAZES—SURVEY LINES—USE OF THECOMPASSThe chief difficulty in forest travel, especially inflat lands that are heavily timbered, is the lack ofnatural outlooks from which one could get a viewof distant landmarks. Although there are plenty ofmarks in the woods themselves by w^hich a trainedwoodsman can follow a route that he traversed notlong before, j^t these signs are forever changing,vanishing, being superseded by others. Not only donew growths spring up, but old ones are swept away,sometimes suddenly, as by flood or fire. Hence,when men have once picked out a course through thewoods that they intend to follow again, they leavepermanent marks along the way for future guidance.The most conspicuous and durable waymarks thatcan easily be made are blazes on the trees. It is ofno little consequence to a traveler in the wilds thathe should know something about blazes and thespecial uses made of them in the backwoods.Blazes.—On a thin-barked tree, a blaze is madeby a single downward stroke, the axe being heldalmost parallel with the trunk; but if the bark isthick, an upward and a downward clip must bemade, perhaps several of them, because, in any case,the object usually is to expose a good-sized spot ofthe whitish sapwood of the tree, which, set in thedark framework of the outer bark, is a staring markin the woods, sure to attract attention, at least whilefresh. Outside of white birch forests, white is themost conspicuous color in the woods, until snow falls.60

USE OF THE COMPASSbiIf a blaze is made merely on the outer bark, it willThis kind of blaze,not show so plainly by contrast.however, may be preferred for some purposes; forexample, by a trapper who does not want to calleverybody's attention to where his traps are set.bark-blaze has the peculiarity that itAlasts unaltered,to long as the bark itself endures, preserving itsOriginal outlines and distinctness, no matter howtnuch the tree may grow. But if a wound, howeverslight, be made through the bark into the sapwoodof the tree, so that the sap, which is the tree's blood,exudes, a healing process will at once set in, and theinjury, in time, will be covered over. So, as soonas a blaze is made that exposes the wood, the treebegins at once to cover up its scar. This is a slowprocess. First the edges of the cut will widen, thena sort of lip of smooth new inner bark will form,and this will gradually spread inward over the gash.Once this new skin has formed, the wound will becovered by new annual laj^ers of wood, as well as t)ynew outer bark. Years after the blaze was made,nothing will show on the surface but a slight scar,a sign that takes practised eyes to detect and read.A blaze always remains at its original height abovethe ground, and, where two or more spots have beencut in the same tree, they will always stand at thesame distance apart. This is because a tree increasesits height and girth only by building on top of theprevious growth, not by stretching it.Age of Blazes.—The age of a hack or blaze ina marked tree isdetermined by chopping out a billetof the wood containing the mark and counting theannular rings of growth from bottom of scar outward,allowing one year for each ring. In countingannular growth, some begin with the first soft lamina(porous part of year's growth), jumping the firsthard layer, to the second lamina, and so on. It ismore accurate to count the hard strata, for the followingreasons: Soft laminae are formed in thespring, when the sap is risine. If a hack is made

62 CAMPINC5 AND WOODCRAFlat that time it may not show until a hard ring formaover it the next fall or winter, when the sap is down.If the season has been very dry, there may be tworuns of sap, hence a double soft ring that year. Amark made in wood when the sap is down (afterthe fall of leaves) can have its age determined verypositively, but if made when the fresh sap is up itmay be hard to say whether the mark goes throughthat year's growth or only to it.On some kinds of trees, if a blaze goes throughto the sap wood, the scar on the bark is hard toidentify as an ax mark, because the wood, in growing,spreads it.The age of an axe mark ishard to determine inbirch, and impossible in tupelo or winged elm,owing to irregularity of fiber.A blaze on a frozen tree makes a bad wound.A mark on the sheltered side of a tree does notlook nearly so old as one opposite, because moistureaccumulated makes the bark rot off from the weatherside.Blazes on the bark of chestnut, tulip poplar,young white oak, many locusts, and some othertrees, are not apt to be permanent because these treesshed their bark more or less and do not retain marksso well as beech, black birch, Spanish oak, mountainoak, and other close-barked trees. Bark that scalesdoes not hold moss.Following a Line.—Most old woods trails areblazed on only one side of the tree, the side facingthe trail, so as to be seen from either direction.Spotted trails (opposite sides blazed as previouslydescribed) are seldom made by professional woodsmenexcept where there is unusual danger of losingthe way.An old line of blazes on spruce or pine trees ismuch easier to follow than if made on non-resinoustrees, because the resin deposited by the oozing sapleaves a very noticeable and durable mark. Simiiarlv,when an inscription has been penciled or

USE OF THE COMPASS 63painted on a fresh blaze on a pine tree, the sapglazes over the mark and makes it almost imperishable.In searching out a line of blazes, one should keephis eyes glancing horizontally along a plane aboutbreast-high, because that isthe height at which surveyorsleave their marks, and others usually followthe custom, unless the line has been spotted by a manon horseback, or from a boat during time of overflow.When a blazed line turns abruptly, so that 9^person following might otherwise overrun it, a longslash isnew direction.It ismade on that side of the tree which faces thedifficult to follow a line of blazes when snowis falling, because the wind drives the damp flakesagainst the tree, where they adhere, and must bebrushed away to find the blaze.Now, it is often of much consequence to a travelerto remember such facts as these.For example, thereis nothing more common in the annals of misadventurethan for a novice to stray off on a deer trail,in southern forests, on a cattle trail, which, althoughseductively plain at first, leads nowhere in particularand soon dwindles to nothing. When undecided,look for blazes along the path. In heavily timberedregions, such as we are now considering, any trailthat is,or,or ever has been, used as a highway by whitemen is likely to have been blazed.Again, it is often of moment to determine, whenone strikes a strange trail, what its nature is—forwhat purpose it was made—and thus be able tofigure out whether it is likely to lead directly to asettlement or camp. This ought not to be verydifficult when one knows what classes of men havepreceded him in this particular forest. Generallyspeaking, a line spotted in a wide forest that as yethas no farmers' clearings is likely to have been madeby either (i) a trapper, (2) a lumberman or timberlooker,or (3) a surveyor.A Trapper's Line usually leads from one stream

64 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTor lake to another. The blazes are likely to bainconspicuous. The line probably meanders a gooddeal, but not to escape ordinary obstacles, not disdaininga steep climb for a short-cut. Along itscourse, at intervals of eight or ten miles, there areprobably rude shanties containing supplies or theruins of such shacks, if the line is no longer used.Such a line does not lead to any settlement, and canseldom be of any use to a wayfarer.A Lumberman's Line.—Timber-lookers may ormay not leave evidence of their wanderings—morelikely not, for, like other seekers after bonanzas, theymay have excellent reasons for not doing so. Atmost, they would merely mark the easiest route fora prospective road from the river to some "bunch"of timber. Where logging operations have alreadybegun, then, wherever a stump stands it will not behard to determine the direction in which the logswere twitched to the nearby "lizard road," wherethey were loaded on lizards (forks of timber usedas sleds), or on wagons, and dragged to the river orsaw-mill.(I am assuming primitive operations in aremote wilderness.) The lizard road was blazedwhen first laid out. Logs are never dragged uphillif that can be avoided ; consequently the trend ofthe road will be downhill, or on a level. The lizardroad will show ruts,whiffle-trees, and other characteristic marks.trees barked along the way byWhereverthere is a bridge or a corduroyed road the timberswill be worn most on the side opposite the camp,because heavy loads were drawn toward camp, notaway from it. Once the old lumber-camp site isreached, even though It be long deserted, the signsof an old "tote road" can be discerned, leading towarda settlement from which supplies were transported.A Surveyor's Line is absolutely straight (withexception noted below). When it reaches an impassableobstacle, such as a swamp or a cliff, anoffset is made to right or left; but this offset Is also

a straight line,USE OF THE COMPASS 65at right angles, of course, to the mainone, the latter being continued in the original directionas soon as the obstacle has been passed. Forthis, and other reasons that presently will appear,a surveyor's line can never be mistaken for any other.Surveyors are careful to space their marks moreuniformly than hunters and trappers and loggers.They cut rather square into the tree, at right angles,so that the weather may not wear away the marksnor the tree become diseased and so obliterate them.Old Surveys.—The old states of the East andSouth were surveyed before there were any Governmentregulations for such work, and had methodsof their own for marking lines and corners, varyingfrom place co place. In the rougher regions suchwork was likely to be slipshod. Old-time surveyorsin the mountains often ran lines that w^ere winding,because they had no flagmen to keep the line straight.It was difficult to keep sight marks. Measurementsoften were inaccurate. The chain was likely to gotoo low up a ridge and too high in crossing hollows.Mere surface surveying was practised over logs,rocks, etc. Chains were intentionally made overlengthto allow for this.The practice of measuring by half-chains in roughcountry led to many errors of counting, by droppinga link, and so on. Few of the old surveyors werecareful about variations of the compass. In fact,I have known backwoods surveyors who were ignorantof the change in magnetic meridian.Modern Surveys.—Throughout most parts ofthe West, the method of numbering, subdividing,and marking township sections is that adopted bythe public land surveys, a brief description of whichis given belovv^ If one understands the merest rudimentsof public surveying, and has a township mapof the locality,then, whenever he runs across a sectionline, he can soon tell exactly where he is, andwhat is the most direct route to any other point inihe neighborhood.

66 :amping and woodcraftIt is common practice, wherever a regular trailcrosses one of these lines,to square or face on foursides a tree or two standing close by, drawing thetraveler's attention to the line. These survey linesmay be of practical use to him in various ways. Bythem he can determine exactly the position of hiscamp with reference to the surrounding country.He can locate any point that he desires to visit orrevisit, such as a cache, a mineral deposit, a pieceof land that he may wish to purchase, and so on.6If he gets lost, it issomewhere within halfa mile, or less, of a surveyline, which will takehim to a marked cornerfrom which he can learnhisposition.Township and SectionLines.—The publiclands of the UnitedStales are divided intotownships,usually of sixPig. 8.-Plan for Numbering miles square (23,040Sections of a Township acres), as nearly as_ convergenceof meridiansallows. A township is sub-divided into thirty-sixsections, each one mile square, as nearly as may be,which, as a general rule,are numbered as shown inFig. 8, and are legally subdivided as indicated inFig. 9.Starting from an established corner, all trees thatstand directly on the line of survey have two chopsor notches cut on each side of them, without anyother marks whatever. These are called "sighttrees*' or "line trees" (sometimes "fore and afttrees"). Since there may not be enough treesactually intercepting the lineof sight to make sucha line conspicuous, a sufficient number of other treer.standing within not more than two rods of the line,

on either side of it,tJSE OF THE COMPASS 67are blazed on two sides diagonally,or quartering toward the line, or coinciding indirection with the line where the trees stand verynear it. Blazes are not omitted where trees twoinches or more in diameter are found on or neartheline.Where trees are scarce, bushes on or near the lineare bent at right angles therewith, and receive a blowwith the axe at the usual height of blazes from the80A.---315- •Tf.E.'4^^t&oAs.w:!iI"*" **J" "" , T "" *" "^ CSctdhTTowrvsHvpFig. 9— Subdivision of Sectionsground, sufficient to leave them in a bent position,but not to prevent growth.When the course is obstructed by swamps, lakes,or other impassable objects, the line is prolongedacross by taking the necessary right angle offsets, orby traverse, etc., until the line is regained on theopposite side. At the intersection of lines on bothmargins, a post is set for a witness point, and twotrees on opposite sides of the line are here markecJ

:68 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwith a blaze and notch facing the post; but on themargins of navigable rivers or lakes the trees aremarked with the number of the fractional section,township, and range. Arabic figures are used exclusively.Corner Marks.—The following corners aremarked(i) For township boundaries, at intervals ofevery six miles.(2) For section boundaries, at intervals of everymile.(3) For quarter-section boundaries, at intervals ofone-half mile (with exceptions).(4) Meander corners, wherever lines intersectbanks of rivers, etc., directed to be meandered.Witness corners bear the same marks as those oftrue corners, plus the letters W. C.Four different modes of perpetuating corners areemployed, in the following order of choice:( 1 ) Corner trees, when a tree not less than fiveinches in diameter stands immediately in place.(2) Stone corners, where procurable. Thesemust be at least 14 inches long. Stones 14 to 18inches long are set two-thirds and larger ones threefourthsof their length in the ground.(3) Posts and witnesses. The latter are treesadjacent, in opposite directions, each with a smoothblaze facing the corner, with a notch at the lowerend, and with the number of township, range, andsection; below this, near the ground, on a smoothblaze are marked the letters B. T. ("bearing tree").Blazes may be omitted from smooth-barked trees.Where there are no trees, witness pits are dug, twofeet square, and at least one foot deep.(4) Posts and mounds. A mound is erectedaround the corner post, and a marked stone, or somedeposited a foot belowcharcoal, or a charred stake, isthe surface on the side toward which the line runs.Township Corner Post.—This projects two feetabove the ground, the projecting part being squared.

USE OF THE COMPASS 69When the corner Is common to four townships, thepost is set cornerwise to the lines, and on each flattenedside is marked the number of the township,range, and section, thus: T. i S.; R. 2 W.; S. 36.This example reading "Township i South, Range2 West, Section 36." Six notches are cut on each ofthe four edges.If the post is on a closing corner, where the linedoes not continue straight ahead, but is offset toallow for convergence of meridians, this closingcorner being common to two townships south of thebase line, six notches are cut on each of the east,south, and west sides, but none on the north, andC. C. ("closing corner") is cut on the surface.The position of all township corner posts is witnessedby four "bearing trees," or pits, or stones.Bearing trees are marked like the post; stones aremerely notched.Section Corners.—^When the corner is common tofour sections, the post is set cornerwise to the lines,the numbers of sections being marked on the surfacesfacing them, and on the northeast face the numberof township and range is inscribed. All mile-postson township lines have as many notches on the twocorresponding edges as they are miles distant fromthe respective township corners. Section posts inthe interior of a township have as many notches onthe south and east edges as they are miles from thesouth and east boundaries of the township, but noneon the north and west edges. All section posts are"witnessed" as above. Section corner stones aremerely notched.Quarter-section Corners.—^These are merelymarked ^4 ^nd "witnessed."Red chalk is used to make marks more conspicuous.Use of the Compass.—In Volume I (pp. 168-169) some advice was given as to selecting a compass.Let me repeat that it should be of huntingcase pattern, not only because an open faced one

70 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTiseasily broken, but because a cover helps to excludedust and moisture. The least moisture under theglass will cause the needle to stick(if dampness getsinside anyway, dry the compass by a gentle heat: toomuch heat will destroy the magnetism). And thereis another reason: the friction of one's pocket on theglass of a compass may magnetize it and attract theneedle (touching the glass with a wet finger willremedy this).You may have a pocket compass of surveyor's pattern,such as the common military compass in asquare wooden box, used in our army. Observethat on a surveyor's compass the E and W marksare transposed, and don't let this fool you in thefield.In using a compass look out for local attraction.Put your gun or axe aside; a knife, or belt buckle,or other piece of metal may deflect the needle. Ifthere is anything in your equipment that might dothis, test the instrument first on the ground a paceaway, and then in your hand. The compass shouldnot be kept near iron, even when not in use, as theneedle is likely to be demagnetized.A compass needle may be demagnetized whentraveling in an electric car if carried in a valise orknapsack and set down on the floor over a powerfulmotor, if the needle is clamped, as it should be whennot in use. To strengthen the magnetism of a compassneedle, unclamp it and lay the instrument neara motor or generator or strong magnet; then, whenit has stopped quivering, clamp it again and leaveit under the influence of the magnetic current fora short time.A compass may become bewitchedby a body ofore that you may be passing over, but such experiencesare rare.If you suspect something of thesort, carry the instrument away, it need not be far,and test again. You are far more likely to be bewitchedyourself.The Compass in Camp.—No compass can tell

USE OF THE COMPASS 71you which way camp lies when you are lost. Sothe first and best place to use it is in camp, beforeyou go anywhere. If there are landmarks visiblefrom camp, take their bearings, and locate them ona sheet of paper or in your notebook. Then, if youare in a flat country, run a base-line as described inChapter III. If in a hilly region, climb the nearestheight, and from it make a sketch map of the surroundingcountry, with streams and prominent landmarksnoted and their bearings shown. Carry thatmap always with you, and add to it as you learn thecountry. No matter how rude it may be, it islikely to come in mighty handy.An experienced woodsman may photograph thelandscape op his brain, but not one city man in ahundred car do so with certainty that it will nothave blurred or faded away when he gets bewildered.So don't let any false modesty keep youfrom using j'^our pencil: the man who laughs at anamateur (or anybody else) for doing so is mostlikely a Reub who never has been a hundred milesfrom his own front door.Keeping a Course.—^When traveling in a regionwhere there are plenty of outlooks, the weather beingclear, the sun and visible landmarks are sufficientguides. When you do use a compass on themarch, and the country is not too difficult, it willbe enough to hold the instrument in one hand, and,without waiting for the needle to stop swinging,note the point midway of the limits of its motionand take that for north, unless the magnetic declinationis considerable (see below).In level, heavily timbered country, one must takegreater pains if he wants to reach a definite point.Lay the compass on the ground, or on any higherobject that will hold it level. Or, if both hands arcjfree, hold it in both of them at half-arm's length,with elbows resting on your sides, so as to bring theInstrument straight in front of the center of yourbodv. Then face some tall tree or other conspicu-

72 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT;ous feature of the landscape in direct line with youiobjective and as far off as you can see. Check thevibration of the needle by quickly tipping the compassuntil the end of the needle touches the glass,and repeat until needle stops quivering. Now levelthe box and take the bearing of your landmark.Walk to it, and take a sight on something else inthe same line.Where you cannot see out to take bearings in thisway, consult the compass every two or three minutes;for it is the easiest thing in the world to get©ff a true course at such times, and a few degrees'swerve, if not soon detected, will carry you farastray.When some obstacle obliges you to make a detour,sight some landmark ahead, if you can, beforeyou go around. If there be none visible, then estimateyour winding with great care, and get backin line again as soon as you can. It is rarely thecase that one can travel any distance in the wildernesswithout swerving very often from a true courseso the art of averaging windings should be practiceduntil one becomes adept.When following a stream,note how many tributariesyou cross. When following a divide, notehow many abutting ridges you pass on each side.You will need that knowledge when you return, andit must be exact.Magnetic Variation.—The north end of acompass needle does not point tothe true north, exceptin certain places as noted below. It points tothe mannetic pole, which lies far south of the northpole and about seven degrees west of the meridianof 90°W.The places where a compass does point to thegeoe^raphic north are those situated alons; what iscalled the "agonic line," or "zero curve," or "lineof no variation." This is not a straight line fromnorth to south like a meridian on the map, but hasmany waves and loops, and runs in the main easterly

USE OF THE COMPASS 73of south. At present the agonic line runs fromMackinac Island, in Lake Michigan, loops west andthen diagonally through eastern Michigan to centralOhio, makes a big loop north toward Lake Erie andback, south to the Ohio River, makes two big loopseast and west in eastern Kentucky, runs souththrough western Virginia, loops west in easternTennessee and then far back east, goes down throughwestern North Carolina, loops east again, and thenruns diagonally down through Georgia and out intothe Atlantic. This line is not stationary, but hasa slow movement westward called the ''annualchange." Nobody knows the cause of these vagaries:magnetic variation is a mystery as yet unsolved.Now note this: at all places east of the agonic linethe north end of a compass needle points to the westof true north (more and more as the distance increases),and everywhere west of this line it pointseasterly.For instance, at New York City the compass nowpoints io°W; at Eastport, Me., 20°W; at Lincoln,Neb., io°E; at Helena, Mont., 20°E. This"declination" or "variation of the compass" must beallowed tor when running a true course, or whenplotting one by map.A line passing through all places that show thesame compass variation is called a "line of equalmagnetic variation." Such lines do not by any meansrun straight like meridians, but are wavy and loopedand run off at strange angles, like the agonic line,though none of them correspond to its meanders;and they, too, shift slowly westward from year toyear.Now for the practical application. Suppose youare on the line of magnetic variation that runsthrough Ogden, Utah, where the declination Isi8E°. To find true north, you set your compassso that the needle points i8°E, as In Fig. 10. Thenthe N mark on the dial points due north.To lay out a course by map ; spread the sheet out

74 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTflat and lay the compass on it with N-S line of dialexactly parallel with N-S line on map. Then revolvemap until needle shovi^s proper number ofdegrees allowance for local variation, if any. Allmeridians on the map will then be parallel with thelines they represent on the ground. Now you cantake the bearings of your objective, and if the instrumenthas a movable course arrow (see Vol. I., p.169) set it accordingly.The following table of declinations, prepared bythe U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, is copied fromthe World Almanac of 19 16. By adding or subtracting,as the case may be, the "annual change"multiplied by the number of years after 19 16, youwill get a close approximation to the variation fora future date, although the annual change is notconstant.Fig.10.—Compass Variation

... ..14...,. . .TJSE OF THE COMPASS 75MAGNETIC DECLINATIONSPrincipal Places in the United StatesSTATE8t«Uon. ^5 OBTHRRI- Station.""aTOBy.>aa

76 CAMl^lNCi AND WOODCRAFTMeridian by Watch.—One's watch, if it bekeeping correct time, and the sun is shining, can beused as a compass (Fig. ii). The watch beingset by local (sun) time, turn the face of the watchto the sun in such position that the hour-hand shallpoint to the sun. Half-way between the hour-handand 12 o'clock will then be the south point (southof the equator, the north point). Of course, whenthe sun is near the zenith this trick will not work.To do the thing accurately, hold a grass stemFig. 11.— Meridian by Sunor other small object vertically so itsshadow will becast across the face of the watch, and then bring thehour-hand into this shadow.By laying the watch on a level place and sightingacross it at a pole, the true meridian may be establishedclosely enough for most purposes.Meridian by Shadow.—^When rough-and-readymethods are not precise enough for one's purpose,the following method will give a true meridian bywhich variation of the compass may be corrected(Fig. 12) : On a smooth and level piece of groundlean a pole toward the north and rest it in a crotchor on shears as shown. Make a plummet withstring and stone or other weight, and suspend itfrom the end of the pole so that the plumb-bobnearly touches the ground.

USE OF THE COMPASS 77Drive a peg {S in the figure) directly under theplummet. Then, an hour or two before noon, attacha string to the peg and, with a sharpened sticktiedto the other end of the string, describe a semicircle,or arc of a circle, with a radius equal to the distancefrom the peg S to the shadow of the tip of the pole.Drive a peg on the arc where the shadow of the tipAbout an hour after noon, watchof the pole rested.the shadow of the tip as it approaches the easternside of the arc, and drive another peg at the point'1:^^^^.Fig.IZ— True North and Southwhere itcrosses. Then with a string find the middlepoint of the straight line joining the last two pegsmentioned. A straight line joining this middlepoint and the peg under the plummet will liein thetrue meridian.To get the variation of the compass needle, set upa pole exactly in line with the short line mentionedabove, and sight back from the pole to the tip ofthe slanting stick that holds the plummet. Makea note of the variation, so many degrees east or west,and use this when running a line by compass.Meridian by Pole Star.—Everj^body knows the"Dipper" in the constellation of the Great BearJFig, 13). Its stars never set but revolve around

78 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe North Star. The two stars forming the frontof the Dipper's bowl {a and b in the figure), calledthe "pointers," point toward a conspicuously bright* POLESTAR\\\\S.O'^c ^ -f•>•+ -^^Fig. 13—Position of Big Dipper above or belowthe Pole Star when the Pole Star is due North.star which is Polaris, the North or Pole Star.The North Star bears exactly due north onlytwice a day. It is always close enough to steer by,but if one wishes to correct his compass by it he must

USE OF THE COMPASS 79do so at a time when the double star inthe middleof the Dipper's handle (c in the figure) is eitherdirectly above or directly below the North Star,forthat is when the bearing is correct. At all otherhours Polaris bears somewhat east or west of truenorth.To find the true meridian: set up two poles tenor twelve feet apart and exactly In line with theNorth Star, at such time as mentioned above. Thefront pole should be illuminated by a lantern orcandle so that correct sight can be taken. Nextday the line of sight can be prolonged, and the compassvariation determined,

^CHAPTER VIROUTE SKETCHING—MAPPING-MEASURINGAmong the pleasures of life in a wild country 1count first the thrill of exploring new ground,"Something hidden: go and find it!" He who doesnot respond to that mainspring is out of order—his works need looking into.Of course, the whole earth has been rambled overby somebody before our time; but it suffices one ofus to bore into some wild region that is unknown tohimself, unknown to his companions, and whichnever has been mapped indetail.I used to go hunting, every fall, with two or threecomrades who felt as I did about such matters. Wenever hired a guide. On arriving at a blank spotwe would spend the first day or two scouting. Wewould scatter, scour the country, and then, aroundthe camp fire at night, we would describe, in turn,what we had found.Verbal reports, such as these, are more entertainingthan useful. The crudest sort of a sketch onpaper would have taught us much more. By combiningour route sketches we might have produceda serviceable map of the country for miles around.I wish we had made such maps. I would love topore over them inthese later years.We thought that route sketching would take toomuch time and trouble. That was a mistake. Anybodywho can read a compass and draw lines ofdirection can make a practicalroute sketch withoutlosing more than twenty-five per cent of a steady

ROUTE SKETCHlJNCi8ijog. The only instruments and materials neededare a pocket compass, a watch, a lead pencil, and anotebook, or a bit of paper tacked on a piece of thinboard.Fig, 14.—Route sketch showing method ofcomputing distances by counting pacesfrom point to point

82 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTAs examples, I give here a couple of sketches(Figs. 14 and 15) showing, respectively, the back-Woods half of the wagon road and the over-mountaintrail to "the last house up Deep Creek," where Ionce lived for a year or so. I made these while stillnew tothe country, without losing more than halfan hour from regular marching time. First, Iwalked in to the railway station, pacing and sketchingthe trail as I went. The next day I returnedby wagon, mapping the road and the creek, withoutonce checking the horses, and judging distancesaltogether by eye.My rough sketches were made in a vest-pocketmemorandum book that was quadrille ruled. Merelines showed the road, trail, creek, and branches, asin Fig. 14, and the sketch map was finished on largerpaper w^hen I got home. My compass had a dialof only ij/^ inch, which is small for such work. Iwore it in a leather strap on my left w^rist, like awrist watch ; so it never was in the way, yet alwayswas right under the eye when needed. To orientthe instrument. It could be slipped out of its guardin a second or two, though this was seldom necessary.Afterwards I discarded this way of carrying acompass, because it had to be open-faced and wastoo easily smashed.Considering that the country here was rough, andso densely timbered that there were few outlooks,and that I did not use a protractor nor even a ruler,I was pleased to find that my "closures" requiredvery little "humoring in," as a surveyor would say.I had a U. S. topographical map of the country, butIt was so defective that it was of no use, save inestablishing one or two "controls."In sketching a route it is convenient, though notnecessary, to use paper ruled in little squares. Anydealer in draughting materials can supply crosssectionpaper ruled ten lines to the inch. A pieceof «uch paper, about 7 x 10 inches, tacked on a thinboard and carried in the hand, is a good way. If

ROUTE SKETCHING 83this is too cumbersome, use a notebook, as I did, and,when you come to an edge of the paper, start anewon a fresh page. If you have nothing but plain-.----p-l— -——.„--

84 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpaper, a measuring instrument must be used, whichneed be no more than your octagonal lead pencil onwhich you have scored two or three inches with theirsubdivisions.If you are merely plotting a course, it is notnecessary to sketch in so many topographic featuresas are shown in these examples. In any case it is amistake to crowd the sheet with details, as theymight be confusing. In the present instance theroute ran through a mountainous country, but Imade no attempt to show contours, nor even to notethe steep slopes, for there was a trail all the way.Idid note, separately, the marching time from pointto point (not shown in sketches), and that is important.The time table of actual marching, inconnection with the plotted route, showed plainlyenough where the going was slow.Scale of Sketch.—The first thing to do Is tofix on a certain scale to be used in plotting. InFig. 14 it is four inches to a mile, meaning that fourinches on the map corresponds to a mile on theground Itself. Therefore a side of each of the littleI -10 inch squares represents 44 yards of actual distance.In Fig. 15 it is two inches to the mile. (Thecuts in this book are reduced from the originals).Sometimes it may be more convenient to use a man'space or a horse's stride as the unit of a scale. Inany case, the scale adopted must be noted on themargin of the paper, and an arrow must be drawnon the map to show the true north and south line.Pacing Distances.—^When traveling afoot, distancesare judged by counting one's paces. A man'snormal stride varies from 27 to 33 inches, accordingto individuals and nature of ground. Woodsmencommonly exceed this, owing to their rolling gait.The conventional surveyor's pace is 30 inches, andso Is that of infantry "quick time." Do not try topace yards, or any other arbitrary distance. That Isunnatural, fatiguing, distracts your attention, andcannot be kept up on a long hike. Walk at your

ROUTE SKETCHING 85natural stride back and forth over a measured distance,and average the results. Do this after a longwalk, for by that time jou will have ''struck yourgait." Practice first over fairly level ground, andthen up and down steep places, learning to makeallowances, by lengthening out a little when goingup-hill and shortening the stride when going downhill.One's stride on the march, after he has settleddown to it, is likely to be longer than it is in town.In my own case, on a hike over fair road, I find thatmy pace is about 33 inches (three inches longer thanit is around home), and the cadence of a steady jogis 100 steps to the minute. This makes 1,920 pacesto the mile. Allowing for uneven ground, I figureon 2,000 paces to the mile, and three miles an hour.This happens to be convenient in plotting, for, whenmapping on a scale of, say, four inches to the mile,each of the i-io inch squares on my cross-sectionpaper represents just 100 paces of 31.68 inchesaverage, and on a scale of two inches to the mileit is 50 paces. Timber cruisers figure on 2,000paces to the mile, or 1,000 "cruiser paces" (doublepaces, as explained below).The Application.—At the start, take the bearingsby compass of some object that you can see inadvance. Then jog along, counting every other pace(left or right foot only) as you go. To count everysingle pace would be needlessly wearisome. Wherethere is a long distance between bearing points, dropa pebble into your pocket for every hundred doublepaces.When the object you sighted isreached, mark itsUn-location on the paper, as nearly as you can, accordingto compass bearing and distance traversed.til you become skilful at this without sight compassand protractor, check your first reading by turningaround and taking the bearing back to your startingpoint.Having located the object, draw a line from the

86 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTstarting point corresponding to your course, numberthis first stop "i," and note on the margin the numberof paces from o to i, as well as the time betweenthem. Then take a fresh bearing on some otherobject ahead, and continue the same w^ay.Time.—In the wilderness, where roads generallyare bad, if there are any at all, the distance traversedis of less consequence, for a mere route sketch,than the time taken to cover it. Your estimates ofdistance may be faulty, but your watch can be reliedupon.Time measurements also are good enough forrough mapping of open country and fairly straightcourses, where it is not necessary to count paces inorder to keep the general bearings correct.Judging Distances by Eye.—In thickets,swamps, blow-downs, steeps, and other places sorough that one can neither pace steadily nor judgedistance by time, a man going alone must estimateby eye only. It is remarkable how skilful men canbecome at this by assiduous practice. Riflemengenerally are good judges of distances by eye. Timbercruisers are better still. Amateurs should seldomtrust their estimates of distance in the woods andmountains, or over water, for intervals of over lOOyards.When two men travel together they can assisteach other in estimating. Let your partner walkaway lOO paces, then hold your pencil at arm'slength, and measure his apparent height on It frompencil tip down with your thumb-nail, as an artistdoes In landscape sketching. Mark that point withyour knife. Then let him go another lOO paces;measure and mark again. This scale can be usedthereafter wherever his full height Is visible.Pedometers save considerable trouble wheretrails are good or the country Is fairly level and open,but they are of no use In rough country, since theyrecord every step taken, regardless of whether It Isin the course or not.

ROUTE SKETCHING 87Paces of Animals.—The paces of saddle animalsvary according to individuals, but can soon be determinedby test. This should be done both at walk andtrot, counting only the double pace, like that of aman, when walking, or the rise when trotting. Thepace of a horse is as uniform as that of a man. Amule's gait is still steadier and the stride is moreeven.Distance by Sound.—In mapping a considerableterritory in the mountains, where pacing isunreliable and may be impracticable, two men canwork to advantage if one carries a gun or pistol andthe other a stop-watch. For example, you wish toknow the distance from camp to a certain peak.The man with the gun climbs the peak, and fires ashot when he gets there, to call his comrade's attention.Then he ties his neckerchief on a stick, and,stepping out in plain view, signals with the extemporizedflag, and fires at the same Instant. Theman in camp times, with his stop-watch, the intervalbetween signal and arrival of the gun's report.Sound travels, in quiet open air, approximately atthe following rates, according to temperature:VELOCITY OF SOUNDAt— 30° Fahr., 1030 ft. per sefc.=l mile in 5.13 sees." 20° " 1040=1 " 5.08 ""10° " 1050:=1 " 5.03 "0°"" 1060=1 " 4.98 "10° "" ""1070=1 4.9320° "" ""1080=1 4.8832° "" ""1092=1 4.8340° "" ""1100=1 4.80''50° " ""1110=1 4.7860° "" ""1120=1 4.7370° "•' ""1130=1 4.6880° "" ""1140=1 4.63— 90° "" ""1150=1 4.59—100°"" ""1160^1 4.55—110°"" ""1170=1 4.51—120°"" ""1180=1 4.47When the air is calm, fog or rain does not appreciablyaffect the result ;wind does, of course. The

88 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTreport of a gun, being sharp and hud, travels considerablyfaster than this for a short distance, butthe above table is a close enough approximation forthe purposes of sketch mapping.Distances on Rivers.—Floating down a riverof fairly regular current, one may estimate distancespretty closely by keeping his boat in midstream andtiming it from point to point.Landmarks.—My sketches show how landmarksare noted along the route. In the wild and uninhabitedcountry beyond our house I would havenoted old camp grounds, gaps, bad thickets, cliffs,etc., in a similar way. Where the forest and contoursare of uniform character, one should establishhere and there, some artificial marks. Where treeblazing is not permitted, blazed stakes may be driven,bush-marks made, stones piled, and so on, accordingtocircumstances.Written notes will help anyone who is to followthe route. The examples here printed were madefor a friend who wanted to visit me, but who couldnot foretell, a day in advance, when he could getaway from business. After directing him to get aU. S. Geological Survey topographical sheet for thecountry south of us, which was accurate up to theplace where my sketch map began, I wrote him:There are two ways to our place. One is a wagonroad over which a team can haul one thousandpounds when Jupiter isn't pluviating. There areeighteen fords in the last six miles. The creek isimpassable for a few hours after a smart rain. Ford10 ("the deep ford") always wets a, wagon bed. Ford12, at the Perry gap, is dangerous when there is ice.No footbridge between Hunnicut's and McCracken's,nor any habitation.The other way is by trail across the mountainfrom Hunnicut's, This is always practicable for amountain-bred horse or mule with light pack, but hemust do some sliding down from either the Mc-Cracken gap or the Fullback.Trail at Hunnicut's stable swerves sharply to theright, up a steep bank, and thence onward goesthrough thick forest^ At McCracken gap our fork

ROUTE SKETCHING 89of the trail is marked by a small oak, with burl atheigiht of your head, blazed last year with a cross,and pencil-marked with arrow. The trail to IndianCreek and the Cherokee reserve on Lufty ds muchfainter than ours.Mapping.—Observe that a mere route sketch isonly intended to show the way from one point toanother, and tell the user where he is at any stageof the journey. Hence it need not be mathematicallyaccurate, and hence it can be made swiftly, withcrude instruments. Mapping proper is much slowerwork. Still, a very useful and practical map of aregion several miles square can be made in a fewdays by one man, combining his route sketches, providedhe takes a little more pains in locating a fewprominent landmarks as ''controls."In the example already given the country was soheavily timbered that there were few outlooks fromwhich mountain tops or other features could be observedfrom different points on the journey. Ifthere had been such, I would have noted their bear>ings from different positions, and thus would havehad a series of positive checks or controls by whichto regulate my sketches. How this is done is shownin Fig. 16, which is reproduced from an article inOuting, by C. H. Morrill. In this case a 4 x 7notebook was used, the left-hand page being ruledfor notes on compass bearings, distances (a pedometerwas carried), time, etc., while the sketch wasdrawn on the right-hand page. Notice the compassbearings of mountains, brooks and pond.If a similar trip had been made a few miles away,and bearings taken on objects visible on the firstroute, the two sketches could be combined into amap, as in Fig. 15. Where there were discrepanciesthey could be humored in by "splitting the difference,"and the finished work would be true enoughfor practical purposes.If one has a reliable map of the region he is in,but on too small a scale to show the details that he

goCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwants to record, he can use some of the majorfeatures on the map as controls, and thus make hissketch map pretty accurate.A method of making more accurate sketch mapswith an improvised plane table, or with a cavalrysketchingcase carried on the left wrist, is given ina handy little pocket manual of Military Map Reading;Field, Outpost and Road Sketching, by MajorWm. D. Beach, U. S. A. (Hudson Publishing Co.,Kansas City, Mo.)."/A t

elt,ROUTE SKETCHING 91or some other article of equipment that he constantlycarries.He should also know some of the measurementsof his body. The first joint of the I'ltle finger, forinstance, may be one inch, or the thumb an inchwide. Clench both fists, making the extendedthumbs meet: this may bt just one foot. Measurethe span of thumb and little finger and the heightof your eye from the ground. The full stretch ofthe extended arms is often used, but is unreliable oncurved surfaces, as in measuring the girth of a tree,since it will be several inches shorter than if onestood with his back to a flat wall and stretched hisarms horizontally.To measure successivelengths with a stout cord,such as a fishing line: Knot*:he line two or threefeet from one end, measureoff, say, 100 feet fromthis, and knot again, leavinga stray end beyond thesecond knot. One endcould be looped, as in Fig.I'ja, in which case you stickFig. 17.—Hitches onMeasuring Linea smooth peg in theground, put the loop over the peg, carry out thehundred feet, set a peg there, and then jerk the lineupward, which, if the ground is smooth, will cause awave to run along it that will lift the loop off thefirst peg. But a permanent loop is too likely tocatch in bushes, etc.: so it is better to leave plainends as I have described, and make your loop eachtime with a hitch (Fig. I'jb) so it may shake out asit comes of¥ the peg, leaving only a free end to behauled in. A sheepshank (Fig. 17c) may be usedfor the same purpose.However, in the woods, it is better to fasten yourline with a signal halyard hitch (Fig. 17^) to anyconvenient small tree or bush that stands fairly in

92 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe line you wish to measure. Pass the end of theline twice round the stem or peg, then, taking theend and a small bight of the measuring part, hitchthem as if you were going to tie a reef knot, pullthe first hitch tight, but do not complete the knotby making the second hitch ; this will hold quite fastenough, and a slight jerk will be sufficient to set itfree when you wish to haul in the end.A measuring line should merely be straight uponthe ground, not drawn taut; still less should it belifted up and then pulled to a straight line in theair. Cords of any kind are too easily stretched tobe trusted for measuring if there is any strain onthem.To Set Out a Right Angle.—Any triangle thesides of which are in the proportion of 3, 4, and 5,is a right angled triangle. For example; Measure40 feet on a line that youwish to run at right angles,Peg A and B (Fig. 18).Fasten end of tape at A,take 80 feet, and fasten 80-foot mark at B. Then,taking tape in hand, walkaside till BC and AC aretaut. BC is then perpendicularto AB, and j5 is a^ight angle.Fig. I8.-T0 LayOut a Right Angle 1 MEASURE AN IN-ACCESSIBLE Distance.—The width of a river, for instance, may be measuredwith the aid of a pocket compass. Say the riverruns east and west, and you are on the south side.Choose a tree {A, Fig. 19), or other well definedmark on the opposite shore, and bring it to bear duenorth of you. Mark your position with a peg atB ; turn to one side, say the left, and walk westwardtill A bears exactly northeast, and put a peg there,C; then CB will equal BA, the breadth of the river,because CB and BA subtend an angle of 90°, or a

.right angle,ROUTE SKETCHING 93and must therefore be of equal length.Since your readings on a small compass may notbe quite true, check them, if the ground permits, bywalking east till A bears northwest from D. If theFig. 19.—Measuring Width of River by Compass.two observations do not quite coincide,the two will be approximately correct.If you have no compass,there are many ways ofmeasuring an inaccessibledistance by angles otherwisedetermined, providedthere is enough level landon your side for the purpose.One of these is shownin Fig. 20. Sight a conspicuousobject, as before.Plant a stake about 5 feethigh at A J as nearly oppo-the mean ofFig. 20.—MeasuringWidth withoutCompasssite and "square" as you can judge. Set up anotherstake at B, as nearly at a right angle as you can, andat about one-half the estimated distance to yourmark.Continue AB straight to C and plant anotherstake. AB must equal BC. Now set a stake at D,at right angle to base, wherever the line DB continuedwill strike the object across the river that youhave been sighting at. Then DC equals the widthacross.To Measure an Inaccessible Height orHtipth.-—Suppose vou wish to measure the height

94 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof a cliff, a tree, or other object the base of whichyou can reach, and with fairly level ground in frontof it. In Fig. 21, the man wants to know the lengthof the merchantable "stick" below the tree branches.He estimates the height by eye, then paces off thatdistance and marks it at C. He cuts a stake aboutas long as himself, stands it in front of him andmarks on it with his knife the height of his eye, thensharpens the few inches remaining. At C he drives,""'^X '^J•^-^^-^-^^-^-^^^j^^m^Fig. 21.—Measuring a Height.the stake perpendicular, with the knife mark levelwith the ground. Then he lies down with feetagainst the stake, as shown, and sights at the tree.If the line of sight over the top of stake does notstrike the point Aj he shifts, and tries again, untilthe alignment is correct. The height AB thenequals the distance BC.Some backwoodsmen have a rough-and-ready wayof estimating the height of a tree. They walk offuntil its topmost branches or first fork can be viewedby looking backwards between the outstretched legjs

ROUTE SKETCHING 95with practice this method may become pretty ac^curate.On level open country a height can be measuredby shadow. Set up vertically a stick of knownlength; measure the length of its shadow, and thatof the object whose height is required. As thelength of stick's shadow is to stick's length, so is thaiof the object's shadow to the object's height. Forexample: the stick is 5 feet long and its shadow 7,while the shadow of the t^ee is 70 feet; then7;5::7o:x, and x—50 feet.Fig.D22.—Extemporized LevelTo measure a depth with the watch: square thenumber of seconds a stone takes to reach the bottom,and multiply by 16: the result is the depth in feet.Leveling.—^Take a short straight stick or ruler,A B m Fig. 22, mark it exactly in the middle, andsuspend it with a string with loop at C directly overthe middle of the stick, from which latter a littleweight D is suspended to keep the wind from shakingthe level. To use the instrument: hold it fromC above your head so that top of stick is in line withyour eye, and sight along the surface, noting at whatpoint of the ground the line of sight corresponds.

96 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTGoing there, you have ascended a distance equal tothe height of your eye from the ground. Many ap^plications of this method will suggest themselves.I do not give more elaborate processes of measureing and leveling, because the simple ones heredescribed are accurate enough for a woodsman'spurposes, and they take little time or trouble.Time.—A leaf of an almanac for the month youare out is useful in case your watch runs down.The JVorld Ahnanac shows the time of rising andsetting of sun and moon for four different zonesfrom the Atlantic to the Pacific. These, of course,are dependable only when you can observe them ona level horizon ; but the time when the sun is in thezenith (directly overhead) is also given for everyday in the year, on the meridian of Washington, andyou can allow for the difference in time whereveryou may be. The sun is in the zenith when astraight pole casts its shortest shadow.A practical sundial is easily extem.porized bysweeping of¥ a level place and planting in it a 5-footstick slanted toward the north by compass. Nailthe stick to a stout stake driven under it,so it cannotbe moved, and sharpen the upper end so as to casta finely tapered shadow. When the sun shines, take5^our watch and stick a peg at the end of the shadowfor each even hour. Subdivisions of the hour canbe marked by shorter pegs. In a fixed camp sucha sundial is handy near the cook's fire. Often Ihave boiled my three-minute eggs by one. If thepegs are altered every week they will indicate nearenough actual sun time for practical purposes.

CHAPTER VIITRIPS AFOOTQuand na pas choual, monfc bourique;Qnand na pas bourique, montc cabri;Quand na pas cabri, motxte jambe.(When you have no horse, you ride a donkey;When you have no donkey, you ride a goat;When you have no goat,you ride your legs.)— Creole Sayint/.The man who goes afoot, prepared to camp anywhereand in any weather, Is the most independentfellow on earth. He can follow his bent, obey thewhim of the hour, do what he pleases w^henever hepleases, without deference to anybody, or care forany beast of burden, or obedience to the course ofany current. He is footloose and free. Whereneither horse nor boat can go, he can go, seeing countrythat no other kind of traveler ever sees. Andit is just these otherwise inaccessible places that havethe strongest lure for anyone who delights in newdiscovery, in unspoiled nature, and in the charms ofprimitivesociet)^The man with the knapsack is never lost. Nomatter whither he may stray, his food and shelterare right with him, and home is wherever he maychoose to stop. There is no anxiety about the morrow,or the day after. Somewhere he will comeout—and one place is as good as another. Nopanic-stricken horse, or wrecked canoe, can leavehim naked in the wilderness.But how to do it? This is the hardest problemin outfitting. To equip a pedestrian with shelter,bedding, utensils, food, and other necessities, in apack so light and small that he can carry it withoutoverstrain, is really a fine art. One can't enjoy wild07

98 CAMPING AND WOODCRAt J.scenery and backwoods characters if bending andchafing under a load of fardels, all the time consciousthat he is making a pack animal, a donkey, ofhimself.Consider, then, your personal equation. If youare a middle-aged city man, soft from a yearor more of office work, about twenty pounds on yourback is all the weight that you ought to carry. Eventhat little will be burdensome the first day out;but soon you will be striding along all day hardlyknowing it is there. A younger man, or one whogets a good deal of daily exercise in the open air,can do the same with thirty pounds, until he gets intraining, and then go considerably more.I am speaking of all-day hikes, across country,through the woods, uphill and down dale. In untrackedwilderness, especially if it be mountainous,it takes a husky fellow, in good form, to pack fiftypounds without over-exertion. Yes, infantrymencarry seventy, sometimes, but they don't do it throughthickets, over rocks and down-logs, up and downravines, where there are no trails—nor* are they outfor the fun of the thing. The personal equation,then—your own—regardless ot what other folksdo, or think you ought to do. Find out what isand easy for you, and then GO LIGHT,lightWeigh the essentials. Are you to sleep out? Youneed a comfortable bed, shelter from rain, and securityagainst venomous insects. Food, then, for howmany meals ? Choose what can be cooked with thesimplest and lightest utensils, and what will giveyou the most nourishment for its weight and bulk,and surh as does not require more than half an hourto make ready and fit for the stomach. Bedding,shelter, food and something to prepare it in: thoseare the essentials, besides the clothes on your backand the contents of your pockets. Anything elseis dispensable, to be picked with care and weighedwith scales, and balanced against some other thingthat might be of more real use or pleasure.Then how is the weight to be carried? A great1

TRIPS AFOOTggdeal depends on getting a pack so adjusted that itwill "ride" just right,shoulders and hips each bearingtheir due part of the strain, with as little bindingand chafing as possible.Finally, will you go in company or alone? Aparty of three or four uses the same tent, utensils,and some other articles in common. That meansless weight for each man to carry. Two in a bedrequire less bedding than if they slept separately. Asatisfactory kit for one man who goes alone andafoot is the last refinement in camp equipment. Becausethis is a particularly difficult problem I shallgive it special attention. Whoever masters it wiUhave little trouble in getting up a squad outfit.Clothes.—This topic has been considered in detailin Vol. I. (pp. 138-163). Little need be added.Footwear is the most important item. Shoes andsocks must FIT J or you will be made miserable byblisters. For dry weather and fair roads, the standardU. S. Army shoes are excellent; but for roughcountry, heavier ones, made over the Munson last,are required. In the wilderness there is considerablewading to do, sometimes over the shoe tops. Theonly shoes that will stand it are those that are waterproofedand have no lining w^hatever: they dry outsoon on the march, and do not get hard or *'bowedup." Buy them of some firm that makes a specialtyof sportsmen's footwear.Up to the season when Mackinaws are needed,do not carry a coat. You would not wear it on them.arch, and, when the cool of evening comes, asweater coat or a Mackinaw stag shirt is more comfortable,besides being a good night garment, whichthe coat distinctly is not. Then have a light-weightrubber cape reaching just to the knee. From theknee down you will get wet anyway, even thoughyou wear a long poncho or rain coat, and any garmentthat flops against the legs at every stride is apositive nuisance ; besides, it will soon tear when youthrash through brush, and it will trip you at everystep in climbing. A cape has the merits of a pon-

looCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcho, in that it is airy underneath, and it can beslipped on over the pack-sack, while it has the advantageof leaving your arms free to fend off bushes,to climb with, to shoot, paddle, and so on.There is a pattern called the "Fairy," 34 incheslong, that weighs only 21 ounces and takes up hardlyany room when packed. It and a medium-weightsweater coat together weigh only about six ouncesmore than a duxbak hunting coat. Worn together,they form good protection against a cold, keen wind.Carry a change of underwear. When on a hike,take your bath or rub-down at close of day, insteadof in the morning; then change to fresh underwearand socks, and put on your sweater and trousers tosleep in.Fresh dry underclothes are as warm as anextra blanket would be if one slept in the sweatygarments he wore during the day—to say nothingof cleanliness.Shelter.—Rain is the campaigner's worst enemy.Jack Frost can be kept at bay, in a timbered region,though you be bivouacing under the stars ; but yourequire a waterproof roof to defy Jupiter Pluvius.The kind will depend chiefly on whether you goFor two or more, choose onealone or In company.of the very light tents described in Vol. I. (pp. 76-108). When going alone, in summer, a simpleshelter cloth and small mosquito bar are sufficient.They can easily be made at home. Take, for example,seven yards of the green waterproof materialcalled verdalite, which comes in 38-inch width, andweighs 4.% ounces to the running yard. Sew upthree widths of seven feet length, and hem allaround, making a rectangle very nearly 7x9 feet.Put small grommets or eyelets around all four edges,for tie-strings. The completed shelter cloth, in thism.aterial, will weigh about 2^4 pounds, in waterproofed''balloon silk," or similar stuff, about 2j4pounds.Such a cloth may be set up in various ways. Oneof the quickest is to\tie or nail a pole horizontallyirom one sapling to another, four feet from the

TRIPS AFOOTloiground, for a ridge, and tie one 9^he 9-foot sidesof the cloth to it. Tie the otheF^jdfe^f the clothto another straight pole, draw oi^'t

T02CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbed tick. One that I now have, made of rompercloth, is a bag 32 x 78 inches, to be filled with dryleaves, if nothing better is found, and closed withhorse-blanket pins; it weighs just one pound, andtakes up very little space in the knapsack. Theleaves, being in a bag, cannot spread from underyou ; they cushion the body and keep off the chillof the ground. A 3-pound blanket on top of sucha mattress is warmer than a 5-pound one withoutit, and a pound weight is saved, to say nothing ofbone-ache. That is enough for summer camping,unless you are at a considerable aUitude.A 20 X 30-inch pillow-bag will weigh 3 ounces.Stuff it with leaves or other soft material, beforeyou turn in at night, close the end with safety pins,and pin your towel over it if the Jiurface is notsoft enough.Cooking Kit.—It is easy to make up a good lightvveightset of utensils for two or more loen (seeVol. I. pp. 1 18-123), but a satisfactory one-man kitis another matter. The Boy Scout sets do fairlywell for a short outing when baked bread is carried,but are inadequate for baking on the journey. Areflector is too cumbersome for a lone woods-cruiser.Let him bake his bread and cakes in a fr>ing-pan(see Vol. I, pp. 344-345). This, calls for an 8 or9-inch pan. Get one with folding handle (detachableones are easily lost), or take a common one,cut off all of the handle but about i^ inches, andrivet on this stub a semi-circular socket into whichyou fit your stick for a handle when you go to cooking.For general use I do not like aluminum fryingpans, but when traveling afoot they are satisfactory.A deep aluminum plate fits inside the panin my kit, along with an aluminum fork, whitemetaldessert spoon, and a dish towel. When tiedup tightly in a light bag they do not rattle around.You want two little kettles for cereals, dried fruit,tea or coffee, to mix dough in, and the like. A potthat is broad and shallow boils water much sooner•hpn one that is deep and narrow, ana i% is easiej

TRIPS AFOOTI03to clean.The kettles must not be too big to stowin the knapsack. Anywa}^ when one is going afoothe does not want to bothei with food that takeslong boiling, and so has no use for a large kettle,1 choose two I -quart aluminum buckets, which canbe bought through any dealer in kitchen ware, fillthem with part of my foodstuffs, set them bottomto bottom, and tie them tightly in a bag so thatthe covers w^ill not come off. So there is no wastespace, for the food must go somewhere, anyway.The kettles are good protection for perishables.Thus no sooty vessel goes inside another, and youhave a package of small diameter.A seamless tin cup is carried wherever convenient,generally outside the pack, where it can be gotat when one is thirsty. Aluminum is much too hotfor cup and spoon. The complete kit weighs just2 lbs. 2 oz. including bags. No table knife is carried,as I w^ear a sheath knife.Tools, etc.—In summer the little i2-ouncetomahawk already mentioned is all that is needed inthat line, its chief uses being to get kindling m wetweather, provide poles and thatch for shelter, blazea trail, and so on. A small pair of side-cuttingfliers is well worth its weight, if you are a fisherman.The first aid kit mentioned in the following listsIS made up as described in Vol. I. (p. 175), with theaddition of a "snake doctor'* which consists of ahard rubber tube, about half the size of a fountainpen, in one end of which is a lancet (very dull asyou buy it) and in the other a receptacle containingpotassium permanganate in crystals ready to berubbed into the incision. There is also a pair ofsplinter forceps. The w^hole goes in a tin tobacco box,4^x3 j^xi^ inches, sealed airtight with adhesiveplaster, and weighs 5 ounces.Other small "icta" wnll vary according to one'spersonal taste and requirements. The point is tohave them compact and of unnoticeable weight.For a trip afoot there is no need of a whole SDooI

104 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof thread, for example, or of wire, or a quarterpoundmirror, or a large towel, or a whole cake ofsoap.One-man Kit for Summer.—^As an example, tobe modified each for himself, I list below a summermarching and camping outfit (good also as a canoeingkit) complete for a man going alone. It isenough in most parts of our country, but warmerbedding would be required at high altitudes, andperhaps a closed tent, such as the *'Compac" or one ofthe semi-pyramid type, weighing 3^ to 4 pounds,instead of the one-pound shelter cloth. The totalweight of the pack, as here given, including twodays' full rations, is 23 pounds 2 ounces. Thewhole equipment, except the few light articles wornon the person, stows inside a pack sack of moderatedimensions. There is nothing exposed to advertiseyour mission ; so you give the idle curious somethingto puzzle and fret over—^which is good forthem.With such an outfit and his gun or fishing tackle,camera, or whatever may be the tools of his outdoovhobby, anyone of average physique and a littlegumption can fare very well in the open, and enjoyabsolute independence.Very littleIt will be noticed that little is carried on theperson. Such things as are used many times n dayare right where they can be reached without fumblingor pulling out the wrong article.weight is carried on the belt. Comfort and supplenessof movement have been studied. There is no"ditty bag" * I discarded such a pouch long ago.If worn on the left side it often is in the way, andit dangles provokingly when you lean over or getdown to crawl. If carried on the belt it is tooheavy there. When I go out just for a day, I carryon my back a miniature knapsack containing thecape, lunch, tea pail, and such other things as I needfor the work at hand. Five or six pounds on theback is less burdensome than half that weight in sdlny bag, and k is out of the way.

TRIPS AFOOT 105It IS important in marching that the trousersshould be held snug up in the crotch, or there willbe chafing. They should not be tight around theabdomen, as that would constrict blood-vessels andinterfere w^ith digestion. Stout men, and those withnarrow hips, cannot depend on a belt, unless it isdrawn very much too tight. Ordinary suspendersare best for them, but many object to their appearance,and so the "invisible" kind is specified inthis check-list, although it is hard on buttons.SUMMER EQUIPMENT FOR BACK-PACKINGWEARWoolen gauze undershirt.Woolen gauze (or balbriggan) drawers.Woolen socks, winter weight, natural color.Army overshirt, olive drab chambray (or flannel).Silk neckerchief, 27 x 27 in.Khaki trousers, extra suspender buttons.Invisible suspenders.Leather belt, narrow.Army shoes, cone-headed Hungarian nails.Army leggings, canvas.Felt hat, medium brim, ventilated, felt sweat-band.IN POCKETSLeft shirt—Map sections, in cover. Leaf of almanac.Note book and pencil.Right shirt.— 'Compass.Left trousers.—Purse. Waterproof match box, flatpattern (as reserve).Right trousers.—Pocket knife.Fob.—Watch.Left hip.—Pipe. Tobacco.Right hip.—Bandanna handkerchief.ON BELTRight side, fro^tf.—Waterproofed matches (50) inleather belt-pocket.Right side, rear.—Sheath knife.ON BACKlbs.Duluth pack sack, 24 x 26 in. (see Fig. 32) . . 2 4Shelter cloth, 7x9 ft., waterproof 2 4Mosquito net, 68 x 72 in 4U. S. A, blanket, >summer weight, 66 x 84 in, . . 3Browse bag, 32 x 78 in 1Pillow bag, 20 X 30 in 3OZr

io6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTRubber cape, 34 m 1 5Stag shirt 1 8Spare suit underwear and socks, as above.... 1 2Tomaliawk, muzzled 12Side-cutting pliers, 5 in, 4Carborundum whetstone, 4 x 1 x ^ in 2Wallet fitted with small scissors,needles, sailneedle, awl point, 2 waxed ends, thread oncard, sail twine, buttons, safety pins,horse-blanket pins, 2 short rigged fishlines, spare hooks, minnow hooks withhalf barb filed off, sinkers, snare wire,rubber bands, shoe laces 6Strong twine in bag 1Aluminum frying-pan (8^ in.), plate, fork,white-metal dessert spoon, dish towel, inbag 1 J2 Aluminum buckets (1 qt.), in "bag 14Tin cup, seamless (1 pt.) 3Nails and tacks 3Cheesecloth, 1 yd 1Fly dope, in pocket oiler 2Talcum powder, in wpf. bag 1Comb, tooth brush, tiny mirror, bit of soapin wpf. bag, rolled in small towel securedby rubber bands 6Toilet paper 1First aid kit 5Spare matches, in tin box secured by adhesivepla»ter 2Electric fiasherj flat, round corners 5Total pack without provisions. .18 3fWO DAYS* RATIONSlbs.• •Bread, or prepared flour, in -vpf. bag net 1"Cereal, in bag8Milk powder, in bag (=1 qt. milk) " 4*'Butter, in tin4Bacon, sliced and trimmed, in waxed paper " 12Cheese, in waxed paper " 4Egg powder, in bag (=9 eggs) " 3Raisins, in bag " 4Dried apricots, prunes, or cranberries, inbag4;;Sugar, in bag " 6Chocolate (for eating), in waxed paper.. " 4Coffee, ground, in bag " 2Tea, in bag " 1oi

TRIPS AFOOT 107Salt, in bamboo tube ^ •'-C^x"%%fo^, TToBags, paper, tin, tube .. .j3..''-v^;t'^V^. 52The articles in the main pack suffice for an in-K (^definite period. If one is going out only for a couple f)->^ ^of days he will not carry all of them. The P^o- ->^''^^^^5Jb».visions aftord a varied diet, yet weigh no more > p^ ^A> *than "iron rations" of hardtack, bacon, and cofEee,*>-J^O»and they keep as well. They are very nourishing v> ^for their w^eight, being almost water-free (exceptfresh bread, if taken instead of flour). Since oneusually travels either where fish or game can besecured,or where farm produce can be bought, thefood packed along may last longer than two days.If such rations as those here listed were carriedsufficient for a week, the whole burden would stillbe only about 353^ pounds, allowing for a largerpack sack.When bread is to be baked on the journey, Imake up a mixture beforehand of wheat flour(2 parts), cornmeal (l part), a little egg powder,and some baking powder sifted in. This makes afine johnny-cake, lighter than common frying-panbread, wholesomer, and better tasting.Abjure all canned stuffs on a marching trip. Ifyou test the canned meats, etc., that are put up intins small enough for one man, you will find thatnearly or quite half of the w^eight is in the tin.The little bags mentioned above are made of thethin but stout paraffined cloth called by tent makers"balloon silk." Salt draws too much moisture to becarried in a bag, and it quickly rusts tin; so cuta joint of bamboo to proper length, put in the salt,and secure the cork with a strip of adhesive plaster.Such tubes are useful for various purposes, beingvery light and unbreakable.In Vol. I. (p. 190), I spoke of the difficulty in get-

io8CAMPING AND WOODCIL^FTting milk powder made of anything richer than skimmilk. Since then I have learned that a certain Nev/York outfitter keeps in stock milk powder that contain27^ per cent, of butter fat, which is the U. S.Government standard for whole milk, cream included,and it is good.A waterproof match box is good for emergencies,but not for a smoker's daily supply. For this Iwaterproof the matches themselves, as described inVol. I. (p. 173) and carry them on my belt in asnap-buttoned pigskin case that came originally witha round carborundum whetstone. This is the handiestway I know of when one does not wear a coator vest. A similar pocket will carry thirty .22~calibercartridges for your rifle or pistol.A bag of the cheesecloth is used to carry fish in,or to hang up game in when flies are about, and alittle square of it serves as substitute for a tea-ball.Nails are not needed unless you expect to stayseveral days in one place and wish to put up alean-to of baker tent shape, with shelter clorh forroof, and thatched sides and back—then they are usefulin making the frame. In that case you willwant half a dozen each of 6d and 3d wire nails,and some galvanized tacks (they do not rust thecloth). A few I -inch wire brads are handy to hangkettles on pot-hooks, as they do not split the end ofa green stick, but simple notches will do.When traveling in company through a thicklywooded region, where the men may have to scatterto find a trail or a divide, it is good forethought foreach of them to carry a whistle, the army patternbeing a good one. Its note carries better than thevoice, and it saves breath. Have a pre-arrangedcode of signals, such as one note: *'I am here," twoi"Come this way," and so on.Featherweight Kits.—^The outfit already listedmay be considered of medium weight. A heavierone, for cold weather camping, will be suggested inChapter IX. But what is the lightest equip"ment that will serve for tramping and camping.

!TRIPS AFOOT 109decently, in civilized country? Many summei outerswho enjoy walking and like to explore out-05-thewayplaces are interested in that question.Well, what would you say of a ready-madecamping outfit that weighs just 7 pounds? Tent,jointed poles, pegs, ground sheet, sleeping bag, aircanvas bucket and wash-basin,pillow, toilet articles,spirit stove, cooking utensils—seven pounds to thevery ounce ; and the whole kit is so compact thatit stows in a light rucksack, or a bicycle pannier,with room left for spare clothing and such foodas is not bought along the route of travel. Totalburden about 10 pounds, with w^hich the lone pedestrianor cycle tourist is independent of hotels andboarding-housesI first heard of this campestral marvel in 19 10,when a young Londoner wrote me for a dimensionalsketch of a tomahawk I had recommended. Achatty correspondence followed that introduced meto a new Old World scheme of tent life very differentfrom what I was used to, but one developedto the last line of refinement and full of canny tricksof the outers' guild.For me it was an eye-opener to find the lightestcamp equipments of the world in England, a nation1 had always associated with one-ton "caravans'*Verily hereat home and five-ton "safaris" abroad.was the art of open-air life evolved to a type undreamedof in our own country.Back of this development, I learned, were yearsof patient, thoroughgoing experiment by scores ofmen and women whose one fad (if it be a fad) wasto perfect a camping kit that should be light,lighter,lightest, and yet right, righter, rightest. Then itcame to me from faraway years that the father ofmodern lightweight camping was not the Yankee"Nessmuk," but the Scotchman Macgregor, who in1865, built the first modern canoe, Rob Roy, andcruised her a thousand miles with no bag^eage buta black bag one foot square and six inches deep.was saidgive even a flv deck passage.of Macgregor that he would not willinglyIt

I loCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTFeatherweight camping in ''civilized" fashion beganwith the Rob Roy, progressed with the flotillasof British and American canoeists who followed itsskipper's example, was refined by the squadrons ofcycle tourists and the pedestrian campers whoscour the highways and byways of all Christendomin their yearly holidays.To one w^hose camps have always been pitchedin the wilderness the seven-pound English kit seemsamusingly frail and inadequate. Such a one mightexclaim in mock reverence, as my partner used towhen he caught me modeling some new-fangled"dingbat": "Great and marvelous art thy works,Lord Geeminy Crimlny!" But such an outfit isnot meant for the wilderness. It is for the independentvacationist who wants to ramble off thebeaten track, to see what conventional travelers alwaysmiss: the most interesting and picturesqueplaces and peoples in their own and foreign countries.European outfitters have been catering for yearsto this class of trade; but what have we done forit? Precious little. Whoever goes in for that sortof vacation must either pack around with him twiceas much weight and bulk as there is any sense in,if he buys his kit ready made, or he must build anequipment for himself, which few tourists haveeither the time or the skill to do. Perhaps, then,thisforeign cult may be worth looking into.First, the featherweight kit already alluded to.was designed by Owen G. Williams, and marketedby J. Langdon & Sons, Duke St., Liverpool. Theconstituent parts, with their weights, and pricesbefore the war, are given below. If ordered togetherthe price of complete outfit was £4 4s, orabout $21.00.SINGLE OUTFIT FOR PEDESTRIAN ORCYCLING TOURSPrice Weight"Featherweight" tent complete £1 10 2 8Ground sheet and pegs for same 4 3 ISIt

TRIPS AFOOTIII"Comfy" sleeping-bag (eiderdown) .. .2 2 1 4Compact brush and comb and mirror. 19 2Japanese rubbered air cushion 16 2"Compleat" cooking outfit and stove. 3 6 15Aluminum knife, fork and spoon 14 2% pint aluminum flask and egg cup...O 2 8 3Enamelled cup, plate, and mop, per set 9 5Canvas bucket and wash basin 2 3 6Pole clips and candle holder 6 2£4 10 6 7 lbs.The tent is barely large enough for one man tosleep in ; 3 feet high, 6 feet long, 3 feet vv^ide on thefloor, with front and rear extensions of 32 inchesand 36 inches respectively. It is a modification ofthe common "A" or wedge pattern. The doorwaysare cut so as to peg out straight in front, affordingan outside windshield for cooking. The back endis rounded for storage accommodation and to providein the worst of weather for cooking withoutrisk of spilling foodstuff on the ground sheet.The top, which shields the sleeper, is made of"swallow-wing," unprocessed but rain-proof. Thebottom portion of the tent is of a lighter materialthat helps ventilate, but still is spray-proof. Thetent alone weighs 22 ounces, poles and case 10ounces, pegs and lines 8 ounces. The tent rollsinto a package 8^ inches long by 4 inches thick.The poles unjoint to a length of 23 inches.I am assured that this midget shelter will standup in a hurricane that overthrows wall tents, marquees,and the army bell tent. Enthusiastic campersuse it even in winter, sleeping out without afire when the tent sags heavily wnth snow. Theyfind it satisfactory protection in torrents of gustyrain so fierce as to wet through a common tent inspite of the fly, by driving through the materialof back or front. It has stood nine months' continuousservice in Canada.The ground sheet is of a special fawn waterproofsheeting, 5 feet by 3 feet, eyeletted at each corner,and with pegs to hold it down.

1 12 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe sleeping-bag is shaped narrow at the footto save weight and bulk, and is of the old-fashionedpattern closed with a draw-string. It is stufEedthinly with eiderdown, the warmest of all knownmaterials for its weight and (rolled up) bulk. Ithas a thin rubbered cover bag, waterproof and windpioof. For those who dislike the stuffiness of sosmall a ''sleeping-pocket" the same outfitters provideddown quilts of two sizes, the 6x4 foot size,with valance, weighing S/i- pounds.The air-pillow is a Japanese contrivance, inciediblylight and compact. A reeded form, morecomfortable than the plain oblong one listed withthe set, is 12 x 10 inches, weighs only 2^^ ounces,and three of them can be carried in a coat pocketwhen deflated.Since the English camper seldom could get woodfor fuel, or permission to make a fire in the open,he was obliged to carry a miniature stove and somealcohol or kerosene. In this instance it is an alcoholburner of common pad form, which is wastefulof spirits, but less likely to get out of orderthan an alcohol vapor stove. The cooking outfitIS made up of two little kettles or deep stew-pans withhandles, a miniature frying-pan, a toaster, a tea-ball,and the stove, all nesting in the outer kettle, whichhas a cover.Another one-man outfit was designed and is (orwas— I know not what the war may have donethere) manufactured by that veteran camper andoutdoor writer, T. H. Holding, of 7 Maddox St.,London, W. It includes the following articles:Tent 13 ouncesPoles (3) 15Pegs 10Ground sheet 10Ground "blanket" 8Down quilt 20Cooking kit 16 "6 pounds

TRIPS AFOOT 113The "Wigwam," as Mr. Holding calls his tinytent, is of ordinary "A" shape and is made ofJapanese silk, 5 f t. 1 1 in. long, 4^ ft. wide, and 4 ft.high, giving sufficient headroom to lounge in comfortably.When rolled up it can be carried in anordinary pocket. It will be noticed that the polesand pegs weigh practically twice as much as thetent itself. This is due partly to the use of shearpoles in front, instead of a single vertical pole,giving freer entrance and egress, besides supportingthe tent better. A ridge pole, weighing 10 ounces,is supplied extra, and is recommended for the sakeof trim setting. The poles are of jointed bamboo,and the pegs of aluminum, flattened at the endsinstead of pointed, to give a good grip in the ground.Of the silk tent Mr. Holding says: "Such is itstoughness that I have seen a pair of the strongestfingers try to tear the material, and fail. For itsweight and thickness it is the most powerful stuffin the world in the shape of textile goods. I haveput several tents I possess to protracted and severetests, and I have never had one to tear. One hasBtood some of the heaviest rains, in fact, recordsfor thirty hours at a stretch, without letting in wet,and I say this of an 11 -ounce silk one. . . ."What, however, silk does not stand well isfriction. As an instance, open your silk umbrellaand look down the folds, half way between eachrib. The parts of a tent, therefore, which showthe wear are at the pegging and head places, wherethe fingers touch it in erecting. To this end Irecommend they should not be rolled up, as cottonfabrics, but rucked, like a pocket handkerchief.'*The "Wigwam" is also furnished ready-made invarious other materials, cheaper but heavier thansilk, of which the next lightest is lawn, weighingI pound 8 ounces.The ground sheet is of light mackintosh. Overit goes a little "ground blanket" of thin cashm.ere,with eyelets at the corners, so that it may be peggeddown. This is not only for the sake of warmth.

1 14 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbut alsoto save wear on the mackintosh, which hasto be very thin.Mr. Holding's eiderdown quilt is only to coverwith, not to roll up in. The Wigwam size is 5 ft.10 in. by 4 ft., to which is added a foot of clothvalance all around, which is pegged or weighteddown so that the sleeper will not kick off his covering.These quilts are thinner than the domesticones of down, and roll up into remarkably smallcompass.The cooking kit is made of thin copper. It Includesa pad spirit stove with damper and windshield,a boiler 6 inches across, a porridge panthat fits inside, and a fry-pan that forms a coverfoi the boiler; also a separate handle for the variouspans. The vessels are seamless.Of course, this six-pound outfit does not includeeverything that a hiker requires in camp and on themarch. Mr. Holding gives a list of articles recommendedfor two pedestrians traveling together:lbs. oz."A" Tent, 6 ft. by 5 ft. 9 in. by 5 ft. 9 in 2Set of 2 tent poles 1Set of pegs (ordinary sikewers) 3Oil stove—"Baby — Primus" 1 3Aluminum pans "So Soon" pattern 1 1Piece of waterproof for tent 22 Aluminum cups and saucers (plates) .... 42 sets Aluminum knife, fork, spoon 4Candlestick and candle 2Aluminum box of soap 16 4The piece of waterproof is two feet square. It isto roll up the tent in when wet, and serves otherwiseas a wash-basin, seat, etc.Each man carries half of this company kit, makinghis share 3 pounds 2 ounces. Adding his personalequipment, his burden becomes:.lbs. oz.Share of bag-gage 3 2Mackintosh coat 1 6Air pillow 3

TRIPS AFOOT 115Down pillow (a luxury) 1Sweater 1Sleeping- stockings (long ones) 6Extra walking socks 4Down quilt 1 10Thin extra vest (undershirt) 5Scarf 2Tooth brush, etc 3Hold-all with straps (under) 89 2For hiking Instead of cycling, a rucksack shouldbe substituted for the hold-all. Adding a towel, theweight, without food, is close to 10 pounds, withpart food 12 pounds.The "Baby" kerosene vapor stove here listed islike a regular Primus except that Its valve is indifferent position, the pump Is set In snugly at theside. It has rounded cone feet set Inward, and it isof reduced size, weighing only i pound 3 ouncesinstead of 4 pounds. A still smaller stove of thesame pattern, called the "Pocket Primus," measures2^ inches deep by 4 inches across, when packed,and weighs only i pound i ounce.Another specialty is the "So-Soon" cooking kit.The lower vessel Is a boiler 3^ by 53^^ inches, thesecond is another boiler that fits inside the first,next Is a stew or porridge pan which, inverted,makes a covet for the kit ; on top is the frying-pan,I Inch deep. All of these vessels are of stampedaluminum. A separate handle fits all of them. AThe"Baby Primus" stove fits Inside the nested pans.main boiler tapers narrower at the bottom, so as tokeep the set from rattling when carried about.Nopart has any excrescence or projection to obstructthe packing. The whole set, omitting stove, weighsT pound 5 ounces.There Is a smaller "So-Soon" set made for the"Pocket Primus," which is 3^ by 5^ inches, anditsthree vessels weigh only 8 ounces.Returning to the subject of tents : the English outfitterssupply them of many shapes and sizes and

Ti6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTin various lightweight materials, besides commontents, of course. It will strike American campersas peculiar that none of the extra thin materialsused in tents up to 7 x 7 size are subjected to anywaterproofing process whatever. For rain-sheddingquality they depend solely, like an umbrella,upon the closeness with which the textile is woven.On examining these clothes one is surprised at theirexceeding fineness of texture. Some of the cottongoods are woven almost twice as fine as our so-called"balloon silk" or the 4-ounce special Lowell clothused for extra-light racing sails on small craft.The best lawns, etc., are made from Egyptiancotton, which has a stronger and finer fiber thanAmerican cotton, and is said to be 15 per cent,stronger. In spite of this, I doubt if any thin, unprocessedtent is really rainproof unless it is stretchedvery taut and the occupant takes great pains toavoid touching it from the inside. In a shelter onlythree or four feet high, and wedge-shaped, one canhardly help rubbing against the interior, and thenwill come the drip-drip that we know too well.Even the rear wall, though vertical, will be rubbedhy one's pillow in a very short tent, and then, ifrain is driven by the wind, this wall will leak.The only remedy would be to waterproof the clothor use a fly.There is another objection to extremely thintenting material: it requires tighter stretching, andhence more pegs, than stouter material would, or itwill belly and sag. Moreover, it stretches excessively,and then the poles will no longer fit. Mr.Holding himself reports that a small tent stretchesfrom three to nine inches, in service. Waterproofingwould prevent nearly all of this, for it is thealternate tightening and loosening of the cloth fromwetting and drying that makes the fiber of the materialloosen up.A feature of some of the English tents that deservescopying is the angular extension of lower edgeof door flaps, so that the doors can be pegged out

TRIPS AFOOTH7straight in line with sides of tent, forming windshieldsand protection against driving rain when onewants the door open. Another is that the groundsheet, instead of being made square or rectangular,has the sides and rear end cut in segments of a circle,so as to fit against the walls when they are drawnoutward by sagging of ridge and stretching of sides.The bedding here described would not suit us atall. The down sleeping-bag would be too stuffy.The Holding quilts are so narrow that they can onlybe used to cover with, and so the under side of thebody is left unprotected by anything but cold mackintoshand a very thin, sheet of cashmere. In England,I suppose, it is taken for granted that thecamper will procure, for each night, a bedding ofstraw or hay; but in our country there are manyplaces, even in "civilization," where the camperwould have to chance it on the bare ground. Inour climate (or climates) w^e need more beddingunder than over us, if there is nothing to serve asmattress.The English featherweight outfits, although notadapted to our needs, are very suggestive, and Americanpedestrian tourists will do well to study them.(Full details are given in Mr. Holding's CamperHaridbook^. Not only lightness but compactnessseem to have been brought to an irreducible minimum.For example, there is a complete cycle-campingoutfit for two men, including tent, down quilt,toilet articles, cooking utensils, etc., that stows in sbag only 15 x 7 x 7 inches!s

Chapter viiiPACKS FOR PEDESTRIANSThe simplest way to carry a light marching kitis in a blanket roll.It is made up as follows: Spreadthe shelter cloth or tent on the ground, fold theblanket once, end for end, and place it on top,with same amount of cloth left uncovered at frontand rear. Divide the other equipment into two pilesof equal weight, arrange one of these along one€nd of blanket, the other along the other end.Told free sides of shelter cloth over all. Roll thewhole afifair as tightly and smoothly as possible,and secure with straps or cords, one at middle andone half-way to either end, making a roll about sixfeet long. Then fasten each end tightly with aslip-knot, leaving enough free cord on each to tiethe ends of the roll together In horse-collar form.It takes two men to make a neat job of this.The roll is worn over one shoulder with end?over opposite hip. Some pedestrians like the blanketroll because it saves the expense and weight of apack-sack or harness, and because it can be shiftedfrom one side to the other. In reality nothing isgained in ease of carrj^Ing, but rather the contrary.All the weight is thrown on one shoulder at a time,and there is no help from the hips. A man cancarry a heavier load In a pack-sack with less fatiguein the long run.The blanket roll is oppressive in hot weather, andits pressure on the chest Is a handicap at all times.It is much In the way when one has to climbor crawl, and even more so when you go to shoot.It will not hold half the equipment mentioned inn8

:TACKS FOK PEDESTRIANS 119my summer list, and if a haversack is added, youhave a particularly irksome "flip-flop" to impedeyou, and the "advantage" of shifting weights isthen lost. A blanket roll is suitable only for aday's hike and a one-night camp ; even so, it is muchless comfortable than a light pack on one's back.Pack Harness.— I leave out of account simpletump lines and the like, because they are practicalonly for canoeists carrying heavy burdens acrossportages.A pack harness is anarrangement of strapsfor carrying an outfitmade up into a bundleinside the blanket, orfor toting two duffelbags strapped side byside. The illustration(Fig. 23) shows onewith tump or head-bandadded. If bags are notused, the bundle mustbe wrapped in a packcloth of strong waterproofcanvas (the tent23.—Pack HarnessFig,with Head Strapor shelter cloth willnot do, for it needs protectionfrom rough usage). As to this method ofpacking I quote from the book on Winter Camping(Outing Handbooks) by Warwick S. Carpenter,who has had more experience with It than I"The arrangement that I have frequently used isthat of the pack cloth, with the outfit and blanketsor sleeping bag folded inside. Its flexibility forvarious sizes of load commend it strongly, and thepack cloth may be used as shelter iDesides, or as aground cloth in a lean-to or tent. The method ofmaking this pack is to lay the pack cloth on theground and place the blankets or sleeping bag foldedonce on top of the cloth. Place the outfit as compactlyas possible on the blankets or bag and foldit tightly in, making; the bundle . . . consider-

120 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTably longer than it is wide and thick. Then taktsthe end of the pack cloth which runs along thebottom of the pack, and bend it up over the foldedbundle. Next take the sides of the pack cloth andfold them over, or if there is) much cloth, roll thewhole pack over from side to side, keeping everythingsnug and tight.This will leave the bottom of the pack cloth foldedinside and the sides of the cloth lapping all aroundso that no snow or wet will sift in at the bottom.Fold the still open top down as a flap, just as youwould the end of a paper package, with the foldedflap at the side of the pack away from the back. Passa rope or a strap lengthwise around the whole andthen attach the harness with its shoulder straps ortump line. Such a pack is absolutely secure againstsnow or rain.The best form of pack-harness is that which ismade with a broad shoulder piece shaped like asailor's collar, the wide bands of which run wellover the shoulders and about eight inches down infrbnt. From the back of the collar, about five inchesapart, two vertical straps run downward about fifteeninches to the small of the back and bend up underthe arms to meet the broad bands in front. Therethey are fastened with buckles, and the straps aremade long enough to permit considerable taking upor letting out. Riveted horizontally to the strapsbehind, one at the height of the collar piece and theother fifteen inches lower, are two straps six feetlong, which go around the pack. This harness maybe bought of any dealer in camping outfits, but thecollar portion of all that I have seen is made ofheavy canvas. This very quickly wrinkles and drawsup and cuts the shoulders. It is far better to haveit made of a very heavy piece of leather.One of these that I put together myself has beenused for years and the broad bands that go over theshoulders are still as smooth and comfortable aswhen new. To the back of the collar should beriveted two short straps about six inches long, extendingupward, as the others go downward. Tothese can be buckled a broad tump which goes overthe forehead. It will be adjustable with the bucklesor can be removed entirely."The chief merit of this kind of pack is its adaptabilityto any size or shape of bundle. On theother hand, the weig;ht of harness and pack clothS')eethev ("U-^a to 5 pounds) is considerably more

PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANS 121than that of a roomy pack-sack. True, the clothcan be used as a ground sheet under the blanket atnight, but that is not needed if one has a sleepingbag,or a browse-bag (and rubber cape to go overit when things are wet) which weighs but a poundand makes a far better bed. Pack cloths are madefiom 5 X 6 to 6 X 7 feet, which is too small for ashelter cloth. Another disadvantage is that wheneveryou want to get at anything in the pack, thewhole thing must be undone and repacked.The tump or head-band is a good addition notonly to a pack harness but to almost any other kindof pack used for carrying heavy weights. Generallyit wnll not be used until the shoulders tire; thenit relieves the strain. It is an advantage in climbingsteep hillsides. When fording a swift stream,crossing on a foot-log or fallen tree, going overv/indfalls, crossing ice, or passing other dangerousplaces, the shoulder straps may be dropped, the headstrapalone being emplo3Td ; then, if you slip or getoverbalanced, the load can be cast off instantly bythrowing back the head, and you save your bonesor possibly your life. When the tump is not in use,drop it down over the chest.Military Knapsacks.—In most Europeanarmies the infantry carry small knapsacks made ofleather, stiffened with a framework of wood or bamboo,or reinforced at the sides to give a certainrigidity. Inside the knapsack are stowed spare undervvear,fatigue shoes (if any), a reserve ration,spare ammunition, and various small articles. • Theblanket, or overcoat, is rolled tightly in a shelterhalf and strapped around the top and sides, and amess kettle generally is strapped on the outside. Insome models, as the German, the interior is dividedinto compartments to separate and protect the differentarticles and to assure a constant distributionof the weight.A military knapsack is too small for campers, itIS much too heavy for its size, and it obliges thewearer to carry most of his outfit outside, attached

122 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTto it, or strapped separately to the person. Such anairangement is bad, for various reasons. A blanketroll strapped around the outside does not fit wellon a soft sack. The knapsack must be stiff, thereforeheavy, and it must be narrow, or the completepack will project too much beyond the shoulders,worrying the bearer by preventing the free swingof his arms, and proving a serious obstacle whenhe has to go through the matted undergrowth of aforest. Besides, the blanket is needed as a softpad against one's back. If worn on the outside, itmust be protected by something. A thin tent orshelter cloth will not do, because it, too, needsprotection against snags and abrasion. If a ponchoor cape is used for the purpose, it must be a heavyone, to stand the wear, whereas it should be lightfrom every other consideration ; and your waterproofis best carried where you can get at it and don itquickly.As for "flip-flops" and "stick-outs" in your equipment,they are anathema. Suppose you have to crossa stream or a deep gulley on a fallen tree. If thereisa dangling article about you, such as a haversack,it will swing to one side and tend to throw you offbalance. If anything sticks out of your pack, or istied on the outside of it, the thing will everlastinglybe catching in vines and 'bushes. Taking it day inand day out, in all kinds of country, the best pack13 a commodious sack on your back that containseverything you carry except what goes in your pocketsand in one hand.The soft canvas knapsack formerly used by ourown army has no compartments save a narrow outsidepocket, under the flap, and is not stiffened. It ischeap (from dealers in second-hand military equipments),very strong, and serviceable as a carryall forone's personal duffel aside from shelter and bedding.This pattern, like most other military ones, is illsuitedto carrying heavy loads, because the pointsof suspension of the shoulder straps fsee Fig. 24,A J B) are too near the outer edge of the knapsack

—PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANS 123and consequently drag on the weakest part of theshoulders, next to the arms. The strain shouldcome nearer the neck,where the vertebralcolumn will help tosupport it.Old types of knapsackshad the strapscrossed over the breast— about the worstarrangement thatcould be devised, sinceit compresses the bearer'schest and interfereswnth his breathing.A horizontalstrap across the chestto keep shoulder straps Fig. 24.—Old U.S.A. Knapfromspreading is likesack(back). A. B. points ofwise oppressive, and suspensionbothersome because it must be unbuckled before theknapsack can be castoff.*RUCKSACKS.From time immemorialthe chamoishunters of theAlps have used asimple but ingeniouspack sack forcarrying light kitsand game. This Iscalled a rucksack.It isto-day the favoritepacking deviceof EuropeanFig^Ipjnists25.-Rucksackandwith Flappedestriantourists, ISmuch used as a game bag, and, of late years, has^Rucksack is a German word meaning "back-sacK." In Englishthe umlaut sign (two dots over u) is dropped and the pronunciationchanged so thcit ruck rhymes with stuck.

{24 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcome into vogue in our country for light mountaineeringand for walking trips in settled regions. Intourists' patterns the opening is protected from dustand rain by a flap (Fig. 25), and one or two coveredpockets may be added on the outside (Fig. 27) forsuch articles as may be wanted from time to timeon the way. In its original form the rucksack issketched in Fig. 26, which shows an open-mouthedbag of light cloth closed by a puckering cord.Fig. 26.— Plain Rucksack(after Payne-Gallwey)The rucksack isdistinguished fromall other packs bythe method of attachingits shoulderstraps, which swingdirectly from thepuckering cord atthe top, and are fastenedbelow by toggles,hooks, OTbuckles. (Fig. 25shows another fasteningby a cord tj^inginto the shoulderstrap with a loopedknot; this is easilyadjustable, and a tugat the end of thecord will loosen thepack instantly).The point of suspension,then, is inthe center of thesack's top, instead ofnear the upper cornersas on a militaryknapsack.Thisbrings the strain over the strongest part of theshoulders, where it is least felt.Since the rucksack is made of light cloth, withno stiffening, it is very caoacious for its weieht: one

PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANS 125chat holds half a bushel can be rolled up and tuckedinto the pocket of a hunting coat. When filledwith spare clothing and such other articles as wouldbe carried by one who went afoot through wellsettled districts and put up for the night at inns orfarmhouses, the weight of such a pack is hardlynoticeable. On the hike, one's coat or cape, rolledup, may be carried under the flap. The plain rucksack,w^ithout flap, is easy to get into, since all youhave to do is to pull one end of the puckering cordand the bag is wide open : this makes it handy as agame bag. The w^eight, being carried low and tightagainst the body, does not tend to overbalance onein difficult climbing—a point of consequence tomountaineers.But the rucksack is a poordevice for carrying such a kitas is required by one whosleeps out and totes his bedand shelter with him. Itscontents bunch up into arounded lump (see Fig. 27),and heavy articles work tothe bottom. Everything getsjumbled up. Worse still, the*pack "rides" so low that itpresses hard against the smallof the back, which is theworst of all places to put astrain on.27.—Rucksackin UseI tried out the rucksack thoroughly, years ago,It is a good contrivance for carrying the day's necesisities when you are reasonably sure of reaching ahouse or camp at night, being never in the waylike a haversack or blanket-roll, yet more capacious.The one illustrated in Fig. 25, made of thin brownwaterproof canvas, 21 inches wide by 22 inches high,weighs 12 ounces. Another outfitter supplies one ofabout the same size, in waterproofed olive-drab cloth,with an outside pocket, that weighs only 9 ounces.One of these is an excellent carrier ior a ieathep

126 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTweight camping kit,but for packs of over 15 pounds,I will have none of it.An interesting modification of the rucksack, whichbrings the weight where it can best be borne, is theNorwegian army pack sack (Figs. 28, 29). Inthis the sack is united to a support of oak or ash,which comprises a horizontal wooden crosspiece {A )and two vertical pieces {B, C) curved to fit the back.Bag and frame are joined at the bottom by tworings, which are sewed on leather bands and attachedto the horizontal piece of wood, at one end28.—NorwegianKnapsack in UseFig.29.—NorwegianKnapsack (Back)Fig.by a spring placed on the traverse, and at the otherby an eyebolt. At the top they are joined by astrap, one part of which is sewed on the middle ofthe back of the knapsack, the other, or free part,being passed through a slit made in the upper partof the support, and bent back and buttoned onitself.The slings of the knapsack draw from the center,as in a rucksack, but are attached to a small archshapedbrass piece riveted to the upper part of thesupport. Their free ends have hooks which engageIn the eyes of eyebolts fixed at each end of the lowertraverse of the frame. On each sling, at the heightof the armpit, there Is a double button on which isfixed a counter sling furnished with a brass hook-

PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANS 127which latter is hooked to the belt from the underside, helping to support cartridge pouches. Theknapsack is 173^ inches high, 143^ inches wide, andweighs 3^ pounds. I have seen lighter ones madefor civilians. The lower crosspiece rests above thehips, on the pelvis, which, the designer says, "is themost suitable part of our framework to supportburdens." The shoulder straps have little moreto do than keep the pack against the back.Fig. 30.—Tourist Knapsack(back)Fig.31.—Nessmuk PackSackAnother and lighter way of stiftening a knapsackis to reinforce the sides and insert pieces of canevertically in small pockets on the back (Fig. 30).This also allows air to circulate between the packand the bearer's back, preventing excessive sweating.(When our old army knapsack was w^orn, in summer,men would sweat clear through the heavy canvas).The tourist's knapsack here illustrated ispliable and yet has enough rigidity to maintain aneat form. Of course, it is not suitable for carryinga heavy weight. In this case the slings aresuspended centrally from a D-ring {A in the ngure).A handle like that of a shawl-strap is provided,so that the knapsack may be carried like a satchelwhen one is in town. Straps on top are provided tocarry the coat or cape.Pack Sacks.— I use this term specifically to denotesacks that are roomy enough to take insidea whole outfit for the pedestrian or canoeist whocamps out. It would be a waste of space to de-

128 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTscribe half the patterns that are listed by outfitters,as there are so many that are ill-designed. Threeexamples that have good "points" will suffice:The so-called "Nessmuk" pack sack (he did notdesign it) is shown in Fig. 31. It is made ofmedium-weight brown waterproof canvas. The baghas boxed sides that taper from about 5 inches widthat bottom to 3 inches at top (not shown in illustration)and it is about 3 inches narrower at thetop than at the bottom. To the top edge of thebag proper is sewed a throat piece like that of aduffel bag. When the bag has been packed, thisthroat piece is gathered together and tied like themouth of a grain sack, so as to exclude water. Youmay take a header while fording a streami, or capsizeyour canoe, without getting water inside thepack. The extension also allows the sack to bepacked fuller than normal, so that when carried thepack rises as high as one's collar. It is somewhatin the way when one is making up his pack, but,when tied, there is no risk of losing anything out ofthe bag.This pack sack carries higher, and hence morecomfortably, than a rucksack. It will contain ali.8;ht camping equipment, say one of twenty pounds.The slings draw from the center, but are somewhatover 2 Inches apart at top of pack, and sodo not pucker the bag so much, nor throw Its topso far backward, as if they drew straight from aD-rlng.The common pattern of "Nessmuk" pack has lightweb shoulder straps, which are an unmitigated nuisance:they wrinkle up and cut like ropes. Getthe better grade with leather straps. I have oneof this kind, 20 Inches wide by 15 Inches high,that weighs 2 pounds 2 ounces.It would be betterIf the throat piece were a couple of Inches longer.The buckle for the flap strap should be placed ashigh as the upper hole of the strap. There Is asimilar sack 5 x 16 x 18 Inches, with an outsidepocket almost the size of the face of the pack, which,^^'th leather slings, weighs only 24 ounces.

PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANS 129For regular packing, when one sleeps out, thebest pack sack at a moderate price that I know ofis what is known as the Duluth, or, from its inventor,the Poirier pattern (Fig 32). Originallymadefor trappers, timber cruisers, and other professionalwoodsmen, it is now used by manysportsmen as well. The Duluth sack has no boxedsides, but is sewed up in the form of a simple bag^and so is made wider and higher than boxed ones ofequalcapacity.32.—DuluthSackPackFig. 33.—Whelen PackSackThe advantage is that one's blanket, which goesin first, as a pad for the back, can be folded twofeet square, or a little more, and consequently infewer thicknesses ; hence the bag packs flatter than aboxed one and does not bulge so far backward atthe top. Poirier makes his pack sacks in threegrades: (A) 12-oz. duck, heavy grain leathershoulder straps and canvas head strap, all straps andbuckles fastened with copper rivets and burrs; (B)lo-oz. duck, canvas shoulder and head straps; (C)lo-oz. duck, canvas shoulder straps, no head strap.By all means get the A grade, as canvas slings will

:130 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTwrinkle when wet and cut the shoulders. Thestandard sizes and weights, in A grade, are asfollowsNo. 1. 24 X 26 inches. 2% lbs.No. 2. 26 X 28 inches. 2^/4 lbs.No. 3. 28 X 30 inches. 2^ lbs.For a pedestrian the No. i or No. 2 is largeenough. A canoeist will find one of the largerones ample to hold all the duffel for a singlehandedcruise, and a week's provisions; but if hechooses to carry more on the outside,comes to a portage,then, when hethe surplus articles can be piledon top ot the pack, the head strap will be put to use,and he can tote as much as with a tump line, ormore, because the shoulders assist.The shoulder straps of the Duluth sack start froma common center, where they are riveted to an insidepiece of leather. They fork from between one'sshoulder blades like a pair of suspenders.The flapis hilf as long as the sack, and it is fitted with threelong straps whereby the sack may be adjusted snuglyto a large or small load. As the sack has a widemouth, it is easy to pack and to get into. Thethree straps hold down the flap closely at the cornersas well as in the center, and so keep out rainand snow and prevent things spilling out. Thereis no throat piece; but a wise woodsman stows hisperishables in light waterproof bags, anyway.The pack designed by Captain TownsendWhelen. U. S. A., has an ingenious arrangementfor regulating the size of the bag according to w^hatis carried. It consists of a many-gored bag (Fig.33), about 18 inches wide by 22 inches long withoutthe gores. The bag can be let out enough tocarry a small deer, feet up, or, by means of a strapthat goes around it from top to bottom, it can betriced up, gores folded Inside, until there Is nothingof It but a little knapsack for carrying one's dailyequipment. There are two roomy pockets on theoutside, one of them, for the camera, made so that

PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANS 131no water can get into it. The arrangement ofstraps is such that all the strain is put on them insteadof on the canvas. Made of 12-oz. waterproofkhaki duck, the Whelen pack sack weighs 2^pounds.Combination Pack Sacks.—Since "an ouncein the morning is a pound before night" whenone goes afoot, and "a mile uphill is five on thelevel," many ingenious contrivances have been devisedto make one article in the outfit serve two ormore purposes. So we have various combinationsof pack and tent, pack and sleeping-bag, pack andstretcher-bed, and so forth. Though I do not go socombina-far as the old-timer who averred that "alltion tricks are pizen," yet I am apt to be rather shyof them.An article can serve two purposes, but itcan't do them both at the same time, and in eithercase it is likely to be a makeshift.If a pack does not "ride" just right, or if it is noteasy to fill and easy to get into at any time, it isfaulty. If the tent, or the sleeping-bag, or thestretcher-bed, is altered from what it should be toaccommodate it to some other use, it is vexatious.Most of these inventions defeat their own purposeby being almost, if not quite, as bulky and heavy asthe separate articles would be if made right. Forinstance, you can use a sleeping-bag as a pack tostow your duffel in, but to carry it you must have aharness of some sort, and that harness will weighover a pound. I would rather tote an extra poundand have a pack sack, for it is so much more convenient.The notion that a sack is good for nothingin camp is wrong; you need a receptacle for everythingthat is not in present use, lest things getscattered and lost. Or, if long training has madeyou habitually careful in such a matter, you maydo with that sack as 1 often do ; turn it inside out,stuff it with dry leaves, put it under your filled pillow-bag,and sleep with your head comfortablyhigh.Pack Baskets.—In the forests of the northe^**-

132 CAMPING AJND WOODCRAFTern states and in the maritime provinces of Canada,a favorite carrier is the pack basket, made smallerat the top than at the bottom, flattened on the back,and provided with a cover. An average size isabout 1 8 inches high, 17 inches wide at the bottomand 15 at the top, by about 12 inches deep. Varioussizes can be bought from outfitters in the cities,who also supply them with waterproof canvas covers(Fig. 34). One of the latter kind, holding 1^4bushels, weighs 4^ pounds. A larger one, 18^inches high by 18 by 14^ inches, weighs 7 pounds;Fig. 34.—Pack Basket Fig. 35.—Abercrombie(covered) Pack Frameit fastens with lock-buckle and strap. Uncoveredbaskets weigh from 2^ to 5 pounds, according tosize. Common ones generally are too small at thetop for easy stowage of bulky articles; but if thebasket is made more than 12 inches deep it willdrag back unmercifully on the shoulders.To my notion, the best that can be said of thepack basket is that it is a bully thing in which tocarry canned and bottled goods—^when some otherfellow does the toting. It is too heavy, too abrasive,and too bothersome in the brush and thickets,for average foot travelers, and it does not stow sowell in a canoe as a pack sack of equal capacity.Pack Frames.— The far Northwest has another

PACKS FOR PEDESTRlANlii33pet rig for the "human beast of burden" :the packframe. In its simplest form this consists of twovertical or slightly flaring pieces of wood jomed bycross-bars near the top and bottom, covered with asheet of canvas, and fitted on one side with broadstraps for the shoulders, on the other with strapsropes, or thongs, for tying on the load. One modelha« a little skeleton shelf on the back, near the bottom,for the pack to rest on, this shelf being fittedwith hinged metal supports so it can be folded downwhen not in use. Such a frame leaves an air spacebetween the body and the pack, and so does not sweatthe carrier's back like a knapsack.^A load of anysize or shape can easily be fixed on it. The weightIs comfortably balanced and divided between shouldersand hips. The upright pieces of wood are otsuch length that their lower ends support the wholeload when the man sits down to rest, as on a log,for instance. .. .Figure 35 shows a new Invention in pack trames,by D T. Abercromble. In this the frame, andconsequently the load, is kept quite away from thelower part of the back, being joined to a hip strapby a rod with horizontal arm on each side, i hereis a tump strap, as well as shoulder straps. Heavyweights can be carried with this contrivance, and,no matter how hard or Irregular the load may be,it cannot hurt the back. The frame completeweighs only 2>^ pounds.Pack frames are not suitable for ordinary pedestriantrips, of course, but have such merit lor portagingheavy and hard or sharp-cornered baggagethat I mention them here, while on the subject ofpacking on human backs and shoulders.^Canteens.—One may travel where wateris hardto find, though this seldom is the case in a timberedregion. The best canteen Is one of aluminumwhich neither leaks nor rusts like the old-fashionedtin affairs. It should have a canvas cover withfelt lining. When the feU is wet Its moisture coolsthe v^ater In the canteen bv evaporation,i he can-

1 34 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTvas cover prevents too rapid evaporation, and keepsthe canteen from wetting one's clothing. At nightor in case of illness, the thing can be used as ahot-water bottle, the insulation keeping the waterhot for a considerable time. The best pattern is thepresent regulation army canteen, which is shaped likea fiat flask, but with one side rounded a little andthe other concaved to fit the body. It has a flatbottom, so you can stand it up. The aluminumscrew-cap, held by a chain, cannot jolt out like thecorks of common canteens.To cleanse the vessel, boil it. To sterilize suspectedwater, fill the naked canteen and place itunstoppered, on the fire till the water boils. Thearmy model holds one quart, and weighs ii ouncesIt can be bought from some outfitters, either withor without an aluminum cup that fits over thebottom. It is rigged to carry on the belt, whereIt will not flop nor pound the wearer. To drawIt from Its cover, turn two little thumb-screw fastenershalf a turn, and you can whisk it out almostas easily as you would a pistol.Aluminum is not fit to carry liquor in; but, forthat matter, neither is tin. One of my old partnersand I, on a voyage to the Arkansas swamps, oncehit upon what we conceived to be a brilliant schemetor transporting a gallon of whiskey inconspicuouslyin our John-boat. (You know whiskey warms thehearts of otherwise disobliging natives— yes indeedy).We got a new kerosene can, had a tinnerremove the spout and solder a patch of tin over ifthen in went Old Taylor. We didn't open that cantor a week (hadn't seen any natives) . Then alongcame the dickens of a cold rain, and, when it ceased,we declared an 'emergency." Well, what do youthink.'' I hat whiskey had turned as black as ink.l^Gtztausend hirnmel donnerwetter! or words to thatetlectIf anybody doubts that we didn't open thatstuff for a week, I refer him to S. D. Barnes, captainof said John-boat, of which I was crewIn mountaineering ft often happens that one plans

PACKS FOR PEDESTRIANSi35to camp on or near the summit, and wants to carrywater with him from some head sprmg, to save along climb down after it. A large canteen wouldbe cumbersome. A half-gallon rubber water-bottlesolves the problem. It weighs less than a poundand takes up little room in the pack. in coldweather, such a bottle, filled with hot water, maysave pj^cking the weight and bulk of an extrablanketo

CHAPTER IXHOW TO WALK—A HUNTER'S PACK-GOING ALONEIn walking through a primitive forest,an Indianor a white woodsman can wear out a town-bredathlete, although the latter may be the stronger man.This is because a man who is used to the woods hasa knack of walking over uneven and slippery ground,edging through thickets, and worming his way amidfallen timber, with less fret and exertion than onewho is accustomed to smooth, unobstructed paths.How TO Walk.—^There is somewhat the samedifference between a townsman's and a woodsman^'^gait as there is between a soldier's and a sailor's.It it chiefly a difference of hip action, looseness ofjoints, and the manner of planting one's feet. Thetownsman's stride is an up-and-down knee action,with rather rigid hips, the toes pointing outward,and heels striking first. The carriage is erect, themovement springy and graceful, so long as one iswalking over firm, level footing—but beware thebanana-peel and the small boy's sliding-place ! Thisis an ill-poised gait, because one's weight falls firstupon the heel alone, and at that instant the walkerhas little command of his balance. It is an exhaustinggait as soon as its normally short pace islengthened by so much as an inch.A woodsman, on the contrary, walks with a rollingmotion, his hips swaying an inch or more to thestepping side, and his pace is correspondingly long.This hip action may be noticed to an exaggerateddegree in the stride of a professional pedestrian ; butthe latter walks with a heel-and-toe step, whereas

HOW TO WALK 137an Indian's or sailor's step is more nearly flat-footed.In the latter case the center of gravity is covered bythe whole foot. The poise is as secure as that of arope-walker. The toes are pointed straight forward,or even a trifle inward, so that the inside of the heel,the outside of the ball of the foot, and the smallertoes, all do their share of work and assist in balancing.Walking in this manner, one is not so likely,either, to trip over projecting roots, stones, and othertraps, as he would be if the feet formed hooks bypointing outward. The necessity is obvious in snowshoeing.A fellow sportsman, H. G. Dulog, once remarked:"If the Indian were turned to stone whilein the act of stepping, the statue would probablystand balanced on one foot. This gait gives thelimbs great control over his movements. He is alwayspoised. If a stick cracks under him it is becauseof his weight, and not by reason of the impact.He goes silently on, and with great economyof force. . . . His steady balance enables him toput his moving foot down as gently as you wouldlay an egg on the table."There is another advantage in walking with toespointing straight ahead Instead of outward: onegains ground at each stride. I have often noticedthat an Indian's stride gains in this manner, as wellas from the rolling motion of the hips. The whiteman acquires this habit, if he ever gets it, but anIndian is molded to it in the cradle. If you examinethe way In which a papoose is bound to itscradle-board, this will be made clear. Immediatelyafter birth the Infant Is stretched out on the board,its bowlegged little limbs are laid as straight aspossible, and the feet are placed exactly perpendicularand close together before being swaddled.Often the squaw removes the bandages and gentlydrags and works on the baby's limbs and spine tomake them as straight as possible. Then, in rebandaglng,care is always taken that the toes shall pointstraight forward.

138 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe woodsman walks with a springy knee action.There is a "give" at eveiy step, and in going downhillthe knees are bent a good deal, as they are whenone carries a heavy burden. It is said of the Indian"he does not walk, he glides.'* No Indian glidesin boots, but put him in moccasins and the worddoes express his silent, rhythmical, tireless, surefootedprogress, an admirable example of precisionof movement and economy of effort. A white manacquires somewhat the same glide after getting usedto moccasins, and especially after some experienceon snowshoes, which compel him to walk with toespointed straight ahead or a little inward.Over-Strain.—^When carrying a pack on yourback, do not over-exert yourself. Halt wheneveryour breathing is very labored or exertion becomespainful. Nobody who understands horses wouldthink of driving them ahead when they show signsof distress, and there is quite as much common sensein treating yourself with the same consideration, ifyou want to travel far. Rig your pack at the startso it can be flung off whenever you sit down for amoment's rest; it pays. But don't halt more thanthree to five minutes. Long halts eat up daylight;they stiffen the muscles; and they cause chills andcolds. Over-exertion is particularly disastrous inmountain climbing.Not only in marching but in other labors, gosteadily but moderately. Do not chop to the pointof exhaustion, nor strain yourself in lifting or carrying.A feat of "showing off" is poor compensationfor a lame back.One who is unused to long marches may get alongpretty well the first day, but on the second morningit will seem as if he could not drag one foot afterthe other. This is the time when the above remarks

HOW TO WALK 139sleep— for few men sleep well the first night ortwo in the open. He is probably constipated fromchange of diet, and from drinking too much on themarch. More serious still, he probably has sorefeet. This latter ailment is not so much due to hisfeet being tender at the start as from his not havingtaken proper care of them. Aside from the downrightnecessity of seeing that one's shoes and stockingsfit well, and that the shoes are well brokenin before starting, there are certain rules of pedestrianhygiene that should be observed from the word"go."Care of the Feet.— "An ounce of preventionis worth a pound of cure." I have already saida good deal about the choice of shoes and stockings(Vol. L, Chapter IX). Let me add another reasonfor wearing heavy but soft woolen socks whenyou are in the wilderness, regardless of season ; theyventilate the shoes. You probably will be wearingrather heavy shoes coated with some waterproofingpreparation. The pores of the leather are filled sothat no air can get through. But one's feet cannotbe kept in good condition if the shoes are notventilated somehow. Thick socks do it in this way:when your weight is thrown on one foot as in steppingforward, the air that was confined in themeshes of the fabric is forced out through the shoetops (but not through a high laced boot) ; then,when the pressure is relieved, fresh air is sucked backto fill the partial vacuum. Thin socks, especiallycotton ones, become saturated with perspiration, andlittle or no air can get into them at all: then thefeet have their pores clogged and they become tender.Thin hose also admit sand and dirt more readilythan thick ones.One's feet can be toughened and hardened beforestarting on a hike by soaking them for some time,the night before, in a solution of alcohol and salt,or in one made by dissolving a tablespoonful oftannic acid in a wash-bowl of cold water. (Amer'ican Red Cross Text-Book on First Aid.) A littlealum m water mav be substituted.

uoCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTEvery morning before starting on a hike, rubsome talcum powder over the feet and dust someinside your shoes. One's underw^ear should alsobe dusted with it at all places where the garmentsare likely to chafe. If you have no talcum, thenrub the feet with vaseJine, melted tallow from acandle, or oil. Soap often is used for the purpose,but some soaps contain too much free alkali, w^hichis bad for the skin; Castile or Ivory soap is notobjectionable.But the main thing is to keep the feet clean.Wash them well every evening, preferably in hotsalted water. If they are strained, swollen, orhot, the best treatment is to rub them with alcoholor whiskey, but hot salted water and massage willdo very well. Keep the nails cut close and square.If the feet are washed in the morniag, or whenresting on the march, it should be done briskly,not by soaking, and they should be thoroughly dried,otherwise they will be tender. In winter, if wateris hard to get, the feet may be cleansed by rubbingthem with snow.Should you step in water over your shoe-tops, orin any other way get the feet sopping wet, stop assoon as you can and wring out the hose ; do not"walk them dry," for that makes the skin tender.As soon as a blister is discovered, it should beopened i?i the right way, so that the skin may notbe rubbed off and infection ensue. Sterilize a needleby holding it in the flame of a match. When ithas cooled, prick the blister, not directly, but throughthe skin at the side, and gently press out the fluidtill the blister is flat. Then put a light pledget ofabsorbent cotton on it,or a little square of sterilizedgauze, and over this strap a bit of adhesive plaster,A second similar strap may be stuck on top of thisin the opposite direction. Such a dressing keeps theskin from rubbing off, prevents infection, and enablesyou to travel on without inconvenience. Araw blister is treated in the same way, but a littleResinol or carbolized vaseline smeared on it with

ijlOW TO WALK 141a clean splinter, before the pad Is applied, will helpit to heal.When walking long distances, it is a wise plan tochange feet with one's socks at noon.Cramps in the leg muscles are best treated bymassage.Thirst.—In warm weather, one's first few dayson the march will bring an inordinate thirst, w^hichis not caused by the stomach's demand for water,This may be relievedbut by a fever of the palate.somewhat by chewing a green leaf, or by carryinga smooth, non-absorbent pebble in the mouth; buta much Detter thirst-quencher is to suck a pruneor carry a bit of raw onion in the mouth. Onecan go a long time without drinking if he has anonion with him; this also helps to prevent his lipsfrom cracking in alkali dust.Drink as often as you please, but only a sup ortwo at a time. Sip slowly, so as not to chill thestomach. If one drinks till he no longer feelsthirst, he is likely to suffer first from "cottonmouth," and then from the cramp of acute indigestion.Never try to satisfy thirst by swallowing snowor ice; melt the snow first by holding it In themouth. If no fire can be had. It Is best to eat acracker or something with It, as snow water is bad onan empty stomach.To Avoid Chill.—^Wear a woolen undershirt(woolen gauze for summer). Do not sit aroundwhen overheated and damp from perspiration, unlessyou have a sweater or extra wrap of some sortto put on. Do the same when reaching the topof a mountain, or other place exposed freely tothe wind. But do not muffle up on the march.Mountain Climbing.—The city man's gait,which I have already referred, is peculiarly exhaustingIn mountain-climbing. He Is accustomedtc spring from the toe of the lower foot, in goinguphill. That throws nearly the whole weight ofthe body upon the muscles of the calf of the ler;.to

:142 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTa misadjustment of strain that would soon wearout even a native mountaineer. The latter walksuphill with a woodsman's gait, planting the wholefoot on the ground, and swinging or rolling thehip at each stride, thus not onlv gaining an inch ortwo in his pace, but distributing the strain betweenseveral groups of muscles. When going downhill,bend the knees considerably so that the leg forms asprmg to land on at each stride.In Dent's iVlountaineering are given some usefulhints to climbers that I take the liberty of condensinghereIIn walking up a steep hilt, go slowly and steadily.If you cannot talk v^tho-ut catching your breath, itis a sure sign that you are going too fast.If you slip on a loose stone, do not try to recoveryour lost ground quickly, but slip away until yourfoot is checked a few inches below. Thus keep upthe rhythm of your footfall.On an average mountain, where the slope is tolerablyuniform, and the climber has no long journeybefore him, an ascent of 1,000 ft. in an hour is quickwalking. In beginning a long cHmb, 800 ft. of verticalascent in an hour is good work. On a goodtrail, for a moderate distance, 1,500 ft. an hour isquick walking. Under favorable conditions a goodclimber can ascend from a height of 7.000 ft. to14,000 ft. in seven hours; at greater altitudes the pacewill slacken.In descending a mountain, the pace, however slow,should be continuous. To remain stationary, evenfor a moment, not only necessitates a fresh start, butdemands an adjustment of balance which implies anunnecessary outlay of muscular effort. To descendrapidly and safely without exertion, a certain loosenessof joints should be cultivated. On a steep slopeone should descend sideways, so that the wholplength of the foot can be planted fairly on any holdthat offers.A man will never sprain his ankle when he expectsto do so at any moment, nor will he be likely to slipif he is always prepared to fall.A Hunter's Pack.—Returning to the subjectof outfitting: I have, so far, considered only summertravel afoot. There are many who go out in the

HOW TO WALK 143fall of the year, hunters especially, and who maywish to make side trips on their own hook. CaptainWhelen has stated their case convincingly:"There is much to be said in favor of back-packing.It increases many fold that sense of absolutefreedom which is one of the fundamental reasonswhy men try to escape from civilization for a time.There is none of that trouble and worry that we allexperience when we have the responsibility of apack-train. I admit that back-packing, especially ina mountainous country, is downright hard work; butit's work worthy of a man; and once you get intoa game country, you have very much less work thanhas he who must be continually watching and caringfor a band of horses. Moreover, the back-packerusually has better success. He drops into a newcountry quietly and unseen. There is none of thatclatter of hoofs, jingle of horse-bells, and noise ofchopping. Before the game comes to know thatthere is a human being in the CQuntry, he has hadhis pick. . . .The problem of transportation on a western biggamehunt is a constant one. The country is open,and one locality soon becomes hunted out. Thereports of the rifles, the sound of axes, and theshouts as the horses are daily driven to camp, sooncause the game to leave for more healthful country.Hence camp must be moved from ten to twentymiles every three or four days. It has alwaysseemed that one could hunt longer in one locality,and make these short journeys more easily, if heThecould forsake the pack-train for the back -pack.latter method is a necessity when one wants to hunta country inaccessible to horses. On some of mymost successful hunts, from the standpoints both ofrecreation and of heads, I have hired a packer totake me in and bring me out, but in the meantimehave carried my entire hunting where I would."We may add that back-packing is the cheapestpossible way to spend one's vacation in the wilderness.The man who goes out alone for a week or soin the fall of the year, or at an altitude where thenights always are cold, should be fit to carry on hisback from 40 to 50 pounds at the outset—of coursethe pack lightens as he consumes rations. I am not

144 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTincluding weight of gun, cleaning implements, andammunition. He should wear woolen underwearof medium weight, thick and soft woolen socks,army overshirt, kersey or moleskin trousers, leatherbelt with pockets (not loops) for clips or loosecartridges,hunting shoes of medium height for ordinaryuse, felt hat, and, at times, buckskin gloves.In his pack there would be a spare suit of underwearand hose, a cruiser or ''stag" shirt of bestMackinaw, moccasins or leather-topped rubbers, andGerman socks. In pockets and on the belt he wouldcarry the same articles mentioned in my summei*hiking list.A mere shelter cloth is too breezy for this season(there will be no opportunity to build a thatchedcamp, as the hunter will be on the move from day today). He needs a half-pyramid tent, say of theRoyce pattern (Vol. I., pp. 85-91) but somewhatsmaller, and weighing not over 4 pounds.Bedding is the problem ; a man carrying his allupon his back, in cold weather, must study compactnessas well as lightness of outfit. Here thepoints are in favor of sleeping-bag vs. blankets, because,for a given insulation against cold andmay be so made as to save bulk as welldraughts, itas weight. For a pedestrian it need not be so roomyas the standard ones, especially at the foot end.Better design one to suit yourself, and have an outfittermake it up to order, if you have no skill withthe needle. An inner bag of woolen blanketing, anouter one of knotted wool batting, and a separatecover of cravenetted khaki or Tanalite—the weightneed not be over 8 pounds complete. Your campfirewill do the rest. A browse bag is dispensedwith, for you will carry an axe and can cut smalllogs to hold in place a deep layer of such soft stuffas the location affords.The short axe may be of Hudson Bay or Damascuspattern. There should be a small mill file tokeep it in order, besides the whetstone.The ration list is based on. the assumption that tha1

'HOW TO WALK 145hunter's rifle will supply him, after the first dayor two, with at least a pound of fresh meat a day.If it does not, go elsewhere. There are plenty ofgood ways to cook without boiling, stewing, orloasting in an oven (see Vol. I.), which are processesthat require vessels too bulky for a foot travelerto bother with.Either the Whelen pack sack or a large Duluthone will carry the whole outfit. Both have the advantagethat they can be drawn up to smaller dimensionsas the pack decreases in size, or for carryingthe day's supplies when most of the outfit is cachedat or near camp.The following outfit is complete, save for gun,ammunition and cleaning implements. For a longertrip than one week, a reserve of provisions canbe cached at some central point in the hunting district.AUTUMN OUTFITPack sack,Tentwith tump strap 2412,Sleeping-bag 8Pillow bag* 3Rubber cape* 1 5Mackinaw stag shirt 1 8Spare underwear, 1 suit 1 8Spare socks, 2 pairs 5Moccasins 1German socka 12Axe and muzzle 1 12Cooking kit, dish towel, tin cup* 2 2Cheese cloth 2Mill file, 6 in 2Whetstone* = 2Pliers* 4Wallet, fitted* 6Twine* 2Toilet articles* 6Talcum powder* 2Toilet paper* 1First aid kit* .5._Spare matches, in tin 6Alpina folding lantern 8Candles, ^ dozbs.oz^

146 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTEmergency ration 8Tobacco, in wpf. bag 8Spare pipe 3Total pack without provisions . .28 12One Week's Rations (not including fresh meat)Flour 4Baking powder 4Meal, cereal 1 8Milk powder 8Butter 8Bacon 2Egg powder 8Raisins 8Dried apricots, prunes 1Sugar 1Chocolate 12Coffee .o 8Tea ... 2Salt 413 6Provision bags, etc 1014Pack complete. .42 12The articles starred (*) are same as in summerhiking list already given.Moccasins are to be large enough to fit over theGerman socks. This foot-gear is used in still huntingin dry weather, and on cold nights. The campersleeps, when it is frosty, in fresh underwear andsocks, army shirt (dried before the fire after theday's use), trousers, stag shirt,neckerchief rigged ashood, German socks, and moccasins. When he hastc get up to replenish the fire, or in case of anyalarm, he springs from his bed attired cap-a-pie.Many a time I have gone for a week's hunt,high up In the mountains, in bleak November, withmuch less outfit than is here listed. My nativecompanions went even lighter than I. Often theyslept out on the mountainside without shelter or

lanket,HOW TO WALK 147when the winter fog coated every twig inthe forest with rime, and frost sprang up from thegiound in feathery forms three or four inches high.We grinned at all that, and fancied that we wereplaying the game like men. So we w^ere, but notlike sensible men. We were sapping our vitality.Had we gone fixed to be well fed by day, warm anddry at night, and clean enough not to have smeltlike a monkey's nest, we would have been playinga better game. A -loo, it is gone—and 1 am done.Going Alone.— I have given a good deal of spaceto the subject of outfitting for single-handed cruisingin the w^ilderness, because, as I have said, it isa difficult art, and anyone w^ho masters it can easilyfit up a company kit for two or more. But whygo alone? To the multitude, whether city or countrybred, the bare idea of faring alone in the w^ilds^for days or weeks at a time is eerie and fantastic:it makes their flesh creep. He w^ho does so is certainlyan eccentric, probably a misanthrope, possibly afugitive from justice, or, likely enough, some moonstruckfellow whom the authorities would do wellto follow up and watch.But many a seasoned woodsman can avow thatsome of the most satisfying, if not the happiest, periodsof his I'fe have been spent far out of sight andsuggestion of his fellow men.From a practical standpoint there are compensationsin cruising the woods and streams alone, andeven in camping without human fellowship. Youget the most out of the least kit. It simplifies thewhole business of camp routine. It would be piggish,for example, for two men to eat out of thesame dish ; there must be three at least, one to coolcin and two for serving the food ; but for one manto eat from, his own frying-pan is ncrt only cleanlybut a sensible thing to do. It keeps the food hotterthan if transferred to a cold plate, and saves w^ashingan extra dish, an economy of effort that is themost admirable of all efficiencies!The problem of cuisine is reduced to its lowest

—148 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—terms. You cook what you like, and nothing else;you prepare what you need, and not one dumplingmore. It is done precisely to your own tastethere is a world of gustatory satisfaction in that.You bake a corn pone,y let us say, leaving the fryingpanclean of grease. You cut your venison (theflesh of all game is venison) into cubes and broilthese on a sharpened stick, one at a time, just asyou eat them, which is the best and daintiest cookingprocess in the world. Your coffee, settled bya dash of cold water, is drunk from the same cupyou brewed it in.Then comes the cleaning up. No more bugabooof dishwashing, which all men so cordially despise.You give pan and pannikin a rinse and a wipe, jabyour knife into the ground and draw it through somefresh leaves, chuck the broiling-stick into the fire,and voila, the thing is done, thoroughly andneatly done, without rising from your seat!So with other camp chores, from pitching theminiature tent to packing up for the march: everythingis simplified, and time and effort are saved,From a selfish standpoint, the solitary camperrevels m absolute freedom. Any time, anywhere,he can do as he pleases. There is no anxiety as towhether his mates are having a good time, no obligationof deference to their wishes. Selfish? Yes;but, per contra, when one is alone he is boring nobody,elbowing nobody, treading on nobody's toes.He is neither chiding nor giving unasked advice.Undeniably he is minding his own business—a virtueto cover multitudes of sins.A companion, however light-footed he may be>adds fourfold to the risk of disturbing the shy nativesof the wild. By yourself you can sit motionlessand mutely watchful, but where two are sideby side it is neither polite nor endurable to passan hour without saying a word. Lonesome? Nayindeed. Whoever has an eye for Nature is neverless alone than when he is by himself. Should astrain of poetic temperament be wedded to one*s

'HOW TO WALK 149'habit of observing, then it is more than ever urgentI that he should be undisturbed; for in another's'presence"Imagination flutters feeble wings."Solitude has its finer side. The saints of old,when seeking to cleanse themselves from taint ofworldliness and get closer to the source of prophecy,went singly into the desert and bided there alone.So now our lone adventurer, unsaintly as he mayhave been among men, experiences an exaltation,finds healing and encouragement in wilderness life.When tvvilight falls, and shadows merge in darkness,the single-handed camper muses before the firethat comforts his bivouac and listens to the low,sweet voices of the night, which never are heardin full harmony save by those who sit silent andalone.Then comes the time of padded feet. Stealthynow, and mute, are the creatures that move in theforest. Our woodsman, knowing the ways of thebeasts, regards them not, but dreams before theleaping flames like any Parsee worshipping the fire.Weird shapes appear in the glowing coals. Elvesdance in the halo where night and radiance mingle.Hark to Titania!"Out of this "wood do not desire to go:Thou shalt remain here, whether thou wilt .or no.I am a spirit of no common rate;The summer still doth tend upon my state;And I do love thee/'Ah, precious even the ass's noil. If by that masqueone shall enter the fairy realm!

CHAPTER XCONCENTRATED FOODSThe first European settlers in this country wereignorant of the ways of the wilderness. Some ofthem had been old campaigners in civilized lands,but they did not know the resources of Americanforests, nor how to utilize them. The consequencewas that many starved in a land of plenty. Thesurvivors learned to pocket their pride and learnfrom the natives, who, however contemptible theym.ight seem in other respects, were past mastersof the art of going "light but right." An almostnaked savage could start out alone and cross fromthe Atlantic to the Mississippi, without buying orbegging from anybody, and without robbing, unlessfrom other motives than hunger. This was notmerely due to the abundance of game. There werelarge tracts of the wilderness where game was scarce,or where it was unsafe to hunt. The Indian knewthe edible plants of the forest, and how to extractgood food from roots that were rank or poisonous intheir natural state; but he could not depend whollyupon such fortuitous findings. His mainstay onlong journeys was a small bag of parched and pulverizedmaize, a spoonful of which, stirred in water,and swallowed at a draught, sufficed him for a mealwhen nature's storehouse failed.Pinole.—All of our early chroniclers praised thisparched meal as the most nourishing food known.In New England it went by the name of "nocake,"a corruption of the Indian word nookik. WilliamWood, who, in 1634, wrote the first topographicalaccount of the Massachusetts colony, says of nocake1^,0I

CONCENTRATED FOODS 15/that "It is Indian corn parched in the hot ashes, theashes being sifted from it; it is afterwards beatento powder and put into a long leatherne bag trussedat the Indian's backe like a knapsacke, out of whichthey take three spoonsful a day." Roger Williams,the founder of Rhode Island, said that a spoonfulof nocake mixed with water made him "many agood meal." Roger did not affirm, however, that itmade him a square meal, nor did he mention thesize of his spoon.In Virginia this preparation was known by anotherIndian name, "rockahominy" (which is not, as oufdictionaries assume, a sjmonym for plain hominy,but a quite different thing). That most entertainingof our early woodcraftsmen. Colonel Byrdof Westover, who ran the dividing line betweenVirginia and North Carolina in 1728-29, speaks of itas follows:"Rockahominy is nothing but Indian corn parchedwithout burning, and reduced to Powder. The Firedrives out all the Watery Parts of the Corn, leavingthe Strength of it behind, and this being very dry,becomes much lighter for carriage and less liable tobe Spoilt by the Moist Air. Thus half a DozenPounds of this Sprightful Bread will sustain a Manfor as many Months, provided he husband it well,and always spare it when he meets with Venison,which, as I said before, may be Safely eaten withoutany Bread at all. By what I have said, a Man needsnot encumber himself with more .than 8 or 10 Poundsof Provision, tho' he continue half a year in theWoods. These and his Gun will support him verywell during the time, without the least danger ofkeeping one Single Fast."The Moravian missionary Heckewelder, in hisHistory^ Mariners and Customs of the IndianNations Jdescribes how the Lenni Lenape, or Delawares,prepared and used this emergency food:"Their Psindamooan or Tassmanane, as they call it,is the most nourishing and durable food made out ofthe Indian corn. The blue sweetish kind is the grainwhich they prefer for that purpose. They parch itin c^an hot ashes, until it bursts;, it is then sifted

152 CAJViriNG AND WOODCRAFTand cleaned, and pounded in a mortar into a kind offlour, and when they wish to make it very good, theymix some sugar [i.e., maple sugar] with it. Whenwanted for use, they take about a tablespoonful ofthis flour in their mouths, then stooping to the riveror brook, drink water to it. If, however, they havea cup or other small vessel at hand, they put theflour in it and mix it with water, in the proportionof one tablespoonful to a pint. At their camps theywill put a small quantity in a kettle with water andlet it boil down, and they will have a thick pottage.With this food the traveler and warrior will set outon long journeys and expeditions, and as a little ofit will serve them, for a day, they have not a heavyload of provisions tp carry. Persons who are unacquaintedwith this' dietought to be careful not totake too much at a time, and not to suffer themselvesto be tempted too far by its flavor; more than oneor two spoonfuls, at most, at any one time or at onemeal is dangerous; for it is apt to swell in thestomach or bowels, as when heated over a fire."The best of our border hunters and warriors,such as Boone and Kenton and Crockett, relied agood deal upon this Indian dietary when startingon their long hunts, or when undertaking forcedmarches more formidable than any that regulartroops could have withstood. So did Lewis andClark on their ever-memorable expedition across theunknown West. Modern explorers who do theiroutfitting in London or New York, and who thinkit needful to command a small army of porters andgun-bearers when they go into savage lands, mightdo worse than read the simple annals of that tripby Lewis and Clark, if they care to learn whatreal pioneering was.It is to be understood, of course, that the parchedand pulverized maize was used mainly or solely asan emergency food, when no meat was to be had.Ordinarily the hunters of that day, white and red,when they were away from settlements or tradingposts, lived on ''meat straight," helped out withnuts, roots, wild salads, and berries. Thus didBoone, the greater part of two years, on his first expeditionto Kentucky; and so did the trappers of

:'CONCENTRATED FOODS 153the far West in the days of Jim Bridger and KitCarson.Powdered parched corn Is still the standby of nativetravelers in the wilds of Spanish America, and itis sometimes used by those hardy mountaineers, "ourcontemporary ancestors," in the Southern Appalachians.One of my camp-mates in the Great SmokyMountains expressed to me his surprise that any one)should be ignorant of so valuable a resource of thehunter's life. He claimed that no other food wasso ''good for a man's wind" in mountain climbing.In some parts of the South and West the pulverizedparched corn is called "coal flour." The Indiansof Louisiana gave it the name of gofio. InMexico it is known as pinole. (Spanish pronunciation,/>f^-no-lay; English, pie-Tzo-lee.)Some years ago Mr. T. S. Van Dyke, author cf(The Still Hunter and other excellent works on fieldsports, published a very practical article on emergencyrations in a weekly paper, from which, as itis now buried where few can consult it, I take theliberty of making the following quotation"La comida del desierfo, the food of the desert, orpinole, as it is generally called, knocks the hind sightsoff all American condensed foods. It is the onlyform in which you can carry an equal weight andbulk of nutriment on which alone one can, if neces-lsarry, live continuously for weeks, and even months,Mnthout any disorder of stomach or bowels. . . .The principle of pinole is very simple. If you shouldeat a breakfast of corn-meal mush alone, and startout for^a hard tramp, you will feel hungry in an houror two, though at the table the dewrinkling of yourabdomen may have reached the hurting point. Butif, instead of distending the meal so much with waterand heat, you had simply mixed it in cold v^ter anddrunk it, you could have taken down three timesthe quantity in one-tenth of the time. You wouldnot feel the difference at your waistband, but youwould feel it mightily in your legs, especially if youhave a heavy rifle on your back. It works a littleon the principle of dried apples, though it is quitean improvement. There is no danger of explosion.;it swells to suit the demand, and not too suddenlySuppose, now, instead of raw corn-meal, we make

—154 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTit not only drinkable but positively good. This iseasily done by parching- to a very light broyn beforegrinding, and grinding just fine enough to mix so asto be drinkable, but not pasty, as flour would be.Good wheat is as good as corn, and perhaps better,while the mixture is very good. Common rolledoats browned in a pan in the oven and run througha spice mill is as good and easy to make it out ofas anything. A coffee mill may do if it will set fineenough. Ten per cent, of popped corn ground inwith it will improve the flavor so much that yourchildren will get away with it all if you don't hideit. Wheat and corn are hard to grind, bu4: the smallEnterprise spice mill will do it- You may also mixsome ground chocolate with it for flavor, which,with popped corn, makes it very fine . . . Indigestible?Your granny's nightcap! . . You mustremember that it is "werry fillin' for the price," andgo slow with it until you have found your coefficient.. . .Now for the application. The Mexican rover ofthe desert will tie a small sack of pinole behind hissaddle and start for a trip of several days. It is thelightest of food, and in the most portable shape,sandproof, bug and fly proof, and everything.Wherever he finds water he stirs a few ounces in acup (I never weighed it, "but four seem about enoughat a time for an ordinary man), drinks it in fiveseconds, and is fed for five or six hours. If he hasjerky, he chews that as he jogs along, but if he hasnot he will go through the longest trip and comeout strong and well on pinole alone." Shooting andFishing, Vol. xx, p. 248.When preparing pinole for mountaineering trips,I 'jsed to pulverize the parched corn in a hominymortar, which is nothing but a three-foot cut off of.a two-foot log, with a cavity chiseled out in thetop, and a wooden pestle shod with iron. Thehole is of smaller diameter at the bottom than at thetop, so that each blow of the pestle throws most ofthe corn upward, and thus it is evenly powdered.Two heaping tablespoonfuls was the usual "sup,"and, if I had nothing else, I took it frequently duringthe day. With a handful of raisins, or a chunkof sweet chocolate or maple sugar, itmeal.made a square

CONCENTRATED FOODS 155But what is the actual food value of this Indianinvention ? I take the following figures from a bulletinof the Department of Agriculture on FoodValue of Corn and Corn ProductSj by Dr. CharlesD. Woods (Washington, 1907):Kind of material Protein Fat Carbo- MineralFuelvaluehydrates matter perpound% % % % CaloriesHominy, boiled.... 2.2 0.2 17.8 0.5 380Hulled corn 2.3 0.9 22.2 0.5 490Indian pudding-(corn mush) .... 5.5 4-8 27.5 1.5 815Hoecake 4.0 0.6 40.2 2.4 885Boston brown bread 6.3 2.1 45.8 1.9 1,110Johnnycake 7.^ 2.2 57.7 2.9 1,385Granulated cornmeal 9.2 1.9 75.4 1.0 1,655Corn br'kfast foods,flaked (part cook'd^at factory) 9.6 1.1 7^.Z 0.7 1,680Corn br'kfast foods,flaked and parched(ready to eat) ..10.1 1.8 78.4 2.4 1,735Popped corn 10.7 5.0 78.7 1.3 1,880Parched corn 11.5 8.4 72.3 2.6 1,915Wheat "bread (forcomparison) 9.2 1.3 53.1 1.1 1,205The remaining percentages are water.Pulverized parched corn owes its "carryingpower" not only to its relatively high nutritive value,as shown in this table, but largely to the fact that,when drunk with water instead of cooked, it swelkin the stomach and gives it a comfortable feeling offullness. That this is not an imaginary gain willbe shown later in this chapter.Jerked Venison.—The *'jerky" referred to byMr. Van Dyke is jerked meat, usually venison: thatis to say, lean meat cut in strips and dried over aslow fire or in the sun. It is very different fromour commercial dried beef, less salty, more nourishingand appetizing, and one can subsist comfortablyon itfor some time with no other foodstuff at all.The process of jerking venison is described in VoLI (pp. 277-280).

156 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTPemmican.—The staple commissary supply ofarctic travelers, and of hunters and traders in thefar Northwest, is pemmican. This is not so palatableas jerky, at least when carelessly prepared;but it contains more nutriment, in a given bulk,and is better suited for cold climates, on account ofthe fat mixed with it.The old-time Hudson Bay pemmican was madefrom buffalo meat, in the following manner: firsta sufficient number of bags, about 2x1^ feet, weremade from the hides of old bulls that were unfitfor robes. The lean meat was then cut into thinstrips, as for jerky, and dried in the sun for two orthree days, or over a fire, until it was hard andbrittle. It was then pounded to a powder betweentwo stones, or by a flail, on a sort of hide threshingfloorwith the edges pegged up. The fat and marrowwere then melted and mixed with the powderedlean meat to a paste; or, the bags were filled withthe lean and then the fat was run in on top. Afterthis the mass was well rammed down, and the bagswere sewed up tight. No salt was used ; but thepemmican thus prepared would keep sweet for yearsin the cool climate of the North. A piece as largeas one's fist, when soaked and cooked, would makea meal for two men.outfit,When there was flour in thethe usual allowance of pemmican was i ^ toI ^2 pounds a day per man, with one pound of flouradded. This was for men performing the hardestlabor, and whose appetites were enormous. Serviceberries were sometimes added. "Officers' pemmican"was made from buffalo humps and marrow.Pemmican nowadaj^s is made from beef. BleasdellCameron gives the following details: A beefdressing 698 pounds yields 47 pounds of first-classpemmican, 47 pounds of second-class pemmican^and 23 pounds of dried meat, including tongues, atotal of 117 pounds, dried. The total nutritivestrength is thus reduced in weight to one-sixth thatof the fresh beef. Such pemmican, at the time hewrote, cost the Canadian government about forty

CONCENTRATED FOODbl 157cents a pound, equivalent to six pounds of freshbeef.Pemmican is sometimes eaten raw, sometimesboiled with flour into a thick soup or porridgecalled robiboo, or, mixed with flour and water andfried like sausage, it is kno^vn as rascho. The pemmicanmade nowadays for arctic expeditions is preparedfrom the round of beef cut into strips andkiln-dried until friable, then ground fine and mixedwith beef suet, a little sugar, and a few currants.It is compressed into cakes, and then packed so asto exclude moisture. It can be bought ready-madein New York, but at an enormous price when soldin small quantity, and the tins add considerably tothe weight. If one has home facilities he can makeit himself. Leave out the sugar, which makes meatunpalatable to most men. The sugar item should beseparate in the ration.Desiccated meat is disagreeable, and not nearlyso nutritious as pemmican, which is already concentratedas much as meat should be, and has the advantageof containing a liberal amount of fat.Army Emergency Rations.—In 1870 therewas issued to every German soldier a queer, yellow,sausage-shaped contrivance that held within its paperwrapper what looked and felt like a short stick ofdynamite. No, it was not a bomb nor a hand,grenade. It was just a pound of compressed dry•pea soup. This was guaranteed to support a man'sstrength for one daj^ without any other alimentwhatever. The soldier was ordered to keep thisroll of soup about him at all times, and never touse it ^intil there was no other food to be had. Theoffid'di name of the thing was erbswurst (pronoMncedairbs-voorst) which means pea sausage.Within a few months it became famous as the"iron ration" of the Germans in the Franco-Prussianwar.Our sportsmen over here are well acquaintedwith erbswurst, either in its original form or, atpresent, as an American "pea soup with bacon" done

158 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTup in cartons. For many It is the last call to supperwhen they have had no dinner and see slight prospectof breakfast. Besides, it is the lazy man's prop onrainy days, and the standby of inexperienced cooks,Erbswurst is composed of pea meal mixed with avery little fat pork and some salt, so treated as toprevent decay, desiccated and compressed into rollsof various sizes. It is much the same thing asbaked beans would be if they were dried and powdered,except that it tastes different and it containsmuch less fat. I understand that the original erbswurst,as prepared by its inventor, Grunberg, includeda goodly proportion of fat; but the articleof commerce that appeared later had so little ofthis valuable component (by analysis only 3.08%)that you could scarce detect it.Nobody can spoil erbswurst in the cooking, unlesshe goes away and lets it burn. All you have to do isto start a quart of water boiling, tear off the coverfrom a quarter-pound roll of this ''dynamite soup,"crumble the stuff finely into the water with your fingers,and boil for fifteen or twenty minutes, stirring;a few times to avoid lumps. Then let the messcool, and go to it. You may make it thin as a soupafter mixing with aor thick as a porridge, or fry itlittle water, granting you have grease to fry with.It never spoils, never gets any *'punkier" than itwas at the beginning. The stick of erbswurst thatyou left undetected last year in the seventh pocketof your hunting coat will be just as good when youdiscover it again this year. Mice won't gnaw it;bugs can't get at it; moisture can't get into it. Ihave used rolls that had lain so long in damp placesthat they were all moldy outside, yet the foodwithin was neither worse nor better than before.A pound of erbswurst, costing from thirty-two toforty cents, Is about all a man can eat In three mealsstraight. Cheap enough, and compact enough, Godwot! However, this little boon has a string attached.Erbswurst tastes pretty good to a hungryman In the woods as a hot noonday snack, now and

CONCENTRATED FOODS 159then. It is not appetizing as a sole mainstay forsupper on the same day. Next morning, supposingyou have missed connections with camp, and havenothing but the rest of that erbswurst, you willamid storms and tempests of your own rais-down iting. And thenceforth, no matter what fleshpots youmay fall upon, you will taste ^'dynamite soup" for aweek.In its native land, this iron ration lost its popularityand was thrown out of the German army.Over here, we benighted wights keep on using it,or its American similitude, in emergencies, simplybecause we know of no better substitute, or becauseit is the easiest thing of the kind to be found on themarket. We all wish to discover a ready-made rationas light and compact as erbswurst, as incorruptibleand cheap, but one that would be fairlysavory at the second and third eating, and politeto our insides (which "dynamite soup" is not).Now I am not about to offer a new invention,nor introduce some wonderful good grub that haslately arrived from abroad. Before the outbreakof the present war, I believe, every army had discardedall the emergency rations it had tried. And5^et all of them were searching for a better one.Which goes to prove that a satisfactory^ thing of thissort is most desirable, but the hardest thing in theworld for a commissariat to find. We wildernessprowlers join heartily in praying that somebodywill find it; for we, too, like the soldiery, maybe cut of¥ from supplies, no telling when, and withthe added dilemma, perhaps, of being lost and alonein the "big sticks."So it is quite worth while to review the best thathas been done along this line, show wherein the mostpromising experiments have failed, and restate theproblem anew—then let fresh inventive genius tackleit.And a few suggestions may not be out of place.Beginning again with erbswurst, as prototype ofsuch foods; theoretically it is highly nutritious,though less fit for continuous use as a sole diet than

i6oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbaked beans, even though the latter were desiccated,Practically it soon palls on the palate, upsets thestomach, and, like any other food composed almostwholly of legumes, causes flatulent dyspepsia orother disorders of the digestive tract.The British army tried it, and Tommy Atkinslet out a howl that reached from South Africa toLondon. The War Office replaced it with anotherGerman invention, Kopf's soup, which also had peameal for its basis but had a higher content of fat(17.25%). This was superior in potential energy,but the after effects were similar to those of erbswurst.It was plain that an exclusive diet, if onlyfor a day or two, of legumes and fat would soonput a man to the bad. England discarded the ironration and placated Tommy with jam—a wise move,as we shall see.In 1900 a new kind of emergency ration wasThis was made up ofintroduced in our own army.eight ounces of a meat-and-cereal powder, fourounces of sweet chocolate, and some salt and pepperall put up in a tin can eight inches long and thinenough to slip easily into one's pocket. This poundof food was calculated to subsist a man in fullstrength and vigor for one day. Details of itspreparation are here copied from official sources:"The chocolate component consists of equalweights of pure chocolate and pure sugar moldedinto cakes of one and one-third ounces each. Threeof these go into the day's ration."The bread and meat component consists of:"(i) Fresh lean beef free from visible fat andsinew, ground in a meat grinder and desiccated soas to contain five per cent or less of moisture, theheat never being allowed to cook it in the slightestdegree. The dried product is then reduced to pow'der and carefully sifted through a fine-meshed sieve,the resulting flour being the meat component."(2) Cooked kiln-dried wheat, the outer bran removed,is parched and then ground to a coarse powder.This yields the bread component. Sixteen;I

CONCENTRATED FOODSi6iparts of the meat, thirty-two parts of the bread,and one part of common salt, all by weight, arethoroughly mixed in such small quantities as to beThe bread and meat may be eaten dry, or be-entirely homogeneous and compressed into fourouncecakes. Three of these go into the day's ration.stirred in cold water and eaten ; or one cake may beboiled for five minutes in three pints of water, andseasoned [as soup] ; or one cake may be boiled for fiveminutes in one pint of w^ater to make a thick porridgeand be eaten hot or cold. When cold it may bef:liced, and, if fat is available, may be fried. Threefourthsof an ounce of salt and one gramme of pepperare in the can for seasoning."At first glance it might seem that the bread andmeat components of this ration were essentially thesame as the pinole and jerked venison of our Indiansand white frontiersmen—and it is quite likelythat the inventors had those primitive foods inmind, seeking only to condense them still furtherwithout impairing their famous nutritive values.Practically, however, there is little resemblance.Jerky retains much of the meat juice, which givesit its pleasant flavor. Desiccated meat contains nojuice, and its taste is altogether different. Pulverized,parched wheat is a sort of pinole, but in thiscase it was first cooked, then parched, and the flavorwas inferior.Finally the meat powder and grain powder weremixed and sifted into a homogeneous mass, compressed,and sealed up in an air-tight tin. One neednot even taste such a product to know that it couldnot possibly satisfy the palate like the old-timepreparations.The emergency ration gave satisfaction for a time,but eventually there were many complaints that itwas indigestible, or otherwise unwholesome. Scientistsreported that it was lacking in nutrition. Thetroops did not like its taste, and their officers warnedthem to husband their hard bread and bacon as longas they could, since a very limited amount of either

i62CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTor both, taken with the emergency ration, made ftfar more palatable. Another fault of this "nearfood"was that the can that held it was so thick andheavy that it made the gross weight of the articlealmost as great as that of the regular haversack ration,which cost much less and had a better taste.In 19 1 3 the Secretary of War ordered the discontinuanceof this emergency ration, notwithstandingthat great quantities of it still w^ere in storage.The problem of getting up a better one was turnedover to food experts of the Department of Agriculture.About a year later a new emergency rationwas, I believe, adopted, composed of bean flour, leanmeat, raisins, and a small percentage of wheat flour.This is said to be palatable and nutritious, but I donot know how well it may have stood the test ofservice.The Problem of an emergency ration is notmerely one of condensing the utmost nutriment intothe least bulk and weight. One cannot live on buttei'or peanuts alone, however high their caloricvalue may be. The stuff must be digestible : it mustneither nauseate nor clog the sj^stem. When a manis faint from hunger (and that is the only time heever will need an emergency ration) his stomachmust not be forced to any uncommon stunts. Andso I hold that a half ration of palatable food thatis readily assimilated does more good than a fullquota of stuff that taxes a man's gastric strength ordisorders his bowels. And there is a good dealto be said for mere palatability. Food that tastesbad is bad, for nobody can work well on it.Of course, an emergency ration is not intended tobe used long at a time. It is not meant to interchangewith the regular reserve ration of hard bread,bacon, or preserved meat, dried vegetables, coffee,sugar, and salt, that soldiers carry on their personsduring a campaign. TTie iron ration proper is aminimum bulk and weight of unspoilable food thatis complete in itself, packed in a waterproof andinsect-proof cover, and it is never to be opened save

CONCENTRATED FOODS 163in extremity when reserve rations have run out andsupply trains cannot connect with the troops. Yetthis is the very time when men are likely tobe exhausted and famished. It is the very timewhen their s^^stems demand food that tastes good andthat assimilates easily.Again, an emergency ration should containsome component that digests rather slowly, or it soonwill leave a feeling of emptiness in the stomach—itwill not "stick to the ribs" like one that takesseveral hours to become assimilated. Moreover, thestomach craves bulk as well as nutriment—thereshould be something to swell up and distend it.This is important, for, if condensation be carried toofar, it defeats its own purpose. If we could concentratea thousand calories of food energy into asingle tablet, a man would not feel that he had eatenanything after taking it.Bread Substitutes.—The main difficulty incompounding a good emergency ration is in gettinga concentrated substitute for bread. The Germanshave experimented with flour or grits made frompeanuts. It is claimed that a pound of peanut flourcontains as much nutritive material as three poundsof beef or two of peas. It can be made into por^ridge or into biscuits.Its flavor is pleasant in eithera cooked or a raw state. Whether its nutrients areeasily and completely utilized by the system has not,so far as I know, been proven.As for meal made from beans or peas, it is noteasily digested, and it tends to putrify in the alimentarycanal. (A method of desiccating bakedbeans is given in Vol. I, p. 368).Hardtack may be considered a proper componentof an emergency ration, because it is a concentratedbread that does not spoil. The best way to use it,when facilities permit, is to break it up and add itto hot soup or coffee, or pour hot water over it,pepper and salt, and eat with bacon grease.Plasmon biscuit (see Vol. I., p. 192) are morfpalatable than hardtack and more nutritious, but

i64CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTexpensive. In appearance they resemble round Educatorcrackers. Half a dozen of them, with a smallcake of chocolate, make a satisfying lunch. PlasmonItself is the proteid of milk in powdered form, containing80% of pure protein. It may be used eitherdry or dissolved in water. When sprinkled dry overany kind of food, or cooked in with cereals, bread,soups, etc., it adds very much to the nutritive valuewithout altering the flavor of the food.Various kinds of meat biscuits have been tried outmost thoroughly by troops and travelers, but withoutsatisfaction. Kipling said, ''compressed vegetablesand meat biscuits may be nourishing, but whatTommy Atkins needs is bulk in his inside." Inthis he was doing the vegetables injustice,for, whencooked, they do swell up and fill one's inside.CoijDENSED Soups.—Nearly all go-light outfitsinclude a supply of compressed soups. Some of theseare of good flavor, others are of w^hat Stewart EdwardWhite calls the ''dishwater brand." Herecommends Knorr's pea, bean, lentil, rice, onion(none of the others), and particularly Maggi'sgreen pea and lentil. Of bouillon capsules he saysthat "they serve to flavor hot water, and that is abouG'all." I agree with him throughout. Maggi's soupsare packed in tin-foil before putting on the paperwrapper. This excludes moisture, but I havefound that it will not keep out the industrious weevil.Condensed soups have their uses, chiefly aspick-me-ups; but they do not by any means containenough nourishment to furnish a hungry man's meal.I mention them here only as a warning against puttingconfidence in them for any such purpose.Bouillon cubes, etc., are much worse, in this respect.Properly they are nothing but condiments orappetizers for healthy people and mild stimulants forthe sick. Their actual food value has been determinedby the Bureau of Chemistry of the U. S. Departmentof Agriculture, which was led to investigatethe matter because "these articles are erroneously believedto be convenient forms of concentrated meat.'*

ICONCENTRATED FOODS 165nfen dlilerent brands of commercial bouillon cubesv,-ere analyzed, with the result that the best showed62% salt, 5.25% water and fat, 28% meat extract,4.7570 plant extract, and from this they ranged ondown to the poorest, with 72^0 salt, 8.5% water andfat, 8.17% meat extract, 11.33% plant extract.Theplant extract " is useful because of its flavoring properties,but has slight, if any, nutritive value." As forthe semi-solid meat extracts sold in jars, the chemistreported that they "are not concentrated beef. Theyare stimulants and flavoring adjuncts, and have onlya slight food value, owing to the small amount ofprotein (muscle-building food) \vhich they contain."On the other hand, one can make for himselfa real meat extract, in which much of the nourishmentof beef or veal or venison is concentrated inthe form of littlecubes of a gluey consistency fromwhich a strengthening soup can quickly be prepared.Take a leg of young beef, veal, or venison (oldmeat will not jelly easily). Pare off every bit offat and place the lean meat In a large pot. Boilit steadily and gently for seven or eight hours, untilthe meat is reduced to rags, skimming off, from timeto time, the grease that arises. Then pour thisstrong broth into a large, wide stew-pan, place itover a moderate fire, and let it simmer gently until Itcomes to a thick jelh\ When It gets so thick thatthere may be danger of scorching It, place the vesselover boiling water, and stir It very frequently until,when cold, it will have the consistency of glue.Cut this substance Into small cubes and lay themsingly where they can become thoroughly dry. Or,if 3'ou prefer, run the jelly Into sausage skins and tieup the ends. A cube or thick slice of this glaze, dis'solved In hot water, makes an excellent soup. Asmall piece allowed to melt In one's mouth isstrengthening on the march.This is a very old recipe, being mentioned InByrd's History of the Dividing Li?ie, and recommendedalong with rockahominy. The above can bernade in camp, w^hen opportunity offers, thus laying

1 66 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTin enough concentrated soup stock to last a month,which is quite convenient, as it takes at least half aday to make good soup from the raw materials, andthese are not always at hand when most wanted.Fats.—In speaking of erbswurst I remarked onits deficiency in fat, which is an important componentof field rations, especially in cold weather, since itfuel for the body. Pemmican owes much of itsefficiency to the large percentage of fat. CaptainScott had the pemmican for his antarctic expeditionmade with 50% lard, which is pure fat. Sucha mixture would nauseate many a man, but nearlyeverybody likes butter, which is the next most concentratedform of fat. The best field luncheon forcold weather, when j^ou can get it, is in the form ofsandwiches of toasted bread, thick slices of butter,and brown or maple sugar. It is very nourishing,and it will not freeze up like plain bread, as there ispractically no water in it. Outfitters supply excellentbutter, in one-pound cans, that will keep inany climate.Butter is out of the question in an emergency rationthat is to be sealed up and kept indefinitely.There are, however, certain other fats that will takeitsplace as fuel.Desiccated Eggs, if prepared from the wholeegg, contain 36% of fat. They are also remarkablyrich in protein. There is no good reason, exceptits cost and the fact that it requires cooking,why egg powder should not form a considerable constituentof an emergency ration, as it keeps perfectlywhen protected from moisture. (See Vol. I., pp.183 and 189). Its fat content is nearly equal tothat of full cream cheese, and itsisfuel value nearly athird more.Chocolate^ in plain form, contains about 49%of vegetable fat; less, of course, when sweetened.It is necessary, however, for eating purposes, thatchocolate should have considerable sugar added, andthis is directly a gain, for sugar itself is stored energy,as we soon shall see. Chocolate never gets stale.

CONCENTRATED FOODS 167It requires no cooking, can be eaten on the march,yet a stimulating hot drink can be prepared fromit in a few minutes. It is the experience of Alpinistsand other go-light artists that no other raw foodof equal weight and bulk will carry a man so farunder severe strain as a handful of raisins and acake of chocolate. When eaten by itself, chocolateis constipating and cloying, at least to some people.Raisins eaten along with it prevent digestivetroubles; a couple of crackers help the ration.There is a "camper's emergency ration," carriedin stock by outfitters, that contains chocolate, maltedmilk, egg albumen, casein, sugar, and cocoa butter,with added coffee flavor. Three cakes of it, eachsufficientfor a meal, are wrapped in paper and tinfoiland enclosed in a sealed box with key-opener,the box being 4^ x 3 x i^ inches, and roundedfor the pocket. The net weight of the ration is 8ounces; gross w^eight of box filled, 11^ ounces.Chocolate is not to be recommended for hot weather.Nuts.—The table of food values in Vol. I.,pp.182-184, shows that various nuts are very rich invegetable fat, and so have high fuel values. Theyare discussed on page 196 of the same volume. Nutsshould be chewed thoroughly, so as to be well mixedwith saliva, or they will clog the digestive tract.Sweets.—Sugar has peculiar merit asa componentof the emergency ration. All old-timers knowfrom experience that one has an unusual craving forsweets when working hard afield. Hunters andlumberjacks and soldiers suffered from that cravinglong before scientists discovered the causeof it, which is that during hard muscular exertionthe consumption of sugar inthe body increases fourfold.It may sound odd but it is true, that when huntersor explorers are reduced to a diet of meat "straight'*the most grateful addition that they could havewould be something sweet. Men can get alongver}'^ well on venison, without bread, if they havemaple sugar or candy and some citric acid (crystal-

i68CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlized lemon juice) to go with It. And there is goodreason for this. Sugars have about the same fooduses as starches, because all starch must be convertedinto sugar or dextrin before it can be assimilated.Mark, then, that sugar needs no conversion; thereforeit acts quickly as a pick-me-up to relieve fatigue,while bread or any other starchy food would have togo first through the process of changing into sugarbefore it could supply force and heat to the body.A great advantage of sweets is that every normalperson likes them. Another is that they are antisepticand preservative, which adapts them perfectlyto use in rations that may have to be stored or carrieda long time before using.These are not merely my own individual opinions,)although all my experience backs them. Since theworth of sweets in a sportsman's or soldier's foodsupply is commonly underrated, or even ridiculed,through sheer crass ignorance, let me quote fromThompson, one of the most eminent of our dieticians:"The value of sweets in the adult dietary has otlate years found recognition in armies. The BritishWar Office shipped 1,500,000 pounds of jam to SouthAfrica as a four months' supply for 116,000 troops,and one New York firm, during the Spanish-AmericanWar, shipped over fifty tons of confectionery tothe troops in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines.The confectionery consisted of chocolate creams,cocoanut macaroons, lemon and other acid fruitdrops. . ."An old-time custom among soldiers in the fieldis to fill a canteen with two parts vinegai* and onepart molasses as an emergency sustaining drink. . . ."Sugar furnishes, in addition to heat, considerablemuscle energy, and it has been lately proved byMosso, Vaughn Harley and others to have distinctpower in relieving muscular fatigue."Vaughn Harley found that with an exclusive dietof 17V2 ounces of sugar dissolved in water he couldperform almost as much muscular work as upon afull mixed diet. The effect in lessening musclefatigue was noticeable in half an hour and reachedA maximum in two hours. Three or four ounces of

CONCExNTRATED FOODS 169sugar taken before the expected onset of fatiguepostponed or entirely inhibited the sensation."The hard-working lumbermen of Canada andMaine eat a very large quantity of sugar in the formof molasses. I have seen them add it to tea and toalmost everything they cook. Sugar has also been,found of much service upon polar expeditions."Many of our sportsmen, when going light, substitutesaccharin (saxin, crystallose) for sugar,thinking thereby to save weight and bulk. This is agrave error. It is true that saccharin has enormoussweetening power, and that moderate use of it on aaouting trip, in one's tea and coffee, will do no harm.But the point overlooked is that sugar is a concentrated source of energyT^easily and quickly assimilated,whereas saccharin produces no energy at all,being nothing but a coal-tar drug. It is the grapesugar in raisins, for example, that makes them sostimulating.Sir Ernest Shackleton, in outfitting his party fortheir recent antarctic expedition, made sugar figurelargely in the rations. On the previous exploringtrip he and his companions each took two or threelumps of sugar every two or three hours, and hesaid that ten minutes after eating it they couldfeel the heat going through their bodies.One at least of the nations engaged in the presentwar supplies its men in the trenches with a dailyration of ten ounces of sugar, which is over threetimes the allowance of sugar in the field ration ofour own service. "It has been found, however,"says Outing, "that this abundance of sweet not onlygives the soldier added muscular strength but increaseshis resistance to cold and fatigue, both physicaland nervous. The action of sugar is most effectivewhen dissolved in some hot liquid: it is especiallybeneficial taken in chocolate."Fri/its.—One fault of all the ready-made concentratedrations that I have seen was that they containedno acids. A fruit acid is needed, even in afood preparation that is to be used only for a dayor two, in order to correct the ultra-sweet or fatty

I70CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcomponents, and is particularly desirable in summer.It is easy to supply the deficiency, in very concentratedform, by adding tablets of citric acid. Thismakes refreshing lemonade. Lime-juice tablets aregood on the march, as they combine sugar withacid, and not only supply energy but ward off thirst.Fruit acid is supplied in very palatable form by de- jhydrated rhubarb and cranberries, which cook in afew minutes, and can scarcely be told from the fresharticles.Raisins have already been mentioned several times.Their stimulating effect, due to the grape sugar inthem, is felt ten minutes after eating. On the trail,when working hard, as in mountain climbing, it isa good rule to eat little and often. Raisins areparticularly convenient for munching as one goesalong. They have added value in that they aremildly laxative, and something of that sort is certainlyneeded in the ration. Figs have the samevirtue. I Imagine the seeds have som^ethlng to dowith this, and for that reason I do not use seedlessor seeded raisins.Dehydrated vegetables have no place in emergencyrations simply because they require long cooking.Ration Packing.—The mere weight of the tincontainer of the discarded U. S. A. emergency rationAvas a serious objection. Such a box will weighabout a third as much as the food itself. Beingmade of heavy tin, It Is hard to open. If a keyopener is attached, it is likely to be lost. A coverof parchment paper, which Is waterproof, dirt-proof,and insect-proof, like the erbswurst ''sausage," ischeaper, easier to apply, weighs practically nothing,snd can be torn off with the fingers.I think it is a mistake to mix meat powder withlegumes or cereals and seal the mass up in an airtightcover. In such case, each food taints theother. The combination has a stale, nondescripttaste, whereas each component would preserve itsnatural flavor if packed separately. For woodsmen,if not for troops, it seems more practical to put up•

CONCENTRATED FOODS 171the emergency ration in two, or even three, separatepackages, each containing only such articles as willnot taint nor steal flavor from the others. This suggestionismade for rations to be carried in stock byoutfitters, which are likely to be kept a good^ whilein storage.But when a camper puts up emergency grub forhimself, there is a better way. Raisins, pinole, andthe like,are best carried in little bags of thin paraffinedcloth (the "balloon silk" of tent makers), tiedlow enough so that the top can be doubled overand tied again, making a water-tight package, verylight, and soft enough to go into one's pocket, oran>^vhere. Chocolate (which I don't carry in hotweather) usually comes w^rapped in tin-foil, and enclosedin paper. You will need salt, in a waterpioof bag or a bamboo tube, to season such gameor fish as you may get.If you carry anything in which water can beboiled, put a dozen tabloids of tea in the ration^leave out chocolate and substitute sugar. A hot cupof sweetened tea Is one of the best hearteners thatbark that will peel.I know of, and the tabloid tea sold by outfitters ispretty good. But what vessel to boil In? Watercan be boiled in a bark cup, as I shall show hereafter;but maybe you can't findA practical outdoorsman, C. L. Oilman, suggeststhat the emergency food be packed In a half-poundcocoa can, which is of handy shape for the pocket,seamed water-tight without solder, holds a pint,and has a cover that fits over the outside. Punchtwo holes near top edge of can, and make a removablewire bail that will stow inside. Steam escapetthrough bail holes when cover Is on. Thus yourgrub has a light tin container that is good for somethingwhen It Is opened.For myself, I would fill that little kettle withpinole, sugar, tea, and salt, In "pokes," and wouldcarry some raisins separately. One advantage ofpinole, aside from those already mentioned, is thatit is not, like chocolate and raisins, a confection

172 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthat tempts one to draw on it when he does notneed it, albeit the flavor is good, when the stuff isproperly prepared, and does not pall on the appetite.Light Traveling Rations.—Many correspondentshave asked me to suggest a "grub list" formen tiaveling light—one that should be completein itself, without helping out by game or fisli orarticles purchased on the way. Tastes differ, and"what is one man's meat is another man's poison."Some assimilate their food more completely thanothers. I know of several experienced campers whoseem to get along very well on a food allowance(their own choice) of from i^ to i^ pounds aday. They are quite exceptional. An average man,engaged in hearty outdoor exercise, requires, on atrip of more than two or three days, about 2^pounds a day of carefully selected and varied foodthat is, as nearly as practicable, water-free. Studythe chapter on Provisions in the first volume of thisbook, paying heed to the table of nutritive values.As all-around advice, I can do no better than suggest,for a real light but adequate and wholesomeration, what I have given on the list of SummerEquipment for Back-packing in Chapter VII., omittingthe cheese. This would make the ration 2lbs. 3 oz. net. The tea (not tabloids) and salt arepurposely in excess of what a man would likely consume.Admiral Peary's ration for arctic sledgejourneys (2 lbs. 4^ oz.) given in Vol. I., p. 190,may be regarded as a minimum for hard work inwinter. It is a monotonous diet, deficient in sugarand in fruit acid, although his pemmican containeda little of both.

CHAPTER XIMARKSMANSHIP IN THE WOODSNever shall I forget the remark that a backwoodsmanonce made when I was trying: to entertainhim at a rifle match near St. Louis. I had shownhim the shooting-house, the target-house, and theirappurtenances; had explained our system of scoringand our code of rules; had told him the reasonsfor using such heavy rifles, sensitive triggers, prongedbutt-plates, cheek-pieces, vernier and wind-gaugesights—all that; and then I bade him watch someof our experts as they made buUseye after bullseye,seldom missing a space the size of a man's head,shooting ofihand, at 200 measured yards. I thoughtthat my friend would be impressed. He was; butnot quite as I had anticipated. After watching thefiring for a long time in silence, he turned to me andremarked: '*If it weren't for the noise and thepowder smoke, this would be a very ladylike game."Of course, I was piqued at this, and felt like givingthe honest fellow a peppery reply. And yet,many a time since, as I have sat, chilled to the bone,on some crossing in the high Smokies, straining myears for the bear-dogs far below ; or, tired beyondspeech and faint from hunger, as I lay down besidea log in the great forest, all alone ; or, blown by hardclimbing till my heart seemed bursting, as I wipedthe mist from my eyes, and got down on all foursto follow a fresh spoor into the hideous laurel fastnessof Godforsaken—aye, many a time I have lookedbackward and thought, ''You were right, partner;it was a very ladylike game."It was a long time ago—that shooting match. If173

174 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTa city man, in those days, wanted to practice with arifle at targets, he had to join a "schuetzen" society.(In Missouri the organized militia had no range, andnever fired a rifle except with blanks!) So we had tofall back on a foreign system that never yet hasfound so much as an English name. The schuetzenmethod did teach a man to hold steadily and to letoff delicately, and this is the A B C of marksmanship.But it stopped there. It taught the ABCforward and backward till the pupil became, perhaps,wonderfully expert in such exercise ; but it never gotbeyond ABC and Z Y X. It taught him to drivea nail with a bullet, offhand ; but nothing about quickfiring with accuracy, nothing about hitting movingobjects, nothing about judging distances and makingtrue allowance for them, nothing about aiming at aneutral-colored object that blended with its surroundings.Our men were "crackajacks" at drillinga squirrel's head, but only the few who took regularhunting trips in the wilderness had any idea of whatkind of a thing to look for if they went after deeror any other big game.Rifle Practice.—Times have changed. Civiliansnow can join clubs that have the use of militaryranges, where they can use practical weaponssupplied by the Government, at known and unknowndistances, deliberate fire and quick fire, resting atease or after a skirmish run. They may, if theychoose, rig up "running deer" targets. All this isexcellent practice for one preparing to go after biggame.If you are so situated that you cannot join sucha club, nor use a powerful rifle in your neighborhood,get a repeating .22, learn first to drive tacks with it(in a city basement, if need be), then take it outsomewhere that is safe for the purpose, and shoot atmiscellaneous objects, at unknown distances all theway from twenty to a hundred yards. If you canget a friend to roll a barrel for you down a bumpyhillside, try it at various angles—good training beforeyou go to shoot at deer on the bound.It is nractice. intellieentlv varied nractice. that

;MARKSMANSHIP IN THE WOODS 175makes a marksman. Without it, the keenest eye andthe steadiest nerve are of no avail. I have associatedintimately with expert riflemen for half a lifetime,and I know that every one of them w^ould tell youthat there ''is no such animal" as a born marksman.There never was. If frontiersmen generally aregood shots it is simply because they have had plentyof practice from their youth up. Some have naturaladvantages over others, to be sure, but nothing w^illtake the place of training. It is like writing, forinstance : anybody of average sense can learn to writecorrectly, many can write entertainingly, a few havegenius and may become immortal—but no geniuswho ever lived has turned out first-class work at thefirst trial: he had to practice, practice, practice!There is no room here to discuss the topic ofhunting rifles. Get the best that you can, of coursebut do not w^orship it. Bear in mind that, whateverits trajectory and smashing quality, it is only a gun,and can kill nothing that you miss with it. Whenyou get into the real wilderness far away from richmen's preserves and summer hotels; you will findthere some mighty hunters who make mighty killswith guns that would bring only the price of scrapironin New York.Get sights that you can see, and such as you arenot likely to overshoot with when taking quick aim.1'ake pains to get what suits your eyes, and spareno time in the adjustment. Never take an untriedgun into the woods. That is no place to align sightsand test elevations. Never trust the sights as theyare placed on the gun at the factory. Test them notonly from rest, but offhand, too; for a light riflecharged with high-power ammunition is likely toshoot several inches higher (or in some other direction)when fired from muzzle-and-elbow rest, thanit does when shot oiEfhand, albeit it may be an accuratew^eapon when rightly used.Sight Adjustment.—Now, as for adjusting theelevation—a most important matter—first, by aUTTcans, find the **point-blank" of your weapon by^fl.rrii;if te9,iy If vnur rlenler a

176 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtain rifle shoots practically point-blank up to 300yards, ''trust him not; he's fooling thee." Theoreticallythere is no such thing as a point-blankrange. Practically, what we mean by it is the extremedistance to which a rifle may be sighted tostrike center without overshooting at any intermediatedistance the vitals of the animal to behunted.Why a bullet rises above the line of aim and staysabove it until it reaches a point for which the sightswere set, and then falls below it, if not stopped ; howmuch it does so, at various ranges and with varioustj^pes of ammunition; how to determine the bestpoint-blank for different kinds of hunting: these arematters that would require a good many pages toexplain. ( See the writer's Sporting Firearms, in theseries of ''Outing Handbooks").In the big-game fields of the East and South,which generally are thickly timbered or bushy cutover!ands, it is seldom that one gets a shot at over60 or 70 yards, unless he is in the mountains or onthe m.argin of a lake or river. Even an oldfashionedrifle, using ammunition of, say 1,300 feetmuzzle velocity per second, if sighted accurately for50 yards, will not drop its bullet more than twoinches at 75 yards, and at 25 yards you need onlydiaw a wee bit fine to cut off the head of a grouseor squirrel. Fifty yards, then, is a good elevationat which to set the rear sight of such a gun. A.30-30, or other rifle of the 2,000 feet M. V. class,shoots to this same "practical point-blank" up to 100yards when sighted for 75 yards.In other words, the hunter need make no allowancefor distance, in aiming, up to these respectiveranges, except when shooting at small game closeby. This is why so many old hunters east of theMississippi take little or no interest in guns morepowerful than the kinds here mentioned. Theydon't feel the need of anything better. If theyshould unexpectedly have to take a long shot, anddo it quickly, they simply draw a coarse bead, or

MARKSMANSHIP IN THE WOODS 177In the West it is different. Much of the gamecountry is open. Often you can't get close by stalking.Shots at 200 yards are common, and muchlonger ones can be made successfully by a welltrainedmarksman armed with a very accurate riflethat drives its bullet at a high and well-sustainedvelocity. I emphasize the words "accurate" and"well-sustained" because there are many rifles thatare inaccurate beyond 100 or 150 yards, and thatstart their bullets swiftly but do not maintain ahigh velocity beyond short range. Their trajectoryfigures are illusory, because trajectory means onlythe average or mean height of bullet flight aboveline of fire at such and such intermediate distances.Take, for example, a .30-30 sighted for 200 yards.Its trajectory at 100 yards is given in the tablesss 5.79 inches above line of fire; but, as a matterof fact, the shots vary so much at 100 yards thatthey may go anywhere from 3.40 to 8.40 incheshigh; at 250 yards, with same aim, they may dropanywhere from 2.25 to 14.75 inches below line offire. Yet the .30-30 is considered a fairly accuratecartridge: there are others, with short, snub-nosedbullets, that shoot much worse.Now, by contrast, let us consider a gun that shootsswift and true at all ranges, for instance one usingour Springfield ammunition. I take the liberty ofquoting from Captain Whelen the followingtable of such a rifle's actual performance, with 150-grain bullet, when sighted for 200 yards, and someof hiscomments thereon:Trajectory Range in Yards100 200 225 300Above line of fire, in. ... 2.5 .... ....Below line of fire, in 1-9 9.Sight allowance, in 5 .12 .5Above line of aim, in. ... 2. .... ....Below line of aim, in 2.02 9.5Mean vertical deviation,inches 8 1.6 1.8 2.4Greatest deviation frompoint of aim, withrans^ \ine=timat^d, in. .. 2.8 1.6 3-82 11.9

178 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT''From this table, with the sights adjusted correctlyfor 200 yards and using the service ammunition,we can arrive at the following facts: Supposeone has not time to think of estimating the exactrange, or has not the talent to do so.But he thinkshis quarry is about 200 yards off. He fires. If thegame was at 100 yards the greatest error he needexpect is a hit 2.8 inches above the point aimed at.If the game was exactly at 200 yards then only theerror of the rifle and ammunition need be countedon which is 1.6 inches either above or below. Ifagain the game was at 225 yards the greatest deviationwould be a hit 3.82 inches below the pointaimed at. In other words, with the sights thus adjustedone would be sure to hit within the vital 8-inch disk at all ranges up to 225 yards, providedalways of course that his sights were correctlyaligned at the center of the disk at the instant ofdischarge. At no point during its flight, would thetrajectory and the accuracy error, together, carry thebullet over three inches above the line of aim, andat 225 yards it would hit but 3.82 inches low.Should the range be over 225 yards, the visual anglesubtended by the game, that is its appearance, willbe so small that the hunter will not risk a snap shotbut will instinctively proceed to take all those precautionsnecessary for a long range shot including acareful estimate of the range and wind direction andvelocity and an accurate setting of the sights forthose estimates.''Thus, for all around work in hunting with theSpringfield rifle, using the service cartridge, in orderto attain the highest eflSciency and the greatest chancefor a properly placed hit, we should use three adjustmentsof the rear sight, as follows:For small game at close range40 yardsFor apparently easy shots at large game 200 yardsFor apparently hard, long shots at anygameThe estimated range."The "vital 8-inch disk" refers to an expression Iused in the book Guns, Ammunition, and Tackle \

MARKSMANSHIP IN THE WOODS 179"Let us say that an 8-inch disk represents that partof a deer in which a bullet may be counted on toinflict a mortal wound ; then the deer's killing zonewould be that distance throughout which the trajectoryof the bullet w^ould cut an 8-inch disk. Foropen country, where long shots are the rule, the riflemay then be sighted for an extreme rise of 4 inchesabove line of aim, and the killing zone for deer willextend to that point where the descending bullet falls4 inches below line of aim. Remember that line ofaim or sight is different from line of fire (prolongationof axis of bore)." If the top of front sightstands one inch above axis of bore, then you subtract,from the midway trajectory one-half inch, and makeproportional allowances at other points intermediateor beyond the range sighted for. In all targetingto determine point-blank you must aim exactly on thepoint to be hit—not at lower edge of a buUseye, butat its center.The old-fashioned practice of ''drawing coarse"for a long shot is guesswork. A novice is almostsure to overdo it. An experienced hunter may dovery well that way, so long as he uses rifle and ammunitionthat he is thoroughly familiar with ; but lethim change to something different and he must learnall over again. That is one reason why many experthunters are old-fogyish about arms and ammunition.On the other hand, there is no guesswork inthe system of determining a "practical point-blank"and then aiming straight at the spot you want tohit.It "gets the meat" with certainty—always provided,my brother, that you hold true and draw triggerwithout jerk or quiver.It is not nearly so much the "make" of rifle asthe load it takes that determines the gun's shootingqualities. So, choose first a cartridge, then a gun tohiindle it. For example, the Springfield cartridge isa good one for big game at all ranges ; but you canuse it in rifles of several different makes, and mostof them will do the same work with it. The old.44-40 is still a good cartridge for brush-shooting at

i8oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdeer, but a mighty poor one beyond lOO yards, nomatter what kind of a rifle it is shot out of. Andso we might go on through the whole maze of ammunitionlists. But how to choose a cartridge?Well, here are two rules that will help a good deal:( 1 ) No cartridge is accurate be3^ond a verymoderate distance unless the bullet is at least3 calibers long for .25 caliber bullets,2^2 calibers long for .30 to .35 caliber bullets,2 calibers long for .40 to .45 caliber bullets,\y^ calibers long for .50 caliber bullets.(2) No bullet is accurate at high speed unlessit either is long and heavy or has fine lines forward,as one would say of a boat.Hunters' Maxims.—This is not an essay onhunting, but in trying to give an idea of how marksmanshipin the woods differs from marksmanship onthe range, it may help a beginner to understand justwhat is meant if I first state certain maxims of thestill-hunter's craft:(i) Hunt one kind of animal at a time, andthink of //.(2) Know its strong points and its weak ones.(3) Know where to hunt and where not to.(4) Choose favorable ground.(5) Consider the animal's daily habits.(6) Know just what to look for.(7) Maneuver according to a definite plan.(8) Work against the wind, or across it.(9) Move noiselessly and reconnoiter carefully.(10) Try to see the game before it sees you.(11) Keep cool.(12) Never fire at anything until you are absolutelycertain it is not a human being.(13) Never fire a shot that is not the best you canpossibly do.(14) After firing, reload instantly.(15) If you wound an animal, don't follow immediatelyupon its track, unless you are sure It Isshot through the heart.(16) Be patient over ill-luck, and keep on trying.

MARKSMANSHIP IN THE WOODS i8iServe your apprenticeship under a guide. He canteach you more in a week than you could learn byyourself in a year. There are, however, two booksthat every beginner ought to study before he goes tothe woods: Van Dyke's Still Hunter and Brunner'sTracks and Tracking/, both of them far and awayahead of anything else on their respective subjects.Don't try to memorize, but read and re-read untilthe lessons have soaked in. They will make itmuch easier for you to understand your guidesmovements and directions (but don't quote yourbook-learning to him, or to anybody else).After you have learned something of woodcraftby actual experience in company, make a practice ofgoing alone and putting it to the proof. In stillhunting,two men working together make four timesas much noise as one w^ould by himself. They morethan double the risk of alarming the game by theirscent, as they seldom will be right together. Andeach relies too much on the other. "Tom mayjump one to me" is a thought that has spoiled manyYou don't want any Tom toa hunt (and hunter) .think about: you w^ant to think deer, if that is whatyou are after.. , . ,What To Look For.—Wild animals in thesky,or somewhere with a broad sheet of water forwoods do not look at all like the same species do incaptivity or in picture-books. Only at rare intervalsdoes one see a buck in the open posed like Landseer's"Stag at Bay," and when he does, the pictureis altogether different. The buck's coloration blendswith his surroundings. You never see him in starkrelief unless he be on a ridge, outlined against thea background. Nor does he carry his head erect,unless suspicious, startled, challenging, or browsingen branches that hang above him.A deer is always hard to see unless he be out mthe open, or in the water, or on the jump. Generallyits body is half hidden, or more than half, by underbrushor intervening trees. So what you w^ant tolook for is not an animal as a whole, but for spots of

i82CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTleaden gray (the "blue" coat of autumn and winter)of no particular shape. The spot may seem fairly vaporous,like fog. Of course if the animal moves, youw^ill see it, but probably not until it is sneakingstealthily but swiftly away. Then there are treesin the way, and brush; your footing may not besecure; the light may be shining in your eyes; and,with it all, you must shoot quickly, or lose the opportunity.Under such circumstances it is absurdlyeasy to miss a full-grown deer at twenty paces. Sotry to see the game before it sees you. Quite likelyyou won't; but if you have maneuvered againstthe wind so that the animal has not caught yourscent, it may stay quietly hidden, trusting in thecover of the shrubs, or it may hesitate long enoughfor you to raise your gun before it moves.Running Shots.—A deer does not gallop unlessa dog is after it. When fleeing from a man it commonlygoes at an indescribably easy and gracefullope, varied at every few bounds by a high, longleap. It does not seem to be exerting itself, yet itgoes pretty fast. Having got out of the immediateneighborhood, it subsides into a trot or amble, andthen stops, looks backward, and scents the air, tofind if it is pursued.Now a deer on the jump is hard to hit. Thepoints to be observed are :To be as alert at all timesas though you were hunting grouse without a dog;to get your gun in position the instant that you seethe game; to pick out, as quick as lightning,a clearspace through which to fire; but, above all things,not to shoot until you are absolutely certain that itis game you are shooting at; and then to dwell onthe aim just long enough to see your bead clearlyand to hold for a vital spot. Beyond that, do nothesitate the fraction of a second. To give a novicean idea, I would say that three or four seconds isa fair average interval between raising the rifle andfiring, when a deer has been jumped in the forest.It isnot so much the hands, but the eyes and brain,that must be quick, very quick.

MARKSMANSHIP IN i HH. wuuu:^ lojWhen a deer Is running In the open, follow It withabout as you would a bird with a shotgunthe rifleonly don't "lead," that Is, consciously. At a hundredyards, a high-velocity bullet will reach him in thetime that it takes him to go, say, four feet, it yourrifle is swinging with him, you don t have to holdahead. And most shots at running deer are at ashorter distance than that. Try to catch him as heAnyway,strikes the ground at the end of a jump.beware of firing too high. Most of the time he is"hugging the ground" pretty close.In thick timber, don't try to swing with him—you can't see him well enough. Pick out an openincrthat he will cross, and fire the instant his headcrosses above your front sight (this is a general idea—"lead " In this case, depends on distance), ihenyou will, at least, not send your bullet whack intoan intervening tree.Although one may often get a chance for a standingshot, yet I think it Is best to spend most of one starget ammunition (at home) in snap-shooting.snap-shooting with the rifle I do not mean merelyglancing along a barrel and disregarding the sights.You must see your bead, and, in case of open sights,you must see' that the bead is well down in thenotch; but It Is snap-shooting to press the triggerinstantly when it first touches, or rather when itswings close to, the object that you want to hit,instead of waiting to swing back and steady down,as one would do when aiming deliberately. iosnap-shoot at the right instant, without pulling ottto one side, is a fine art.hJyThe main trouble, in such cases,^is to select theri-^ht spot to shoot at, and then to find it over thesights. With a deer, for example, the color is soneutral and the outlines are so indistinct, even ingood JIght, that a man's eyes can seldom distinguishthe exact spot that he wants to hit- Hejudges where it must be, from the general bulk oJtheanimal ajid the position in which it is presented.Where To Aim.—Standing shots, even at a con»

1 84 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—siderable distance, call for no comment, as they arecomparatively easy, in good light, for anyone whohas been well trained on the rifle range at homeprovided he does not get "buck ague."For a broadside shot, the best point to aim at isimmediately behind the shoulder and only one-thirdof the way up from breast to withers—that is, wherethe heart lies. When the body is presented in anyother position, shoot, as a rule, at such a point thatthe bullet, in ranging forward, will pass through orclose to the heart. When an animal stands lookingat me as a deer often will when it comes in on arunway and one bleats or whistles at it, my favoriteshot is the neck. A bullet passing through anyanimal's neck, near the center, is almost sure tostrike a paralyzing, knock-out blow, because it canscarcely miss a vital part.Aim low when shooting downhill, because thenyou see more of the upper side of the animal thanyou ordinarily would. A shot high up is seldomfatal, unless you hit the spine. In making longshots downhill, do not forget that the only distanceto be allowed for is that from the mark to a pointdirectly under you and level with the mark.Aim dead-on when shooting uphill, unless therange is greater than your rifle is sighted for on alevel. The extra allowance for "lift" is so triflingat ordinary ranges that you had better disregard itthan overdo the matter.Don't rely on "raining lead." The man who doeshis "darndest" with the first shot is the one who getsmost venison in the long run. But reload instantly,and be ready, if necessary, to follow up without hesitation.Shoot until the animal is down, or while itremains in view.If a deer is not hit, it goes off with its "flag"(white underside of tail) in the air. If hit, it mayor may not clap its tail down. When struck in therear half of the body (unless through the spine,which is a knock-out) it will likely kick out its hindlegs, and there is some long trailing ahead of you.

MARKSMANSHIP IN THE WOODS 185Even when shot through the heart, a deer may runa hundred yards or more; but when it drops it isdead. If you are sure that it was a heart shot,follow up at once, but if you are not, then wait agood while. A wounded deer, when it finds it isnot followed, is likely to lie down ; then it gets stiffand weak from loss of blood. Give it time for thisbefore you go after it. Don't follow directly on itstracks, for it will watch backward as long as it canhold its head up, and will run again, if possible, theinstant it finds itself followed. Go in half-circles,to one side, then in to the trail, out again, and so on,until you have headed it on the leeward side.Buck Fever.—History mercifully does not recordhow many thousand big and bewhiskered armedmen, at their first sight of big game, have stood orsat with mouth wide open, gazing at the thing,oblivious to everything else on earth, including theloaded gun in the hand. If a deer only could winkone eye!Buck ague is different. With it, the victim knowsit is a deer before him, and knows but too well thathe has a gun. But he also has as bad a case of''shakes" as a toper after a long spree. This afflictionmay overcome a rifleman in any kind of hunting,but it is most likely to seize upon the novicewhen he is sitting on a stand and hears the dogsbaying toward him. It is hard on a fellow's nervesto sit there, praying with all his soul that the bearmay not run some other w^ay, and yet half doubtfulof his own ability to head it off if it does comehis way. The chances are that it will by no meansrun over him, but that it will come crashing throughthe brush at some point on one side, toward whichhe will have to run with all his might and main beforefiring. Now if he does let that bear gothrough, after all the hard work of dogs and drivers,his shirt-tail will be amputated that night by hiscomrades and hung from a high pole in the midstof the camp—a flag of distress indeed ! Whowouldn't get buck ague in the face of such alternative?

1 86 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—;It is hard on a fellow's nerves, I say, to hearthose dogs coming toward him, and to know fromthe racket that a bear is certainly ahead of them, but7iot to know w^here or when the' brute may emerge,nor what infernal trees or thickets and downwoodmay be in the way. Can you hit him ? That is thqquestion. The honor of the camp is on your shoulders.Ah, me ! it is easy to follow the pack on horseback—tochase after something that is running away.But to sit here clenching your teeth while at anymoment a hard-pressed and angry bear may burstout of the thicket and find you in his way—noth^ing but you between him and near-by freedomgentlemen, it tests nerve!Buck ague is not the effect of fear. In fact, fearhas nothing to do with it. It is a tremor and a gallopingof the heart that comes from over-anxietylest you should fail to score. Precisely the sameseizure may come upon you on the target range.That is the only place that I ever experienced it.There is no telling when it may strike. I haveknown seasoned sportsmen to be victimized by it.Yet, when the critical moment does come, it oftenturns out that the man who has been shaking likea leaf from pent-up anxiety suddenly grows cold andsteady as a rock. Especially is this apt to be thecase when a fighting beast comes suddenly in view.Instantly the man's primeval instincts are arousedhis fighting blood comes to the surface ; the spirit ofsome warrior ancestor (dead, maybe, these thousandyears) possesses and sways your mild-eyed modernman, and he who trembled but a moment ago nowleaps into the combat with a wild joy playing onhis heart strings.

CHAPTER XIIAXEMANSH IP—QUALITIESIZATION OF WOODAND UTIL-Next to the rifle, a backwoodsman's main relianceis on his axe. With these two instruments, andlittle else, our pioneers attacked the forest wildernessthat once covered all eastern America, and won it forcivilization.In the clearing and in lumber works the favoriteaxe is a double-bitt with 4^ to 5-pound head. Oneblade is ground thin and kept whetted keen, forchopping in clear timber. The other is left withmore bevel, as that is advantageous in splitting, andthe edge, although sharp, is rather stunt, so that itwill not shiver against a knot, or nick badly whendriven through into the earth, as may happen whencutting through roots. A professional chopper, whoworks only at felling trees and cutting off *'lops"(the branching tops) will grind both blades thin.For him, too, the double-bitt is best, since most ofits weight is back in line with the cutting edge, andro it bites deep, although driven with little force.The helve of such an axe, of course, is straight, andone bought at a store should be shaved considerablythinner on both sides; then it is not so clumsy, liesjn the hands more compactly, does not cramp thefingers and will not jar the hands, as it has somespring.A double-bitted axe is dangerous in any but experthands—more so than a loaded gun—and wouldbe a menace lying around in camp, for, even whenstuck in a tree or chopping-block, one edge is alwaysexposed. I have given elsewhere (Vol. I., pp.187

i88CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT113-114) other reasons why a light single-bitt is thebest axe for a camper, and have told how to selectsuch a tool and care for it.Grinding Axes.—A new axe must be ground beforeit is fit for use. Do this on a grindstone (or haveit done where they have a power grindstone) usingwater freely so the steel will not overheat. Theaverage **cutler and grinder" in a city would make aquick job of it on an emery wheel, and ruin thetemper. Since you will do much more choppingthan splitting, you want the blade thin. Startgrinding w^ell back on the blade, and work out tothe edge until most of the bevel has been groundoft, but leave a little of it between the center andthe outside corner ; that is, the blade should be thickestat a point a little beyond the center, so it willnot "bind" (stick fast in wood) and so that it willspring a chip loose. Then whet off the wire edgewith a stone. Make or buy a leather sheath for theaxe-head, riveted to prevent cutting through (seeillustrations in outfitters' catalogues).Fitting Axe-Helves.—A broken axe-helve isnot an uncommon accident in the woods, and it is avery serious one until a new helve is made and fitted.Now itsometimes happens that the stub of the oldhandle cannot be removed by ordinary means: itmust be burnt out. To do this without drawingthe temper of the steel might seem impracticable;but the thing is as simple as rolling off a log, whenyou see it done. Pick out a spot where the earth isfree from pebbles, and drive the blade of the axeinto the ground up to the eye. Then build a firearound the axe-head—that is all. If the axe isdouble-bitted, dig a little trench about six inchesdeep and the width of the axe-eye, or a little more.Lay the axe flat over it, cover both blades withtwo inches of earth, and build a small fire on top.In making a new axe-helve, do not bother to makea crooked one like the store pattern. Thousandsof expert axemen use, from preference, straighthandles in their axes—single-bitted axes at that-

AXEMAiNSHIP 189I have seen such handles full four feet long, to beused chiefly in logging-up big trees. Two feet eightinches is long enough for ordinary chopping. Tosmooth any article made of wood, when youhave no sandpaper, use loose sand in a piece of leatheror buckskin.Split the eye end of the helve before driving itin. Make the wedge thin, and of even taper.Leave a little of it protruding, at first, for greenwood soon will shrink and you must tighten it up.How To Chop.—To be expert with the axe, onemust have been trained to it from boyhood. Anovice, however, can learn to do much better thanbungle if he observes a few simple directions, watchesa good chopper, and uses his wits in trying to "catchon."Practice until you can hit the same spot repeatedly.Precision, rhythmical strokes, good judgment asto where a cut will do the most good ; these are themain points to strive after.Beginners Invariably over-exert themselves Inchopping, and are soon blown. An accurate strokecounts for much more than a heavy but blunderingone. A good chopper lands one blow exactly ontop of the other with the precision and regularityof a machine ; he chops slowly but rhythmically, andputs little more effort into striking than he does intolifting his axe for the blow. Trying to sink theaxe deeply at every stroke is about the hardest workthat a man can do, and it spoils accuracy.Try your axe first on saplings up to six inches indiameter. A little one Is downed with two strokes.Bend It over so Its fiber is strained on one side, hitIt a clip w4th the axe In one hand, then similarlyon the other side. A larger one Is notched on eachside, like a tree (see below) but does not need tonave the large notch blocked out.When cutting saplings that are to be dragged tocamp, throw them with tops In the opposite directionfrom camp, so they can easily be dragged out by thebutts; otherwise you will have to slew them aroundso the branches will not catch in everything.

igoCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTBefore starting to fell a tree, clear away all underbrushand vines that are within reach of theextended axe, overhead as well as around you.Neglect of this precaution may cripple a man forlife.Felling a Tree.—Before starting to chop downa tree, decide in which direction you wish it to fall.This will be governed partly by the lay of theground and the obstacles on it. The tree shouldfall where it will be easy to log up. Most treeslean more or less out of plumb, or have a heaviergrowth of branches on one side than on the other.If there is nothing to interfere, drop it on the side;^l\36.—FellingTreeFig.37.—BoggledNotchFig 38.—TrueNotchtoward which it is naturally inclined to fall. In athick forest, throw it in such direction that it willnot lodge on some other tree in falling. It is bothdifficult and dangerous for anyone but an expert tobring down a lodged tree. Don't try to throw atree against the wind, if there is a strong breezeblowing.Now, suppose you decide to throw the tree to thesouth. First cut a notch (kerf) on the south sideof the tree, half way through the trunk (A in Fig.36). A novice would make this notch by startingwith a small nick and laboriously enlarging it by

AXEMANSHIP 191whacking out from the upper side one layer of chipsafter another. Soon he would be driving his axe inat too sharp an angle, and his work would growharder and harder as he got to cutting more andmore nearly straight across the grain (Fig. 37).Finally the inside of the notch would get so narrowthat he would wedge his axe fast. The right wayis shown in Fig. 38. Make a nick at a as guidethen another at h, a little higher above a than halfthe thickness of the tree. Chop alternately at thesenotches, and split out the block c with a downwardblow of the axe. Proceed in this way until thenotch is finished, making as big chips as you can.A green axeman is known by the finely minced chipsand haggled stump that he leaves.If the tree is of such wood as is easy to cut, makethe cut ae as nearly square across the butt as you can.To do this keep the hand that holds the hilt of theaxe-helve well down. But if the tree is hard andstubborn to fell, or if you are rustling firewoodin a hurry, it is easier to make this cut in a slantingdirection, so as not to chop squarely across thegrain, and then make the opposite one diagonallyacross it.Having finished this south kerf (which is twothirdsthe labor of felling the tree), now begin theopposite one, h, at a point three or four inches higherthan the other. By studying the diagram, and takinginto account the tree's great weight, you can seewhy this method will infallibly throw the tree whereyou want it, if it stands anywhere near perpendicular,and if there is not a contrary wind blowing.Comparatively few blows are needed here. Whenthe tree begins to crack, step to one side. Neverjump in a direction opposite that in which the treefalls. Many a man has been killed in that w^ay.Sometimes a falling tree, striking against one of itsneighbors, shoots backward from the stump likelightning. Look out, too, for shattered limbs.If a tree leans in the wrong direction for yourpurpose, insert a billet of wood in the kerf B. and

192 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdrive a wedge or two above it in the direction of thekerf. A tree weighing many tons can be forcedto fall in any desired direction by the proper use ofwedges; and a good axeman, in open woods, canthrow a tree with such accuracy as to drive a stakepreviously stuck in the ground at an agreed position.He can even do this when a considerable wind isblowing, by watching the sway of the tree and strikinghis final blow at the right moment.Logging Up.—When the tree is down, trim offthe branches for firewood, if the stuff is good forright.wrongJ^w^J^^^^^^^^^^^^P^t^^^9»^^xr.Fig. 39.—Logging Upfuel (on the fuel values of trees see Vol. L, pp.236-239). Then log up the trunk. When a novicetries to cut a log in two he stands in front of itand chops on the farther side until he has most ofit and a good part of the top hacked out. Thenhe realizes that he is "up against it," for he cannotturn the tree over to get at the under side. Theaxeman must stand on the prostrate trunk, with hislegs well apart, and cut down between his feet.This, to a beginner, looks like a risky performance;yet I have seen* one of my woodland neighbors, whoprofesses to be "only a triflin' hand with an axe,"stand on a slender tree-trunk that was balancedabout ten feet over a gulch, whack away between hisfeet, with the trunk swaying several inches at everystroke, nor did he step over on the main trunk untiltwo or three light "draw cuts" sufficed to cut theend log free. But such a performance is tamecompared with the feats of axemanship that regularchoppers and river drivers do every day as a merematter of course.Make the outside chip not less in length than the

fdiameter of the log.AXEMANSHIP 193This will seem absurdly long,until you have struggled futilely to "nigger" a login two. Make two outside nicks, as in felling atree, split out the block between them, and so go on,making big chips, and cutting at a considerable angleto the grain of the wood instead of across it. Chopstraight down, so that when you get to the centerof the trunk the bottom of your kerf will be perpendicular(Fig. 39). Usually the trunk Is helda little off the ground by broken limbs on the underside of the top. If not, then, when you work closeto the ground, look out for pebbles (rather scrapethem away beforehand). A nick in the axe willmake your w^ork doubly hard. Before felling a treeon stony ground it is well worth while to place asmall log across the way for the butt of the tree tofall on, so as to keep it off the ground.Speaking of nicks in the axe, beware of cuttinginto hemlock or balsam knots; in trimming limbsclose to such trees you can ruin the best steel thatever was made, for they are almost as hard as glassIf it must be done, strike gentle blows; hold thtaxe-head exactly perpendicular to the spot struck,and rigid, so it cannot glance in the least. The trickis similar to that of driving a bowie through asilver dollar without spoiling the knife's edge.Having cut one notch half through the trunk, goon to the next ones until the end piece is reached;then turn around and work back until all cuts havebeen severed.In working up crooked branches into firewoodlengths, have something solid under the spot to becut. If you don't, sometime a billet will fly up andhit you in the face. I have seen more than oneman who had lost an eye in that way.Sawing.—If there is a sharp and w^ell set crosscutsaw in the outfit, it makes the work of fellingand logging a great deal easier. The veriest tvro

194 CAMPTxNG AND WOODCRAFTcan soon learn to saw tolerably well. Observe thatyour sole duties are to pull and help guide the sawstraight. If you push, as one would with a bucksaw,the other fellow may let you do all the work.If you don't do your share of the pulling, yourpartner, if he be a woodsman, is apt to remonstrate*'Say, you! I don't mind you riding the saw, butdon't drag your feet."To fell with a saw, first cut a small notch withthe axe on the side toward which you want the treeto fall. Then saw from the opposite side, beginninga little higher than the notch, and sawingdiagonally down to meet it. When the saw getswell into the wood it will begin to bind from theweight of the tree. Then relieve it by driving aw^edge or glut into the kerf behind the saw. Drivethe wedge in still farther as you progress, and itwill tilt the tree in the right direction. When youhear the firstpremonitory crack, or see that the treeis near the toppling point, one man will quickly removethe handle at his end ;the other will saw awayuntil the tree sways, and then pull the saw out.log should be laid for the butt to fall on.In sawing up large logs, wedges are used in thesame way to keep the saw running free.Qualities of Woods.—The working qualities ofcommon woods ought to be known by every onewho has occasion to use timber, and especially by awoodsman, who may at any time be driven to shiftsin which a mistake in choosing material may havedisagreeable consequences. A few simple tables arehere given, which, it is hoped, may be of assistance.Only common native trees are included. The datarefer to the seasoned wood only, except where greenis specified. Such tables might easily be extended,but mine are confined to the qualities of most accountto campers and explorers, and to trees nativeto the region north of Georgia and east of theRocky Mountains.A

Osage OrangeDogwood,Black Haw,Yellow Locust,Post Oak,Overcup Oak,Sugar Maple,Crab-Apple,Other Oaks,Hornbeam,Ash,Elm,Cherry,Beech,Tupelo,Red-bud,Red Maple,Holly,Sycamore,Yellow Pine,AXEMAN SHIPVeryHard Woods(hardest), Persimmon,Hickory,Service-berry,Black Jack Oak,Chestnut Oak,Mountain Laurel,Winged Elm.Hard WoodsPecan,Black Birch,Hackberry,Plum,Sourwood,Sour Gum,Walnut,Silver Maple,Mulberry,Honey Locust,Yellow Birch.VerySpruce,Balsam Poplar,White Pine,Pawpaw,Aspen,(Common woodsmedium softness.)Soft WoodsBalsam Fir,Catalpa,Buckeye,Basswood,Arbor-vitaenot mentioned195(softest),above are ofVery Strong WoodsYellow Locust, Pignut Hickory,Yellow Birch,Chestnut Oak,Shingle Oak,Black Birch,Shellbark Hickory, Spanish Oak,Yellow Pine,Sugar Maple,Hornbeam,Beech,Osage Orange,Service-berry,Big-bud Hickory,Bitternut Hickory.Basket Oak,Strong WoodsOther Oaks,Rock Elm,Water Locust,PaperSilverRed Birch,Dogwood,Ash,Birch,Maple,Chinquapin,Honey Locust,Tamarack,Loblolly Pine,

196 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFlPersimmon,Plum,White Elm,Cherry,Red Pine,Yellow Birch,Sugar Maple,Spanish Oak,Hornbeam,PaperTamarack,Birch,Very StiffSlippery Elm,Black Walnut,Sour Gum,Red Maple.WoodsYellow Pine,Black Birch,Shellbark Hickory,Overcup Oak,Yellow Locust,Beech.Very Tough WoodsBeech,Water Oak,Osage Orange, Tupelo.Tough WoodsBlack Ash,White Ash,Basswood,Paper Birch,Yellow Birch,Cottonwood,Dogwood,Elm,Sour Gum,Hickory,Hornbeam,Liquidambar,Basket Oak,Bur Oak,Overcup Oak,Swamp White Oak,Yellow Pine,Tamarack.Black Walnut,(Saplings generally are tougher than mature treejof the same species.)Woods that Split EasilyArbor-vitae,White Birch,Basswood,Black Birch (green).Cedar,Dogwood (green).Chestnut,Balsam Fir,Slippery Elm (green), Basket Oak,Hackberry,White Oak,The Soft Pines,Red Oak,Spruce,Shingle Oak,Ash,Black Oak,Beech (when green). Water Oak.Woods Difficult to SplitBlue Ash (seasoned), Box Elder,Buckeye, Wild Cherry,White Elm, Winged ElmSour Gum,able),(uEwedge*

AXEMANSHIP 197Liqiiidambar,Hemlock,Sug-ar Maple (seasoned), Honey Locust (seasoned),Tupelo (unvvedgeable). Sycamore.Woods that Separate Easily intoBlack Ash, Basket Oak.Thin LayersFlexible, Pliable WoodsBasswood,Hackberry,Elm,Big-bud Hickory,Red-bud,YellowWitch Hazel,Poplar.Black Ash,Hickory,Honey Locust,White Oak,Service-berry,Basswood,Paper Birch,Buckeye,Catalpa,Cherry,Cottonwood,Hackberry,Silver Maple,Yellow Poplar,Arbor-vitae,The Ashes,The Aspens,Basswood,SpringyBalsam Fir,The Birches (exceptWhite Bir/:h),Box Elder,Buckeye,Butternut,Catalpa,The Cedars (very),TheCherries,Cucumber,The Elms,Hackberry,Big Shellbark Hickory,Water Hickory,PVoodsWhite Ash,Ho'/nbeam,Yellow Locust,Osage Orang-e,Spruce.Woods Easily WroughtBlack Birch,Red Birch,Butternut,Cedar,Chestnut,Cypress,Red Maple,White Pine,Black Walnut.Compact Woods {Not Liable to Check)Red Mulberry,Basket Oak,Bur Oak,Willow Oak,Pecan,Persimmon,Gray Pine,Jersey Pine,Long-leavedPitch Pine,Red Pine,Short-leavedWhite Pine,The Poplars,Red-bud,Silver-bell,Sorrel Tree,TheSpruces,Pine,Pine,

198 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTHolly (very), Tamarack,Hop Hornbeam, The Thorns,Laurel (very), Witch Hazel,The Magnolias, Yellow Wood.The Maples,Woods Liable to Check in SeasoningBeech, White Birch,Chestnut,Crab-apple,Dogwood, Sour Gum,Hickory (except Shellbark)Hornbeam,Yellow Locust, Most Oaks,Sassafras,Sycamore.Black Walnut,Woods Liable to Shrink and WarpChestnut,Cottonwood,White Elm, Sour GumHemlock, Shellbark Hickory,Liquidambar, Pin Oak,Loblolly Pine, Sycamore.Yellow Poplar,Woods Difficult to SeasonBeech,Cottonwood,Sour Gum, Sugar Maple,Red Oak, Rock Chestnut Oak,Water Oak,Osage Orange,Woods that Can Be Obtained in Wide BoardsFree from KnotsBasswood,Cottonwood,Cypress,Yellow Poplar,Woods Durable in Soil,Water and WeatherArbor-vitae,Butternut,Catalpa,Cedar,Cherry,Chestnut,Cucumber,Cypress,Slippery Elm, Hop Hornbeam,Juniper, Kentucky Coffee TreeHoney Locust, Yellow Locust,Mulberry,Bur Oak,Chestnut Oak, Overcup Oak,Post Oak, Rock Chestnut Oak.Swamp White Oak, White Oak,Osage Orange, Yellow Pine (long leaved)Pitch Pine, Sassafras,Tamarack,Black Walnut.

AXEMAN SHI? 199Perishable WoodsWhite Birch, Box ElderPaper Birch,Silver Maple,Hackberry^w'.^'^n'.l.Black Jack Oak,Water OakSpanish Oak,The Poplars,Ldblolly Pine, Sycamore.^'mo'st wTids are durable when not exposed toalternate wetting and drying. Sapwood is more liableto decay than heart-wood, as a rule, but this is nottrue of Paper Birch.)Resinous Woods&"'pin^(7iry),^Long-leaved Pine (very).Pitch Pine (very),|o^Sea;ed Pine.The Spruces.WoodsClose-grainedLaurel,Blue Ash,The Aspens,Liquidambar,Basswood,Yellow Locust,Red Bay (very),Magnolia,Beech, (very),The Maples,Black Birch,Basket Oak,Paper Birch (very), Bur Oak,Red Birch,Chestnut Oak,White Birch,Overcup Oak,Yellow Birch,Post Oak,Box Elder,Rock Chestnut Oak,Buckeye,Swamp White Oak,The Cedars (very), White Oak,The Cherries,Osage OrangeCottonwood,(extremely).Crab-apple (very), Pecan,Cucumber,Persimmon (very),Short-leaved PineCypress,(generally),Dogwood,Rock Elm (very), White Pine (very),Slippery Elm (very), Plum,Winged Elm very), The Poplars,Big Shellbark Hickory Service-berry,Silver-bell,(very),Hickory, Sorrel Tree (very),Bitter-nut jnicKory,n" ;f>t,V 9nriiresMocker-nut Hickory (very)^T.he S uPig-nut Hickory, Sycamore (very),Water Hickory (very). The Thorns,Holly (very),Tulip,Hornbeam (Ironwood), Witch Hazel (very)»Hop Hornbeam (very) Vellow Wood.

^ooCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTVery Heavy JVoodsChestnut Oak. Pig-nut Hickory,Shellbark Hickory, Mocker-nut Hickory.Hop Hornbeam, Basket Oak,Overcup Oak, Persimmon,Post Oak,Service-berry,Flowering Dogwood, Swamp White Oak,Big Shellbark Hickory, Osage Orange.Very Light JVoods"White Basswood, White Spruce,Box Elder , Cottonwood,Sweet Buckeye, Balsam Fir,Hemlock, White Pine,Yellow Poplar, Balsam Poplar,Quaking Aspen, White Cedar,Butternut,Arborvitae.The weight of seasoned wood is no criterion ofthe weight of the green wood, which must be learnedt>y experience. For example, the dry wood of theSequoia, or California Big Tree, is lighter than WhitePine, but the freshly cut log is so heavy that itwill scarcely float in water. Black Walnut and SourGum are only moderately heavy when seasoned, butthe green logs willnot float.Woods for Special Purposes.—These tablesare only general guides. Individual trees of the«ame species vary much in their qualities. In selectingwood for a special purpose one will be governed,of course, by the material at hand. Suppose hewants a very hard and close-grained wood : He maychoose, according to circumstances, beech, birch, dogwood,rock elm, mocker-nut (white-heart) hickory,holly, hornbeam, yellow locust, sugar maple, Osageorange, persimmon, service-berry, or whatever hecan get on the spot that will answer his purpose.If it must also be strong, tough, elastic, or havesome other merit, the choice will be narrowed.Timber cut in the spring of the year, when thesap is up is much inferior in quality and durabilityto that which is cut in autumn and winter, whenthe sap is down. Sap softens the fibers, sours in cuttimber, and carries the seeds of dry-rot or decay.Hewing Timber.—To flatten a log, as for a

AXEMANSHIP 201bench seat, if it will not spli^'^^ight : Score th^top of it with notches of unifSujlfegppth, like sawteeth, but as far apart as the ^uff *^li block offevenly; then chop out the bloc$s,^^aflH J^ smooth(along the dotted line A B in Fig. 40).^^"%^.When much hewing is to be done, a broadaxe oradze is used; but both of these tools are difficultand dangerous for an inexperienced man to handl^i>^tiiiu and iiciLHcx neither ui of them Luciii will Win be oe oDiainaDie obtainable except wnei^ whe%. %^skilled'^''^—artisans can —---—--^5^be hired to wield them. •'./-^'"'-^-"^h^^^bi^BFig. 40.—Scoring and HewingSplitting Timber.—Logs split through the centerinto half-logs with one face flat are very usefulin cabins and about camp, for tables, benches,shelves, and other rustic furniture. They also areemployed in making slab camps, puncheons for flooring,and small enclosed cabins. In the latter case,split logs have certain advantages over round ones.They take only half as many trees, they are easierfor one or two men to handle, easier to notch forthe corners, make close joints without much, if anychinking, and leave a flat surface for the interiorof the cabin. They may also be used vertically insteadof horizontally, and in this way short logs canbe utilized.The only implements needed in splitting logs arean axe (single-bitted) and a maul and some woodenwedges made with the axe. The maul is madein club shape (Fig. 41). Beech, oak and hickoryare good materials, but any hardwood that does notsplinter easily will do. Choose a sapling about fiveinches thick at the butt, not counting the bark. Diga little below the surface of the ground and cutthe sapling off where the stools of the roots begin.(The wood is very tough here, and this is to be usedfor the large end of the maul, which should be

^2CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTabout ten Inches long). From this, forward, shavedown the handle, which should be twenty incheslong. Thus balanced, the maul will not jar one'shands.Gluts (Fig. 42) are simply wooden wedges.Thebest woods for them are dogwood and hornbeamor Ironwood, as they are very hard and tough, evenwhen green; but use whatever Is handy. Chop asapling of suitable thickness, and make one endwedged-shaped ; then cut it off square at the topand so continue until you have all the gluts you;;^•^'^^ ~^.^.!^£^Fig. 41.—Maul Fig. 42.—Gluts (edgeand face)want. It takes no mean skill to chop a glut to atrue wedge shape, and much depends upon gettingthe angles and surfaces correctly proportioned. Anovice is apt to make a glut too short and thick, butit must not be quite so slender as a steel wedge, forit would splinter too readily.In splitting timber, one must observe the grainand structure of the wood. Naturally, he would se^lect stuff that is straight-grained ; but that Is not alLFig. 43 shows the end of a log that has been sawedoff square. Observe that there are four kinds ofstructure to be considered: (i) the bark, (2) thelight-colored sapwood next to the bark, (3) the maturewood, (4) the dark-colored heartwood. It Isseldom that heartwood splits evenly. Outside of itwe notice the concentric rings of annual growthalso the medullary rays, radiating from the centerlike spokes of a wheel. Both of these continuethrough the sapwood, though not so shown here,as they are less conspicuous in it.Now the natural lines of cleavage are along the

AXEMANSHIP 203medullary rays, which are pithy. Hence a log canbe split straight through the center (if clear andstraight-grained) from any point on the circumference,but if you try to make other splits parallelwith this, you will have trouble, for you are attemptingto cross the raj^s at an angle. Some treescan be split, by careful manipulation, into threeslabs or four slabs with parallel faces, but usually itwill not pay you to try it.Fig.43.—Cross-sectionof Tree TrunkFi.?. 44.-Rail6SplitsThe natural way of cleavage is shown in Fig. 44,which illustrates the method of splitting rails. Firstthe log is split through the center, then each halfsimilarly. Then one of the quarters is split throughthe line ab, following, as you see, a medullary ray.Next the point of the wedge is split oii across cdThe(direction of annual rings), forming one rail.remaining billet is again split in the same direction,ef, and its separate parts are now split along therays, forming, in this instance, five rails.The number,of course, will depend upon the size of the log.To split a log: Begin at the smaller or top end,because it splits easiest that way. Advantage maybe taken of a natural crack or check, but if there isnone, take axe in one hand, maul in the other, andstart a crack. Into this drive two wedges, as inFig. 45, and others into the longitudinal crack ontop as it opens. To ensure a straight split: Firstscore the log lengthwise with the axe, driving thebitt in with a moderate tap or two, at one place, thenextending the cut backward with another, and so on.finally splitting this apart with gluts. A free-split-

204 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTting log of moderate size can be split withoutwedges, by using two axes, one working behind theother./ ' '^

AXEMANSHIP 205other thin pieces are to be riven, a nice judgmentmust be exercised in selecting the right kind of tree.Wood for this purpose must be sound, straightgrainedand springy. If brash or doty, it will notdo at all. Nor will "any old wood" do that splitseasily; it must split straight and make thin boards.The species of tree will depend, of course, on whatgiowths one has to choose from. Cedar is best, as itis easily riven and is very durable. , Boards fromfive to six feet long can be split out of cedar with noother tool than an axe, and a club or mallet to tapit. If the board shows a tendency to "run out," theworkman changes ends and makes another split backtoward the first one, or "coaxes" it after the mannerto be described hereafter. Such axe-riven board*;or shingles are commonly called "splits."Here in the southern Appalachians, our firstchoice for clapboards is "mountain oak," when wecan find one that splits well. Its wood resemblesthat of live oak in hardness and texture. Otherwisew^e take white, black, red, or water oak. Whiteand yellow pines are much used ; occasionally yellowpoplar. A young, quick-growing chestnut tree makesgood 18-inch shingles, but not the longer clapboardsor "shakes," as chestnut is prone to "runout" when long splits are made. Mature chestnuttrees generally are full of worm-holes. Sometimesa hemlock is found that will make clapboards, ifsplit bastard (the way the rings run), but, as arule, hemlock has a spiral grain.When a suitable species is found, the next thing isto pick out a good "board tree." This takes an experiencedeye, so leave it to a native woodsman, ifyou can. The way he does it is not easy to explain.First he looks for a straight trunk,limbs, and dote.free from knots,It should be not less than two feetthick. Then he scans the bark. If the ridges andfurrows run straight, in a general way, parallel withthe trunk, it is an indication of straight grain. Anoak with a large fork is likely to split well.But there is more than this in picking a board-

2o6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtree: the wood should be not only separable butspringy. The woodsman will tell you that he "senses"this; and he does, to the extent that his choiceis guided by no rule nor process of reasoning. Twiceout of three times he is right when he says **That'tree '11 do ;" nine times out of ten he is right whenhe says "That tree *s no good." Experience hastaught me that a tree with a certain "look" is likelytimber, but I can't,for the life of me, describe thatlook. You may have to split a big block out of atree, test its cleavage, and try several other treesbefore you find a good one. This is bad practice,but not so bad as felling, sawing off a cut, and thenleaving the tree to waste utterly.Clapboards.—^To rive clapboards or shinglesfiom the green tree is now a lost art, outside of thebackwoods. Not one carpenter in fifty, nowadays,can show you how. Yet it is an art well worthknowing for hunters and others who may want togo, season after season, to the same locality, andwish a snug shack on the place for regular quarters.Since good hunting seldom is found in the neighborhoodof a sawmill, a lumber yard, or a wagon road,the crux of the cabin scheme is how to get roofingmaterial. Bark is flimsy and will scarce outlast theseason. Tarred paper—^what is more hideously incongruousthan tarred paper over honest log walls?Anyway, paper requires boards underneath.The thing to do is to rive clapboards from treesthat grow on the spot. A clapboard is simply a thinboard, from two to four feet long, split or workedwith a froe from straight-grained timber. It is alittle thicker along one edge than the other, beingsplit from bolts, as shown in Fig. 47. A clapboardroof is dependable. It harmonizes better than anyother with the general woodsy effect. V/hen prop-An axe or two, a cross-erly laid, it is storm-proof, and will not cup.last a generation.The tools required are few :cut saw, a pair of steel wedges, and a froe.It willA maulfor the wedges and gluts, and a mallet of similar

IAXEMANSHIP 207shape, but smaller, for the froe, are made on thespot. The froe is a tool that seldom is seen outsideof the backwoods. Any blacksmith on the edge ofthe wilderness can make one for you. Its shape isshown in Fig. 49. The blade should be straight(old ones that have yielded to the mallet and becomeswaybacked are hard to manage). Let it beabout 14 inches long, rather thick, and stunt-edged,as it is for splitting, not cutting. Its weight willbe about five pounds. A green stick will do for thehc-ndle.When the right tree is found, throw It in the bestplace for working up, and saw off a cut of 23^2 to 3feet. The butt cut usually is not so good as theupper ones, being tougher. Turn the cut up on end,and, with a single-bitt axe and mallet, mark an indentationstraight across the center of the block.Do not tap hard until you come to the end of theline ; then strike vigorously, and the block will fallin halves. If you struck hard from the first, thesplit might run off to one side. In the same way,split the halves into quarters, and these into bolts orFig. 46.--Splitting Out Fig. 47.—Block forBoltsClapboardsbillets of convenient size for riving (see Fig. 46).A bolt is usually of such thickness, that it will makeeight boards or shingles—say five inches across theoutside.Now split out the heartwood of each bolt by layingthe axe across and tapping it. Heartwood isuseless, for it won't split well. In some trees theheart is so tough that it is advisable, instead of halvingand quartering your cut, to just split in toward

2o8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthe cut, all around, to bolt size, and then knock outthe bolts by driving the axe in at right angles to thecuts, leaving the heart as one solid core (Fig. 47).Skin off the bark, and your bolts are ready to rive.The next thing is ton\ake a brake. Thismay be simply the forkof a limb, as in Figs.49 and 51. Anotherway is to lay twoFig. 48.—Brake for blocks against the pros-Riving Boards trate trunk of yourboard tree, at right angles to it, like fire dogs,and a yard or so apart; on them lay a smalllog, parallel with the trunk, and drive stakes outsidethis "roller" to keep it from rolling more thansix or eight inches away from the trunk (Fig. 48).The office of the brake is to clamp one end of thebolt while you are riving with the froe.Fig. 49.—Splitting with a FroeNow take up your froe. Stand one of the "boltson end, lay the froe's edge accurately along the centerof one end, and split the bolt in twain bytapping with the mallet and springing your cleft

AXEMANSHIP 209apart with the froe (Fig. 49). Take one of thesehalves and rive it similarly into two equal parts.At this stage (more surely at the next one) youmust learn a new trick—the difference betweenriving and mere splitting, and how to govern the rift.The wood has a tendency to "run out" more towardone side than the other. If you went on just fore-Fig. 50.—"Run-out" Rifting the froe down, the result would be a botch(asin Fig. 50). To prevent this, turn the block sothat the thicker side is down, lay its lower end inthe brake, open the cleft until you can insert yourflat left hand (the froe will prevent pinching), andthen bear down hard on the bottom {thicker) sectionwhile you work the froe gently up and down.Fig. 51.—^Springing the RiftThis will make your split run back again into thethiclcer section.Having quartered the bolt, now carefully riveeach quarter into two clapboards or shingles (Fig.51). You may have to turn the piece three or fourtimes in order to get boards of uniform thickness.It is right here that judgment and skill are calledfor.

aioCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTWith good wood, already bolted, an experiencedhand can turn out about one thousand clapboards,or four thousand shingles, in a day. Experts dobetter.Clapboards, although slower to make than shortshingles, save time and labor in the end, becauseof their extra span, and because they can be naileddirectly to rib poles running lengthwise of the roof,whereas shingles require strips of board or flattenedpoles laid across rafters and close together. Therib pole construction makes a prettier gable endthan the usual way of boxing up the gable withboards, because courses of logs are carried all theway up into the peak. Sawed boards break rusticefifect.Shingles.—However,ifshingles be preferred, they,too, can readily be madefrom the green tree. Thesehand-made shingles, if finishedby shaving smoothwith a drawing knife, aresuperior to the mill product.To make them, a largeFig. 5Z— t^^^ ^^ chosen, and theDouble Bolting cuts are double bolted (asfor Shingles jn Fig. 52). Since thesides of the outer bolts are almost parallel, the unshavedshingles will be of nearly even thickness onboth edges. In riving shingles the bolt is turnedend-for-end every time a shingle is struck ofE, andthe shingles are allowed to run out a little so asbe thinner at one end than at the other.A rude but efficient shaving-horse is shown in Fig.53. My partner and I made such a one in an hourout of a chestnut log, a dogwood fork, two sticks forlegs, and a hickory wand. The log (A B m Fig. 53)Is flattened on top to the rear of C. The far endrests on the ground and the near one is elevated onlegs to such height that a man sitting in front of itwill find A at the level Qfjiis elbows. The clampto

AXEMANSHIP 211C D is pivoted in a slot by a wooden pin. (Wehad a chisel, but no auger; so we burned the holeout with a red-hot poker). Its head, C, may becut as shown or formed of the stub of a naturalfork. The end D is high enough to clear theground, and at such distance from A that the operatorcan press against it with his foot, and thusclamp the head down on a shingle which is laidfrom C to A. A bowstring runs from C to thespringy stick E inserted in the log a few feet backFig.53.—Shaving Horseof the clamp, to hold the latter back out of thevvay when not in use. For ordinary cabins, theclapboards or shingles do not require shaving.Shingles are best made of soft wood (cedar isfirst choice). Then, if stacked and seasoned, theywill not cup. If oak shingles are seasoned theywill split in nailing; consequently they are usedgreen. Moderate cupping does not necessarilymean a leaky roof, but it is unsightly. Clapboards,although always laid green, cannot cup, because theyare nailed at both ends. They should be laid thickedge to thick and thin to thin. A thin .board w^illoutlast a thick one and makes tighter joints.Speaking of cupping—it is universally believed bybackwoodsmen that green shingles surely will cup iflaid at any other time than "the old of the moon.'*Twice out of three times they will cup anyway—butit is heresy to say so.Lx)NG^ Slender Splits.—^When one is obliged touse wood that does not naturally split very straight,he still can rive out long and slender pieces of uniformthickness by careful manipulation. In his very

:212 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpractical little book on Camp and Trail Methods,Mr. Kreps describes the following method that heuses in getting material for snowshoe frames out ofwhite birch, which is the only good wood for thepurpose that is to be found in the far northernwoods"Look along the edges of the swamps and youwill finid long, slender birches with smooth bark.Select one of about six inches in diameter, free ofknots and flaws for about ten feet. It should bestraight, and there must be no- twist to the grain ofthe wood. If the limbs of the tree are drooping, somuch the better, as it is stronger wood. Avoid thered-barked kind, with upright limbs."Having found a good tree, fell it, cut off aboutten feet, and lay this piece in a notch cut' in an oldlog or stump. Now carefuly cut a groove the entirelength of the stick, making it an inch or moredeep. Do not strike hard when cutting this groove,or you will shatter the wood. When finished, turnthe stick over and make a similar groove in the oppositeside."Now go along the entire length and strike lightlywith the axe in the bottom of the groove to star*the split; turn the stick over and do the same withthe other side."Next make two small wooden wedges, and, commencingat the end of the stick, driving one wedgein each groove, keep moving them along, and thestick will split nicely, following the grooves. If atany point the split is inclined to lead away from thegroove, bring it back by cutting the contrary fibers."Now select the best of the two pieces and cutanother groove the entire length, on tne bark side,SpKt this the same as before and you will have thewood for two frames."Quick Seasoning.—Green wood can be seasonedquickly, or rather have the sap driven out of itandthe fibers hardened, by careful roasting in hot ashesor over the camp-fire. The old English word forsuch treatment of wood was "beathing." For thetime being, this makes the wood soft and pliable, sothat it can be bent into any required shape, or it canl^e straightened by hanging a weight from one end,or by fastening it to a straight form; but when the

AXEMANSHIP 213wood has cooled, it becomes stiff, as if regularly seasoned.One time when some of us were bivouacing in themountains, Bob announced that he was going tocatch a mess of trout in the morning. He had a lineand some flies, but I wondered how he would extemporizea rod stiff and elastic enough for fly fishing.It didn't bother him a bit. The only straight andslender stick he could find right there was a boxelder seedling. He trimmed it, removed the bark,and spent about an hour roasting it over the campfire,drawing it back and forth in his hands, so asnot to overheat and crack it, and to temper theheat just right, according to thickness of the pointWhen the sap was roasted out, he hung thetreated.rod up to cool, and when that was done he had aone-piece trout rod with the necessary whippy actionror fly fishing. Next morning he soon caught allwe could eat.Bending Wood.—Small pieces of green wood canbe bent to a required form by merely soaking theFig. 54.—Spanish Windlass (for bending wood)pieces for two cr three days in water, but if it isdesired that they "should retain their new shape, theyshould be steamed. Small pieces can be immersedin a kettle of hot water. A long, slender one issuppled by laying it over the kettle, mopping it withboiling water, and shifting it along as required.Large pieces may be steamed in a trench partly filledwith water, by throwing red-hot stones into it. Thendrive stout stakes into the ground, in the outlinedesired, and bend the steamed wood over thesestakes, with small sticks underneath to keep the woodfrom contact with the ground, that it may dry more

214 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTreadily. If a simple bow-shape is all that is wanted^it can be secured by merely sticking the two endsof the wood into the ground and letting the bowstand upright to dry; or, use the Spanish windlass*as shown in Fig, 54,

TOMAHAWKCHAPTER XlirSHELTERS -AXEMEN'SCAMPS—CACHES—MASKED CAMPS"The simplest and most primitive of all camps isthe 'Indian camp/ It is easily and quickly made,is warm and comfortable, and stands a pretty heavyrain when properly put up. This is how it is made:Let us say you are out and have slightly missed yourway. The coming gloom warns you that night isshutting down. You are no tenderfoot. You knowthat a place of rest is essential to health and comfortthrough the long, cold, November night."You dive down the first little hollow until youstrike a rill of water, for water is a prime necessity.As you draw your hatchet you take in the wholesituation at a glance. The little stream is gurglingdownward in a half-choked frozen way. There is ahuge sodden hemlock lying across it. One clip ofthe hatchet shows it will peel. There is plenty oismaller timber standing around: long, slim poles,with a tuft of foliage on top. Five minutes sufficesto drop one of these, cut a twelve-foot pole from it^sharpen the pole at each end, jam one end into theground and the other into the rough bark of a scraggyhemlock, and there is your ridge pole. Now go=—with your hatchet— for the bushiest and mostpromising young hemlocks within reach. Drop themand draw them to camp rapidly."Next, you need a fire. There are fifty hard, resinouslimbs sticking up from the prone hemlock; lopoff a few of these, and split the largest into matchtimber; reduce the splinters to shavings, scrape thewet leaves from your prospective fire-place, andstrike a match on the balloon part of your* trousers.If you are a woodsman you will strike but one. Feedthe fire slowly at first; it will gain fast. When youhave a blaze ten feet high, look at your watch. Itis 6 P. M. You don't want to turn in before 10o'clock, and you have four hours to kill before bedtime.Now, tackle the old hemlock, take off every215

2i6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdry limb, and then peel the bark and bring it intocamp. You will find this takes an hour or more."Next, strip every limb from your young hemlocks,and shingle them on your ridge pole. This will makea sort of bear den, very well calculated to give youa comfortable night's rest. The bright fire will soondry the ground that is to be your bed, and you willhave plenty of time to drop another small hemlockand make a bed of browse a foot thick. You do it.Then you make your pillow. Now, this pillow isessential to comfort, and is very simple. It is halfa yard of muslin, sewed up as a bag, and filled withmoss or hemlock browse. You can empty it and putit in your pocket, where it takes up about as muchroom as a handerchief."You have other little muslin bags—an* you bew'ise. One holds a couple of ounces of good tea;another sugar; another is kept to put your looseduffel in: money, match safe, pocket knife (whenyou go to bed). You have a pat of butter and a bitof pork, with a liberal slice of brown bread; and beforeturning in you make a cup of tea. ^roil a sliceof pork, and indulge in a lunch."Ten o'clock comes. The time has not passed tediously.You are warm, dry, and well fed. Your oldfriends, the o»wls, come near the fire-light andsalute you with their strange, wild notes; a distantfox sets up for himself with his odd barking cry,and you turn in. Not ready to sleep just yet."But you drop off; and it is two bells in the morningwatch when you awaken with a sense of chilland darkness. The fire has burned low, and snow isfalling. The owls have left, and a deep silencebroods over the cold, still forest. You rouse thefire, and, as the bright light shines to the furthestrecesses of your forest den, get out the little pipe,and reduce a bit of navy plug to its lowest denomination.The smoke curls lazily upward; the firemakes you warm and drowsy, and again you lie down—to again awaken with a sense of chilliness—to findthe fire burned low, and daylight breaking. Youhave slept better than you would in your own roomat home. You have slept in an 'Indian camp.'"You have also learned the difiference betweensuch a simple shelter land an open-air bivouac undera tree or beside an old log."—^("Nessmuk," Woodoraff.)Why peel the old hemlock? Because the thickbark is resinous, is good to ''brand up" a fire, and to

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS 217cook over. Those hemlock stubs by themselves arerather poor fuel—you took what was handy—but,as I have already warned, chop them off well abovetheir butts where they join the log, or you will havea nicked hatchet.Fig.55.—Lopped Tree DenNowadays it is prohibited, on public lands, tomake a fire against the trunk of a tree, for it ruinsthe tree. The ridge pole can be supported by a lowlimb, or it can be set up on shears.If one is alone, and needs nothing but a windbreakat night, a quick and easy way is to select asmall, thick foliaged evergreen, cut the stem partlyFig. 56.—Straddle-bug Framein two at about five feet from the ground, thenpush the top over till it rests on the ground, thestem still being fast to the butt. Trim off theboughs from the inside, to use in thatching. Partiallysever the upstanding limbs on the outside andlet them hang down as part of the roof. Add your

2i» CAMMING AND WOODCRAFTthatching, and branches from nearby small treestas may be needed to make your den wind-proof(Fig. 55). This will be little protection, however,against rain, as the angle of the ridge is not steepenough, unless the tree be cut higher.Where no tree grows on a favorable place, onecan erect very quickly a tripod of poles (Fig. 56)secured at the apex by interlocking forks, or bytying. No triangular framework, however, issatisfactory for more than one occupant, because, ifthere be two or more of you, the den must be madeso deep that the angle farthest from the fire is sureto be cold and dismal. The tripod frame is impiovedby tying one end of a pole to each leg of theshears, about two-thirds of the way to the top, andletting the other end rest on the ground, so that therear of the shelter will be nearer a semi-circle thana triangle.This is what I call a "straddle-bug" frame (seedotted lines in Fig. 56). It is economical of timeand material, as it takes but five sticks. It is a particularlygood frame to use if one has a poncho orpack cloth, which is spread over the top, tied to theside bars, and the whole is then covered with boughs.This ensures a dry spot to sleep on, and makes a verysnug shelter in snowy weather, as no wind can getthrough, nor snow-water leak through from the top(snow does not melt at the sides) from the heat ofthe camp-fire.Brush Lean-to.—If two trees happen to standin the right position, run a stout ridge pole horizontallyfrom one to the other, secured in forks of lowlimbs, or in notches cut in the trees, or by nailing,or tying (use twisted withes, pliable rootlets, or barkstraps, if you have no cord). Against this lay polessloping backward to the ground like a shed roof.Fasten a cross bar on the back, and one on each side,to stiffen the frame and to support thatching. Coverthe roof and sides with evergreen boughs (balsam,hemlock, or spruce) hanging them from ridge andcross bars by stubs of their branchlets. trim them

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS 219on the Inside, and thatch them deeply outside withsmall boughs, beginning at the bottom, so that eachlayer will be overlapped by the one above it, likeshingles. Lay the thatch with feathery tips down.Fig.57.—Stake Frame forLean-toWhen no trees grow where you want your bed, setup two lorked stakes, slanting slightly outward atthe butts so they will not need bracing, to hold yourridge pole (Fig. 57), and proceed as above. If theFig. 58.—Shear Frame for Lean-toground is too stony or frozen to plant stakes in, useshear poles (Fig. 58), letting them fiare outwardso as to brace in every direction.A frame must be stout enough, in winter, tohold up the weight of a snowfall. The lower the

420 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTframe, the less material needed. Five feet to theridge is high enough for a "one-night stand."Any such bower is delightfully woodsy and sweetscented,but it is not good protection against longoi heavy rain. Of course, it lasts only so long asthe browse remains green.Bough Beds.—Balsam makes the best bed, as ithas thick, flat needles, soft and fragrant. Hemlockis next choice, then arborvitae (white cedar) and.spruce. Pine sprays are too scraggly. A bed ofboughs or leaves will spread from under one if notheld in place by something at the ends and sides;.so, if practicable, cut four logs and stake them in arectangle to keep the stuff in place. The fewerthick stems there are in your mattress, the easier you-will sleep ; but it takes a long time to make a browsebed of only the feathery tips; and you may be toohurried and weary.For the first course use branchlets from eighteeninches to two feet long. Begin at the head end,lay them against the log, butts down, bottom orconvex side up, and stick them in the ground withbutts slanting only a little to the front, to make thebed springy. Then shingle another row of the fansin front of these, and so on down to the foot, leavingonly the tips exposed. Then take smaller onesand stick them upright, tips inclined slightly to thehead, all over the bed, as thickly as time and materialwill allow. Such a bed is luxurious in proportionto its depth and freshness. If the browsewere merely laid flat on the ground it would packhard and lumpy, and the sticks would soon find yourribs. The bed should be renewed with fresh stuffevery two or three days.Balsam twigs should not be cut, but snapped off,Grasp the stem with two front fingers underneath,pointing toward the tip, and thumb on top, thenpress downward with the thumb and give a quicktwist of the wrist.Where there are no evergreens, collect small greenbranches of willow, cherry, alder, or any tree or

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS 22.shrub that is springy and supple. Lay a course oithese on the ground and cover with moss, dead grass,dry leaves, or whatever soft stuff you can find.Green leafy branchlets, ferns, rushes, herbage, andso forth, will do, if you can get nothing better.Even if such a bed is not soft, it will serve as insulationbetween your body and the cold, damp earth,and that is far better than none at all.Bark Shelters.—Almost any bark will peelfreely in the spring, when sap is rising, and severalkinds will peel all summer. Elm peels througheight months of the year, and some young basswoodtrees may be peeled even in winter. But, as a rule,if one wishes to strip bark in cold weather he willhave to roast a log carfully without burning theoutside.Barking a tree generally kills it, and is prohibitedon public lands. But in the far wilderness suchbarking as campers would do is not detrimental tothe forest, which generally needs thinning out, anyway.The bark of the following trees makes good roofsand temporary shelters, and is useful for manyother purposes: Paper birch, cedar, basswood, buckeye,elm, pig-nut hickory, spruce, hemlock, chestnut,balsam fir, white ash, yellow poplar and cottonwood.(That of the paper birch and of cedar, is quite inflammable).Select a tree with smooth and faultlesstrunk. If it is a birch, choose one with barkthat is thick, with few and small ''eyes." If it is ofa species that has rough, hard, furrowed bark on oldtrees, pick out a young one that still is smooth onthe outside, or treat as described below.For a temporary roof it will be enough merely toskin the bark off in long strips eight to twelve incheswide, lay acourse lengthwise with the slope of theroof, convex side up, and then another on top of thiswith concave side up, so that the first course w^illform troughs to run off the water that is shed by thesecond (Fig. 59). One axeman can erect a raia-

222 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTproof shelter in this way, from the bark of youngchestnut trees, for example, in less than an hour.It will not last long, however, as the sun will curlthe troughs inward. If a tree is felled for the purposeof stripping its bark, first place a short log nearthe butt as a skid for it to fall on.For neater and more permanent jobs the barkmust be flattened, and the rough outer bark must h«removed Cexceot birch, which is always smooth )-^only the tough, fibrous, soft inner bark being used»Fig. 59.—Bark Tilt _^For rough work the outer bark may simply be"rossed" off with a hatchet, but for nice jobs thebark should be treated as described below.If only a moderate-sized sheet isneeded, the treemay not have to be felled. First girdle the treejust above the swell of the butt, by cutting throughinto the sapwood. Then girdle it again as high upas you can reach. Connect these two rings by aVertical slit through the bark. Now cut into wedgeshapethe larger end of a four-foot length of sapling;this is your "spud" or barking tool. With itgently work the bark free along one edge of the uprightslit, and thus proceed around the tree till thewhole sheet falls off. If the girdles are 5 feet apart,a tree 2 feet in diameter will thus yield a sheet about5 X 6J feet, and a 3-foot tree will afford one 5 x 9j^feet. The bark is laid on the ground for a fewdays to dry in the sun, and is then soaked in water,which supples it and makes the inner bark easy toremove from the outer.

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS 223The frame for a bark lean-to is like that in Fig. 57or Fig. 58. The roof is laid in courses, beginning atthe bottom, and overlapping like shingles. It is securedin place by weight-poles. The sheets of barkat the sides can be tied to stakes by using bark straps-Fig. 60.—Bark Lean-toor held in place by driving other slender stakes onthethe outside and tying them to the inner ones attop (Fig. 60). Such a camp w^ill last a wholeseason.A bark teepee is made by lashing the tops of threepoles loosely together, spreading them as a tripod,Fig. 61.— BeehiveLodge FrameFig. 62.—BeehiveLodge (covered)laying other poles against them with their buttsradiating in a circle, covering with bark as above,and holding it in place with other poles laid againstthe outside. A more commodious circular lodge(more head-room for its size) was formerly used bythe Algonquin tribes of the East. It was of beehiveshape (Figs. 61 and 62), and was covered with

224 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTskins or bark.The butts of the poles were driveninto the ground and the tops bent over and tiedtogether. Inner hoops were added as shown in theillustration, and the two crossed poles in front leftopenings for a doorway below and a smoke-ventabove.top,If a rope or vine were run around near thepegged down at the bottom of the lodge on theopposite side, and a similar one used on the otherside, such a structure would stand against a heavygale. The Indians, so far as I know, did not dothis, but I have shown the arrangement in Fig. 62.A wikiup frame that is quickly set up can be madeby driving six or more slender and flexible rods intothe ground, in semi-circular or half-oval form, bendingover those opposite each other, and twisting theirFig. 63.—Wikiup Frame Fig. 64.—Wattled Worktops together so that they hold without tying. Ina thicket of seedlings, I have cleared out a circularspace, bent over some of the tall, slender ones on themargin of this space, trimmed ofl[ the lower branches,interwoven the others, and so, in a jiffy, have had awikiup frame that no wind could blow down (Fig.63). The covering would be bark^ evergreenboughs, or whatever I could rustle that would servethe purpose. A small fire built close in front wouldsoon warm the little cubby. If there are prospectsof rain, the top should not be bent over so far, butsloped like the one in Fig. 61.Wattled Work.—A frame of any shape may bewattled to serve as foundation for a lasting thatch,or for daubing with clay. Bed bottoms and other

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS22smovable articles can be made in the same way. Italso makes good fencing around a camp in a wildhog country. To illustrate the process, let us supposeyou want to make a spring bed-frame to holdhay, browse, or whatever your mattress stuff may be.As many sticks as are required are driven firmly intothe ground (make holes for them with a pointedstick). Then take willows or other flexible wands,previously suppled by soaking, and weave them inand out from stake to stake as shown in Fig. 64.To keep the outermost stakes from drawing together,cut a strong stick with a fork at one endand a notch cut in the other and set it between thestakes to keep them apart, shoving it higher up asthe work progresses.Slab Camps.—In the mountains round aboutwhere I live there are many slab camps made bythe native hunters and herdsmen. They last foryears, and are welcome shelters for any wandererswho know their location or who chance to come uponthem when the weather is bad. Very often themountaineers go far up into the wilds withoutblankets or shelter cloths, carrying only their guns,ammunition, frying pan, tin cups, and ''some rationsin a tow sack." This, too, in freezing weather.But I omitted one thing that they always takealong: a full-size axe. Having that indispensabletool, they can get along without tent or bedding, nomatter what kind of weather may ensue. Fromchestnut, basswood, ash, spruce, pine, balsam, orother suitable wood, they split out, with axe andgluts a lot of 9-foot slabs. A stout ridge pole islaid across heavy forked posts or in notches cut intwo adjoining trees to which the pole is withedfast. The slabs are laid, overlapping lengthwise,from ridge to ground. A big log fire is kept goingall night in front of the shelter. Usually that isall. It must be bitter weather that would urge asouthern mountaineer toenclose the sides of such acamp—in his vocabulary there's no such word as"draughts,"

226 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTA slab camp may be made a very comfortable re«treat by taking a little more pains, and it will lastunimpaired for years, providing ready-made quartersfor future trips. Instead of plain slabs, which letin more or less rainwater, owing to imperfect joiningat the laps, use "scoops." These are sim.ply slabswith the flat side hollowed out into shallow troughsor gutters. This is done by cutting a series ofcross hacks a few inches apart along the core of theslab from end to end, then, splitting these out bychopping lightly lengthwise of the slab. Havingset up your ridge pole,Fig. 65.—Slab Camproll a good sized log to forma back for the camp, about seven feet from the ridge,and peg it in position. Lay the scoops overlappingfrom ridge to log (Fig. 65) and nail them fast, ordrive stakes at the rear against ends of scoops. Thenenclose the sides with splits or bark, and chinkcrevices around the log with moss or clay.The siding may extend to the roof, being trimmedthere to proper angle, or may rise little or no higherthan the side bar shown in the illustration. Thelatter plan is best in localities where there are eddyingand contrary winds, because it lets smoke out,instead of smoking out the occupants. It is thedraught along the ground that chills sleepers, notwhat comes from above.In a mountainous region it may be necessary to

'lUMAHAWK SHELTERS 227build the camp in a hollow between steep ridges.In that case, make it face across the hollow, not upnor down, because the night draughts sweep down aravine and reverse currents draw up it.To complete the slab camp, add side logs on theinside, and a foot-log for the bed, the latter being,say, fifteen inches thick, so as to serve as a "deacon'sseat." The roof should project far enough in frontto shelter the deacon and elders when they are busyholding down the aforesaid log.Back of this a browse bed, not less than a footdeep; in front, a jolly fire of big logs: then whocares where the mercury may go?In winter, cover the roof with a layer of evergreenboughs, so that snow shall not melt on it from theheat of the camp-fire. A drift six feet high wouldonly make such a camp the snugger against wmdand cold.Log Camps.—a favorite type of open facedcamp, is shown in Fig. 66. Logs are laid on top ofeach other, at sides and rear of camp, to a height ofabout three feet, being flattened a little so as to make^ r 1.1close joints. The back corners may be notched, asin a log house, but it is easier to butt the logs byhalving their ends (Fig. 66.^) and spiking them together.ridge pole,Two stakes are set up in front to hold theand the front ends of the logs are spikedto them. As many rafters as needed are nailed tothe ridge pole infront and the top log at the rear.The roof usually is of canvas, but bark or splits mayThebe used by adding cross pieces to hold them.triangular sides may be enclosed, or left open assmoke vents, bushy boughs being leaned up againstthe windward side when desired.The stakes need not be set in the ground, but ifit is preferred to do so, the stakes being of greentimber, select such poles as are durable in the soil,and roast the sap out of their lower ends until thesurface is charred, as this will help keep them fromrotting.In covering such a shelter,put on the sidmg firs^

228 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTridge isand the roof last, so as to overlap. A two or threefootoverhang sloping downward from thea desirable addition, to keep rain from driving in.A simple and effective way to rig it is shown by thedotted lines, which represent two forked poles slantingupward from the rear, outside of logs, nailed tologs and posts, and a cross bar laid in the forks tohold the font edge of tarpaulin or whatever else isused as roof. The most comfortable open-air campsthat I have made were of this design. There isFig.66.—Log^ and Frame Campmuch more room than In a simple lean-to of the sameground dimensions, and heat from the camp-fire isreflected down on the occupants so that they arecomfortable in zero weather, yet they have the freshair of all outdoors.I prefer such quarters to any tent that ever wasmade. In summer, the front and sides are easilyscreened with mosquito netting, a pole on the groundholding the front curtain down. If a little care isused in selecting wood that Is durable (see table InChapter XII) such a camp will last for severalseasons, the tarpaulin, of course, being carried alongon each trip. For two men and their duffel, a goodsize is 7 feet high, 7 feet wide, and 9 feet deep, in-

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS 229side measurement; for more, merely increase thewidth.An excellent camp for a party is arranged bybuilding two such shelters, facing each other, with abetween, and a "kitchen" with dining table,log fireas shown in thebenches, and "pantry," at one side,ground plan (Fig. 67). The fire is built by layinglogs on thick "hand junks," and throws out heat inall directions. In bad, windy weather, the end oppositethe kitchen is screened by setting up a row ofbushy evergreens close together.Caches.—In a camp that is liable to be raided by*coons, porcupines, or other predatory animals, them.eat, fish, butter, lard, etc., should be cached underpiles of stones twice as heavy as you think suchbeasts could move, for they are astonishingly strongand persistent. Bears will demolish any such pilethat one man could build.To cache provisions and other articles in trees:Fasten a strong peeled pole from the fork of onetree to another at fifteen to twenty feet from theground, wrap up the parcel in canvas or oilskin sosnugly that ants cannot get into it, and suspend itfrom the pole with ropes or wnres. The treesshould be too slender for a bear to climb, yet toostout for him to shake. The pole is peeled to ^iveless secure footing for small animals, and to make itseason into sound wood that will not rot and break.Canvas waterproofed with linseed oil is the best covering,as its odor and taste are offensive to animalsof all kinds, great and small. A further precaution,in case of a light parcel, is to make a St.Andrew's cross (X-shaped), hang it from the pole,and suspend the package from the end of one armof the cross, so that every puff of wind will set itswinging.A good place for a cache is on an islet in a riveror lake, so small that there are not likely to be anypredatory animals living on it.In the North, where wolves and wolverenes mustbe guarded against, the best cache for meat is madeby cuttins: a hole throu£:h the ice of a stream or lake.

230 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfastening the sack of meat to a stick by a rope orhide thong, and letting itdown into the water, thestick resting across the orifice. Lumps of ice arethen piled into and over the hole, and water ispoured on- them, which freezes the mass togetherinto a mound a foot or two high. Or a place may** *

lUMAHAWK SHELTERS 231**In the high plain on the north side of the Missouri,and 40 yards from a steep bluff, we chosea dry situation; then describing a small circle ofabout 20 inches diameter, we removed the sod asgently and carefully as possible. The hole is thensunk perpendicularly for a foot deep, or more if theground be not firm. It is now worked graduallywider as wc descend, till at length it becomes six orseven feet deep, shaped nearly like a kettle, or thelower part of a large still, with the bottom somewhatsunk at the center. As the earth is dug, it is handedup on a vessel and carefully laid on a cloth, in whichIt is carried away, and usually it is thrown into theriver, or concealed so as to leave nc trace of it. Afloor of three or four inches in thickness is then madeof dry sticks, on which is thrown hay, or a hide perfectlydry. The goods, being well aired and driedare laid on this floor, and prevented from touchingthe wall by other dried sticks, in proportion as themerchandise is stored away. When the hole is nearlyfull, a skin is laid over the goods, and on thisearth is thrown and beaten down until, with the additonof the sod first removed, the whole is on a levelwith the ground and there remains not the slightestappearance of an excavation."Even after such precautions, caches sometimeswere discovered and dug into by wolves or by Indians'dogs. Another trouble was that they wereliable to cave in, if there were no trees with whichto timber them. Of course, they had to be situatedhigh enough to be out of reach of river overflows*Still, this method of storing supplies for the futurewas the best that could be devised in such a situation,,and generally it turned out all right. Even suchfood as dried fish was kept a long time uninjured inunderground caches lined with dead grass and hides..In the far wilderness a cache is considered sacredby all woodsmen, white or red ; hence it need notbe concealed from prying eyes and itching fingers.But in woods that are frequented by all sorts ofvagabonds and ne'er-do-wells, a hiding place forone's supplies must be well chosen to escape theattention of thieves or malicious people. For temporaryconcealment, a hollow log may do, In caseof such articles as cannot be gnawed into by rodents

232 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTor entered by insects. Anything that is not injuredby dampness can be hidden more securely by diggingunder an old embedded log, laying it there, coveringit up, and restoring the surface to its former appearance.A secret storehouse for tools, utensils, etc., thatyou may wish to leave near the camp until nextseason may be dug in a dry bank and roofed overwith logs, brush, and then a layer of earth, like adug-out, the interior being lined with poles and drygrass, brush, or bark.Another way, when you have a cabin, is to floorit with split puncheons conspicuously spiked to wallsand sleepers. One or two of these puncheons haveonly spike heads driven in the usual places, and areremovable. They are fitted with hidden fasteningsto keep them firmly in place. This false flooringcommunicates with a miniature cellar, rock lined,under the middle of the cabin. Boxes are made thatcan be sealed air-tight (for example, with adhesiveplaster). Articles to be stored are thoroughlydried, sealed up in the boxes, on a day when theair is not moist, and the chests are placed in thecellar, resting on flat rocks.Generally I prefer to build the cache separatefrom the camp, and hidden at some distance fromIt. Then, in case the camp is entered by prowlers,or burned out, I will not be minus tools and beddingat the next visit. The cache may be built of rocksunder the overhang of a ledge where nobody elseis likely to go, or of notched logs with slab roofspiked down, or in other ways, according to circumstances.One will use his wits in utilizing suchfacilitiesas the country affords.have had occasion to locateMasked Camps.— Iwould be out of the way ofmy lone camp where it—thieves or interlopers, beast or human, as I would beaway a good part of the time. Such devices willvary, of course, with the locality one is in. Hereare a few general principles to bear in mind.

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS-=*joThe camp is to be situated where not only menTherebut cattle and wild hogs are unlikely to go.should be nothing in the neighborhood to attract anyof the various classes of people who frequent thrwoods. Study each of , thesp , classes .in turn, an Jtheir habits..'/6>X%C>% 'ti.^Fig.68.—A Masked CampIt should be invisible from trails,and from oppositeridges.It should be screened by tall trees, preferablyevergreens, so that the smoke of a properly fed firewill not betray it by day, nor its light do so at night.There should be plenty of down-wood in theneighborhood, so that the noise of chopping may bereduced to a minimum.It should be not far from a regular trail ; becauseyou must go back and forth yourself, and if youshould make a new trail it soon would attract noticeand speculation.

234 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTIt is impossible for a man, even though he bealone, to camp more than a day or two in one placeAvithout leaving footprints that a woodsman wouldnotice, unless the weather is extremely dry. Theproblem, then, is to mask the points ot ingress and€gress.If your presence in the country is known to lowcharacters, establish a woods alibi, by buildinganother camp away from the real one, but somewhatmore public. Build a fire there every day ortwo, freshen the browse bed now and then, andleave litter and footprints indicating recent occupancy.The more shrewdly this false camp is locatedthe surer you are to lead busybodies to spythe wrong places.after you inAn example of a successful masked camp isillustratedin Fig. 68.An old trail up the creek is used by herdsmen,hunters, and others going up into the m.ountains.Fishermen commonly wade the creek itself. Onthe south side of the stream is a forest mostly ofoaks and chestnuts. On the north side is a laurelthicket in which stand numerous birches and hemlocks.To the north is a cliif or steep-sided ridge,a spring.at the base of which isNeither hogs nor cattle will go over into thatlaurel thicket when there is an open forest of mastbearingtrees on the other side of the creek, and aregular trail running through it. Consequentlynobody looking for his hogs or cattle will cross thestream at this point. Nor is there anything overthere to attract game or its pursuers. About theonly people who would be likely to go into such aplace are timber cruisers, who, of late years, actuallycount every tree, or blockaders (moonshiners), orspiesserving the revenue agents.If 'you know those woods, you know how long ithas been since its timber was "cruised," and thelikelihood of it being gone over for tliat purpose thisyear. Anyway* cruisers are decent fellows. The

TOMAHAWK SHELTERS 235spring branch and the solitude of that north sidewould be attractive to blockaders looking for a newlocation; but if they picked on it, they would erecttheir still on the branch itself, low enough downfrom the spring so that they could run water througha spout to the worm of the still. Spies searching forsuch gentry would go along the branch, and, findingno sign, would waste no more 'ime there.A man camping in that thicket would have to havesome way of getting in and out. It would be much toowearisome to go a new way every time, crawlingthrough the laurel. That means he will make atrail of his own. He leaves the regular trail andsteps into the creek not far from a pointopposite the mouth of the spring branch, andup that branch he v/ades a short distance until outof sight of the creek. Here he turns out into thethicket to the left and trims a trail to the spring,starting a few yards back from the branch so thatno marks are visible from it. Directly below thesprmg he starts similarly a trail to the camp site,where he trims out as much space as he needs. Deadtrees wind-thrown from the cliff supply him withalmost smokeless fuel, and dead laurel, of whichthere is plenty in every thicket, gives him an abundanceof excellent kindling that is really smokeless.When he chops, it will be so early in the morningthat nobody else will be within sound of it, for it isan hour's w^alk, at least, from any house.Whenever he goes to the spring, or returns fromIt, he drops a dead laurel bush at the entrance tothe side trail leading to camp, the sprangling forksof the bush being thrown outward, which woulddeter any stranger from pushing through just atthat point. The entrance to this side trail, like theone near the mouth of the branch, is ''blind" ; i. e.,not visible from the branch, as you have to partsome bushes to find it.

CHAPTER XIVCABIN BUILDING AND FITTING UPNobody knows what solid comfort ireans untilhe finds himself, snug and well fed, in a bit of acabin, far away in the big sticks, while icy blastsrebound from his stanch roof and walls, to go howJingaway through a famine-stricken wilderness,thwarted by a woodsman's providence and skill.Open the door: you are face-to-face with miseryand death. Close it: the hearth-fire leaps, thekettle sings, you smoke contentedly, and all is well.A tent, at best, is only a shelter : a cabin is a home.Log walls insure everything within against stormsand prowling beasts. There are comfortable bunksfor Partner and you, a table, benches and stools orchairs, a cupboard and bins with a good store of food,a chest or two, shelves and racks, a fireplace orstove. The weapons, tools, and utensils are hungjust where they are handiest. Plenty of good woodis stacked in the dry. On wet days you can stayindoors without feeling cramped or jailed. Andnext season, when you come back again, how likean old friend the log hut twinkles welcome!I shall describe only two types of simple oneroomcabins, such as would be built by hunters orothers who go pretty far back into the woods andrequire no more than a snug "home camp." Fordesigns of more elaborate Structures, to be used asSummer homes in or near "civilization," the readerIS referred to Kemp's Wilderness Homes (OutingPublishing Co., New York) and Wickes' Log Cabins(Forest and Stream Publishinq; Co., New York).

:abin building 237In the first example I will assume that there isa road or waterway to the camp site on which toolsand some materials can be transported by wagon,boat, or raft; also that the cabin is to be largeenough for four men, but planned to economizetime and labor in construction, so that it may befinished in a week. You are supposed to hire a manwith team to snake the logs in, unless enough suitabletrees grow on the site itself.f/r f/r/ / r t /- ^ • r r ^ ^ r / / .' r V ///^x/6-g-/•LCLFig. 69.—Log cabin (ground plan)a—door; b— fireplace, 4'; c, c—windows; d,d—bunks, 4Jx6f'; e—table, 3x4i'; f—grubchest, 2'x3'; g—wash stand, lVx2V; straightdotted lines indicate high shelvesDecide beforehand what kind of roof you shallmake. If it be of sawed shingles, or of roofing felt,then you must take along roof-boards as a foundationfor them. A roof made simply of planks battenedand painted will last several years without any covering,and it is easiest of all to build ; but it is proneto warp or cup, under a summer sun, and then leak.If roofing felt is used, carry along; paint and brushto take the black "curse" off. Clapboards riven fromneighbormg trees are chosen m the present instance,

238 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTas other methods of roofing are familiar to everybody.They call for no roof-boards, being nailed directlyto the stringers (rafters that run parallel with theridge). The way to make them has been describedin Chapter XI I.A stone chimney, with fireplace not less than fourfeet wide, is ideal for heating a woodland home.Nothing is so jolly as an open fire of hardwood logs.With a Dutch oven or reflector, besides the ordinaryutensils (see Vol. I., pp. 65-66), you can cookas well on the hearth and over the fire as in a stove.But if rocks are scarce about your building site,or if good fuel is not abundant, a stove will berequired.It will save a good deal of labor in building,and much wood chopping thereafter. Choosefor yourself.Let us say that you decide on a clapboard roofand a stone chimney, the house to be 14 x 16 feetinside measurement, high enough for a porch infront and a lean-to kitchen in the rear, to be addedin future. A ground plan is shown in Fig. 69. Itmay be modified, of course, according to frontageand other conditions.The tools you ought to have for such a job are:2 Axes, Jack plane,2 Hatchets, Framing chisel (V^),Crosscut saw (6 ft.) and Tape line,handles, 2 ft. Rule,Peavey, or cant hook, Steel square,Sledge hammer (8 lb.), Pocket level to screw on2 Steel wedges (5 lb.), square,Froe,T-bevel,Spade,Plumb-bob,Mattock, Chalk line and chalk,Hand saw, Orosscut satw file,Rip saw, 2 Triangular files (7 in.Compass saw, and 6 in. slim taper).Brace, Mill file (8 in.),Z Auger bits (H, H, 1/4).. Whetstone,2 Drill bits (Vs, %), 50 ft. Rope (1 in.>.Drawing knife.

CABIN BUILDING 239I have helped to build two clapboard-roofed cabinswith fewer tools than these, but the others wouldhave come in handy. We had no need for any notmentioned on this list. Some of these are used onlyin making furniture. All of the light tools exceptthe square go in a carpenter's shoulder chest. Thecrosscut saw should be tied between two thin boards,as shipped from the factory.Materials to be "carried in" are i^-in. planksfor flooring, dressed on one side; %-in. planks,dressed on both sides, for door, casings, shutters,furniture, and shelving; 2 glazed window sashes,single; wire nails (4od, lod, 6d), wrought nailsfor door and hinges; strap hinges for door andcupboard and chests; door-lock; 2 flat steel barsfor fireplace lintel; round steel rod for "crane" infireplace ; heavy wire for pot-hooks. A screen door,and wire screen cloth for windows, will add greatlytocomfort.Site.—Build where there is good natural drainage,and below a spring, or near some other sourceof water supply that is beyond suspicion. Cut awajrall trees that would shade the cabin except from theafternoon sun. Forest air is nearly always damp,and you need plenty of sunshine up to the noonhour. If you are in an original forest of tall,trees, bear in mind that such do not root nearly,so firmly as trees growing alone m exposed positions.When a tree of the ancient forest is left standingby itself in a clearing, it is easily overthrown byv/ind ; so do not leave one of these near enoughto the house that it might crush your cabin.The features of good and bad sites are discussedin Vol. I., pp. 208-214.Do not dig a cellar under the house. A cellarnot cemented is a trap for water, especially whenthe snow begins to melt. A small cache may bedug under the center of the floor, where it will stay,

240 CAIvIFING AxND WOODCRAFrTimber.—The logs should be straight and ofslight taper, the best of the smaller ones beingreserved for floor and roof timbers. Those for thesills should be at least a foot thick, but the uppercourses may be smaller. The wood must be ofsome species that is light and easy to work. Choicewill depend, of course, upon what is available. Thebest common woods are the soft pines, spruce, andV'oung chestnut. Sills should be of wood that isiitifi and durable (see tables in Chapter XII). Theymay be cut long enough to support the porch, ifone is to be built. Tall, straight, slender trees arecommon among the younger growth wherever thestand of timber is dense.Logs are best cut in spring or early summer, asthe bark then can be peeled with ease. If it isleft on, it soon begins to loosen, moisture and insectsget under it, and decay sets in. Pine logs,even after they are peeled, are attacked by "sawyers"(wood-boring larvae of beetles) which advertisetheir work by a creaking sound and by wood-dustdropped from their borings. They work just underthe surface, in a girdling way, do no seriousdamage, and cease operations after the first season.Cut the wall logs about three feet longer thanthe inside dimensions of the room, so as to alloweighteen inches at each end for jointing, unless youadopt one of the ways of building without notchesto be described hereafter. I have already told howto select good board trees for the roofing.Corners.—If the building site happens to be ofsand or gravel, and is flat, the sills may be laiddirectly on the ground ; but if the place is not level,or if there is soil on the surface, you should setthem up on piers or posts.Stake out the corners, and square them by themethod shown in Fig i8. At each corner setup either a pier of flat rocks or a heavy post.

CABIN BUILDING 241These should go down in the ground below frostline,and project just enough to keep the sills oftthe ground all the way round. Lay the two sillsand level them by hewing out underneath or blockingup, and testing with the level on your square.Tc make a good job of this, rip out two boardsabout six inches wide, nail them together for astraight-edge reaching from one corner to anotherdiagonally opposite, and use your level on the centerof the straight-edge, where it is most likelyto sag. When the sills are level and squared, blockthem up near the center of each with rocks, tokeep them from springing and sagging. The topsot the sills and floor joists are to be scored and hewnflat.After laying the sills, dig down at the chimneyend to a solid base and lay a rock foundation forchimney and hearth (Fig. jSd), the latter to projectabout two feet Inward from front of fireplace.Make corbels or some other arrangement for innerends of floor joists to rest on where they meet thisfoundation.Locking Corners.—^Wall logs usually arelocked together at the corners by notching. Thereare several ways of doing this. The quickest is thesaddle notch (Fig. 70) which has a wedge-shapedcut on top of lower log and a V-notch in bottomof the one that rides on it. This work is doneby eye alone, and calls for expert axemen.Another is the rounded notch (Fig. 71) cutnearly half-way through on under side of log. Ittakes some trouble to round out the notch, but aneat fit results. There might be a shallower roundednotch cut on both top and bottom of each log, tomake the logs lie close together; but the upperone would collect moisture and then decay wouldset in.A third way is to saw and split out one-fourththe diameter on each side of the end (Fig. 72),

242 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTleaving the center like a tenon, and spike the endstogether. This makes close joints, and shorter logsare used, as the ends do not project. It is hestadapted to poles of six-inch diameter and under,which do not require large spikes.Fig.70.—Saddle notch'WJmRound notchA very good way, especially for amateurs, is tosaw the logs to exact dimensions of inierior of roomdesigned, and spike the ends to an L-shaped ''trough"of heavy plank (Fig. 73) which, when set on end,will reach to the height of the walls. First laythe four bottom logs, and spike the troughs upright/^-^Fig".12.—Tenon-shapedend Fig. IZ.— "Trough'* cornerto the corners, having, of course, plumbed andbraced them in position. Then proceed similarlywith the other logs until walls are finished. Th'*smakes close joints that require little chinking, if thelogs are straight.Finish the open corners by quarteringa large log, or hewing four small ones, cutto height of walls, and nailing them to the troughsas shown. This is easier and quicker than notching.If you choose this plan, take along some 2-inchplank for the troughs, as thinner stuff is not stiffor strong enough ; also some 6od nails or spikes.Joists and Walls.—Having fittedcross logs tothe sills, test again to insure that all is square.Then fit the ends of the joists into gains chiseledout of the sills (Fig. 74), The logs for joists

CABIN BUILDING 243should be fully eight inchcb thick, or they will betoo spi^ingy. They may be spaced about two feetapart from center to center. Different thicknessescan be allowed for in shaping them to the gains, sothat all may be level.^&^Fig.74.—Fitting joistsNow go ahead with the walls. Lay the logswith butts and small ends alternating, so the wallsmay go up of even height. To raise the logs, asthe work advances,lean two poles against the wallas skids. Near each end of the top log fasten arope, pass the free ends of the ropes under andover the log to be lifted, and up to the corner men,who pull on these while other men push from below.At the height of windows, door and fireplace^make saw cuts almost through the upper log, in eachcase, at proper distance apart, so that afterwardthe crosscut blade can be pushed through and thespaces sawed out.Roof.—For a clapboard roof the stringers orrafters run lengthwise of the cabin instead offrom eaves to ridge (Fig. 75). The gables arebuilt of logs notched for the stringers, spiked together,and cut to the proper pitch.Select straight,slender poles for stringers. The ridge pole shouldbe heavier: say 8 or 10 inches thick.The pitch of the roof will depend upon climaticconditions; rather flat for a dry region, and steeperfor a wet one (not less than one foot rise to two ofwidth tor main building, and one to four for porchand kitchen). If there are heavy snowfalls, a steep

244 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpitch is required to stand the strain, and to keepsnow-water from backing up under the shingles.In laying the roof, begin at the eaves, lettingseveral inches overhang. The clapboards shouldalso project a little at the sides of the roof. Whenthe first course is laid, take the straight-edge thatFig. 75.—Log cabin(end view)you used for leveling the sills and nail It lightlyon top of this course as a guide for the next to buttagainst. Then lay the second course, breakingjoints carefully; and so on to the top. If youfinish the ridge with a saddle-board (inverted troughto shed water from the joint), or a log hewed outto serve as such, then the clapboards are sawed offto fit. Otherwise, let the top course on one sideproject, slanting upward over the other (this is nota reliable device for a very windy or snowy climate).Floor.—In laying the floor, leave an open spacein front of fireplace for the hearth. As the joistswill shrink In seasoning, It Is w^Ise to use as fewnails as practicable (only at ends of boards). Nextyear the planks may be taken up to be refittedwhere they have gaped apart, blocked up where thejoists have sagged, driven tight together by an extrastrip, and then nailed permanently In place.Door and Windows.—Before sawing out thedoor space, tack a plank vertically on each sideas a guide, and block or wedge the logs so they canno*^

CABIN BUlLDirsG 245sag when cut through. Remove one handle fromyour crosscut saw, push the blade through the cutthat you made when building the wall, attach handleagain, and saw out. Snap a chalk-line along thelog that comes directly over the doorway, and chiselout a section three or four inches deep for top ofdoor frame to be nailed to. Spike the jambs toends of abutting logs. Fit in a washboard beveled•onboth sides.The door should swing inward ; otherwise, if thecabin is occupied in winter, you may find your egressblocked by a snow-drift.If you can bring in a screen door, by all mean?do so. In such case you may as well bring also &ready-made door and casing. If means of transportationdo not permit this, then make a simplebatten door. Use wrought nails, as they can beclinched more neatly and firmly than wire ones.To hang a door: Place it exactly in position(shut) with bottom and sides wedged to giveproper clearance. Set the top hinge so that its pinis just in line with crack between door and jamb,and nail it; so also with the lower one. Fit thelock, or make a wooden latch and attach hasp andpadlock.The windows, being only single sashes, may behinged to their casings, like the door, or fitted onslides (Fig. 78). Shutters should be provided toclose the openin2;s when the cabin is left unoccupied.They may be fitted to bolt from the inside.There may well be a third window in our design,alongside the door and over the washstand. If akitchen is added, the rear window space will besawed down for a doorway.Chimney.—Saw out of the end wall a space forthe chimney, just as you did for the doorway. Theopening between wing walls of fireplace shouldbe about 4 feet wide, 18 inches deep, and 3 feethigh. The sides of fireplaces often are built nar»

246 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTrow within and flaring outward, so as to help throw,the heat out into the room. This is well enoughwhere fuel must be economized ; but in the big forest,where there is abundance, it is best to buildthe fireplace with straight sides, so that backlogs ofnearly 4-foot length can beused. This saves a lot ofchopping.If the back of the fireplaceis built up straightinto the flue, the chinmeyis very likely to bmokewhenever the air is heavyor the winds contrary.To insure a good draught,build the upper part ofthe fireback with a forwardslope, as shown in Fig.76, forming a "throat" {a)about 5 inches above thefront of arch or lintelsand only 3 or 4 inchesdeep. The top of thisthroat forms a ledge (b)Fig. 76.—Fireplace that checks wind from(vertical section) rushing down the flue.To support the rocks over the fireplace, insteadof building an arch (which is likely to crack or giveway from settling of chimney) set in two flat steelbars, 2^ X 34 inch, as lintels (c).Build the wing walls of the fireplace out Into thecabin far enough to protect the ends of abuttinglogs, and to support a plank or puncheon for mantelshelf(e). The upper part of the chimney goesquite outside the cabin, and so requires no flashings.In backwoods cabins the chimneys generally arebuilt up without mortar, clay being used instead.As clay shrinks and loosens in drying, such a structuremust be chinked over again at Intervals. Itis more satisfactory to take in with you a sack ofI

CABIN BUILDING 247cement, If possible, and use around the joints offireplace and hearth a mixture of one part cementto two of clean sand. Mix only a little at a time,as it soon sets. However, this may be deferred untilthe second season, by which time the chimney islikely to have settled and opened the joints here andthere.Wherever there is limestone, enough lime for mortarcan be made without much trouble, by a processsimilar to that of burning charcoal. Enclosea circular space of 5 feet diameter by a rude stonewall 3 feet high ; cover the bottom of this enclosurewith brush to facilitate kindling the kiln; then fillwith alternate layers of dry hardwood and limestonebroken into moderate-sized pieces, piling thetop into conical form. Light the pile, and whenit is well going, cover the top with sods to makethe calcination slow and regular. Keep it goingfor two days and nights. Lime can also be madefrom mussel shells or oyster shells. Slake the limein a box some days before it is to be used, and coverwith sand.For mortar, work the lime into a paste with waterand mix in with this, thoroughly, from 2 3^ to 3parts of sand. Thin with water until it mixeseasily.A pretty good substitute for mortar is blue clay(yellow will do) mixed intimately with wet sand.Another is a mixture of sand, salt, and wood ashes.When laying a chimney or wall, see that no jointcomes over or close to another joint. If a rockdoes not fit, turn it over and try again.At the proper height in your fireplace (a little belowlevel of lintels) insert a stout steel rod horizontallyon which to hang wire pot-hooks whencooking. In place of andirons, select two rocksabout 15 x 5 x 5 inches, to support the "fire irons"for frying-pan, etc. (See Vol. I, p. 64.) Never

248 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlay backlogs on them: they are only to be usedwhen cooking, or to hold forestick in place.Chinking.— If there are large crevices betweenthe logs they should be filled with quartered poles.Small ones are caulked with moss or clay. Mortarshould never be used for this purpose until the logshave seasoned thoroughly and got their "set."Fittings.—In Fig. 69, a pair of pole bunks areshown {d, d) across the end of the room oppositethe fireplace, where they are least in the way. Theyare to be built high enough to store personal chestsunder. A high window at c lets in the morninglight. Each bunk is roomy enough for two per'sons.The table {e) is movable. The provision ches^(/) may be lined with zinc to keep out rodents, althoughwire screen cloth is effective and easier toapply. It serves as a bin for flour, potatoes, etc.Over it hangs a cupboard for dishes and minorfoodstuffs.Dotted lines show high shelves around three sidesof the room. At ^ is a stand for water pail andbasin, with towel and mirror above and slop pailunderneath. Dry wood is piled in the corner betweenthis 'and the fireplace. A broom is hung be-Chairs or stools go where most con-hind the door.venient at the time.Axeman's Cabin.—It is quite practicable tobuild a «mall cabin with no other tool than the axe,and out of no other materials than such as growon or around the site. This often is done in remoteforests where there is no road. In such casethe shack is no larger than actually necessary—say8 X 10 feet, or at most 10 x 12.The roof may be of bark (see Chapters XII andXIII) held down by weight-poles running fromridge to eaves and tied together in pairs at the top tokeep them from slipping down. However, a barkroof is flimsy. A much better arrangement is to•"carry in" a ready-made paulin of 12-oz. canvas,

CABIN BUILDING 249.which can be bought of a tent maker or a mail orderhouse, a can of paint, and a brush (or the paulin maybe waterproofed before starting—see Vol. I., p. 72),and tack this to the rafters. Thus a durable andperfectly reliable roof is quickly made.These small shacks are best heated by a foldingstove of sheet iron, which can be carried in on aman's back. Take along, also, a collar for the pipe.When there are only one or two men to do thework, the house may have to be built of poles.In such case I prefer a shed-roof construction, as ittakes less material and is easier erected than onewith a ridge. But if there are trees that spliteasily, it is better to build of logs split throughthe center. These half-logs are easy to handle, easyto notch and lock at the corners, make close jointsand require little chinking; besides, since the wallsare flat inside, there is less waste of space and material.Fig. 77.-—Cabin door (woodenhinges and latch)It is not necessaryto floor sucha shack.Some usepoles for the purpose;but a polefloor is hard tokeep clean and offersharborage forvermin. A hardtroddenearthenfloor is easy tosweep and can bekept quite neat. Itiswarmer than anill-fitting one ofboards or puncheons.The door can bemade of boardsriven with axe andwooden wedges,withwoodenhinges and latch,,

250 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe hinge pins are made of cuts fronias in Fig. 77.a sapling, slightly flattened on the inner side andwith tops whittled to fit holes in flattened ends oftop and bottom door battens, which are half-round.The latch guard and catch are of naturally bentbranches or roots, or may be whittled out. Theend of latch string that hangs outside is knotted soit cannot pull through the hole.Cabin windows, when glass is unobtainable, maybe made of translucent parchment (recipes in ChapterXVII), but it is better to carry in with the outfita sheet or two of transparent celluloid, such asis employed for automobile curtain windows. Lackingall such materials, cut out a window space, anyway,that can be left open in fair weather andclosed with split boards at other times.Rustic Furniture.—Boards riven like clapboardsfrom green timber are likely to warp ipseasoning unless stacked carefully, or held in formsLaPElui M l.\ 'M (,f M l^^ M M N,'> /;.'j ^'^ t'.'l Ml rM-)i)c.\Li /-:! 1-.'!) HA WTTffW•IFig. 78.—Pole bunk (for four men)until they have dried through. If only one flat sideis required, as in shelving, seats of stools and benchesand so forth, split a small log in two and hew theflat side smooth. A number of these joined side byside, and cleated on the under side, will serve verywell for atable top or other broad surface.The bunk (Fig. 78), for four men, is madeby running a pair of straight poles about 4^^feet apart, from side to side of cabin, fitting the ends

CABIN BUILDING 251in the joints between wall logs, and supporting themiddle on posts. Athwart these are laid small polesto support the mattresses and on top of them, directlyover the large poles,are fastened two other longpoles as guards. The mattresse3 are simple bedticks filled with fine browse or whatever othersoft stuff is available. It pays to take ticks along,as they hold the stuff in place and are easy to refill.Double berths, one above the other, are nuisancesin every way. Folding cots are more cleanly thanany kind of fixed berths, and they can be carriedout of the house to sun and air while the flooris being swept.The table (Fig. 79) has no rounds nor braces atthe bottom, which would be in the way when peopleFig.79.—Tablewere seated at dinner. The legs may be madeof four pieces of sapling squared for nailing cleatsat the top, and the lower parts may then be shavedround or tapered. Make the table 30 inches high.The washstand is simply a broad shelf attachedto a cleat on the cabin wall and supported furtherby brackets or diagonal braces, leaving the spaceunderneath clear.Regular chairs should not be made until proper

252 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTFig.80.—Stoolwood has been thoroughlyseasoned for this purpose.If ft is to be used with thebark on it must be cutin mid-winter. Meantimethe occupants of the cabincan use stools (Fig. 80)and benches (Fig. 81)made of green wood b}^splitting out slabs andfitting natural round sticks in auger holes for legs,wedging these in like an axe helve so they can berefitted when the wood has shrunk in seasoning.Fig-.81.—BenchAn easy chair Is readily made, as shown in Fig. 82,by using a piece of canvas for seat and back.Split-bottom chairs(Fig.83) are particularly appropriatein a log cabin.Those common in thebackwoods are generallymade stumpy (only 16inches high in front and15 in the rear). It is betterto make them 18 inchesto top of seat, so they willbe right for a 30-inchheight of table. In makingthem you will need adrawing knife, a ^-in.Fig. 82.— Easy chair

CABIN BUILDING 253*bit and ^-In. chisel to mortise slots for the threebroad splits that connect the back posts (roundsticks may be usedinstead of splits).A 60-cent hollowauger, commonlyused for makingtenons, is betterthan a spoke sizerto fit the ends of [rounds to their holes.Besides gluing theseends, you can fox- ^Jwedge them (Fig.84) in place byffc^^ 1^SI^Wi^pi-ynsMi'Fig. 83.—Split-bottom chairsplitting each end a little and inserting a thin wedgebefore driving home.To fill the chair seat, use oakor other splits (see ChapterXIII) in the manner shown inFig. 85. Cut the end of a splitnarrow enough to tie easilyaround the side bar at a. Thenrun it across and pass it underand back over the opposite bar,^. „^ „ , and so on, as the cut shows.Fig. 84.—Fox-wedge -1,7, ^ ^ ^u ;»^ ^ When you get to the end!of this split, tie another to it, keeping knots onunder side of chair w^here they will not show.When the seat is filled up with the strips going^one way, fasten the end, beginning at rear (b), andrun others crosswise, in and out, until the seat isfinished.Instead of the plain pattern shown in this example,it is better to weave a diagonal one similarto that in the back of the rocking chair (Fig. 86).To do this, run the strands as follows:

254 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT1. Over two, under two, etc.2. Under one, over two, under two, etc.3. Under two, over two, etc.4. Over one, under two, over two, etc.Fig. 85.—Bottoming chair with splitsRepeat in above order. Be sure to draw the splitas tightly as you can every time it crosses the chair.Raw deerskin, or other animal pelt, makes goodchair seats.Racks for guns, clothing, etc.,Fig.86.— Rusticrockerare easily provided by cuttingcrotches of small limbs andnailing them up in convenientplaces. Wooden pins set inauger holes in the walls may beused for similar purposes. Ifyou have no auger, a hardwoodpin can be driven into a softwoodlog by trimming its pointwedge-shape and starting it ina nick made with the cornerof the axe blade.Ovtside, under the projecting roof at a gable end,

CABIN BUILDING 253fix a rack on which full-rigged fishing rods may bestood during the day (of course, you will unjointthem and take them in at night). This rack consistssimply of a small shelf for the butts, and, high upa narrow shelf with auger holes bored close to theedge and a narrow slot cut out from each holeto the edge for a rod tip to slip through.The first essential of good housekeeping is abroom. Tie together a round bundle of thin birch,willow, or other flexible twigs. Cut a broomstick,sharpen one end, and drive this pointed end into thecenter of the bunch—then it will hold fast.Some rainy day you can make a really first-classbroom from birch splints. Select a straight yellowbirch five inches in diameter and cut off a six-footlength. At about fourteen inches from the bip"end cut a ring around the bark about two incheswide. Peel off all the bark below that ring. Then,working w^ith a sharp jackknife, split small flatslivers from the butt end up to the bark ring. Continueuntil there is nothing left of the butt save asmall core at the top, and cut this off carefully.Then remove the bark above the ring and sliverthe wood down until there is only enough left foTa broom-handle. Tie this last lot of slivers tightlydown over the others with a stout string. Trimoff the slivers evenly.Then whittle off the handle,smooth it with glass, make a hole in its top and inserta hide loop to hang it up by. This is thefamous splint broom of our foremothers, as describedby Miss Earle in her Home Life in Colonial Days.Don't crowd the cabin with decorations or "conveniences"that will be in the way and serve chieflyto collect dust and cobwebs. Let each and everyarticle have a definite purpose, and show it by itsperfect adaptability. The simplest contrivancesgenerally are the best,

CHAPTER XVBARK UTENSILS—BAST ROPES ANDTWINE—ROOT AND VINE CORDAGE-WITHES AND SPLITSAmong the many interesting woodsmen that Ihave known was one who, years agone, had lived along time alone in the forest, not far from whereDaniel Boone's last cabin was built, in what is nowSt. Charles County, Missouri. I call him a woodsman,because he had to be, and loved to be, a realone ; but beyond that he was a scholar. In his youngmanhood he took to the woods that he might gainfirst-hand knowledge of Nature, and have leisurefor a colossal labor of love:that of translating into.English, with his own exegesis, the works of thephilosopher Hegel. When the Civil War brokeout, this hermit abandoned his cabin and raiseda body of volunteers to defend the Union. Afterwardhe became Lieutenant Governor of his State.One day we were discussing those traits of ourold-time frontiersmen that made them irresistibleas conquerors of the West. The Colonel lamed,as one factor, their extraordinary shiftiness in shapingthe simplest or most unlikely means to Importantends, and he illustrated It with an anecdote."I knew an old man of the Leatherstocking typewho once was far away and alone In the wilderness,hunting and trapping, when the mainspringof hi? flint-lock rifle broke. Now what do you supposehe did?""Made a new one out of an odd bit of steel.'*"No, sir: he had no bit of steel."2S^

BARK UTENSILS 257"Then of seasoned hickory or bois d'arc."*'No room for it in the lock. The old man hadkilled a turkey.He split several quills of its pinions,overlaid them one on another, bound them togetherwith wet sinews that shrunk when they dried, and—there was his mainsprmg. It worked."Boiling Water in a Bark Kettle.—^A competentwoodsman can cook good meals without anyutensils except what he makes on the spot frommaterials that lie around him, and he will wasteno time at it. In the chapters on Camp Cookery*I have shown how to broil, grill, roast, bake, barbecue,plank and steam without utensils. But, itmay be asked, how would one boil water withouta metal kettle? There is more than one way ofdoing this.One of them, w^hich many have read of, but fewnowadays have seen, is to split a short log, chopout of it a trough, pour water in, heat a numberof small round stones to a white heat, pick up onewith a forked stick or extemporized tongs, drop itinto the water, add another, and so on until thewater boils, which will be very soon. To keep itboiling, remove the stones and add others from thefire. You must select such stones as will neitherburst in the fire nor, like sandstone, shiver to pieceswhen dropped in the water./ Another way, which will be news to many, is toboil the water in a bark kettle by direct action ofthe fire. The thin inner bark of many species oftrees will do, or a thin sheet of the bark of thepaper birch, notwithstanding that it is so notoriouslyinflammable that we use it for kindling. No, thisis not a trick; it is a practical expedient.But first you must know how to make a watertightvessel out of nothing but a square sheet of pliablebark and a couple of thorns or splinters.Seem?*See Vol. I., pp. 293-299, 301, 309, 312, 315, 317, 319, 322-324.330, 344-346, 352, 369.

2S8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTimpossible? Nay, very simple. Try it at homewith a sheet of writing paper. Cut out a 12-inchsquare (or smaller—I give dimensions for a realbark kettle in which to boil a quart or more ofngp 1d R mFig. 87.—Folds for water tight vesselivater). Note the diagram (Fig. 87). Fold oveifrom d to c making the points of triangle meet at a.Open up, and fold similarly from a to b. Openagain, and you have the diagonal creases ab and dc.Turn the sheet over, and fold from ad along theline ?kj which is to be 3^ inchesfrom the margin. Similarlyfold cbj dbj and ac. You nowhave made all creases as in thefigure. They are your guidesin making a neat job.Grasp the point i with onehand and e with the other, raisethem, and bring them together:This throws a outward at an angle.Fold a over toright on the outside, and hold it there. Do the sameat the corner c. These two corners now w^ill over-Fasten them withlap on the outside, as in Fig. 88.Fig. 88.—Bark kettle(end)

BARK UTENSILS 259a pin (with a splinter like a skewer, if you areusing bark;. In the same w^ay fold the cornersd and bj and pin them. The creases tio, pq, np, oq,now are folded inward, instead of outward as theywere originally. Here you have an open-top box5 inches square and 3^ inches deep, with perfectlytight joints, which will hold water so longas it does not seep through the pores of the paper(would hold it till it evaporated, if you had used,bark).Now, if you are skeptical about boiling water in abark kettle, suppose you try your paper one. Arrangea stand that will support it over a gas jet.Put the paper kettle on the stand and pour somewater into it. Light the gas, raising the jet justhigh enough for it to play on the bottom of thevessel but not up the sides; for, mark you, if theilame touches the paper anywhere above the waterline,it will set the thing afire. Observing this precaution,you can boil water in the paper kettle quickerthan you could in tin.The reason that the paper isnot even scorched isthat the water inside instantly attracts the heat ofthe flame and absorbs it to itself. My partner,Bob, once told me he could take a boiling tea-kettlefrom the stove, put his naked hand on the bottom,and hold the thing out at arm's length. I smiled.He led the way to the kitchen, where an oldfashionedblack kettle of cast-iron was steaming ata hard boil, did as he had offered, and sustained noinjury whatever. Then I did it myself. The bottor-iof the kettle merely feels warm to the nakedhand. But the water must be boiling, not justsimmering. If one touches the vessel above thewater-line, he will get a severe burn.In making a bark kettle, the material must, ofcourse, be quite free from holes or cracks. In the caseof birch, select a sheet free from "eyes" and surfacecurls." Supple it by roasting gently over the f^re.

26oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFT1 have boiled water in such a vessel by setting itdirectly on the coals, and covering all around itsbottom with ashes, so no flame could reach the sides.For your first trial it will be better to build a littlecircular fireplace of stones, with a draught hole atthe bottom, and cover the top with flat rocks, leavingan opening of about three inches diameter forthe bottom of j^our kettle.and chink with mud, soFill this with live coals,that no flame can get out.It might seem impossible to melt snow in such abark utensil, but the thing can be done when youknow how. Place the kettle in the snow before thefire, so it will not warp from the heat. In front ofit set a number of little forked sticks, slanting backwardover the kettle, and on each fork place asnowball. Thus let the snowballs melt, into thekettle until the vessel is filled as nearly as you wantit. Then set the kettle on the coals, cover aroundit with ashes to keep flame from the sides, and thewater will boil in a few minutes.Bark Utensils.—Vessels to hold water or otherliquids can be made, as above, of any size, square orFig. 89.— Bark waterbucketFig.90.—Bark troughor basinrectangular. You soon will learn the trick of foldingthe corners without preliminary folding andcreasing. Since the top of a cubical bark vessel

BARK QTENSILS 261of this sort readily adapts itself to a circular shape,when softened by heating, one can make a waterbucket, for example, by sewing a hoop or splint(likea basket splint) around the inside of the top edge,and adding another vertically for bail, like a baskethandle, going clear around the bottom to take upFig. 91.—BarkbarrelFig. 92.—Barkberry pailthe strain (Fig. 89). Punch the holes with a sharpened twig for awl, and use rootlets or bast fiber,soaked in water, for thread, or lace the loop in placewith narrow strips of pliable bark.Fig. 93.—Pocket cup (folding)Wash basins and the like are made in the sameway, shallow without bails. A trough or tub, ofany size, to hold liquids, is quickly made by rossingoff the thick outer bark from the ends of a sheet ofelm, basswood, poplar, cottonwood, or other suitable

262 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmaterial, but leaving iton the middle part to stiffenthe vessel; the rossed ends are then folded over inseveral overlaying laps, gathered in somewhat theshape of a canoe's bow and stern, and tied with barkstraps (Fig. 90). The Indians used to make suchtioughs for collecting maple sap. They also made elmbarrels (Fig. 91) that would last for years. Theirbark buckets often were made with lapped seams,sewed together with bark or root twine (Fig. 92).The seams were closed with a mixture of pine resinor spruce "gum" and grease or oil, laid on whilehot, and the upper edges were stiffened with hoopsor splints of pliable wood.To make a folding bark cup for the pocket:take a sheet of thin bark about 7 inches square andfold it diagonally {a to b. Fig. 93). Now foldthe corner c over to the left so that its upper edgecoincides with the dotted line that extends horizontallyfrom d. Then fold, over this, the corner estraight to d. This leaves two triangular flapsstanding out at the top, a and b. Slip the innerone, a into the outer pocket formed by e, and foldthe flap b backward over the outside. You nowhave a flat cup that holds about a quarter of apint. To open it, press against the outer edgeswith the thumb and finger. When carrjqng it inyour pocket, slip the flap b in along with a, and thecup is closed against dirt.A bark dipper is easily made. Take a sheetabout 8 X 10 inches, trim it to spade shape (Fig. 94),fold it lengthwise from A to B, open it out, placethe second flnger behind A, and make the fold upwardas shown at F. Cut a stick for handle, withstub of a fork at one end to hang it up by. Splitthe other end of the stick, insert F in the cleft,and bind it fast with a narrow strap of bark.A strong and durable tray, dish pan, or similarutensil, is made like Fig 90, with the addition of ahickory or other rim like that of Fig. 92, sewed on

BARK UTENSILS 263the outside. Leave the thick bark on the sides tostiffen them, but shave it off of the bottom, so thatthe vessel will stand upright.Fig.94.—Bark dipperBark Fish Buckets and Corseaux.—Everytrout fisherman knows how bothersome a willowcieel is when he is fishing the brushy head watersof a stream. And a creel is a nuisance not to bethought of when one is off on a hiking trip. A canvasbag, with or without rubber lining, is compactenough, but it is mussy and does not keep the fishin good order. To carry trout on a stringer is-\Fig. 95. Fold for fish bucketbarbarism. So, look for a young basswood, orpoplar, or other smooth-barked tree that will peel.It need not be more than 9 or ic inches thick. Stripfrom it a rectangular sheet about 12 x 2.2 inches.

264 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTAlso cut a bark carrying strap about 4^/2feet long,and a quite narrow one for thongs.Fold the sheet of bark across the middle of thelonger dimensions {a-b. Fig. 95), and bring theends together, one overlappingthe other. The naturalconvexity of the barkspreads it out into anoval at the top. If thebucket were to bs used forberry picking, or the like,you would fasten the topby merely cutting holesthrough at A, Fig. 96, andFig. 96.—Fish bucket the corresponding pointon the opposite side, andtying with bark thongs. For a fish basket, thethong is strung crisscross as shown in the illustration,as this keeps the fish from flopping out. Attacha bark shoulder strap through slits in the back, andthe thing is done. You have a sweet, clean ''bucket"that carries under the left arm without bulging somuch as a creel, and no top is needed. Put cleanferns or grass over the fish when the sun ishot, andthey will keep moist and firm and well-colored,day. This bucket is easier to wash than a creel.In a week, if you are to stay longer, make a newone, as the old one will have warped.Large packs for the back are made In the sameway, from balsam or other bark, but laced up alongthe sides, stiffened by a couple of hoops on the inside,and fitted with a pack strap of bark or plaitedfiber. A flap to cover It, If wanted. Is provided byan extension of the bark at the top, which Is rossedoff to make It flexible. Such a carrier Is called bythe French Canadians a corseau (from casseau).In warm weather It Is more comfortable to carryihan a blanket pack, as It does not sweat the back.B.AST Ropes and Twine.—Straps, %h-stringers,?tc.. are made from the whole bark of pawpaw.all

BARK UTENSILS 265leathenvood (remarkably strong), and hickoryshoots. Very good ropes and twine can be madefrom the fibers of the inner bark of the slippery,white, and winged elms,the pignut and other hickories,white oak, and buckeye, red cedar, yellow locust,red mulberry, and Osage-orange. One whohas not examined the finished work would scarce believewhat strong, soft, and durable cordage, matting,braided tump-lines, and even thread, fish-nets,and garments can be made from such materials byproper manipulation. The Indians first separatethe bark in long strips, remove the woody outerlayer, and then boil it in a lye of sifted wood ashesand water, w^hich softens the fiber so it can bemanipulated without breaking. After it is dried itcan be separated into small filaments by pounding,the strings running with the grain for several feet.Slippery elm especially makes a pliable rope, softto the touch ; it can be closely braided, and is verydurable. If the woody splinters and hard fragmentshave not been entirely removed by pounding,the shoulder blade of a deer is fastened to an uprightpost, an inch hole is drilled through it, andbunches of the boiled bark are pulled backward andforward through the hole. The filaments are thenput up in hanks and hung aside for use, being boiledto supple them when needed.Bark twine is made by holding in the left handone end of the fiber as it is pulled from the hank,and separating it into two parts, which are laidacross the thigh. The palm of the right hand isthen rolled forward over both, so as to twist tightlythe pair of strands, when they are permittedto unite and twist into a cord, the. xcft hand drawingit away as completed. Other strands are twistedin to make the length of cord desired.Twine andthread are made from the bark of young sprouts.The bast or inner rind of basswood (linden)m.akes good rope. More than a century ago, twoIndians whose canoe had drifted, while they were

266 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT;in a drunken sleep, upon Goat Island, between theAmerican and Canadian falls of Niagara, let themselvesdown over the face of the cliff by a rope thatthey made from basswood bark, and thus escapedfrom what seemed to the on-lookers as certain deathby starvation.Mulberry and Osage orange bast yield a fine,white, flax-like fiber, that used to be spun by squawsto the thickness of packthread and then woven intogarments. The inner bark of Indian hemp{Apocynum cannabinmn) ^ collected in the fall, is softsilky, and exceedingly strong. The woody stemsare first soaked in water; then the bast, with barkadhering, is easily removed; after which the barkis washed off, leaving the yellowish-brown fiberready to be picked apart and used. A rope madefrom it is stronger, and keeps longer in water, thanone made from common hemp. It was formerlyused by the Indians, almost all over the contment,not only for ropes, but for nets, threads, and garments.The fibers of the nettle were also similarlyused.In the southern Appalachians, it is not manyj'^ears since the mountain women used tomake bedcords (perhaps you know how strong suchcords must be) by twisting or plaiting together long,slender splits of hickory wood (preferably mockernut)that they suppled by soaking. Such bed-cordsare in use to this day.Root and Vine Cordage.—^The remarkablytough and pliable rootlets of white spruce, about thesize of a quill, when barked, split, and suppled inwater, are used by Indians to stitch together thebark plates of their birch canoes, the seams beingsmeared with the resin that exudes from the treealso for sewing up bark tents, and utensils that willhold water. The finely divided roots are called bynorthern Indians watab or zvatape.Twine and stout cords are also made of this material,strands for fish-nets being sometimes made

BARK UTENSILS 267as ii^uch as fifty yards in length. The old-timeIndians used to say that bark cords were better thanhemp ropes, as they did not rot so quickly fromalternate wetting and drying, nor were they soharsh and kinky, but, when damped, became as sup^pie as leather. "Our bast cords," they said, "arealways rather greasy in the water, and slip moreeasily through our hands. Nor do they cut the skin,like your ropes, when anything has to be pulled.Lastly, they feel rather warmer in winter."The fibers of tamarack roots, and of hemlock,cedar, and cottonwood, are similarly used. DanBeard says: "I have pulled up the young tamaracktrees from where they grew in a cranberry 'mash'and used the long, cord-like roots for twine withwhich to tie up bundles. So pliable are thesewater-soaked roots that you can tie them in a knotwith almost the same facility that you can your shoestring.. . , Each section of the country has itsown peculiar vegetable fiber which was known tothe ancient red men and used by them for the purr>osesnamed. . . . Dig up the trailing roots ofyoung firs or other saplings suitable for your use,test them and see if they can be twisted into cordagestout enough for your purpose. Coil the greenroots and bury them under a heap of hot ashes fromyour camp-fire, and there allow them to steam intb.eir own sap for an hour, then take them out,split them into halves and quarters, and soak themin water until they are pliable enough to braid intotwine or twist into withes. Don't gather rootsover one and one-half inches thick for this purpose."The long, tough rootstocks of sedge or saw-grassare much used by our Indians as substitutes fortwine. Baskets made of them are the strongest,most durable and costliest of all the ingenious productsof the aboriginal basket -maker. The fiber isstrongest when well moistened. The stringy rootsof the catgut or devil's shoe-string {Cracca or Te-

268 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTphrosia), called also goat's rue or hoary pea, aretough and flexible.Grapevine rope is made in a manner similar tobark rope. The American wistaria {Kraunhia frutt'scens)is so tenacious and supple that it was formerlyused along the lower Mississippi for boats'cables; it can also be knotted with ease.Withes.—^A favorite basket plant of the Apachesand Navajos is the ill-scented sumac or skunk-bush(Rhus trilobata), which is common from Illinoiswestward. The twigs are soaked in water, scraped,and then split. Baskets of this material are somadethat they w^ill hold water, and they are oftenused to cook in, by dropping hot stones in thetvater. A southern shrub, the supple-jack (Bercliemiascundens) , makes good withes. The fibersof the red-bud tree are said by basket-makers to^qual in strength those of palm or bamboo. Forsuch purpose as basket-making, withes should begathered in spring or early summer, when the woodis full of sap and pliable. If the material is tobe kept for some time befoie weaving, it should beburied in the ground to keep it fresh. In anycase, a good soaking is necessary, and the workshould be done while the withes are still wet andsoft. Other good woods for withes are ash, whiteoak, hickory, yellow birch, leatherwood, liquidambar,willow, and witch hazel. Large withes forbinding rails, raft logs, etc., are made from tallshoots or sprouts of hickory or other tough wood,by twisting at one end with the hands until the fiberseparates into strands, making the withe pliable sothat it can be knotted. This usually is done beforecutting off the shoot from its roots. A sapling asthick as one's wrist can be twisted by cutting itdown, chopping a notch in a log (making it a littlewider at the bottom than at the top) trimming thebutt of the sapling to fit loosely, driving in a wedge,,Aid then twisting.A withe is quickly fastened in place by drawing:

BARK UTENSILS 269the t\vo ends tightly together, twisting them on eachother into a knot, and shoving them under, as a farmerbinds a sheaf of grain.Hoops and Splits.—The best hoops are madefrom hickory, white or black ash, birch, alder, arborvitaeor other cedar, dogwood, and various oaks.Take sprouts or seedlings and split down the middle,leaving the outer side round. Thin the ends alittle, and cut notches as in Fig. 97. An insideFig. 97.—Becketing hoopshoop, or any that is not subjected to much strain,is simply notched for a short overlap, as in theupper illustration; the ends are brought together,one on top of the other, and bound at a and b. Ahoop to be driven on the outside of a keg or barrelhas a long joint (lower figure) ; each end takesa half turn round the other, between notches, andthe joint isthen tied.Splits for basket-making and similar purposes arecommonly made of white oak, in spring or summer,when the sap is up. Select a straight-grained sapling,cut in lengths wanted, rive these into strips aswide as desired, then, with a knife, split these stripsbastard {i.e.^ along the rings of growth) to theproper thickness. Put them in water to soak untilneeded, if you want them pliable.Splits are easily made from slippery elm, for instance,by taking saplings or limbs three or fourinches in diameter, and hammering them with awooden mallet until the individual layers of woodare detached from those underneath, then cuttingthese into thin narrow strips. The strips are

270 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTkept In coils until wanted for use, and then aresoaked.Black ash and basket oak, when green, separateeasily into thin sheets or ribbons along the line ofeach annual ring of growth, when beaten with mallets.The Indians, in making split baskets, cut thewood into sticks as wide along the rings as theThesesplits are to be, and perhaps two inches thick.are then bent sharply in the plane of the radiusof the rings, when they part into thin strips, nearlyor quite a/5 many of them as there are rings ofgrowth.

CHAPTER XVIKNOTS, HITCHES, AND LASHINGSMuch depends on knowing how to tie just theright knot or other fastening for a certain job.In learning to tie knots, do not use small twine,but rope or cord at least an eight of an inch thick.Take plenty of it in hand, and do not begin toonear the end.The main part of a rope is called the "standingpart" (Fig. 98). When the end is bent back towardthe standing part, the loop thus formed iscalled a "bight," regardless of whether it crossesthe rope, as in the illustration, or only lies parallelwith it.For the sake of clearness, in the accompanyingillustrations, ends are shown pointed like thongs,and standing parts are left open to indicate that theyextend indefinitely. Parts of the knots are shadedto show plainly how the convolutions are formed.Stopper Knots.—A plain knot tied anywhereon a rope to keep it from slipping beyond that pointthrough a bight, sheave, ring, or other hole, is calleda stopper knot. Such a knot often is used, too, atthe end of a rope to keep the strands from unlaying.Overhand Knot (Fig. 99).—Simplest of allknots. Often used as component part of otherknots. Jams hard when under strain, and is hardtountie.Double Overhand Knot (Fig. 100).—If theend is passed through the bight two or more timesbefore hauling taut, a larger knot is made thanthe simple overhand.FiGURE-OF-ElGHT KnOT (Fig. lOl). ^AlsG271

272 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTEnd9S.Parts of Rope.99. Overhand KnotloosetauX7/=:=^loos*fC9. Double Overhand Knot. ioi. Figure - of- eigh t Kno t.looseTPiiefKnotf02..(will slip).J03. Granny IKnoi(win slip)taut/O^. Reef Knot (holds, does noija.tnj easij to imiie).fCS.Weavcr'j Knot. /C6. Double Bend. /iJ/.CarricH Bend./ootTeiau.1/Off.Lapped Overhccnd Knot* *-iOf Water Knot. //

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 273called Flemish, or German knot. Used for the samepurposes as the overhand knot, but more elegantand easier to untie. (See also p. 319.)Knots for Joining Ropes^ etc.—First are givenillustrations of two knots that never are to be used,because both are treacherous. The thief knot (Fig.102), with ends pointing in opposite directions, issure to slip. It is a bungled weaver's knot (compareFig. 105).The granny or lubber's knot (Fig 103) is formedby passing the end a in Fig. 104 over instead ofunder the end b, and then bending b down underit. The result is that the loops cross over andunder on opposite sides, instead of the same way onboth sides. Such a knot, when drawn taut, has itsends sticking out and away from the standing part,and it is very likely to slip.Reef Knot (Fig. 104).—Known also as squareor true knot. Will not slip, unless used in tying asmall cord or rope to a thicker one. So long as thetwo ends are of equal diameter this knot may berelied upon. It has the advantage of being easy tountie. To make it, cross the two ends, a under b^turn a over and under b, bring the two ends upaway from you, cross a under b, turn b under a,and draw taut by pulling the ends.To untie, if the rope or cord is stiff enough, seizethe standing part on each side, just outside the knot,push the hands together, and the loops slip over oneanother.If the material is limber, take one end inleft hand and the standing part of the same endin the other, pull hard on both, and the knot becomesdislocated so that it is easily undone.Surgeon's Knot.—This is the same as a reefknot except that, in making it, the end a is turnedtwice around the standing part of b before proceed'ing with the loop, just as in the double overhandknot (Fig. 100). It is used by surgeons in drawingtissue together, to prevent slipping of the firstturn of the knot (see Fig. 193).

574 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTWeaver's Knot (Fig. 105).—Often calledthumb knot, or, by sailors, becket bend or hitch,single or common bend. Almost the only knot bywhich two ropes of greatly differing sizes can bejoined firmly together; also the quickest and mostsecure of all knots for joining threads or twine.Weavers tie it so deftly that the eye cannot followtheir movements. To tie it as they do : ( i) Crossthe ends of two pieces of thread, the right one underneaththe left, and hold them with thumb andfinger where they cross; (2) with the other handbring the standing part of right thread up over leftthumb, down around its own end (which is projectingto the left), back in between the two ends,on top of the cross, and hold it there with leftthumb; (3) slip the loop that is around thumb forwardover end of left thread (which is projectingforward in line with thumb) ; (4) draw taut bydrawing on both standing parts. The knack is inthe third operation, which is done by raising knuckleof left thumb so that loop will slide forward, at thesame time pushing end of left thread under it withright thumb (the two thumbs pointing straighttoward each other). This can only be done withthread or soft twine.This knot never slips, when properly made, butwhen ropes or cords of different thicknesses arejoined with it, make the eye on the stouterj as shownin the figure. The weaver's knot is used in makingnets, and has a great variety of other applications.When tied to a loop already made, such as the clewof a sail or a loop on a gut leader, the end is passedup through the loop, round the back of it, and underits own part.Double Bend (Fig. 106) or Sheet Bend.—Same as above, except that the end is passed twicearound the back of the loop before putting it undeiits own part. This gives it additional securitywhen one line is thicker than the other. Often

ttsedKNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 275by fishermen in bending a line on the loop ofa gut leader.Carrick Bend (Fig. 107).—Used for joiningcow ropes together. Holds well, but is easily undoneby pushing the loops inward toward each other.Lay the end of one rope a over the standing part b;put the end of another rope under the bight, overthe other behind a, under the other at bj over at c,under its own part, out over the bight, and haultaut. Best of all knots for joining stiff ropes.Lapped Overhand Knot (Fig. 108) or OpenhandKnot.—A quick way of joining two lines orstrands of gut together, and so used by fishermento mend a broken cast when in a hurry, althoughit is not absolutely secure. Lay the two ends togetherand past each other about three inches; givethese a turn over the right forefinger to form aloop ; slip this off, and pass the two ends to theleft through the loop and draw tight, snipping offthe short end close to the knot. Rather clumsy,and more likely to break at the knot than elsewhere.By passing the ends twice through the loop,as in Fig. 100, a very strong but bulky knot isformed.Water Knot (Fig. 109) or Fisherman'sKnot.—A favorite knot for uniting strands of gut,in making leaders. (The strands should first besoaked several hours in tepid, soft water to makethem soft and pliable.) Make a small overhand knotclose to the end of one strand^ a. Through thisthrust the butt of another strand, and, close to theend of it, tie a similar knot around the first strand,b. Draw both of these knots pretty tight, andthen pull them together by drawing on the twolong ends. Tighten the two knots as much aspossible, draw them together until they bed themselvesin one knot, and snip off the protruding ends.The water knot mav be drawn apart by pullmg onthe ends c and d. This is an easy way to insert adropper fly at any joint, as in Fig. 171,

.76 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT!:tautIIILeader Knot,112. Half Hitch. *V/3. Two Half Hitches i/Jf.Multtpk Hitcftrtll.Blackvmll115. Rolling Hitch. t/6. Fisherman's Bend. flitch.Isi tnove""' «3d. mot^*2*1 metrebeginningIIf.Clove Hitch, over post.over\\hcmd,119. Clove Hitch. iStP. Clove Hitch&Half Hitch. IZf . Magnus HCicb*/2Z. Cieat Tie . 123. Timber Hitch. i2^. Killick Hitch./2S Ring Hitch.a(n)m)b/26, Lark's Head. J27. Catspaw.

;KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 277For thin gut, especially, the double water knot(Fig. no) is preferable, as it is stronger and les?apt to pull out. It is made like the other, exceptthat the short end is passed twice round the otherlong part, instead of once, and then through bothloops thus formed.Leader Knot (Fig. in).—In this knot, theends, when snipped off close, are firmly held in themiddle and guarded on each side by two round turnscf gut; consequently the leader slips smoothly overor through obstacles. To make it, overlap the endsof the gut, as in Fig. 108, turn one end twicearound the other and slip it bet^veen the two strandsthen, gripping between thumb and finger at a, reversethe ends and tvvist the second part in the sameway; shove and humor the knot taut, in directionshown by the arrows, and cut the ends off close.Hitches.—A hitch is a twist, or combination oft^vists,to secure a rope or other line.112).—Simply a turning inHalf Hitch (Fig.of the end of a rope.Two Half Hitches (Fig. 113).—Another turnin the rope forms two half hitches, which, whendrawn together, hold securely. This is the quickestand simplest way to make a rope fast to a post orring. When subjected to heavy strain it is apt tojam so tight as to be hard to undo.Multiple Hitches (Fig. 1 14) .—Three or morehalf hitches bind so tightly on a pole that it canbe hung vertically with a heavy weight on the lowerend. Also used as an easy and pretty way of "serving"rope, and for covering bottles, jugs, etc., topieserve them from breaking.Rolling Hitch (Fig. 115).—^The quickest wayto make a rope fast when it is under strain, andwithout letting up the strain in the act of securingIt. Take two or three turns around the stake,pole or ring, then make two half hitches round thestanding part, and haul taut. There are other andrxiore elaborate rolling hitches, This one is often

278 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcalled a "round turn and two half hitches," or simplya "sailor's knot." It is one of the most useful andeasily made knots known.Fisherman's Bend (Fig. ii6) or AnchorBend.—^Take two turns round the object, as above,then make two half hitches, the first of which isslipped under both turns.A very secure fastening,but can only be made on a slack line. Chiefly used forbending a rope to a ring or to the shackle of andiurhor, or for attaching a line to the bail of abucket.Blackwall Hitch (Fig.117).—Simplest of allhitches. Used to attach the end of a rope to a hook,where the strain is steady. The strain on the firstturn jams the end between it and the hook.Clove Hitch (Figs. 1 18-120).—^This is one ofthe simplest and yet most useful fastenings everinvented. It can be made under strain, will notslip on itself nor along the pole, and can easily becast loose. It has numberless applications, frommooring vessels to setting up staging or reducing adislocated thumb. Every woodsman should learnin various positions.to make itTo make it on a post, hold the rope in the lefthand, give it a t^vist toward you with the right,and it automatically forms a loop (Fig. 118, a);hold this with the finger and thumb, give anothertwist in the same direction, and a second loop isformed {b) \ now, for the next move, bring b undera, as in the middle figure, slip them both overthe post, shove them tight together, and haul taut.In this way a boat is moored, or a rope fastenedto a tent pin, almost as quick as you would bat aneye.Next learn to make the clove hitch on a long poleor other object that the loops cannot slip over: forinstance, a horizontal rail. With rope coming frombehind, pass the end forward over the rail, downand around it, back over the rope, up and overas in Fi^. 119, and then bring the end out throughthe opening c.

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 279Then tie It In reverse position, end pointing towardyou. Observe that, in any case, the end goesround the pole the second time always in the samedirection as the first, and that the end and thestanding part comes out on opposite sides.Absolutely to prevent slipping, take a half hitcharound the standing part (Fig. 120).All of these Illustrations show the hitch beforebeing drawn taut, which is in the direction of thearrows.A clove hitch may be used to secure a small lineto a stout rope. Since this hitch It not apt to slipalong a smooth timber, it is used by builders in fittingup scaffolding. Its advantage in setting adislocated limb is that, while it cannot slip, yet noamount of pulling will tighten It so as to stopthe current of blood.Magnus Hitch (Fig. 121).—^Another easilymade hitch that will not slip along a pole. Itcan be made with a line that Is under strain.Cleat Tie (Fig. 122).—A quick fastening for arope that Is under strain. Never use It to makefast the mainsheet of a sailboat (see SlipperyHitch^ Fig. 138).Timber Hitch (Fig. 123).—For dragging logsover the ground, or towing them through the water,the timber hitch has even greater gripping powerthan any of those hitherto mentioned. It cannotbe made while there Is a strain on the rope.Pass the end of the rope around the timber,then round the standing part, then twist it twoor more turns under and over Itself. The pressureof the coils gives remarkable holding power.A timber hitch can be cast off easily. It Is notreliable with new rope, and Is liable to come adriftIf the strain Is Intermittent.KiLLiCK Hitch (Fig. 124).— To secure a stonefor a boat anchor, or for lifting similar obiects,make a timber hitch, haul taut, and then make asingle half hitch alongside It.

28oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTt28 Laiigo Las /29 Openhand 130. Midshipman'sEye Knot ^ Hitc%131 Bowline Knot. f32.Fishermat{s m. Loop KnotSye Knottaut13^ Central DraughVipop./3S. Slip Knot./36. Dran Knot. /32. TrueBow Kno t.138. Slippery"rrcA./jff. Slippery Clove Hitch.

-KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 281ror towing slimy and slippery logs the samemethod is used, except that the half hitch is made ucouple of feet in front of the other instead of alongside.Ring Hitch (Fig. 125).—^When tying a limor gut to a swivel ring, and for various other purposes,we want to secure attachment that is notclumsy and will not part at the knot. In the ringhitch the end fastening has no tendency to cut theline, and the draught is direct. If used in tyinggut to a swivel, pass ittwice around the swivel ringas shown in "first move" ;pass the end over to thefar side, and bring it through the double loop towardyou at a; pass it over again and bring itthrough as before, but toward the swivel. See thatthese two turns are not too loose, and pull tight onthe standing part first w^hile still keeping a goodstrain on the standing part. With tweezers tightenthe short end, then snip it off close. Cover the knotwith a good blob of celluloid varnish (old photo filmssoaked in hot water, scrubbed with a stifif nail brushon exposed side, cut in pieces, and dissolved inacetone).Lark^s Head (Fig. 126).—A bight of the rope ispassed through the ring, and the ends are thendrawn through the bight. To make this tie mor^secure a half hitch (a) may be added.Catspaw (Fig. 127).—This is for hitching arope on to the hook of a block for hoisting. Thesimplest form is here shown. First you make twobights in a rope, then, with a bight in each hand,take two or three twists from you; bring the twobights side by side, and throw their loops{a, b) oveithe hook (c).Latigo Lash (Fig. 128).—Used in cinching asaddle, the latigo being the strap by which the girthis lashed to a ring at the other end of the girth.Pass the latigo through the ring from outside toinside; down to ring that hold? latigo itself, andthrough that from inside to outside, and up ; through

282 CAMPING AxND WOODCRAFTupper ring from outside, passing under and out atthe right {a). Then bring strap forward horizontallyto the left; pass it around back of ring {b) andthen out through ring to the front, as in first illustration.Now pass end of latigo down throughthe horizontal loop (c). Cinch and pull tight, as insecond illustration.Loop Knots.—These are for forming eyes thatwill not slip, in the end of a rope or other line, orto make secure fastenings for various purposes.Openhand Eye Knot (Fig. 129).—Lay theend back along the standing part far enough tomake an overhand knot with the doubled line,lea^'ing a loop projecting. Very easy to make, andwill not slip, but it does not give a direct pull, andone strand is likely to cut the other; hence a poorway to make, for instance, a loop at the end of a gutleader.MiDSHiPMAN^s Hitch (Fig.130).—Practicallya loop secured by a magnus hitch. The strain Isdirect, and the knot easy to make and undo. Oftenused for attaching a tail-block to a rope.Bowline Knot (Fig. 131).—Pronounced bolln.Most important of all loop knots, as it is perfectlydependable, cannot slip, cannot jam, and iseasily cast loose.It has Innumerable uses.Form a small bight (a) on the standing part,leaving the end long enough for the loop, and bringthe end down through the bight ;pass the end underand around the standing part, back over and thenunder the bight {b) ] draw loop snug, and pull onstanding part to haul taut.It is Immaterial whether the bight Is made toleft, as here shown, or to right, provided the endis properly passed. Learn to tie the bowline bothoverhand and underhand, with loop toward you andwith it away from you.A quick way to tie a bowline around a post, orthrough a ring. Is to pass the end of the rope roundthe post, then take the standing part of the rope In

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 283your left hand, the post being next to you, and theend of the rope in your right hand ; lay the endover the standing part and make an overhand knotas if you were going to make a reef knot; then bya tvvist, capsize the knot so that it becomes a halfhitch in the standing part. Now pass the endbehind and around the standing part, away fromthe post, and back down through the same halfhitch.Then pull tight.FiSHERMAN^s Eye Knot (Fig.1 32).—A bightis first made, and an overhand knot is tied withthe standing part around the other as in Fig. 135;the end is now passed round the standing part, andknotted in the same way. Thus there is a runningknot a followed by a check knot h, which,when the loop is hauled on, jam tight against oneanother. The strain is divided equally between thetwo knots, and the loop will stand until the lineparts. This is one of the best ways to make aneye on a fishing line or gut.Loop Knot (Fig. 133).—Shown in the illustrationas formed before drawing taut, which isdone by pulling on the end with one hand and onleft-hand side of loop with the other. Jams fast,but is not so strong as 131, 132, or 134.Central Draught Loop (Fig. 134).—Anotherexcellent loop for lines or gut, as it will not givenor cut itself. Make the bight a, then h over it,and pass the end d under the standing part; thenthread d through the opening c, over the standingpart, and out between the bights a and h. Nowdraw the bight h under and through the bight a,in the direction of the arrow. Haul taut by pullingon e and d.Slip Knots.—A plain slipknot or running knotis made by first forming a bight and then tying acommon overhand knot with the end around thestanding part (Fig. 135). It is a common knotfor forming a noose, but inferior to the runningbowline (Fig. 140).

284 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTi^O,R"^nnTng /^/.RunningNoose /*f2.LarkBoai t^3, Sheet BenAbowline. wt'tkSfoppen Knot. withTogglt./^^. Hiichln;^ Tie./4/S. //I'tchin^Tie./4S. Sheepshank.1^7. Bowline on i^8. Man Sling. t^9. Boatswain's /SO. PlankSU'nq.a Bight Chair. cMariinsptkeHim)^bc'Sr Bale Hitch.(S:i. PackSlin^/S3. Harness f^Hch.

—KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 285Draw Knot (Fig. 136).—This is tied just likea reef knot, except that after crossing the ends ata the right-hand end is bent back on itself to forma loop (Z>) ; then pass the left-hand end (c) overthe loop, draw it back down under it, and out overat d. Remember the sequence: over, under, over—to reverse it would produce a granny knot.True Bow Knot (Fig. 137).—This is the sameas the preceding save that both ends arc doubled back,and the loop e i? drawn down under and out over,in the direction of the arrow. This is the way tofasten your shoe laces securely.Slippery Hitch (Fig. 138). —^This is a very•common temporary fastening in tying up packages,fastening the painter of a boat to the ring of a pier,etc. A pull at the free end casts off the rope atonce. Liable to come undone by accident.Slippery Clove Hitch (Fig. 139).—^A veryuseful hitch for fishermen and others, as it canbe employed on a ring, eye knot, plain rope or line,or a pole or post. A ring is here used for illustration.Pass end of line up through the ring, downover it and behind the standing part of line, upover ring again (to the right) leaving an openloop at a; bend the end into a bight h, pass it backthrough loop a, and draw taut. It holds againstdirect strain as firmly as a clove hitch, but is freedinstantly by a tug at the free end.Running Bowline (Fig. 140). —This is merelya bowline with the main rope passed back throughthe large loop above h in Fig. 131. This forms aslip knot, its superiority to Fig. 135 being that itssmall loop cannot bind nor jam.Two ropes may be joined together by making abowline in the end of one and putting the end ofthe other through the bight, then forming with itanother bowline on its own part—a method oftenused with heavy ropes or hawsers.Running Noose with Stopper (Fio:. 141).A simple wav of picketing a horse with a lariat,

286 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthough the bowline is better. The noose is madecf right size for the horse's neck, and the overhandknot at the end prevents it from drawingtighter. This loop may also be used at the endoia bowstring.Lark Boat Knot (Fig. 142).—^A means ofmooring a boat whereby the painter can be cast ofiinstantly. A bight of the rope is put through thering and a stick is thrust through in the mannershown. When the stick is pulled out the paintercomes adrift of its own accord.Sheet Bend with Toggle (Fig. 143).— -Tworopes are joined together by a sheet bend (weaver'sknot, Fig. 105), but, instead of drawing them tautagainst each other, a stick (toggle) is inserted for thesame purpose as in a lark boat knot.Hitching Tie (Fig. 144).—Commonly usedin hitching a horse. Pass the halter strap or ropearound the post from left to right; bring it togetherand hold in the left hand at a. With righthand throw the end across, in front of the lefthand, thus forming the loop b. Now reach withthe right hand in through this loop, grasp the partof strap hanging straight down on the far side, andpull enough of it through b to form a bight cd. andslip end through cd. Then draw taut, with theknot turned to the ri^ht of the post. If the knotwere turned to the left, or drawn directly in frontof the post, it would not pull tight and wouldslide down a smooth post.Another hitching tie is shown in Fig. 145.Shortening Ropes.—If a rope is too long for itspurpose there are many ways of shortening it forthe time being without cutting. I show only one,a form of sheepshank (Fig. 146) which has twoadvantages: first, it can be used even where bothends of the rope are fast; second, it is secure byitself, without seizing (whipping the tvvine). Makea simple running knot, push a bend of the rope

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 287through this loop, and draw the loop tight. Theother end of the bend is fastened in a similar manner.Slings.—^These are used for a great variety ofpurposes. They must be absolutely secure, and yet,in many cases, they must be easy to undo.Bowline on a Bight (Fig. 147).—This is madelike the common bowline except that the end isleftlong enough so that after it has passed out throughthe bight at b in Fig. 131 it is continued aroundthe big loop and back around and out throughb again, so as to double its course. When this isdrawn taut you have two loops, instead of one as inthe single bowline, and, like it, they cannot slip.This is the sling for hoisting a man, or loweringhim down a shaft, over a cliff, or out of a burningbuilding. For this purpose, make one of the loopslonger than the other, for him to sit in, while theshorter loop passes under his armpits and across hisback, as in Fig. 148. The man grasps the ropesof the long loop, and is safely supported.The bowline on a bight is also used in slingingcasks or barrels, bales, etc. To untie it, drawthe bight of the rope up on the standing partsuntil it is slack enough, then bring the whole of theother parts of the knot up through it.Boatswain's Chair (Fig. 149).—^A comfortableseat for painters or others working on theside of a building or for similar purposes. The ropegoes through auger holes in the board and is securedabove by a bowline knot.Plank Sling (Fig. 150).—Each end of a plankxised as a stage is fastened to a rope by making amarlinspike hitch in the rope and running the endof the plank through it in the same way as themarlinspike in the lower figure.Bale Hitch (Fig. 151).—Bend the middle ofthe rope over the back of the package as indicatedby the dotted lines, bring the ends up over the,ifront of it at a, and out under the bend, using the

288 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtwo long ends to hoist or lower by. A parcel canbe carried easily by using a short rope in this wayand knotting the ends together for a handle, formingan extemporized shawl-strap. In portaging,the two ends are brought forward over the man'sshoulders and held in his hands; the pack can bediopped instantly if he should slip or stumble.This hitch is used in another way to attach an articleto a line that has both ends fastened, for example,a sinker to a fishing line. Gather a loopin the line and bend it back on itself, Fig. 151^,slip the sinker through the double loop thus formed,and tighten by hauling on the two ends.Pack Sling (Fig. 152).—Make a loop a in themiddle of a rope, with ends crossed as shown, h, c,and lay the rope on a log or stump. Place thefolded pack on the rope. Back up to it and pullthe loop a over your head and down under yourchin. Pass the ends b, c, up through the loop, cinchthem tight, and tie each with a slip knot.Harness Hitch (Fig. 153) or ArtilleryKnot.—Although not a sling, this hitch is introducedhere for convenience sake. Enables one tomake a loop quickly in a rope or line, the ends ofDerives its names fromwhich are already engaged.being the best way to harness men to a rope fortowing boats, dragging guns, etc., where horses cannotbe employed. The loop is thrown over a man'sshoulder so he can exert his full strength. Make alarge loop, laying the right end backward over theleft. Pick up right side of loop and draw it towardyou over the standing part in the position shown inupper diagram. Place the hand under h and graspthe rope at a. Draw a right through, as in lowerdiagram, and tighten.Unless care is taken in drawing this knot closeit is apt to turn itself in such manner as to slip,even though correctly made. It is best to put theright foot on the right hand part of the rope, or9 foot on each side, to prevent slipping ; then tighten.

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 289Can Sling (Fig. 154) or Butt Sling.—Toimprovise a bucket or a paint pot out of a can: passthe end of the cord under the bottom of the can,bring the two parts over it and make with them aloose overhand knot (b) ; draw the two parts downuntil they come around the upper edge of the can;haul taut, and knot them together over the can (a).To sling a barrel or cask, draw the two parts aroundthe swell of the cask, near the middle, and leave twoends free to haul by.Lashings.— I have space to show only a few ofthe more useful lashings.Parcel Lashing (Fig. 155).—Make a bowlineknot in end of rope and run the standing partthrough it, thus forming a running bowline. Passthis loop around one end of the parcel (a) and cinchup (i.e. J draw taut). Run the line to b^ and therethrow a loop around the other end of the parcel,crossing the rope as at d (not b). Run the ropeon around to the other side and take a turn aroundthe cross rope as at b (under, over, over, and under),cinch and do the same at the other cross rope oppositea. Bring the rope around the end to Cj andthere hitch it fast by passing end over the crossrope above bowline, under the part running lengthwise,over bowline (cinch up), back over and underitself; then make a similar hitch with it in the reversedirection, and, if extra security Is needed,make a third over the first at b.This lashing is easy to cinch up, easy to castoff, and leaves the rope then w^ith no knot in it.Packing Hitches.—^The various hitches usedin packing on animals, with aparejo, sawbuck saddle,riding saddle, or merely with a piece of rope, are sonumerous and require so much description that thereis no room for them in this book. See the excellentspecial treatise by Lieut. C. J. Post on Horse Packing(Outing Pub. Co., New York).Bottle Cork Tie (Fig. 156).—Make a com-

290 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtt'g./S^, Can 6^171^.Fi^. J5S Parcel L ashing.Fig. I5G. B oHle Cork Tie.Fi^. i57. HandcuffKnot.Fig./SS. Ledger LashingFig. J&9. Putlog Lashing.a-,rFtg. 160. Malay/iiich.HFlgj6J. Paltnj Hitch.tiMill;i''^tg./62 Lever Knot Fig /SJ.NecklaceTie. Fig.l^^.PoieSphce,

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 291mon slip knot like Fig. 135(start an overhand knot,a. Fig. 156, but instead of drawing the end bthrough, leave it inside a^ forming the upper loopc). Put the lower loop a down over the neck ofthe bottle with c over top of cork, draw taut, runthe free ends up over the cork and tie them alongsideof c.Handcuff Knot (Fig.157).—Make a slip knotlike the first part of Fig. 156, but return the endb back through the open knot so as to form a doubleloop or bow. Slip these loops over a man's wrists,draw taut,tie the loose ends firmly around the centralpart with a reef knot and you have him securedin a way that would baffle a "handcuff king."A prisoner can be secured even with a piece of fishlineby tying his thumbs together behind his backwith thisknot.Never fasten a prisoner's single wrist to yourown: that would place him on equal terms. Ifhe protests that the cords hurt him, or feigns sickness,*Svatch w^ell lest you cure him too quickly "Ledger Lashing (Fig. 158).— A scaffold ledgeror other horizontal stick is lashed to a vertical timberin the way here shown.Putlog Lashing (Fig. 159).—^A putlog or othersquared timber may be roped to a horizontal polein the manner illustrated.Malay Hitch (Fig. 160).—This is a quick wayto fasten together wisps of grass, reeds, etc., formatting, or poles, planks, or other material for sidingof temporary quarters. The w^hole affair canbe shaken apart in a few moments leaving no knotsin the ropes.Paling Hitch (Fig.161).—Used by Indians ofthe olden time to set up the framework of theirhouses, rawhide ropes being employed, which wereput on wet and shrank very tight in drying. Withropes or vines, it can be used to secure small polesas palings to horizontal ones between posts, in makinga tight fence around camp.

292 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFrLever Knot (Fig. 162).—To secure large piece§of timber togethei, or to lash articles fast to logs>such as a box to a raft: take two or three turns ofrope somewhat loosely round the article and itssupport, then insert a stiff stick under the coils (a)and twist round until all the slack is taken out andthe cordage is taut; the end of the lever is thenjecured with cord (b).A similar appliance may be used as a vice, or toget a powerful grip on a smooth round object, suchas a large pipe. The degree of tension is limitedonly by the strength of the rope and the length ofthe lever.Necklace Tie (Fig. 163) or PortugueseKnot.—Used to hold two timbers or hawsers side byside, and for lashing shear legs. The lashing is passedround and round the two objects to be joined (a),only a few turns being taken in the case of shears,then the lashings are brought round across themselves,from opposite directions (b) and tied witha reef knot.When employed as a lashing for shear legs (^.^.,supports for the ridge pole of a tent) the crossingof the two legs puts a strain on the knot, holding itin place (c), yet there is enough play for the legsto be spread as far apart as desired, since the ropehas been wound rather loosely for that purpose.Pole Splice (Fig. 164).—If it is desired to setup a tall pole, and there is no material at hand thatis long enough for the purpose, erect as good a poleas you can get, lash a shorter one to its lower part(a), resting on the ground, and, above this, buttingon the top of the short one, lash another pole (b).Tighten the lashings by driving a wedge into each(c). The wedges must be rounded on the outerside toavoid cutting the ropes.To splice a broken pole or the like, bind on asplint and wedge it as above : the splice will be morerigid than if screw^ed.Winding (Fig. 165).—In winding a fishing rod.

A'NOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 293or other round object, we wish to leave no knotshowing at either end. At the beginning, lay theend of the thread or twine lengthwise of the rodand take four turns around it {a) in "-he directionthat the end points. Draw taut, anc ^ut the projectingend off with a sharp knife. Then continue30ur winding almost as fa" as you wish ftto go. Now make a loop of a bit _i waxed thread(b), lay it lengthwise of the rod, as you did a,and wrap several turns over it. To finish this end,cut off your thread a few inches beyond the lastturn, slip it through the end of the projecting loop(c), and pull back on b until the end of the threadhas been drawn out at the point where the wrappingstarted around the loop ; then snip it off close.During the winding, be careful to keep an even tensionand the turns snug against each other. This isaccomplished by turning the rod itself, instead ofwinding the thread round and round. It will helpif you put the right-hand end of the rod againstthe far side of some support, so you can draw backon the thread while turning.Another way is to wind over a needle, insteadof a loop of thread, and, when you have gone farenough, pass the free end of your thread throughback.the needle's eye and draw itEither of these is a better way for lon^ windingsthan the common one of laying a loop alongthe rod the whole length of the wrapping, as youdid the end a, and drawing it back to finish off, asthe loop gives considerable trouble.In whipping the end of a rope so that the endmay not unravel, begin the same as above. Whenwithin three or four laps of the finish, make a loopwith the twine or yarn, holding the end firmly downwith the thumb, wind three or four turns around theloop, then pull it back and cut off the end.Anglers'* Knots.— I have already described thebest ways of joining lines together (Figs. 108-111)^arld of making loops on the ends of lines or leaders

294 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT^FijjeS.Rod Winding,Fij^. /66. Loop BendFig.. 167. Eight Bend. .Fig. i68. Jam Hitch . Fig. (69. Doubk Hitch.Rg.l70.Tiiler Hitch. Fig. J7/. Double Loop. Fig. 172. Loop io Lint.AFig.173. Loop on KnotFig. IJH. Half Hitch Jam Knot,C_J^-sFig. /7S. Common Dropper Loop.Fijg. J76> Jam Knot.Fig. f 77'TurUKnat.^^—^^ CtauiFtgJ7S. Eight Knot. Fig.^79. Reverse Knot. Fig.iSO. Bow Knot.

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 295(Figs. 129-134) Following are special knots forJoining lines to loops, loops to loops, for makingdropper loops, and for tying on hooks, sinkers, etc.Loop Bend (Fig. 166).—The quickest way toattach a line to a leader loop. Knot the end ofthe line, pass it through the loop, around the outsideof it, back under itself, and draw taut, leavingnothing but the knot projecting. Fairly secure,compact, and easy to undo. Sometimes called jamhitch.Eight Bend (Fig. 167).—Same as above butwith the line carried back over itself and forwardunder the first formed loop. Really a figure-ofeightknot. More secure than the plain loop bend^and almost as easy to cast off.Jam Hitch (Fig. 168).—A neat hitch, and quitesafe. To loosen it, shove the loops apart.Double Hitch (Fig. 169).—Very secure, andneat. To loosen, push forward on line.Tiller Hitch (Fig. 170).—A bit clumsy, butreliable, and easiest of all to cast loose, which isdone by a tug at c/when the line instantly comesadrift. This can be done in the dark.Holding the leader loop in left hand, catch themain line within two inches of the end by the samefinger and thumb, underneath the knot of the leaderloop; pass the line across the loop, fetch the looseend up over it, and double it into a lopp, which isnow passed into the head of the leader loop, andalldrawn taut.Another way to make this slip knot is first tobend the end of the line into the shape shown inthe figure {a^ h, c) ] now pass the leader loop downthrough a, raise it over the loop b and drop it downaround it to the main line; then draw tight.Double Loop (Fig. 171).—^The end of a leaderusually is looped, and so is the gut of most flies andsnelled hooks. To join these, push the loop of thesnell through that of the leader, then the hookthrough the loop of its snell, and draw tight.

296 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTIf there Is no loop on the fly, the leader may bemade with a loop at each end where the dropperfly is to be attached, these loops joined as above,a knot tied in the end of the dropper fly's snell, andthis inserted like a in the figure, before drawingtaut. A looped snell can be used in the same way,gripped in the joint, just below its knot, and withits own loop projecting above. This m.akes it easyto change flies.Loop to Line (Fig. 172).—^A snelled hook canbe readily attached to a line anywhere except at theend, by bending the line into a bight, slipping theloop of the snell over the bight, the hook up throughas shown, and drawing tight. A dropper fly canbe hitched to a leader that has no loop, in the sameway, but the strain may eventually cut the leader.Loop over Knot (Fig. 173).—In a similar waya looped snell is hitched over a knot in a leaderwhen the leader has no dropper loop.A split shot for sinker can be attached to a lineor leader in the same way. Close it on a loop ofthread just large enough for the shot to pass through,and loop the sinker on the leader just above a knot.The thread being relatively weak, it will break ifthe sinker gets caught, instead of breaking the gutr'174).—To makeHalf Hitch Jam Knot (Fig.a dropper loop anywhere on a line or leader, thismethod may be employed. First make a commonhalf hitch (/^). Then spread c and d apart andbring e up between them (i?). Now draw theends a and h taut, and a loop is formed (C) whichstands at right angle to the line or leader. If thedropper loop does not stand straight away fromthe leader, like this one, it is likely to cause a finesnell to foul in casting.Common Dropper Loop (Fig. 175).—The usualway of tying a dropper loop is to bend the end ofone strand back against itself {a) into the form of aloop, lay it alongside the next strand {h) which runsiKiward the main Kne, then make a common over-

KNOTS, HITCHES, LASHINGS 297hand knot at c with all of them together. Ofcourse, the gut must be well soaked and soft. Havingdrawn them tight, take the loop a in one handand the upper end b in the other, and pull the-mstrongly apart, so that the loop will point outwardnearly at a right angle, instead of lying close alongthe line.With light leaders it is better to make the loopof a separate piece of gut, somewhat heavier andstiffer than the main strands, lay it alongside a completeleader and tie as above.the proper angle.It will stand away atJam Knot (Fig. 176).—^To attach an eyed flyor hook to gut :toward bend of hook; bring itPush one end of gut through the eyeback and make withit a slip knot around the gut, as in the figure, leavethis open so it will pass forward over the eye ofthe hook, which is done by pulling at a. Drawtight, and clip off the protruding end.TuRLE Knot (Fig. 177).—Pass end of gutthrough eye, and draw hook well up on gut to beout of the way. Make a running loop {a) with endof gut; draw the knot {b) nearly tight; pass hookthrough the loop thus made, and bring knot to eyeof hook; draw tight by pulling first on c, then on d,and clip off end. This is particularly a good knotfor e^^edflies.FiGURE-OF-ElGHT KnOT FOR HoOKS (Fig. 1 78).—^A secure knot, more easily loosened than the turleknot.Reverse Knot (Fig. 179).—Pass end of gutthrough eye of hook, take two turns with it aroundthe leader, then stick it backward under the turnnearest the eye, draw taut, and clip off.Single Bow Knot (Fig. 180).—Sometimes usedfor attaching hook to line when it is desired tochange quickly.

CHAPTER XVITTROPHIES.—PELTS, BUCKSKIN ANDRAWHIDEThe preparation of game heads, or of entire skins,for subsequent mounting or tanning isnot very difficult,even for an amateur, if one goes about it inthe right way, A few simple rules may be given atthe start:1. Skin the specimen in such a way that the taxidermistcan mount it in lifelike attitude and naturalproportions. Make as few incisions as needbe, and these in places where the seams will notshow.2. Remove every bit of fat, flesh and cartilagethat you can. This is very important, but be carefulnot to cut through the skin.3. Dry thoroughly in the shade; not in the sunnor before a fire.4. Furred pelts are dried on stretchers, but specimensto be mounted by a taxidermist must not bestretched at all.5. Pelts are to be dried without salt or otherpreservative, except under conditions mentioned below.Heads are best dried in the same way, unlessthe weather is damp, or you are collecting in awarm climate.Many a fine head has been spoiled by not leavingenough of the neck skin attached to give it agood poise in mounting. Many more are ruined byskimped or boggled work about the eyes, lips, andears, or by leaving fat on the skin so that it gets*'grease-burnt," or by rolling up the skin and leavingit in a warm or moist place until decay sets in..2q8

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 299Remember that the taxidermist or furrier must soakthe skin to soften it before he can do anything elsewith It, and if it has been allovv^ed to decay at allthe hair will come out when soaked.To make a good job of skinning is somewhat tedious,and to make buckskin or tan pelts calls forplenty of elbow-grease. Amateurs are apt to betaken in by humbugs who profess to teach quickand easy ways of doing these things. There is nonostrum nor hocus-pocus that will save you thetrouble of good knife work in the field, or of reallabor if you do your own tanning.In skinning out heads, or full pelts, one can donretty fair work with no other tool than a jackknifftwith TWO blades, one of them thin and pointed, theother thicker edged for scraping and for workingclose to bones. It is best, however, to have twoknives. For making incisions and for skinning outthe more delicate parts a good instrument is thetaxidermist's knife shown In Fig. 181. It has aFig.181.—Taxidermist's knifethin three-mch blade that takes a keen edge, weighsbut two ounces, and costs 35 cents. Then have athand a jackknife or a small hunting knife 'or therougher work. You will need a whetstone hs skinrning is hard on knife edges. When slitting a skin,lise point of small blade, edge up, so )^ou do not haveto cut the hair.When heads are to be skinned for mounting, oneought to have a pocket tape measure and make notesof actual dimensions on the animal itself. Sincetrappers and hunters of big game are afieldonly Incold weather, there is no need of arsenical soapor other chemical preservatives.

300 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSkinning a Head.—Begin at a point over thebackbone, close to the shoulder, and run the pointof the small knife, just under the skin, down to thethroat, then down the other side in the same way{AB in Fig. 182). Make these cuts close to thebody where the swell of the shoulders and brisketbegins, as the skin of the whole neck is needed tomount the trophy true to life.JJ^ \\\ Then from C run the knifeayU ^L straight up the back of the neck\ ( y| /fpy to D, midway between the ears.^_^..11J^^^ From D make incisions to EE\^ '^V^'^^^ ^^ ^he bases of the two antlers.(If the animal has no antlersor horns, then the cut from Cto D issufficient.)Now begin to peel off theskin, working first from C downp- i02 on each side. Pull away theSkinning a head skin with one hand while youassist with the knife in theother, cutting off the little ligaments as you go, so asto leave no flesh adhering to the skin, taking carenot to cut the skin or rupture blood vessels. Thiskind of work is not to be done by a few heavystrokes, but by many light ones, holding the knifelike a pencil. Peel forward to base of ears, and cutthese off close to the skull. Then take up the V-shaped point between the ears(D) and skin off thescalp. Cut and pry the skin away from the baseof each antler {EE) all around, working carefullyand close to the base so as not to haggle edge ofskin or leave hairs attached to antlers. It will helphere to insert under the skin a small wedge-shapedstick, and pound a little on it.Just above each eye is a depression in the skull,with no flesh between skin and bone, and the skinadheres tightly. Go slow here, cutting loose theikln to the very bottom of the cavities.

PELTS, BUCKSKIN^ RAWHIDE 301About the eyes you must p^c^ with great care,for if you cut the eyelids theyj:am(^be repaired soas not to show the fault. Klijp tj^e**biade close tobony rim of eye socket. Ins^$t,f^n&p1i^to eye asguide, and cut through the merfik^^W54^the eyewithout puncturing the eyeball, '^r^ t^Qornersof the eyelids from the bone by neaf^o^^&jk'^^W^thePull off the skin as far as the nostrils afid^(^tW^Here again you must work slowly and Cfja-e^ll^XSever the cartilage of the nose well b?ck of the open^ing so the cut will not show from the front whenhead is mounted. When the lips are reached, cutclose to the bone all around.The skin being free from the skull, now proceedto remove the cartilage from the ears, so the taxidermistcan insert metal forms that will preservethe natural contours. Many leave the cartilage inplace, in ears, nose, and lips; but if this is done theparts will shrink and shrivel, besides being goodprey for insects. Begin at the base of the back oithe ear, separate the cartilage as far as you canwith the knife, then start to turn the ear inside out,peeling as you go. Continue until you reach thepoint of the ear. Your wedge-shaped stick willcome handy here. Having finished the back; thenskin down the inside in the same way. Be carefulnot to cut the skin at the edge. Thus remove eachcartilage entire.Then pare away all the cartilage and flesh fromthe nose and lips, splitting them open for the purpose,li the head is that of a moose, the cartilageof its "bell" is to be removed.Go over the entire skin and make sure that all fatand flesh have been removed, so it will keep well andso that when the taxidermist gets it his preservativewill penetrate the skin evenly at all parts. Thenwash it, inside and out, thoroughly, in cold or lukewarmwater, to remove blood and dirt. Bloodstainsare hard to remove from any kind of hair or

302 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfur, and on some, as the caribou's, they cause a rustthat cannot be eradicated. Finally, turn the skininside out and hang it up in a cool, shady place todry, spreading its folds smoothly apart, notwrinkled, so that air can circulate freely over allparts. Never roll a fresh hide up, expecting it todry that way; it would surely spoil.A skin dried thus without any preservative at allwill soak up better when the taxidermist gets itthan if it had been salted. If, however, the weatherbe damp all the time, you will have to use salt. Inthis case rub plenty of fine salt over every inch ofthe inner surface of the skin; then roll the skin upand let it lie until morning; do not stretch it norhang it up by the nose. Next morning examine itcarefully for soft spots where the salt has not struckin; shave these down and rub salt into them. Donot use any alum, for it would shrink the skin.Then immediately hang up the skin in a shadyplace, well out of reach of dogs and vermin.Meantime you will have the skull to attend to.Before removing it, make the following measurementsand note them down as a guide to the taxidermist:1. Length from base of skull to where neck joinsthe body.2. Girth of neck at throat.3. Girth at center.4. Girth around AB where neck joined body.Turn the head to one side and insert the knifebetween the base of the skull and the first or atlasvertebra, severing- the muscles and tendons; thenturn the head in the opposite direction and performa similar operation there; give a wrench, and theskull is detached. Cut and scrape all flesh, etc.,from the skull.Disarticulate the lower jaw so that 5'ou can workbetter, and- clean it. Remove the tongue and eyes.Now get a stiff stick, small enough to enter the holein the base of the skull, splinter one end by pound-

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 303ing It on a rock, and work this end around insidethe skull so as to break up and remove the brain,using water to assist you. Wash out the inside ofthe skull, and tie the lower jaw in place.Hides.—How to remove and care for the entireskins of large animals is described In Vol. I., pp.270-275. If they are to be used in making buckskinor rawhide, do not salt them.Skins of bears, cougars, etc., that are to be madeup into rugs may be skinned with either the wholehead or only the scalp attached—the former ifwanted mostly for decorative purposes, but practicalminded folk prefer the latter, as these are notso mean to stumble over.If the animal has a largetail, slit the tail skin on the under side, thewhole length. The tail bone must be removed inany case.In skinning a bear slit it along the belly fromchin to tail, and up the inside of each leg from toesto the belly slit. Skin out each foot by peeling theskin down and severing each toe just above baseof nail. Skin out the ears like those of a deer, andthe muzzle the same way if the whole head Is tobe preserved. The skin, being very fatty, requirescareful fleshing.As there probably will be no timefor this until the next day, spread the skin out on theground, rub salt into It, and roll It up for the night,flesh side to flesh side. Next morning fix up a saplingfor a *'beam," as described under the head of Buckskin^throw the skin over It, rub some cornmealor ashes on it, and thoroughly scrape off the fat.Then saltthe skin again.To stretch and dry a skin, set up a rectangularframe, well braced, which may be made of saplingslashed or nailed together. Lace the skin to thisframe, drawing" as taut and evenly all around asyou can (Fig. 183). The best way is with a sackingor sail needle and heavy twine. If. you mustmake slits along the edges, from lack of a needle,cut them as small as practicable. Use a separate

'304 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlength of twine or thong on each side, so that allfour can be stretched or let out Independently. Thisis far better than to tack the skin up on a door orthe side of a barn, as it gives the air free accessto both sides. Set the frame in an airy, shadyplace, out of reach of dogs and "varmints."Another wayFii 183.— Bear skin stretchedto dryto stretch aslit-openskinis to lace it upinside a hoop.Lay the skinout flat. Geta rod of elasticwood longenoughtobend into ahoop that wnllgoaroundcleartheoutside of theskin, or, ifneed be, splicetwo or morerods togetherfor the purpose.Tie theskin to the hoop at opposite sides, then the otherway, and so on until all loose parts are taken upand the skin Is stretched tight as a drumhead.The skull of a hornless animal is easily preparedfor cleaning by simmering in water over the fire untilthe flesh begins to get tender (but beware ofover-boiling, lest the sutures of the skull open andthe teeth come loose) ; then remove the brain andscrapethe skull.Small Pelts.—Animals found frozen In thetraps should be thawed out gradually before skinning—neverby direct heat of the fire.The wolf, coyote, wolverine, raccoon, and badgerare skinned **ODen" and stretched scuare like a beaf

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 305skin. A beaver skin is slit open from chin to tail,but the legs are stripped out without slitting sothat the skin may be stretched to oval form.The lynx, wildcat, fox, otter, fisher, marten, mink,skunk, muskrat, and oppossum are skinned "cased,"without slitting the belly. The skin, being nowflesh side out, is dried on a stretcher as describedhereafter. The reason for "casing" is that thefurrier then can cut the pelt for himself to thebest advantage, matching the best parts with thosefiom other pelts, and making up separately thethin-furred or off-color parts.In skinning a small animal "cased" it may beconvenient to hang it up by the hind legs on awooden gambrel thrust through the heel tendons, oron wire gambrel hooks, suspended by a short cord sothat both hands can be used and the animal turnedfreely; but this is not necessary: if the beast is large,as a wolf or lynx, lay it on its back; if small, holdit on your knees.Beginning at a hind foot, slit the skin along backof leg to base of tail, cutting carefully around thevent; then similarly along the other leg. If thefeet are furred, skin them out with nails attached;if not, run the knife around the ankles. Peel theskin from the hind legs.Tails of muskrat, beaver, and oppossum, being"worthless, are chopped off where the fur ends, beforeskinning; those of other fur bearers are lefton, the bone being completely removed, of course,or the tail would spoil. Cut a green stick aboutan inch thick and seven or eight inches long. Splitit about half its length, work the skin loose fromroot of tail with finger and thumb until you canslip the split stick over the bone, then, pressing thesides of stick firmly so that the edges cannot slipover the skin, pull hard with it toward end of tailwhile your other hand pulls the body in the oppositedirection, thus stripping the tail skin off "asrlick as a whistle."

3o6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTMake a small Incision through tip of tail, and,before putting the pelt on a stretcher, runa switch through the tail sheath to open it upand allow the air to pass through it. If the tailsheath were left stuck together it would not cureproperly and the fur would slip. This is the bestway with mink and other animals that have tailsmore or less rat-like, and trappers generally practiceit even on fox, raccoon, skunk, etc. ; but ifthe animal has a thick, fleshy tail, the skin shouldrather be slit its entire length, on the under side,and spread flat for curing.Next strip the skin down over the body. Thefront legs are easily worked out with the fingers.Sever the feet at the ankles, or skin them out withtoes attached, as the case may require. Such skinsas mink, marten, fisher, and fox may be slit up theback of the front legs to assure proper drying.Peel the skin down over the head, using theknife gently. The ears are cut off not too close tothe skull, the membranes cut through at the eyes,and the muzzle skinned off with lips and bare noseattached. The cartilage need not be removed, sincethe animal Is not to be mounted.Now go over the flesh side of the whole pelt andremove all adhering flesh and fat with the knife,but do not scrape thin at any place. Raccoon,skunk, and oppossum skins are fatty, like a bear's,and should be fleshed with particular care.If the fur is dirty, or has blood spots on it, youmust clean it with water and a rag (soap, too,if need be). A wet pelt should be dried by swingingit around In the air, before putting It on thestretcher.As furs are of no value until freezing weathersets In, there Is no need to salt the skins or use anyother preservative; just dry them In the shade onstretchers.Pelts of skunk, mink, etc.,can be deodorized mosteffectively by soaking and washing them In gasoline

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 30701 benzine (away from a fire, of course) ; thenwring out, and hang up in a current of air to dry,before stretching.A "cased" skin is dried by slipping it over a thinboard of proper shape and size so it is stretchedtight like a drumhead. Stretchers are of various patterns.For muskrat the stretcher need be no morethan a box board about 20 inches long, 5 or 6 incheswide at the base, and 4 or 5 inches at the shoulder,from which it is rounded off to the upperend. Dimensions depend, of course, onthe size of the skin. The sides are chamferedso as to be thin along the edges,which are rounded.To get the approximate size and shapefor a stretcher, lay the animal on itsback, on a board, and mark around itnear the end of the fur. A fox skin willrequire a ^-inch board; otter, ^-inch,and long enough so its tail can be spreadout flat and tacked at full length. Slipthe skin over the stretcher, fur side in,back on one side and belly on the other,and tack at the hind feet, or fasten tonotches cut in edge of board. Thenpush in on each side a thin, narrow strip,or a stick to stretch the skin outwardand let air get in. A few tacks at thebase will complete the stretching. Thenhang in some cool, dry, airy place untilFig. 184. Another form of stretcher is shown instretch^'^^' ^^^' ^^^ board is shaped as above,(a, b, then a tapered piece is ripped from thewedge) center (ab) , which, after the skinhas been slipped on, is pushed forward like a wedgeto stretch taut.Bird Skins.—A sportsman may wish to save theskin of a particularly fine bird for mounting, andthis can be done, in cool weather, without any

3o8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTYoupreservatives or taxidermist's equipment at all.are likely to have some absorbent cotton or gauzein j^our first-aid kit. With this, plug the bird'sthroat, nostrils, and vent, and wipe off any blood thatmay have escaped from shot holes. The feathersmust be disarranged as little as possible, and mustbe kept clean.Lay the bird on its back, head to one side, andbend the vrings backward out of the way. Partthe feathers from point of breastbone to vent,and make an incision straight from one point tothe other, being careful not to cut through theabdominal wall. Lift edge of skin and peel frombody until thigh joint is exposed. Sever leg frombody. Work thigh gradually out of skin, cut tendonsfree just above knee, and strip all flesh frombone. Do the same with the other leg. Use cottonor corn meal if blood or juice starts.Set bird on end, tail up. Bend tail backward, andcut through vent lining, tail muscles, and backbone,being careful not to cut butts of tail feathers, orthrough skin of back. Work the skin loose fromback, sides, and breast, to the wings, turning it insideout as you go. If the bird is large, you canwork better if you hang it up by a wire hook andcord, thrusting the hook into pelvis.Press wings forward strongly to loosen jointmuscles, and detach them at shoulder joints. Peelskin off the head. Then gently stretch and pushthe skin over the swell of skull, inverting it entirelyto the beak, pulling out ear linings and workingwith knife to free eyelids without marring them orpuncturing the eyeball. Cut off neck at base of skull,including enough of skull to leave a hole throughwhich brain may be scooped out. If the bird's headis too large to skin in this way, slit the skin frommiddle of back of head down nearly half the lengthof neck, and, through this Incision, turn and cleanthe head.Now remove eyes, brain, tongue, and jaw muscles.

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 309scrape off whatever fat is on the skin, and returnskull to its natural position inside the skin. Cutaway all meat from leg and wing bones, and frombase of tail, but without loosening tail feathers.Turn the skin right side out, smooth the plumage,the cavity loosely wnth cotton.and fillBuckskin.—To make good buckskin takesconsiderablemanual labor; otherwise it is not difficult,and one can turn out a good article if he followsclosely the directions here given—the regular Indianway, which I myself have used. Whether youmake your own or not, it is well to know how realbuckskin is made, so you may not be humbugged intobuying base imitations.*Genuine Indian-tanned buckskin is, properlyspeaking, not tanned at all. Tanned leather hasundergone a chemical change, from the tannin orother chemicals used in converting it from the rawhide to leather. Buckskin, on the contrary, is stilla raw skin that has been made supple and soft bybreaking up the fibers mechanically and has thenmerely been treated with brains and smoke to preserveits softness. In color and pliability it issomewhat like w^hat is called chamois skin, but it isfar stronger and has the singular property thatalthough it shrinks some after wetting and gets stiffin drying, it can easily be made soft as ever bymerely rubbing it in the hands.For some purposes buckskin is superior to anyleather. It was used by our frontiersmen, as well*"Much 'buckskin' nowadays comes from a sheep'sback. I will give an infallible rule by which totell genuine buckskin that comes from a deer'sback. After the skin is tanned by 'any old process,'you will observe on the flesh side littleveins,or channels where they once were. They arespread like the veins on the back of one's hands,only smaller. Where these are found on a hideor skin, you may rest assured it is buckskin offa deer's back."— (Farnham, Home Maniifacture ofFurs and Skins.)

3IOCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTas by the Indians, for moccasins, leggings, huntingshirts, gun covers and numerous other purposes. Itis warmer than cloth, pliable as kid, noiseless againstbushes, proof against thorns, collects no burs, wearslike iron and its soft neutral color renders theweaier inconspicuous amid any surroundings. Whenof good quality it can be washed like a piece ofcloth.Its only fault is that It Is very unpleasant towear in wet weather; but against this is the considerationthat buckskin can be prepared in the wilderness,with no materials save those furnished on thespot by the forest, the stream, and the animal itself.Not even salt is used in its manufacture.Neither tannin, nor any substitute for it, has toucheda piece of buckskin; its fibers have been loosenedand rendered permanently soft and flexible, itspores have been closed up, but there has been littleor no chemical change from the raw state of theskin and consequently it has no tendency to rot.Indian Tan.—Different Indian tribes have differentmethods of making buckskin, but the essentialprocesses are the same, namely : ( i ) soaking,(2) depilating and fleshing, (3) sti etching andtreating with brains, with repeated soaking and drying,(4) smoking". The skin of a deer, for example,is first soaked in water for three to fivedays, depending upon temperature. Elk or buffalohides are immersed In a lye of wood ashes andwater or rolled up in ashes moistened with warmwater. After soaking, the hide is taken to a graininglog, which is simply a piece of sapling or smalltree about 8 feet long and 6 or 8 inches thick atthe butt. The bark is removed from the thick endand the other end is stuck under a root or otherwisefastened In the ground at an angle, leaving thesmooth end about waist high, like a taimer's beam.Or, a short log may be used—one that will reach toa man's chin when stood on end ; in which case anotch is cut in the butt by which the stick is braced

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 311against the limb of a small tree, with smooth surfacefacing the operator, and the small end stickingin the ground about two feet from the tree.A graining knife is now required. It was formerlymade of hardwood, of flint, of the sharpenedfib or scapula of an animal, or of the attached bonesof a deer's foreleg with the front end of the ulnascraped sharp, the latter instrument being used likea spoke-shave. Sometimes a large, strong musselshell was used. A favorite instrument was an adzeor hoe-shaped tool made from the fork of an elkantler. After they could get iron, the squaws madeskin-scrapers shaped like a littlehoe, the handle beingabout a foot long. A similar tool for scrapingsmall skins can be bought from dealers in taxidermists'materials. In the backwoods, however,one must commonly use an extemporized instrument.The back of a thin butcher knife does well enough,if filed square across so as to give a scraping edge,and the point of the blade driven into a stick for ahandle at that end. Or, one can take a large halfroundfile or a rasp, grind it to a square edge on^ach side, draw out the point into a tang, fit a shortoval handle crosswise on this end and a commonfile handle on the regular tang at the other end. Askate blade does very well. In fact, almost anythingwith a scraping rather than a cutting edgewill answer the purpose.The skin is placed on the graining log with theneck drawn over the upper end of the log aboutsix or eight inches; the operator places a flat stickbetween the neck and his body, to prevent slipping,and presses his weight against it. If the shortnotched log is used, the neck is caught bet^veenthe notch and the limb. The hair and grain (blackepidermis) are scraped off by working the knifedown the skin the way the hair runs. If the hairis stubborn, a little ashes rubbed into such spotswill offer resistance to the knife and will make thegrain slip.

312 CAMPING AND WOODCRAf'TaThe hide is now turned over and fleshed with asharp knife, by removing all superfluous tissue andworking the skin down to an even thickness throughout.This operation must be performed with extremecare or the buckskin will have thick and stiffspotsi which make it comparatively worthless—point to be considered in buying buckskin. Inolden times, when a squaw wanted to make somethingparticularly nice, she would patiently workdown a deerskin until it was almost as thin andpliable as a piece of cotton cloth. After cleaningin this manner the skin is allowed to dry and thenis re-soaked overnight.Softening the Skin.—Now comes the job ofstretching and softening the hide. There is onlyone recipe for this: elbow-grease and plenty of it.The skin is pulled, twisted, and worked in everydirection until it becomes white and soft, afterwhich the operator rubs into it the brains of theanimal, which have been removed by splitting theskull lengthwise half in two. Sometimes the brainsare first dissolved in tepid water, being allowed tosimmer over a slow fire while the lumps are rolledbetween the fingers till they form a paste whichwill dissolve more freely. This solution is thenrubbed into the hide on the hair side, which iscoarser than the flesh side. The brains act as asort of dubbing; if there is not likely to be enoughfor the job, the macerated liver of the animal isadded to the brains. Deer brains may be preservedby mixing them with moss so as to make themass adhere enough to be formed into a cake whichis hung by the fire to dry. Such a Cc^ke will keepfor years. When wanted for dressing a hide, itis dissolved in hot water and the moss is removed.A skin may be treated by soaking it in the solution,wringing out, drying and re-soaking till it isthoroughly penetrated. After this process the skinmust again be pulled, stretched, kneaded, and rubbed,until the fiber is thoroughly loosened and

•PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 313every part becomes as pliable as chamois skin. Iftwo men are available they saw the hide back andforth over the sharpened edge of a plank or over ataut rope, lariat, or a tw^isted sinew as thick as one'sfinger. Large and refractory hides may be softenedby stretching them firmly on elevated frames anddancing on them. It is a hard job for one manto soften a large hide, but he can accomplish itby throwing the wet skin over a convenient limb,forming a loop at the other end, passing a stoutstick through it, and t^visting into a hard knot—leaving it to dry; then he re-soaks it and repeatsthe operation as often as necessary. The oftenera skin is wet and softened, the more pliable itbecomes.Smoking the Skin.—^The final process is smoking,which closes the pores, toughens the skin, givesitthe desired color, and insures its drying soft aftera wetting. Ordinarily the skin is made its ownsmoke-house. A small hole is dug in the groundand a smudge started in it. The best smudge ismade from "dozed" wood, that is, from, w^ood affectedwith dry rot until it is spongy; this, whendried, gives out a pale blue smoke without flame.desired,If a particular shade of yellow or brown issome discrimmation must be used in selecting thefuel. Above all things, the smudge must not be allow^edto break out in flame, for heating wouldruin the skin. Several small poles are stuck aroundthe hole and the skin is wrapped around themsomewhat like a teepee cover, the edges being sewedor skewered together; it is best, w^hen practicable,to smoke two or more skins at once, so as to haveplent}' of room around and above the smudge. Whentwo skins of about equal size are ready, a goodway to smoke them is to baste their edges togetherloosely in the form of a bag, the outside of theskins forming the inside of the bag and the afterpart of the skins forming its bottom, the neck endbeing left open ; to the edges of the open end sew

314 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTa cloth continuation, leaving it open. Suspend thisbag from its bottom to a tree or pole. Bend a smallgreen stick into a hoop and place it within the bottomof the bag; under the mouth of the bag placea pan containing the smouldering wood (the clothmouth is to prevent the skin from heating). Inspectthe inside of the skins from time to time andwhen they are smoked to a deep yellow or lightbrown the process is finished ; sometimes both sidesfor a few days to season.of the skins are smoked ; otherwise, fold the skinswith the smoked side within and lay them awayThis sets the color, makingit permanent. The skins of antelope or any ofthe deer tribe are treated in the same way. Antelope,deer, moose, and caribou hides make goodbuckskin, but elk hides are comparatively weakand inferior material.Rawhide.—Rawhide is often useful in camp andis easily prepared. Soak the fresh hide in water,or in a weak lye made by adding wood ashes towater, until the hair will slip. The alkali is notnecessary for deerskins.Then remove the hair andstretch the hide with great force on a frame or onthe side of a building, extending it in all directionsas tightly as possible, so that when it dries it willbe as taut as a drumhead. Dry it in the shade. Useno salt or other preservative.This is all, unless you wish to make the rawhidesupple, in which case rub into it thoroughly a mixtureof equal parts of neat's foot oil and tallow,and work it thoroughly over the edge of a plank.Butter, lard, or any kind of animal grease will doas a substitute for the above mixture. Viscol,rubbed in, not only softens but waterproofs theskin.A convenient way of making a stretching framein the woods is to go where two trees grow at theright distance apart; notch them at the properheight to receive a strong, stiff sapling that has beencut to fit the notches, the deep cut of the latter

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 315being at the lower side so that no force can pull thepole down; similarly fit another pole into reversedJiotches just above the ground; cut slits in the edgesof the hide and fiom them stretch thongs or verystrong cords to the trees and poles, twisting them uptightly.Parfleche.—The plains Indians used to makerawhide trunks or boxes which would stand anyamount of abuse in packing and travel. Thesewere called by the voyageurs parfleche. (Our dictionariessurmise that this is a French adaptation ofsome Indian word, but it is simply Canadian-French,meaning an arrow-fender, because it was from rawhidethat the Indians made their almost impenetrableshields. The word is commonly pronounced byAmericans ''par-flesh," with the accent on the lastsyllable.) In making these rawhide receptacles thethickest hides of buffalo bulls were dehaired, cut intothe required shapes and stretched on woodenforms to dry; they then retained their shapes andwere almost as hard as iron. A hide bucket can bemade by cutting off from the rawhide some thinstrips for lacing, soaking the skin until it is quitesoft, shaping from it a bag, sewing this up with thelace-leather, fitting to it a handle of twisted orplaited hide, then filling the bucket with dry sandor earth and letting it stand till dry.Whang Leather.—^Woodchuck skins are proverbiallytough, and are good for whangs or shoestrings.Squirrel skins can be used for thinner ones.An old summer coon's skin is very good for thispurpose ; wildcat's skin is better ; eel skins make thestrongest of all whangs.Whang-leather is prepared just like rawhide, butthe thongs are cut out before softening. It is conimonpractice to tan the leather with alum, but thisis objectionable for reasons given in the next chapter.Many farmers "tan" small skins for whang-leatherby putting them in a tub of soft soap; or dissolve9. bar of shaved-up laundry soap in a pail of hotwater, let 't cooL soak the skin in this solution un

3i6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtil you can squeeze water through it, then wring itout, work by hand until dry, and finally smoke likebuckskin. But such leather is of inferior strength,as the alkali weakens the fibers; it remains slippery;and it draws dampness till it rots. Plain rawhide,suppled with grease or oil, is stronger than any tannedleather.Lace-leather is cut of uniform width by the followingmeans. With a pair of compasses (a forkedstick with pencil or metal scoring point attached toone leg will serve) draw a circle on a piece ofhide; cut out this round piece with a keen knife;make a starting cut of the desired width on theedge of the circular piece of hide. Drive an awlor a slender round nail into a board, and alongsideof it, at precisely the width of the lace, stick theknife, edge foremost, and inclining a little to therear; then lay the round bit of hide in front of theknife, draw the cut strip between the awl and theknife and steadily pull away; the round leather willrevolve as the knife cuts its way, and the awl, actingas a guage, will insure a uniform width of lacing.The same method is used in cutting shorter thongsfrom the side of a skin or piece of leather.How to splice thongs is shown in Fig. 185. Cuta slit in the end of each, a little longer than widthFig.185.—Splicing thongsof thong, slip b over a, bring end of b up throughthe slitin a, and draw tight.A RiATA.—To make a rawhide riata: selectcarefully skinned hides that have no false cuts inthem. A 30-foot riata will require two large cowhidesif it is to be made three-stranded, or fou '

PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 317small ones If four-stranded. Having removed thehair, stake the hides out on level ground, keepingthem well stretched and constantly wetted so asnot to harden; keep them pegged out two days.Cut up the hide In the manner of laces, the widthof the strip not exceeding one-half inch; wet eachstrip, when cut, and wrap it around a stick; thenfasten the strips to a tree and plait them to a uniformcircumference and tightness of twist. Keepthe strands and plaited portion wet; a Mexicanfills his mouth with water which he squirts overthe work and materials. When the rope Is finished,stretch It thoroughly, and then grease it. To preserveIts pliability, keep It continually greased.Catgut.—The catgut of commerce Is never madefrom cats, any more than chamois skin Is made fromchamois; but It can be made from the Intestines ofalmost any good-sized animal. Thoroughly cleansethe intestine from all Impurities, inside and out ;thisis more easily done while the gut is still warm fromthe animal. Wash it and then scrape it with ablunt knife to remove slime and grease; then steepit in running water for a day or two, so as to loosenboth the Inner and outer membranes, which arethen removed by scraping. To turn the gut Insideout, double back a few Inches of one end, invertthis, take the bag thus formed between finger andthumb and dip water up into it till the double foldis nearly full, when the weight of the water willcause the gut to become Inverted. The fibrous innermembrane is then soaked three or four hoursin water to which wood ashes have been added. Itis then washed free from lye and can either be splitInto thin fibers when It has dried or may be twistedInto a bowstring or similar cord. To twist It,plant two stout stakes In the ground, a little widerapart than the length of the gut; make a saw-cutIn the top of each stake; cut two narrow, flatpieces of wood Into the shape of knife-blades, thinenough to enter the saw-cuts, and notch on'^ end

3i8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof each; firmly lash each end of the gut to one ofthese notched ends. By alternately twisting theseand fixing them in the saw-cuts, to prevent theirrunning back, the gut may be evenly and smoothlytwisted like a single-strand cord. Let it dry andthen rub it smooth with a woolen rag and a littlegrease.Membranes.—Bladders only need cleaning, inflationwith air and drying to preserve them. Theymay then be made pliable by oiling. The paunchesof animals, after cleaning, can be expanded withgrass until dried. Such receptacles have many usesin wilderness camps, where bottles and cans areunobtainable; for example, to hold bear's oil, wildhoney, and other fluid or semi-fluid substances.Sinew.—A very strong, pliable and durable sew^;ng thread is made from sinew. It splits into eventhreads, is easy to work with when damp, and, ondrying, it shrinks tightly and becomes almost ashard as horn; hence it is better material than anyvegetable fiber for certain kinds of sewing, particularlyin sewing leather or buckskin, and for bindingtogether any two parts, such as a tool and itshandle, where the former has no eye. For bowstringsand heavy sewing, the Indians preferred thesinews of the buffalo or the moose, and then theelk, these being coarse in texture; for finer workthey chose those of the deer, antelope, and bighorn.The sinew of the panther or miountain-lion wasesteemed as the finest and most durable. The ligamentsthat extend from the head backwards alongeach side of the spinal process were preferred tothose of the legs.The aboriginal method of preparing and usingsinew is thus described by Isham G. Allen: "Thesinew is prepared for use by first removing all adheringflesh with the back of a knife; it is thenstretched on a board or lodge-pole and left to dryfor an hour or so, preparatory to the separation ofthe fibers or threads by twisting in the hands. By

;PELTS, BUCKSKIN, RAWHIDE 319the same or similar twisting motion, and by pulling,the fiber can be extended to a reasonablelength. [Dried sinews may readily be shredded bywetting, and, if necessary, by gentle hammering.]Cords or small ropes are made by twisting manyfibers together between two forked sticks fastenedin the ground, and, during the process, rubbingwith thin skins of the elk or deer to soften themthe largest cord I have seen made in this mannerwas one-fourth of an inch in diameter. To prepareit for sewing, the sinew is wet, and, at theneedle end, rolled on the knee with the palm ofthe hand to a fine, hard point, like that of a shoemaker'sbristle. As suggested, the sinews are madesufficiently fine for use in fixing the guiding feathers,and fastening the iron or flint heads of arrows,and in wrapping of clubs, etc. Formerly the awlused in sewing was of bone taken from the leg ofthe eagle ; this has been displaced by the commonsailor's needle ; the overstitch is that most commonlyemployed in aboriginal sewing."To join two slippery strands of sinew, lay theirends side by side, as in Fig. 108, and then withthis double strand tie a figure-of-eight knot (Fig.loi).Parchment.—It may sometime happen that onewishes to prepare a sheet of parchment on whichto write an important document; this can be donein the wilderness, if one can kill some animal thathas a gall-bladder. Make the parchment like ordinaryrawhide, from the thin skin of a medium-sizedanimal, say a fawn or a wildcat.Rub it down withThen geta flat piece of sandstone or pumice-stone.a smooth, water-worn pebble and with it rub everypart of one surface, (hair side) of the skin, makingit firm and smooth. Then give this a coat of galldiluted with water.The old-fashioned way of making ox-gall was asox and afterfollows: take the gall of a newly killedhaving allowed it to settle twelve or fifteen hours

320 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTin a basin, pour the floating liquor off the sedimentinto a small pan or cup, put the latter in a largervessel that has a little boiling water in the bottom,and keep up a boiling heat until the liquor is somewhatthick; then spread this substance on a dish andplace it before a fire till it becomes nearly dry.In this state it can be kept for years in a pot coveredwith paper, without undergoing any alteration.Touse it, dissolve a piece the size of a pea in a tablespoonfulof water. It makes ink or watercolorsspread evenly on parchment, paper, or ivory. Acoating of it sets lead-pencil or crayon marks so thatthey cannot be removed. It is also used far takingout spots of grease or oil.Translucejit Parchment.—^To make parchmenttranslucent, as for a window: take a raw skin, curried,and dried on a stretcher without any preservative;steep it in an infusion of water, boiledhoney, and the white of eggs.Another method is to soak a thin skin of parchmentin a strong lye of wood ashes, often wringingit out, until you find that it is partly transparent;then stretch it on a frame and let it dry. This wilJbe improved and made rain-proof if, after it is dry,you coat it on both sides with a clear mastic varnish,made as directed below.Unsized paper or a thin skin is made waterproofand translucent by applying lightly to both sides avarnish made by putting ^ ounce gum mastic in 6ounces best spirits of turpentine, and shaking it upthoroughly, day by day, until dissolved. The bottleshould be kept in a warm place while contents aredissolving.Or, use equal parts Canada balsam (fir balsam)and turpentine: this dries slowly, but is flexible likemap varnish.Or, dissolve J^ ounce beeswax in J4 pint turpentine.

—:CHAPTER XVIIITANNING SKINS—OTHER ANIMALPRODUCTSThe methods used by regular tanners Inmakingleather are complicated and beyond the resourcesof men in the woods. Vegetable tanning, withextracts or infusions of bark, etc., requires weeks oreven months to complete the process. However, thi?sort of tanning is adapted mainly to heavy hides.Light skins, such as woodsmen usually handle, arebest made into buckskin or else tanned with mineralsalts or acids, which are comparatively quick andsimpleIprocesses.will describe a good way to tan a pelt with thefur on. It may also be used to tan naked leather,except that the skin, in that case, is first soaked untilthe hair will slip and then grained like buck&kin,beforetanning.Since one seldom makes a good job of tanning atthe first trial, it is best to begin wnth a skin oflittle value, and one that isnot of a greasy naturea cat skin, for example, either wild or domestic.The tanning of a furred pelt proceeds in five stagessoaking, fleshing, pickling, washing, and softening:I. Soaking.—A skin fresh from the animal needsno soaking, but one that has been dried must be relaxedbefore r,nything further can be done with it.Immerse the skin in running water from one to sixhours (depending upon temperature, and thicknessof skin), or, if this is not convenient, soak it insalted water, using a good handful of salt to thepailful. Take it out as soon as it is pliable, for^21

322 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfurther soaking would loosen the hair or fur.flesh and pickle it at once.Then2. Fleshing.—Even if the inside of a pelt hasbeen well fleshed immediately after skinning, still,after it has dried, it will have a tough, glazed surfacethat must be cut and scraped away, after soaking,to open the pores so that the tanning liquorcan penetrate at every point. Do this on a beam, asdirected under Buckskin in Chapter XVII. Thickhides must be shaved down uniformly before tanning.If the skin is greasy, It will not take the tan.To remove grease, rub hot corn meal or sawdust,over the flesh side, being particular not to get it onthe fur, as it might be hard to remove ; then scrapewell. An easier way is to soak the skin for anhour in gasoline, then hang up and dry before pickling.3. Pickling.—Dissolve one quart of salt In onegallon of hot water. Let this cool, and then slowlypour Into It one fluid ounce of commercial sulphuricacid. Do not Inhale the fumes. These arethe proportions', the amount, of course, will dependupon the size of skin and vessel used. The lattermust not be of metal, but glass or earthenware,or a wooden pail or tub. Soak the skin in this,turning and working it around, once In a while, toensure that every part gets the benefit of the tanningliquor. A thin skin will be tanned In abouttwo days; a heavy one may take a week. Thelower the temperature the slower the action. Itwill not hurt the pelt to let It stay in the pickle formonths: taxidermists use this formula for preservingskins to be mounted at any future time. No, Itdoes not Injure hair or fur, but sets it, and discouragesattack by moths and other Insects.If you are In a hurry, a stronger solution can beused : water two quarts, salt one pound, sulphuricacid one ounce, which will tan a light skin In abouttwenty-four hours; but this is Hkely to *'burn" the

TANNING SKINS 323skin unless you soak it thoroughly In an alkalinesolution after taking It from the pickle.4. Washing.—In fact, any skin tanned with anacid should be neutralized with alkali so that nofree acid is left in it to cause deterioration. Firstput the skin on a beam and go over the flesh sidewith a scraper to press out all the surplus liquidthat you can. Then soak it an hour or so in a solutionof common washing soda (about a handful to apail of lukewarm water). Rinse in clear water.Many pelts have been spoiled by omitting this partof the program, and thus the acid tanning has gottenin some quarters, a bad name.5. Softening.—After washing the skin, hang itspread out on a line or frame until half dry. Thenwork it back and forth (flesh side down, of course)over the edge of a plank or a square bar of iron,andpull and stretch It in every direction with the hands,until it is white, dry, and supple all over. Theobject is to loosen up the fibers everywhere so thatthey do not shrink, stick together, and dry hard andstiff. An amateur is more likely to fail here thanin any other part of the tanning operation ; for itis hard work, and he may not stick to it longenough to ensure a good job.If still there are hard spots on the skin, moistenthem with the pickling liquor and keep them so untilsoftened. A good way is to cover such spots withsawdust wet with all the liquor it will take up.A final finish can be put on by rubbing withsandpaper or pumice stone.Then rub Into the flesh side a mixture of equalparts of tallow and neat's foot oil, or some butter,or lard, or vaseline, or (sparingly) with plain oilor viscol. Do not use a vegetable oil. To removeany surplus, so that the skin may not be left g/easy,rub hot corn meal or sawdust over it.Finally, comb out the fur, and the pelt Is readyfor making up Into a rug or garment.There are many other ways of "mineral tanning'*

324 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbut the one here given is less complicated than mostof them, as satisfactory as any, and is adapted to anykind of skin, big or little, with or without the bailorfur. Tanning with alum I do not recommend:it shrinks and thickens the skin, hardens it, andmakes the fur dull and harsh if any gets on it.Robes Indian-tanned.—One may be so situatedthat he can get none of the ingredients required bythe above process, and still he may want to makea robe with the fur on. In such case, do as theIndians did, who had not even salt. A pelt can be*'Indian-tanned" as soft as by any chemical process,and will be even stronger and more durable. Theonly trouble is that it takes more elbow-grease.The method is similar to that of making buckskin,already described, except that the hide isfleshed without soaking enough to make the fur slip.Then the skin is stretched, the brain water rubbedinto the flesh side, this is repeated several times,and then the pelt is suppled by thorough hand work.One of my earliest recollections is of the cosywarmth and peculiar but not unpleasant scent ofbuffalo robes, as I lay comfortably under them inthe big sled and rode over the shimmering whiteprairie in a temperature of twenty or thirty belowzero. The following description of how thoserobes were prepared is quoted from Colonel Dodge.We have no more buffaloes to hunt, but we havecaribou and reindeer, and the same workmanshipcan be used on their hides, though a white manwould use a beam and fleshing knife instead of theground and a squaw's adze:"The skin of even the youngest and fattest cow is,in its natural condition, much too thick for use,being unwieldy and lacking pliability. This thicknessmust be reduced at least one-half and the skinat the same time made soft and pliable. When thestretched skin has become dry and hard from theaction of the sun, the woman goes to »work v.'ith asmall implement shaped somewhat like a carpenter'sadze: it has a short handle of wood or elkhorn, tier!

TANNING SKINS 323on with rawhide, and is used with one hand. Withthis tool the woman chips at the hardened skin,cutting off a thin shaving at every blow. The skillin the whole process consists in so directing andtempering the blows as to cut the skin, yet not cutto-o deep, and in finally obtaining a uniform thicknessand perfectly smooth and even inner surface.To render the skin soft and pliable the chipping isstopped every little while and the chipped surfacesmeared with brains of buffalo, which are thoroughlyrubbed in with a smooth stone. When very greatcare and delicacy are required the skin is stretchedvertically on a frame of poles. It is claimed thatthe chipping process can be much more perfectlyperformed on a skin stretched in this way than onone stretched on the uneven and unyielding ground,but the latter is used for all common robes, becauseit is the easiest. When the thinning and softeningprocess is completed, the robe is taken out of itsframe, trimmed, and sometimes smoked. It is nowready for use. This is a long and tedious processand no one but an Indian would go through it."Sometimes, after the fieshing of the hide was completed,a mixture of boiled brains, marrow grease,and pounded roast liver was thickly spread on theflesh side and allowed to dry in; then the hide wasrubbed with fat, dampened with warm water, rolledup and laid away for a day. After this the hidewas slowly dried in the sun or very carefully beforea fire, being frequently and thoroughly rubbedover a ^iata while drying.Snake Skins.—Slit the skin down the centerof the under plates from head to tail. Work carefullywith a rattlesnake's tail, as the skin from ventto rattle is thin and easily torn. If the skin cannotbe tanned at once, rub fine salt into the flesh side,after scraping off foreign matter, roll it up and keepin a cool place. Otherwise apply the tanning picklealready mentioned, and tack the skin out on a board,in the shade, to dry. Afterward it can be softenedwith a little oil. For a short time after shedding,the skin Is thin and tender.To tan a snake's skin into flexible leather for abelt or snnllar article, the scales must first be scraped

326 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthen tan, and polish the outer side with a smoothoff ;but not hot iron.Fish Skins.—If you merely skin a fish, salt theskin or put it up in brine and ship it to a taxidermist,you will finally get from him a mounted thing,but it will be a mighty poor reminder of the beautythat you caught. Whoever mounts a fish shouldhave an exact replica of its body to use as a foundation.This can be made on the spot with plasterof Paris in a sand mold, as described in Pray'sTaxidermy (Outing Handbooks), provided youhave the plaster. Since very few anglers will beso equipped, it is best to preserve the fish itself, andship it to a taxidermist as soon as practicable. Mr.Pray has told, in RecreatioUj how to do this withcommon preservatives that can be procured in anyvillage:"To prepare a fish to ship a distance for mounting,^remove the entrails and red gills, slitting the bellyopen along the side to be against the panel whenmounted. When the 'innards' are out, peel up theskin toward the back carefully and score the meatdeeply lengthwise several times with a sharp knife,being careful not to cut through the skin on theoppositeside.Now rub plenty of borax (use no salt on a fish tobe mounted) into the head and belly and the knifecuts in the meat of the back and tail.Lastly, put a teaspoonful of carbolic acid (as youbuy it in the drug store) into a pint of water andwring a cloth out of this solution. Wrap the fishin this, laid out full length. Have enough cloth sothat several thicknesses of cloth cover the fish. (Iftwo or more fish are shipped together, wrap eachseparately in the damp cloth.) Wrap the whole atfull length in a piece of thin, cheap oil-cloth, packcarefully in a box and send by either parcel post orexpress. (Always lay the fish out in approximatepose in relation to each other that you would like inthe mount, so that you will open them on oppositesides, that they may hang front to front on thepanel.)Always send fish for mounting in the meat, neverskinned, as the ideal mounted fish is a cast portraitof itself with the skin skilfull}"- applied over it."

TANNING SKINS 327Glue.—Hoofs and horns are boiled down inwater for many hours, until the water thickens,and this is cooled until it sets solid into glue. Theoil skimmed from the pot in making glue is knownas neat's foot oil, valuable in dressing leather.To use the glue put the pan containing it into asmall pot or pan partly filled with water, and heatthis until the glue melts.1. Waterproof Glue.—Soak the glue in wateruntil swollen; then dissolve it by heating in fourfifthsits weight of linseed oil.2. Add some rosin to hot glue, and afterwarddilute with turpentine.3. Dissolve one pound of glue in two quarts ofskim milk, by heating.4. Take a handful of well burned quicklime andmix with it four ounces of linseed oil, rub the ingredientsthoroughly together, and then boil untilof the consistency of ordinary paste. Spread it ontin plates until it becomes dry and very hard. Whenrequired for use, heat itas you would common glue.This is not only waterproof, but also resists heat, andcan be used as a lute for vessels.Cements and Pastes.— Although these arenot all animal products, I insert recipes here whileon the subject of adhesives.5. Cement for Broken Vessels.—A powerfulcement or lute is made by kneading newly slakedlime (use a paddle) into a dough-like mass with a.strong solution of glue, or blood, or white of egg.6. Cement for Casksj etc.—A good cement forstopping leaks in casks, boats, etc., is made of tallow25 parts, lard 40 parts, sifted wood ashes 25 parts.Mix together by heating, and apply with a knifeblade that has just been heated.7. Flour Paste that ivill Keep.—Make a strongtea of the bark of sassafras root. Mix flour incold water to a thick paste, and stir into this the hottea, gradually, until the paste is thin as wanted.8. Mucilage Substitute.—Put a teaspoonful of

328 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT;and letsugar in barely enough water to dissolve it,it come just to a boil.Working in Horn.—Horn is easily manipu^lated after soaking it in boiling water. If timepermits, it is best to soak it first for several day?in cold water, then boil until soft enough to moldinto the desired shape. The horn must be keptfree from anything sweaty or oily while beingtreated.The western Indians used to make superior bowsof buffalo horns, and from those of the mountainsheep, by leaving the horns in hot springs until theywere perfectly malleable, then straightening themand cutting them into strips of suitable width. Twobuffalo horns were pieced in the center and rivetedthen bound strongly at the splice with sinew.Turtle or tortoise-shell can be worked up in asimilar way.Horn is useful for handles, spoons, cups, and variousother items of backwoods equipment. Whensplit, flattened, and scraped, it makes good windowpanes where glass isunobtainable.A Horn Cup is better than any other for one tocarry with him when campaigning. It is lighterFig.186.—Horn cupthan a metal cup, does not dent nor break, and ispleasanter to drink tea or coffee from, as it is lessconductive of heat.To make it: Select the largest ox horn you canfind that has a sharp bend in it. The broader

TANNING SKINS 329the base the better, so that the cup will not be talland "tippy." Trim the butt end smooth and evenfor the bottom of the cup; then, back from this,at a distance equal to the proposed height of thecup, saw through the greater part of the horn,as shown in Pig 186, but leave enough of thetop for a handle, the latter strip being about 6inches long and ^-inch wide. Scrape the handlegradually down to yg-inch thickness at the end.Then soak the handle in a strong boiling solutionof lime until it is soft, bend it backward arounda stick and bind the end fast to base of handleat top, until it has cooled and hardened ; then fita w^ooden bottom in it, and tack and lute it inplace. A good cement or lute for the purpose iseither No. 4 or No. 5, among the ~ecipes givenabove. Before putting in the bottom, scrape andsandpaper the cup inside and out. The cup can beornamented with scrimshaw carvings, like someof the revolutionary powder horns you see inmuseums.A Huntsman's Horn.—The following descriptionof how to make a huntsman's horn iscondensed from one given a good many years agoby D. M. Morris: Select a cow's horn 14 to 16inches long, although 12 inches will do. With alimber stick determine how far the hollow extendsand saw off the tip about an inch above thatpoint. With a gimlet bore down to the hollow,taking care to hit it fairly. Ream out the holefrom J4 to 5-16-inch diameter. Dress the horndown with a half-round file but do not scrape it.Be careful to get a fair and even surface. To avoidw^orking the horn too thin, press the thumb ondoubtful places to see if there Is any spring. Workdown the neck as much as it will safely bear. Abrass ferrule should now be fitted tightly aroundthe neck to prevent the stem of the mouthpiecefrom splitting it. Now, to polish the horn: takea piece of sandpaper 2 or 3 inches square, and

330 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTa little finer than the file, In the palm of the righthand; then, grasping the horn with the left hand,twist it around and around from end to end, occasionallyrubbing it lengthwise. Continue thisprocess with finer g'rades of sandpaper till thevery finest has been used and complete the polishingwith pumice or rotten stone and water. Thenget from any dealer in musical Instruments an Eflat or cornet mouthpiece, fit It perfectly, drive itin tightly and your horn is complete. Or, take thesmall end of another horn, or the piece sawed off,and with a sharp and round-pointed pocket-knifework out a conical cavity at the large end, andHjake a hole through the small end for the stem.Work off the outside, shaping It in the form of acone the sides of which are concaved near the baseand convexed toward the stem. This shape willlook well, and the top will be thick enough to resteasily against the lips. The hole should be aboutthe size of a rye straw. The shape of the mouthpieceand the size of the hole—provided it be largeenough—do not materially affect the horn. Thestem of the mouthpiece should be ^ to i inchlong. If shorter, the sound will be too harsh; iflonger, too soft and not far-sounding. Long hornspioduce flat sounds, shorter ones sharp sounds. Agood horn may be heard three to three and a halfmiles. The best horns have a double curve (crooksin two directions), gradually tapering from buttto tip, highly colored, or with black or dark points.A part of the butt must always be removed, as itis thin and brittle.Gun Oil.— It is easy to make excellent gun-oil from the fat of almost any animal. Never usea vegetable oil on a firearm—it Is sure to gum.Rattlesnake oil has more body than almost any otheranimal oil ; but that of woodchucks, squirrels, 'coons,€tc., is good. A fine oil can also be made fromthe fat of the ruffed grouse, or from the marrowof a deer's leg bones. Put the fat on a board and

TANNING SKINS 331with a sharp knife cut it up fine ; then put it out inthe hot sunlight, or warm it gently (do not let itget hot) before the fire; now force the oil througha strong cloth bag by squeezing it. To clarify itso that it will never become viscid, put it in a bottlewith a charge of shot, or some shavings of lead,and stand the bottle where the sun's rays willstrike it. A heavy deposit will fall. Repeat, andyou will then have an oil equal to that of watchmakers,but with enough body to stay where it isput, rather than running down into the chamberof the gun so as to leave unprotected spots in thebarrel. A large squirrel will yield over an ounceof tried oil, a fat woodchuck nearly a pint, and abear several gallons—eight gallons of grease havebeen procured from a big grizzly.Beards Oil.—Bear's oil, by the way. Is betterthan lard for shortening biscuit and for irying, and,when mixed with sugar and spread on bread. Isnot a bad substitute for butter and sirup. It isrendered by cooking in a pot hung high over a slowfire, so as not to scorch the fat, which would giveofi an acrid smell and make the oil less bland. Nosalt is added ; the oil will keep sweet without it,unless In very hot weather (when it should bekept in a cool room, or In a spring, or in a potsunk in the earth). The Indians, who were veryfond of bear's grease, used to preserve it so thatit would not turn rancid even when they weretraveling In summer, by adding the inner bark ofthe slippery elm (one drachm to a pound of grease),keeping them heated together for a few minutes,and then straining off. They also used sassafras barkand wild cinnamon for the same purpose. Bear'soil is superior to olive oil for the table, and can beused with impunity by people whose stomachs willnot endure pork fat. I happened to be renderingsome bear's grease at the time of this writing. Theyield was a gallon of oil to ten pounds of fat.Rattlesnake Oil.—Rattlesnake oil Is solemnly

332 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTregarded by the old-fashionedPennsylvania Dutcl^and by many backwoods folk, as a specific for rheumatism,ringworm, sties, sore eyes generally, andeven for hydrophobia! A large fat snake yieldsfrom two to two and a half ounces of oil. A pieceof muslin is stretched over a glass jar, and thefat, which resembles that of a chicken, is spread onthis. The hot summer sun renders it, and the muslinstrains it. The Dutch are reported to have acurious way of telling whether the snake has bittenitself and thereby poisoned its fat. They drop alittle of the oil into a glass of milk. If the oilfloats as a film on top it is good ; but if it separatesinto small beads and the milk gathers in thickwhite flakes, as though soured, it Is a sign that the6r>ake bit Itself.Slush Lamps.—^While I am on the subject ofanimal fats and oils, I may as well say somethingabout extemporized lights for a fixed camp that isfar in the wilderness. A slush-lamp Is made bytaking a tin can, half filling It with sand or earth,sticking in It a thin rod of pine or other Inflammablewood, wrapping around this a strip of softcotton cloth, and filling the can with melted fatwhich contains no salt. Grease can be freed tromsalt by boiling It In water. This Is a much betterarrangement than to use a shallow dish (as I haveseen done) or a mussel shell, and letting the endof the immersed wick project over one side, whereIt will drip grease. But such a light, althoughit was the best that many of our pioneers had Inthe olden da.ys, is at best a smoky and stinkingaifair. The estimation in which It Is held by thosewho have had to use it may be judged from the factthat In English-speaking countries It has universallybeen known as a "slut," except In the Klondike,where they call It a "bitch."If more light Is wanted thao one wick will afford,use a square vessel with a wick at each corner.Make snuffers or tweezers, by bending a

TANNING SKINS^ZZpiece of wire, with which to trim the wicks whenthey smoke.A rush-light is made by soaking the pith ofrushes in melted tallow. When dry, a length ofthe rush is then placed in a split stick, or any kindof clip, and lighted.Candles.—Wherever deer, elk, or other animalswhose fat is tallow, are procurable, there is noexcuse but laziness for such vile illumination. Verysatisfactory candles can be made by the followingprocess, which is called ''dipping." For wicking,use cotton cord loosely unwound, or dry shreddedbark. Put your tallow in a kettle with some boilingwater. One part of hog's lard to three oftallow may improve the product. A mixture of tallowand beeswax is still better. Scald and skimtwice. Lay two poles sidewise and about a footapart on supports, so that they shall be about ashigh from the ground as the top of an ordinarychair; cut some sticks about 15 or 18 inches longfor candle rods; twist your wicking one way, theudouble it; slip the loop over the candle rod andtwist the other way, making a firm wick ;put aboutsix wicks on each rod, a couple of inches apart.Dip a row of wicks into the melted tallow, placethe rod across the two long poles, and thus dipeach row of wicks in turn. Each will have timeto cool and harden between the dips. If allowedto cool too fast they will crack: so work slowly.When the first dipping has hardened, repeat theprocess, and so on until the candles are of desiredthickness. Replenish the tallow as needed, takingit off the fire, of course, for each dip. Thisis the way our foremothers made candles beforethey got candle molds.For a candlestick, split the end of a stick forseveral inches, then again crosswise; open thesesegments by pushing" a flat, thin stick down each;insert candle, and remove wedges ; sharpen the otherend of the stick, and jab it into the ground where-

334 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTever wanted. Or, put a loop of bark in the cleftend of a stick, the loop projecting at one side.Or, cut the end of a large potato square off, andgouge a hole for the candle in the opposite end.Other makeshifts are to mold clay around butt ofcandle, with flat base ; bore a hole in a block ofwood, or drive three nails in it; use a hollow bone;or, if you want a candlestick attacned like a bracketto a vertical pole,take a pocket-knife with blade ateach end, drive one blade into pole so that knifesticks out at right angle, open the other blade halfway, on top, and stick candle on it.Candle Lanterns.—A very good lantern can beextemporized with a candle and a large tin can, or,Fig. 187.—Lard pail lanternbetter, a 5-lb. lard pail, the latter having the advantagethat its flaring sides help to reflect the light.At a Doint a little beyond the middle of the canor pail make two cuts, crossing each other, throughthe tin, and bend the triangular points inward so asto grip the candle, when it is shoved up throughthe hole, and prevent it from slipping" back. Thenfix a wire bail on top. If a can is used, run thebail wire through a hole in the closed end, onthrough to the open end, and up into a loop forhandle. If a pail, cut the candle hole directly inline with one of the bail ears, detach the bail fromthis ear, but leave it on the other, and run the freeend around and hook it under flange of bottom(Fig 187). The candle is shoved up only a littl"

TANNING SKINS 335inside the pail, at first, and shoved on farther as itburns down.Torches.—If a dead pine tree can be found,chop ofiE one of the old stubs of limbs, cutting deepinto the trunk at the joint so as to get as much ofthe heavy resinous bulb as you can. Cut a fewsplinters on the big en ;^ ^^';;'^V:v..5N^^A bark torch is made by ^peeling several stnps ^-^of birch bark four or five inches wide, double or y* *fold them several times if the strips are long, andplace these bunches in the split end of a stick for

336 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFThard soap, you have merely to stir Into the aboveas soon as it is poured out, some salt, in the proportionof two or three pints to five gallons ofsoap. A little powdered rosin added gradually toihe melted tallow, before mixing with the lye, willmake the soap firmer. Soap can be made withoutboiling, but it takes longer.Lye-Running.—Only the ashes of hardwoods aregood for lye; those of resinous woods will not mixwith the fat in boiling. The woods richest in potashare hickory, sugar maple, ash, beech and buckeye.The poisonous kernels of buckeye are soapyand can be used to cleanse fine fabrics. As lyeis often useful to a backwoods tanner, and forother purposes, it may be worth while to put up anash-hopper at a permanent camp. Take a sectionof hollow tree, or a barrel with both heads knockedout, or with auger holes bored in bottom. Standit on a wide board that is elevated high enoughfor a bucket to stand below it. Cut a Y-shapedgroove in the board part way around the bottomof the barrel and out to front of board. Tilt theboard a little and fasten it so that the liquor fromthe barrel will follow the grooved channel to thefront of the board and thus trickle into a pail setbelow it. Now put two or three layers of smallround sticks in the bottom of the barrel, laying eachcourse crosswise of the one below, cob-house fashion,and on top of this lay a couple of inches of strawor coarse grass; then put your ashes in the barrel,tamping them down firmly as they are shoveled in;make a funnel-shaped depression in the top and poura bucket of rainwater into it. It will be fromhalf a day to a day before the leach will run.Thereafter keep some water standing In the depression,adding only when the other water has disappeared.If the ashes have been firmly tamped,the leach will only trickle through, and that iswhat you want. The first run will be strongenough to cut grease; later runs should be putth»-oueh twice. Such lye needs no boiling down.

CHAPTER XIXCAVE EXPLORATIONTo those who love the tang of adventure instrange and untrodden places there is no experience,nowadays, that compares with opening up and exploringcaverns. To find a mountain that hasnever been ascended, or a region on the earth's surfacethat has never been mapped, one must makelong journeys and spend a fortune. Caves maybe found wherever there are thick beds of permeablelimestone with sink-holes on the surface, orother evidence of subterranean water-courses. Thedescent calls for no costly equipment. It may bemade at any season of the year. The trip willtake only a day or two. And cave exploration isa sport that yields quick results: the moment youget underground you are face to face with theunknown.Yes, there may be nothing new under the sun,but under the earth nearly everything is new. Itis safe to say that not one per cent of the subterraneanpassages in our limestone regions have beenexplored. In Kentucky alone, according to ProfessorShaler, there are at least 100,000 miles ofcaverns that have not filled up. A similar honeycombedformation extends over large parts of Indiana,Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas, and Tennessee.Superb caverns have been found in the ShenandoahValley of Virginia, in the Black Hills of SouthDakota, and in other parts of our country. Verrfew, even of our best-known caves, have yet beerzcompletely explored. There are hundreds, and perhaps thousands, that no man ever has entered.337They

338 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTare sealed or masked from our observation, and yethave left marks by which their existence can beproved.Cave "Sign."—The surface indications of acavernous region are easy to read. Take the OzarkPlateau, for example. Anyone traveling crosscountryfrom the Missouri River toward Arkansaswill notice that the surface rock mostly is limestoneand that it is commonly porous or fissured,being easily ''eaten" by the elements. Often hewill observe what geologists call vermicular limestone,full of little holes like those that earthwormsbore in the soil, or like what "sawyers" bore inpine timber. He will cross some fine rivers, generallyvery clear, but will marvel at the almost totalabsence of brooks and spring branches; this evenin a country that is distinctly mountainous.In summer one may travel sometimes for a dayin the Ozarks without finding running water. Hemay come to the perfectly dry bed of a water-coursethat evidently drains a considerable territory, andhis driver will tell him that this "dry fork" carriessurface water only for a short time after aheavy rainfall. The real drainage stream flowsunderground.When a spring is met in this region it islikely to be a large one. A typical "big spring"boils out of a hillside and fills a crater-like basinsixty to a hundred feet in diameter. Its surfaceis blue as indigo. The water is so clear that, byimmersing your face, you can see the white bottomforty or fifty feet below. The outlet is strongenough to turn a mill, and forms at once a creeknavigable by canoes. Such are the St. James Springon the Meramec, the Round or Blue Spring on theCurrent River, Bryce's Spring on the Niangua, andMammoth Spring near the Missouri-Arkansas line.On wide plateaus, where the drainage is notabrupt, our traveler will see numerous funnelshapeddepressions In the fields, into which sur-

CAVE EXPLORATION 339face water either disappears quickly after a rain,or collects in ponds, according to whether the ventof the "sink-hole" is open or has been closed. Oftenone comes to a place where the fields are fairlypock-marked with such holes.All this tells a plain story. There are few smallsprings and brooks because the surface rock is soporous or fissured that rain almost immediatelyseeps through it to underground channels. Thesink-holes are simply old cavern chambers withthe roofs fallen in. Generally there are deeperchambers or galleries below them, into which thedrainage flows if the sieve or tube in the funnelVneck has not been closed by accident or design.The great springs are outlets of subterranean rivers.Whenever the underground waters have erodeda channel at a lower level than that which drainedthe original gallery the latter is left dry and formsan extensive cavern that can be opened for exploration.This is provided that the old passages havenot filled up again by a process that will be describedhereafter.Cave Districts.—Some of the caverns alreadyknown in the Ozarks are of noble dimensions. TheMarble Cave, forty miles from Marionville, Mo.,has been traversed for many miles, and to a depthof 400 feet below the surface. One of its vaultedchambers is 350 feet long, 125 feet wide, and 195feet high, by actual measurement. Three milesaway is the exquisitely beautiful Fairy Cave, whichis entered through a sink-hole 100 feet deep. Thereare said to be over a hundred known caves in StoneCounty alone.Crossing the Mississippi into southern Illinois, wefind a cavernous limestone belt in comparativelylevel country. Near Burksville is a cavern that issaid to have been explored fourteen miles one wayand six miles in the opposite direction, withoutfinding- either end. It has a lake, and a riverin which there are blind fish.

340 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSouthern Indiana has scores of caves that containe3^eless fish and crustaceans, beds of niter, epsomsalts, great deposits of alabaster, and Indian relics.In the Wyandot Cave is a domed chamber i,ooofeet in circumference and 185 feet high, from thefloor of which rises a pyramid to within 50 feet ofthe roof. In another vast hall is a symmetrical pillar40 feet high and 75 feet in periphery, risingfrom a base that is 300 feet around, the whole massbeing solid, homogeneous alabaster as white as snow.The finest cavern district in the world is aboutthe head waters of the Green River, in Kentucky.Here the limestones have a depth of several hundredfeet, and hence are peculiarly favorable for theformation of stupendous caverns. Edm.onstonCounty by itself has some five hundred caves, oneof which, the Mammoth Cave, isWith-certainly the largestthat has yet been discovered on the globe.in a section of about ten square miles, and a thicknessof 300 feet, where this gigantic cavern iscentered, there are probably more than 200 milesof galleries large enough to permit, the passageof a man. The ''Long Route" for visitors in theMammoth Cave, which is mostly quite smooth andeasy, takes eight or nine hours of steady walkingat an average pace of two miles an hour. One ofthe domes is 300 feet high. The Mammoth Domeis about 400 feet in length, 150 feet in width, andfrom 80 to 250 feet high, according to position.The cave district of the Shenandoah Valley, inVirginia, differs from those hitherto mentioned inthat the rock, instead of lying in horizontal strata,is folded and uptilted. This peculiarity limits theVirginia caverns to moderate dimensions, but affordsextraordinary bases for the growth of alabaster"cascades" and other fantastic formations ofdripstone. Here are the far-famed Caves of Luray,which contain the most weird and beautiful grottoesin the known world.How Caves are Formed.—No one shouldtry

CAVE EXPLORATION 341to explore a cavern until he has learned how theseunderground passages are formed. To go ignorantlyinto such places is to lose most of their interestingfeatures and to court disaster.It is a common error to imagine that our cavernshave been caused by earthquakes or by volcanicforces. An earthquake may crack great cre\ icesin the crust of the earth, as at New Madrid, in181 1, and at Charleston, in 1886, but these arevery narrow in proportion to their length anddepth. It never forms vaulted chambers or smoothlyrounded passages.More numerous are the rifts and chasms left by"faults" in the rock where strata have been foldedin the slow shrinkage of mountain-building and thenhave been pulled apart by a subsidence. These, too,are only narrow fissures, and not caves at all.A volcano may form a sort of cave with its lavawhen the fluid mass underneath flows away andleaves an arch of its hardened crust in place. Suchaction is never found save in volcanic countries.Hot springs or geysers bore channels of escapefrom their deep reservoirs to the surface. Wherethe rock is soluble they may eat out large chambers,but they do not excavate lateral galleries.There is a class of horizontal caves in the facesof cliffs, very common in the Appalachians and inthe Southwest, that are called "rock houses." Thesealways are shallow enough to admit daylightthroughout their interiors, and they are dry. Theirorigin is evident. Where an exposed stratum ofvery soft rock underlies one of hard and imperviousmaterial, on the face of a cliff, the soft stone absorbswater, and when this freezes it -is cracked offand disintegrated. The debris is whirled aroundby the winds and helps to grind out a "room" underthe hard ledge that projects likea porch roof over>.head. Such places often are used for shelter bjman and beast. They are the "robber caves" and"bear dens" of song and storj^ but true cavernsthey are not.

342 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTAlong the sea-coast are many interesting butshallow grottoes that have been pounded out byrocks hurled by the incoming waves, and worn intocurious forms by the restless waters themselves.Neither these nor any of the preceding kinds ofnatural excavations or fissures are extensive enoughto rank with the caverns that abound in limestoneformations throughout the earth.Vast subterranean passages and chambers areFig. 188.—Cross section of cavernA B, upper gallery (ancient); g g, sink-holes r C D,lower gallery (modern); h, stream; A, old mouth ofcavern; f f f, limestone; C, present mouth of cavern;e e e, hard rockformed in limestone by an agency far gentler thanany cf those mentioned above.First, there must have been at some time a de^ciduous forest,shedding, each autumn, a thick layei'of leaves. Upon these leaves the rains fall, andtheir waters absorb from the decaying vegetationcharges of carbonic acid (the same gas that is usedin soda fountains). This acidulated water, seep^ing Into crevices in the limestone, dissolves outmuch of the lime and leaves only a shell of theoriginal rock. Thus the cracks in the surfacegradually widen and deepen.When the rainwater reaches an underlying bedof sandstone, or of some other rock that is noteasily dissolved by carbonic acid. Its downwardcourse Is stayed. Then, under pressure from above,it begins eating and cutting a more or less horizontalcourse along the underground drainage plane. Thismining process is hastened by erosion. Wheneverthere Is a crack or fault large enough to admit aconsiderable riii of water, sand and gravel are car-

CAVE EXPLORATION 343ried below, which, being whirled about in a vortex,rapidly cut the walls of the cave bed. Nodules offlint, washed out from the honeycombed rock above,lend powerful aid to this grinding and drillingprocess. Thus in time a large chamber is excavatedbelow the main fissure and an underground riverfinds its channel to some exit which may be milesaway.When a cave chamber forms near the surface ofthe ground its arch or vault may gradually weakenuntil it can no longer sustain the weight overhead.It collapses, leaving a pit strewn with rubbish thatSlowly some ofwas formerly the dome of the cave.this rubbish is pulverized and washed away. Theedge of the pit w^ears smooth and sloping sides areformed, tapering downward to a common center.The result finally is a funnel-shaped cavity in theearth that we call a sink-hole.Abysses.—In some districts, as in the cavernousregion of Kentucky, these sink-holes, varying greatlyia size, may average a hundred to the squaremile. Occasionally one will be found that coversseveral acres and descends gradually to a hundredfeet at its throat. The distance thence downwardthrough a pit or dome to the floor below is usuallynot great, but in some Instances exceeds a hundred,or even two hundred, feet. The Devil's Hole,near Fordland, Mo., is so deep that when largelogs are tumbled into it they are never heard tostrike bottom ; but I have not learned of any trustworthymeasuring having been done at this place.It is claimed that the famous Rowan Pit in Yorkshire,England, has been descended vertically sixhundred feet without finding" bottom. How truethis may be I do not know. Strange errors havebeen made by earnest and sincere men in ''measuring"pits and caverns. I will quote a remarkableexample from Mr. Hovey:'Tldon Hole ... Is a famous oit in the Peak ofDerbyshire, about which Hobbes wrote in hntln

344 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTand Cotton In English. The latter thus testifiesinverse:" 'I myself, with half the Peak surrounded,Eight hundred, four score and four yards havesounded;And though of these four score turned back wet,The plummet drew and found no bottom yet!*to be 300 feet''In other vrords, the poet's measurement foundno bottom at the astonishing depth of 2,652 feet^Probably Mr. Cotton let the rope coil on the bottom,mistaking the weight of it for that of theplummet—a mistake actually made by a civil engineerin Kentucky, vrho reported a pitdeep, vs^hich afterward was proved to be but 90feet. Concerning the Eldon Hole, it is furtherstated that the Earl of Leicester hired a man todescend, who, after going down 750 feet, wasdrawn up a raving maniac, and died in eight days.Very likely he imitated the Knight of La Mancha,when In the Spanish cave, who ensconced himselfon a convenient shelf, and let the rope dangle asfar as It might below, while he dreamed the restof the adventure. At all events when Mr. Lloyd, amember of the Royal Society, took it in hand tosound the bottom of the Eldon Hole, he found itat the exact depth of 186 feet, and told the storyIn the Transactions of the Society."When the roof at both ends of a cavern chambefdrops in, leaving the central arch Intact, the resultIs a ''natural bridge," such as the noted onein Rockbridge County, Virginia, the lower face ofwhich is 160 feet, and the upper surface 215 feetabove the water of Cedar Creek. Larger onesother localities.are found InWhen both ends of a cavern gallery or long corridorfall in, and the bridge thus formed Is verywide, we have a "natural tunnel." I know of oneon a fork of the Current River In Missouri, wherethe stream pierces a mountain ridge. Near the

CAVE EXPLORATION 345Clinch River, in Virginia, a creek flows through agreat arch for more than half a mile. In MammothCave there is an arcade 4,000 feet long-, 100feet wide, and 45 feet high. If both ends of thishall should fall in there would be another of thesenatural tunnels.*teutj#Fig. 189.—Map of a part of the Mammoth Cave(shaded parts are at low level)At first sight it seems incredible that such vastexcavations could be made by chemical action anderosion. And yet there have been greater ones informer caverns that kept on hollowing out the rockuntil their roofs could no longer stand the strain.

346 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTThe debris then being disintegrated and washedaway, there remain no traces of the old cavernsexcept ravines or valleys that originally were archedover and were wholly underground. The partthat minute agencies and gentle but persistent forcesplay in building up and reshaping the earth isillustiatedby the fact that most of the limestone itselfis derived from the remains of very small animalsthat covered the floors of the ancient seas.Stalactites and Stalagmites.—Caves are ob^literated by other means than by collapse.Strangelyenough, the very process that hollows out a cavernhas a tendency to fill it up again. Everyonewho has visited a limestone cave of any consequencehas noticed the stalactites hanging from the ceilingand stalagmites rising from the floor directly beneaththem. These are formed in the followingmanner:The vault of a cave chamber is seldom dry.Water still seeps very slowly through it. Now,when acidulated water pours through a crevice inlittle rills it has a cutting and eating effect uponthe rock. But where there is no perceptible crack,and it seeps through the room and falls drop bydrop, each drop remains long enough upon the ceilingto deposit some of its dissolved lime upon theceiling in the form of a ring. The next drop leavesanother layer, and so on. Thus there is built, atfirst, a slender, delicate tube of soft lime resemblinga pipestem. By and by this tube fills up, and ithardens through cr}^stallization. Thereafter itgrows thicker and longer from constant deposits byevaporation on the outside, and it forms what wecall a stalactite.Meantime all those drops that did not evaporatewholly on the ceiling leave the rest of their lime atthe points where they strike the floor. Thus theregrow upward a series of mamillary concretions orstalagmites rising higher and higher toward thelong pendants overhead. In time a stalactite and

CAVE EXPLORATION 347a stalagmite will join, forming a pillar. If theseepage from above exudes chiefly through a long fissure,the dripstone will join along- this line intoa solid partition. In this way small chambers areformed out of large ones, passages are obstructed,defiles are closed, ceilings and floors grow towardeach other, until finally a whole cavern may beclosed up by the same process that started its excavation.Dripstone is the general name given to all depositsmade by dripping water, regardless of theirforms and composition. Originally it is nothingbut soft sulphate or carbonate of lime, with perhapsa trace of iron or other metal soluble in carbonicacid. Gradually it hardens into gypsum oralabaster or calcite, as the case may be. Often itscrystalline forms are of great beauty, both in structureand in coloration. The shapes that dripstoneassumes in stalactites, in pillars, and on cavernwalls, are as varied as those in a kaleidoscope, rangingfrom delicate filigree to baronial ruins, fromboiling" springs or cascades of water to imitations ofanimals or grotesque figures suggesting phantasm^of mythology.The thickness of dripstone is a very uncertainmeasure of the age of a deposit. Limestone rocksvary in composition and in the solubility of theirlime. Underground waters vary in their percentageof carbonic acid, from weak solutions to those thateffervesce and have an acid taste. The rate ofseepage varies. So a stalagmite may grow at therate of nearly an inch a year, for a time, and afterwardless than that in ten or twenty or fifty years.How TO Explore.—Before trying to explore acavern it is advisable to study the topography ofthe surrounding country. Note where the mainstream of the district lies. Its level determineshow deep the cave can possibly go. The thicknessof the limestone bed above that level shows themaximum possible altitude of the cave chambers.

348 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTMost of the caves that have been explored areentered through a passage into a hillside. Such anopening usually indicates that this was once thedrainage outlet of the cave. If no water be runningout of it now, the underground stream mustwell knownhave worked a way down through the originalcave bed and opened a new gallery below.A novice should first gain some experience in companywith a guide, in some cave that is easily entered.Everj^body is nervous on his first expeditionunderground, unless the course isto companions who have been there before. A cavernis the worst of all places to get ''rattled" in.When you do start exploring on your own account,take it gradually, until you can bore into theunknown as coolly as you would bite off the endof a cigar.When a new cave is to be entered, do not gowith a large party. They will confuse each otherwith their reverberating babble, discussions as tothe best route will arise, and the larger the partythe greater the chance that someone will flunk.TJiree is a good number: then there are two mento help one who may have got into difficulties.Outfit.—The importance of thoroughly dependablelights is paramount. Big, clumsy lanternsshould not be taken; they are always a nuisancewhen one is climbing or crawling. The best lightfor cave exploration that I know of is an acetylenelantern with small bail, shaped like a conductor'slantern,giving a 20-candle-power light forfive to six hours on three ounces of carbide. Itspreads light all around, instead of merely throwinga beam in one direction like a bull's-eye lantern.If one such light is in the party the others may besmall acetylene bull's-eye lamps. The best of thesehas a sparking attachment that lights withoutmatches (but don't leave out the matches), and isfitted with folding handles on the side. The hookand spring attachment used on miners' lamps may

CAVE EXPLORATIONZA\)be substituted, but personally I do not like it so well.Spare carbide to last at least twelve hours shouldbe carried by each man, in air-tight tins speciallymade for the purpose ; and everybody should have acanteen of water, both for the lamp and for hisown use, as there is no certainty of finding anyin an unexplored cave.See that the lanterns are in perfect working order.If previously used a good deal, they should be refittedwith fresh felt packing, as the old packing maybe clogged with carbide dust.Besides his lantern, every member of the partyshould carry one or two good hard candles. Thereis no telling when an accident may happen to a lantern; it may balk, may be crushed, or may be droppedinto a pit. The candle is also needed when rechargingthe lantern.Matches should be waterproofed, either by dippingin melted paraffin, or in collodion, or in shellacvarnish thinned with alcohol. An emergency supplyof matches not to be used except when there are noothers, should be carried in a waterproof box withcover fitted so it cannot drop off. This match-boxought to have a small swivel or eye attached so itcan be fastened to one's belt by a key chain. Thenit will stay with you to the death. Inside this box,vvith the matches, stow a littlestrip of emery cloth,folded, to strike a match on when you and all yoursurroundings are sopping wet.A compass may be useful if the general courseof the cave is fairly straight, but in the labyrinthsthat most caves are contorted into it is of littleor no avail. Neither is a pedometer. A pocketaneroid may be useful to indicate one's depth fromthe surface, but it is by no means necessary.Wear old clothes, of course. Everything" shouldbe of wool, except that the coat should be of conventionalhunter's pattern, khaki or duxbak, withplenty of pockets. Such a coat carries all the impedimentaexcept the lantern, and keeps them stored

350 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTaway where they will not flopnor stick out to im«pede one's progress in climbing or in squeezingthrough narrows. Wear the flaps closed at alltimes.The hat should be soft and with narrow brim.Gloves are useful to keep the hands from being lacerated.Shoes should be studded with cone-headedHungarian nails {not calks nor broad hobnails)around the edges of heels and soles, including thearch of the foot. This makes them cling betterto the rocks. Too many nails defeat the purpose,for they will not "bite" well. Hard steel calks areslippery on rocks.Waterproofs are an utter nuisance in cave hunting.The wetting you may get will do you no harmat all in the cave air, which is always of uniformtemperature. Do not wear a lot of bunchy clothingfrom dread of cold. You will be exercising allthe time in the most exhilarating air you everbreathed. Go slow in entering and emerging fromthe cave ; then there will be no risk of a chill.Take for granted that the cave will prove to bea labyrinth of three dimensions, far more puzzlingthan anything you have ever encountered on earth.It may not be so ; but most caverns are. Thereis only one absolutely safe way to explore an unknowncave, so far as not getting lost is concerned,and that is for each member of the party to carryplenty of common white twine, and take his turn asfile closer in paying out this twine as he advances.In some places you can buy cord put up in tubesthat unreels itself without danger of tangling.Where the going is good there may be no need forthe twine; but don't neglect this simple precautionin allleast doubt of the route back again.Someone should carry a strong cord for loweringparts of the cave where there may be thea lantern into pits or gulfs.In the game pocket of your coat stow a lunch andan emergency ration, along with the small canteen

CAVE EXPLORATION 351of water. Somebody should carry a cup, as you mayhave to catch drip-water.Let another man bear acold-chisel and a small hammer for collecting specimens,marking passages, and cutting nicks for handholdand foothold. If there is any likelihood of descendinginto a lower galler}^, take about fifty feetof Alpine rope (to be had of some camp outfitters).Large cavern chambers cannot be illuminated withlanterns. So go provided with strips of magnesiumribbon. Do not try to use this ribbon as a substitutefor flash-powder in photographing: it willshow the most freakish bolts of lightning in yourpictures. Satisfactory interiors, in caves, can onlybe taken with a wnde-angle lens, as the range isnearly always short.Cave Measurements.—In estimating distancesbeware of "cave miles." It is almost impossible tokeep from overestimating distances in labyrinths un^derground, unless one trails a cord behind himwherever he goes. A cave mile, when tried bytape-line, generally proves to be only a few hundredyards long. Heights, depths, and w^idths are alsovery deceptive by lantern light.It may be asked. How are heights of cavern domesmeasured?They used to be "measured" by timingthe flight of rockets made for the purpose, but suchexpedients were very inaccurate. The only easyand reliable way that I know of is by sending uptoy balloons with cord attached. There are nodraughts in the interior of caves, and this methodcan be depended on, no matter how high the vaultmay be.Descending into Abysses.—Do not be afraid offire-damp, unless you are going down a sink-holethat may have been sealed at the bottom. The airof a true cave is purer and more invigorating thanany to be breathed on earth. One can work withlessfatigue in a cave than in the open air.The chance of finding caverns that no one elsehas explored is now limited, in our country, mostly

352 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTto those that can be entered by descending sinkholes.This is work that calls for deliberate preparationand cool heads. After effecting an openingin the bottom of the "sink," if it has been closed,erect a strong frame over the opening to hold ahoisting-tackle, and use a rope which has beenstretched enough to insure that it will not spin roundwhen a w^eight is suspended from it. This rig isbetter than a windlass, if for no other reason thanthat the explorer has more confidence that it will notlet fly and drop him. For short descents it is sufficientto fasten the rope around the left ankle ofthe adventurer and then make a stirrup-loop for hisfoot. Generally it is better to rig a boatswain'schair to sit in (Fig. 149). This is simply a boardseat with an auger-hole at each end through whicha slack rope is roved and the ends knotted, afterwhich the hoisting rope is made fast to the middl^'.of the slack at a convenient height.Before a man starts down he fastens a signalcord to his waist, which is then passed to one sideof the opening, where it cannot become entangledwith the hoisting rope, and is managed there bysomebody who has no other duty to distract him.One jerk on this cord means stop, two, lower, threehoist. Such an appliance is absolutely necessary indeep holes, unless some sort of telephone is substituted.There should be three trusty men for themain rope and one for the signal-cord. The explorershould have a staff to help him swing clearof impediments, and it must be tied to him by alanyard.Before the descent is made all loose stones shouldbe removed from around the mouth of the pit,for apebble falling from a considerable height may stunor kill a man. A ball of something like cottonwaste, saturated with oil, should be ignited anddropped into the pit before descending, to guardagainst accident from fire-damp.What is Found in Caves.—The chief commerv

CAVE EXPLORATION 353rial product of caves, up to date, Is the so-called*' Mexican Onyx," which is a fine-grained, translucent,and beautifully colored variety of dripstone.Occasionally the "cave pearls" found in shallowpools, where they have been polished by attrition,have been set as gems. In olden times nearly allthe niter used by our forefathers in making gun^powder was procured from caverns. Guano, ochre,and the sulphates of soda and of magnesia arefound in caves. The chance of discovering mineralveins is lessened by the incrustation of dripstone thatcoats the walls; there is no "bloom" to attract theeye.The animal life of caverns is peculiar. It includestransparent fish, white crayfish, cave lizards,white mice and rats, cave crickets, and minor species—all blind, and some of them quite eyeless—besidesthe usual colonies of bats. Snakes are nevermet inside of caverns, but sometimes may be encounteredin sink-holes, or in the "rock-houses" previouslymentioned.Digging in the floors of caves for relics of prehistoricman has long been a favorite branch ofscience in Europe, but comparatively little of thi^work has been done in America. Sometimes humanskeletons of our own era are found encased in thedripstone, as at Luray, at Mammoth Cave, In theAdelsberg, and in the Cave of MelidonI, wherethe remains of three hundred Cretans, who were-smoked to death by the Turks in 1822, are graduallydisappearing in a stony shroud.

CHAPTER XXBEE HUNTINGThe craft of the bee hunter, although based uponsome curious woods lore, is not hard to acquireunder proper tutelage. The theory is simple enough.First capture a few wild bees and let them fill upon honey or other bait that has been brought alongfor the purpose; then liberate them, follow in thedirection of their flight as far as you are sure ofit, capture and send out more guides, and so onuntil the tree is reached. In practice, successful beehunters resort to some shrewd arts unknown in anyother branch of wildcraft.A backwoodsman's way of ^'lining" bees, when hemerely chances upon them, not prepared for regularbee hunting, is to capture one of the insects andfasten to it, or stick into it, a small, downy feather,a bit of straw or thistle-down, or some other lightthing by which he can distinguish the insect in itsflight; then he liberates it, and follows it as far ashe can by sight. The bee, bothered by its strangeincumbrance, and finding that it cannot rid itself ofthe thing by its own exertions, goes home for help.Then the hunter, having secured a few more bees,follows the line of flight as far as he can, sets freeanother marked bee, and thus proceeds until heeither finds the hive or at least gets a clear notionof its whereabouts. Then he, too, goes home, andprepares for bee robbing in earnest.That sort of thing is accidental. But a regular beehunter does not depend upon luck at any stage ofthe game. He goes out looking for bees, and forbees only. He knows where to look, where not to354

BEE HUNTING 355look, and what to do when he finds the bees, allaccording to the season of the year and the lay ofthe land.Spring.—The easiest time to find a bee-tree isearly in the spring, or late in the fall, because thenthere is no nectar for the bees and they will takekindly to bait; also, because then there are no leaveson the trees to interfere with the hunter's vision,Of course, it is poor policy to rob a beehive inspring, for what honey is left will be old, darkcolored, and not so well flavored as new honey ; butthis is a good time to mark the bee-tree for futureattack. The methods for spring and summer huntingare different ; so I will describe them in sequence.In the first warm days of spring, while there still^s snow on the ground, a hive may sometimes belocated by listening for the humming of the beesin their cleansing flight, and by looking for deadbees on the snow, under likely looking trees, w^herethey have been dropped by workers in cleaning thehive. But, as a rule, it will be necessary to findwhere the bees are collecting early sweets, or, indefault of this, to lure them to bait specially preparedfor the purpose.As soon as the sap of the sugar maple begins torise, which may be as early as the middle of Februaryif the season is forward, but commonly islater, the bee hunter goes among the maples andbirches. Wherever a gash or bruise in the bark letsthe sap ooze out, or "bleed," as he calls it, he mayfind bees at work. The sap flows best on a warmday following a freezing night. A regular beehunter will purposely wound a number of trees indifferent localities, in anticipation oi this.Early in March he looks for skunk-cabbage,which, by the way, is not the only malodorous thingthat bees frequent at this season. Toward themiddle or end of ]\Iarch the willow catkins attracta buzzing throng.In April the beech and some otthe maples are in bloom and fragrant with sweets.

356 CAMPING AND WOOr^CRAFTThen come the columbine and dicentra (Dutchman'sbreeches), from which the honey bee gatherspollen only, for its tongue .is too short to reach thenectar as the bumblebee's does.Baiting.—If such scouting trips fail, the hunterwill resort to lures. A backwoodsman who hasneither honey, nor sirup, nor sugar, with which toprepare bee-bait, will steep corn-cobs for a coupleof days in what, by way of euphemism, he calls '"sourbait,"or in strong brine scented with anise or bergamot.These he places on stumps in his fields,where the bees are pretty sure to take them fortreasure-trove. A surer way to attract them is byroasting honyecomb or beeswax. For this purposea piece of tin or a flat stone is heated in the fire,and the comb or wax, moistened with water, isplaced on it. The chief objection to this method isthat it is bothersome to carry the hot rock or tinfrom place to place.Bees are fond of certain essential oils,such as oilof anise and oil of bergamot, which, either singlyor in combination, may be used as a lure by addinga few drops to a vial of sugar-water. This may bedone at any season. Some bee men prefer to takeflowers of the particular plant or tree that the beesare favoring at a given time, pack them well down ina wide-mouthed jar, add just enough diluted alcohol(25%) to cover, and let stand a few days. In thisway you can make your own essences of buckwheat,goldenrod, clover, etc., with which to dopeyour sugar-water. The latter is a thin sirup madeby dissolving granulated sugar in three times itsbulk of water, or clear honey thinned with an equalbulk of warm water, or a mixture of sugar andhoney in water. A 4-ounce vial of it is plenty.The reason why ordinary thick honey will notdo so well as the diluted mixture Is this: You willwish to judge, from the time of the bees' flight,how far away the bee-tree Is. Their time of absencewhen carrying nectar is pretty accurately

BEE HUNTING 357known, for different distances. But honey is muchthicker, heavier, and more sticky than the nectar thatbees gather from flowers, the latter being little morethan sweetened water plus aroma. Consequentlyit takes the bees longer to fill up on honey, theystagger with it in their flight, and it takes longerto discharge their cargo.So the hunter will set out a bait of, say, dilutedhoney to which a drop of oil of anise has been added.Bees will smell such an enticing odor for a mile ormore. In any case, the object is first to capturesome wild bees as guides. The way to managethem after they are caught Is to be described later.Nectar.—Early sweets are gathered by beesfrom the bloom of all kinds of fruit-bearing treesand plants, from violets, hepaticas, and otherflowers. In May the busy insects forage on theclematis, dandelion, honey locust, tulip or ''yellov^rpoplar." The locust bears nectar only at intervalsof several years, but the big blossoms of the tuliptree are commonly rich in it—so rich that sometimesthe nectar can be dipped out wnth a spoonas well as in pollen, which is a necessity to thebee. That unhappily imported weed among ourtrees, the ailanthus or *'tree of heaven," is anotherfavorite of the bees, despite its—ill-smelling blossoms.Through the summer months there is almost asurfeit of sweets for the honey-maker: boneset,borage, bugloss, white clover, coralberry, figwort,goldenrod, milkweed, motherwort, mustard, rape,sage, Spanish needle, spider-flower, sumac, sunflower,teasel, willow-herb—a legion of others—and, favoredof all in forested regions, the cream-coloredblossoms of the linden or basswood.theThe West has a famous nectar-bearer calledRocky Mountain bee-plant.In the South, the beesof the lowlands use the cotton plants; those of themountains, where there is a bewildering varietyof ''honey-bloom/' seek by preference the Imdenand the delightfully aromatic blossoms of the sourwood.

358 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTAs summer wanes, the bees turn to the asters,catnip, fireweed, fleabane, heartsease, and other latebloomingplants. Wherever there is a buckwheatfield they will be found in their glory. Later theywork in the turnip patches. Some of the manyspecies of goldenrod yield nectar until well on inOctober.Outfit.—The equipment for bee hunting isvery simple. You will need a small box or two,same thinned honey or sugar-water (scented or notas you choose), a few pinches of flour in a littlebox or bag (or, preferably, a small tube of artist'swhite paint and a camel's-hair brush). A watch,compass, and perhaps an opera glass, should be takenalong, particularly if you are an amateur; and donot omit a lunch, for you are likely to be out allday.As for boxes, a couple of half-pound candy boxeswill do; but it is better to make a special one forthe purpose. This is merely a light wooden boxabout four inches cube, without top or bottom, butv/ith a glass slide at the top working in saw-cutsin the sides. About an inch below these saw-cuts,and parallel with them, are narrow strips to supporta little feeding tray, which is about an inch and ahalf wide, just long enough to fit inside the box, andof such height that itstop will come within a halfinch of the glass slide. Do not use an old cigarbox for material, since bees, like other insects, detestthe odor of tobacco. Some boxes are madewith sliding wooden bottoms, and others are double,hinged together, with a wooden slide between; butthe simpler one here described will do very well.Bee Guides.—Now, early in the morning of awarm, still day, go where there are nectar-bearingflowers. The place must be at least a mile, preferablytwo miles, away from any house where tamebees are kept, or you will be annoyed by them. Fewbees go more than two miles from home in search ofhoney.

BEE HUNTING 359Choose an open glade or hillside, or an old field,or a fire-burnt waste where weeds and vines havesprung up, but free from leafy trees and shrubs, sothat you can see for a considerable distance allaround.If bees are working here, put a little of yourhoney bait in the feeding tray of your box, cautiouslyset the box over the first bee that you find on aflower, and close the bottom with your hand. Thebee will buzz up against the glass, and then soonwill seek the honey. Now set the box on a stumpor other elevation In the midst of a clear space.As stumps are not always to be found where wanted,some bee hunters carry with them a staff pointed atone end and with a bit of shingle tacked to the otherend to serve as a platform for the box.As soon as the bee is hard at work on the hone}'',approach quickly and withdraw the glass slide. Dusthim slightly with flour, or put a bit of paint on hisback just large enough to be noticeable, so you canidentify him when he returns. Then withdraw toone side, get into a comfortable reclining position,and, if you have an opera glass, get it ready foraction.When the bee has gorged himself he will risefrom the bait in half-circles and sudden dodges,generally to one side of the bait, returning towardit, and oscillating back again. He is getting hisbearings.Now he mounts higher and higher in anincreasing spiral. Then, so suddenly that it takesgood eyes or a glass to follow him, he darts off forhome. Watch him as far as you can, and notethe direction of his flight. He will not go throughwoods, but over them. If he flies toward a farmhouse,pay no further attention to him, for he Isa tame bee. In that case, go somewhere else andbegin anew. But If he goes to the big woods, lookat your watch and time his absence. You willknow him when he returns by the mark that vouhave put on him.

36oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—On an average, a bee flies a mile In five mlnutCrJ,and he spends about two minutes in the hive, disgorging.Bees vary In their flight, but a goodgeneral rule is to subtract two from the number ofminutes absent, and divide by ten; the quotient Isthe number of miles, or the fraction of a mile, fromyour stand to the bee-tree. The time of the bee'ssecond flight will be a more reliable datum thanthat of the first, because by that time he will haveestablished his bearings and will go straight to andfro.The pioneer bee will probably come back alonefrom his first trip. Let him fill up and depart asbefore; but now watch the course of his flight veryclosely, for it will be a "bee-line" for home. Hiscourse w^ill be slightly sinuous, but Its general directionwill be straight for the hive, unless the groundis so rough as to cause contrary air currents. Inwhich case he will seek the lee of woods or theshelter of a ravine, or unless there Is a lake or largepond In the way, which he probably will swayaround—for some reason known only to themselves,bees dislike to pass over a body of waterso a bee-line Is not necessarily a straight line. Pickout some tall or peculiarly topped tree, or otherprominent object in line with his course, take Itsbearings by compass, and study It carefully, so that50U may recognize this landmark thereafter.After two or three trips, your first bee probablywill bring some companions with him from the homehive. Capture several more bees, say half a dozen,mark them, and let them go as before. If theyall go In the same direction they belong to the samehive. But you may get two or more lines workingfrom the same bait, in which case select the morenumerous one, as it is likely to be nearest.Cross-lining.—^When once you get a line ofbees working back and forth It is time to bestiryourself. Now you can choose between two schoolsof bee hunters: those who cross-line from the start,and those who claim that this is a waste of time

BEE HUNTING 361and that no cross-lining should be attempted untilthe hunter has passed beyond the treasure tree andfinds the bees back-tracking. I incline to thelatter school; but I will describe the working methodsof both.To cross-line at the start; leave some bait atjT>ur first stand, take your box, capture a numberof bees, cover the top and bottom of the box, toexclude light and thus keep them quiet, and goaway at a right angle to the bee-line, about 200or 300 yards. Here set down your box, uncover,but do not open the top; leave the box alone for aminute or two until the bees recover from theirsurprise and begin feeding; then liberate them, andnote their course as before. This gives you thebase of a triangle, the apex of which, where thetwo lines of flight converge, is near the hollow treethat contains the wild bees' hoard. H you do notsee where the lines meet, the hive is beyond yourpresent range of vision.Whether you do this or not, as soon as you canfollow the line for a considerable distance, cleanthe feeding tray, capture a number of bees in thebox, and take it with 5^ou as far as you are sureof the course. Then put a little more honey-waterin the feeder, and start your bees again. Thuswork progressively toward the goal.Hives.—Sometimes the kind of tree that thehive is in can be foretold from the color of theinsects themselves, which is modified, after a fewmonths' residence, by the nature of the timber : lightcolored bees in pine, poplar, chestnut; darker onesin oak, beech, maple. But it is not likely thatyou will find the hive by merely following the beelineand examining" such or such trees along theway. Look for an old squirrel hjole or knot-holewhere the bees fly in and out.Not infrequently bee hives are in rock crevices^I remember a hive that was well known for yearsto nearly everybody in that part of the coun*try, but which had never been disturbed, be-

362 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTcause it was deep in the cranny of a big rock ledgethat overhung the public road.Occasionally a hive is found in a fallen treeor in an old stump, but this is exceptional. Beeshave trouble enough, as it is, from squirrels, 'coons,bears, and other climbing marauders, to say nothingof men.In searching, it is well to remember that beetreesseldom are found far from water.Back-tracking.—If the bees that you liberatefinally turn back on the course, or if they do notreturn to the bait, it shows that you have passedthe hive and must "back-track." Then make twostands close together, only 50 to 100 yards apart,Iming them carefully. You may now have twosquads of bees flying from opposite directions intothe tree. If this fails, take a stand 50 yards offto one side (the distance depends upon how thickthe woods are), and examine every tree in theneighborhood with keen scrutiny. Pour out aliberal amount of feed, so as to get a large numberof bees at work. If still you do not find thebee-tree, try again in this place a day of two later,or whenever the weather is favorable.Marking the Tree.—In settled regions,where statute-law prevails, a hive of bees in atree belongs to the owner of the soil, unless a formerowner proves and reclaims them. In the wilderness,by law of the woods, ownership is to the firstcomer who makes a blaze on the bark and cuts orpencils his initials on it. Anyone else meddling withthe treasure, unless it be claimed in time by theowner of the land himself, is a trespasser, like theinterloper who sets traps along another trapper'sline.Having found a bee-tree, and marked it, then,unless you are very well acquainted with the woods,mark your trail outward with bush-signs; otherwiseyou may easily miss it on j^our return.Robbing the Hive.—Now you are ready todeclare war. Men who have had much experience

BEE HUNTING 363Wth bees disdain to wear armor; but I would notadvise a novice to emulate their boldness. Get abroad-brimmed nat, say a farmer's straw hat, andfasten to it a head-net of mosquito bar long enoughto come w^ell down over the shoulders. A pair oflong gloves or gauntlets is needed. Cut two sticksfive or six feet long, and bind to one end of eacha ball of cotton about as large as a hen's egg. Soakthese cotton balls in melted sulphur. Get a sharpaxe, and some pails to receive the honey; also alantern, for your burglarizing is to be done atnight. If you are not a good axeman, take withyou a man who is.When you reach the tree, decide which way itshould be thrown, and attack it on that side. Thebees will not disturb a man w^hile he is felling thetree, as they do not realize w^hat is going on.When the tree is almost ready to fall, put on yourmask and gloves. Button the former under yourcoat, or draw it under your suspenders. Tie yourtrousers round the ankles, and the gauntlets roundyour wrists.A companion should light one of the sulphurballs and have it ready; if the tree is hollow at thebutt, he should light both balls. When the treefalls he must quickly apply one of the burningsticks to the bees' doorway, and the other to thehole in the butt. If there is one. The fumes willstupify the now angry insects or at least enoughoi them to make the work easier.Chop into the tree until you have located thehoney. It is now that the fun begins, for thebees understand by this time that they are beingrobbed, and the able-bodied ones will pounce uponthe offenders, perhaps rushing upon the axemanm a mass so thick that he cannot see through hisveil and must brush the fierce little warriors away.On a cold night they will be less active than ifthe weather is warm.Having found the honey, cut through the trun^\)oth above and below it, split out the slab, and

364 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthus expose the hoard, being careful not to "bleed"the comb. The bees will now stop fighting andwill bend every energy to the work of carryingaway all of the honey that they can, storing it insome hastily chosen retreat. You now may helpyourself without fear of renewed attack.Backwoodsmen, when they have no sulphur, usea smudge of punky wood, the acrid smoke of whichsuffocates the bees or renders them helpless for thetime. They take the punk from a log or stumpthat is rotten enough to break easily in the handsand dry it near the fire. It will not blaze, butneither will it go out. It burns slowly and willgive out a dense smoke for several hours. Ofcourse, it kills many bees, and such a method shouldnever be employed except in the far-back wildernesswhen there is downright need of somethingto take the place of sugar. Woodsmen who haveno mosquito netting sometimes smear themselveswith tobacco juice, or with water in which tobaccostems have been steeped, to protect them againststings. In any case they take chances boldly. Beesrespect courage, but are quick to detect a wincingtimidity and give it its deserts.If, in spite of precautions, you are stung, applysome honey to the spot. Wet clay, oil of sassafras,ammonia, or onion juice, will relieve the pain andswelling; but honey is at hand, and it is about asgood a remedy as any.If you wish to capture the bees themselves, fixthe broodcombs (those containing pollen or "beebread")the right distance apart in a bucket orbasket, and set this to one side. The bees willcollect about them, after their panic is over, andthe next evening, when darkness begins to fall,they may be carried home. There are betterways, described in bee-keeping books, but they callfor special appliances.Honey.—^The amount of honey in a tree mayvary from almost nothing- to 100 pounds or more.There is record of 264 pounds being taken from

BEE HUNTING 3b,one tree. Bees work with great zeal where thereis a good supply of nectar, and will fill a hive in ashort time.Basswood bloom may be placed at the head ofhoney-producing plants. The apiarist, Root, saysthat during a period of t^venty-t^vo years he neverknew basswood to fail to yield nectar, the shortestseason yielding for three days, and the longesttwenty-nine. In one of his hives the bees stored 66pounds of basswood honey in three days. Tenpounds a day was the best recorded from clover.John Burroughs has stated that there is no differencein flavor between wild honey and tame. Ofcourse there is no difference in regions where wildand tame bees gather nectar from the same sources;but in the wilderness, where bees can forage onlyon the blossoms of wild plants and trees, with noaccess to fields and orchards, the honey has a distinctflavor, or flavors, of its own, as different from thatof commercial honey as the flavor of pure, oldfashionedmaple sugar is from that of the modernadulterated or "refined" article. To my taste, thehoney of the wilderness is as much to be preferredas is the honest, kettle-boiled sugar of "the bush."The bouquet of honey varies, of course, accordingto the kind of nectar gathered by its makers. Theminty flavor of the linden is quite distinct from sourwood.Anyone can tell buckwheat honey fromthat which comes from the clover field. As a rule,wild honey has a pungent taste, not so cloyinglysweet as tame honey, and nearly always it is darkercolored, even if the hive is new.Honey gathered from the bloom of rhododendronor mountain laurel, or from the catalpa or catawbatiees, is more or less poisonous to human beings.Root says that it causes symptoms similar to thoseexhibited by men who are dead drunk; or, in lessviolent cases, a tingling all over, indistinct vision(caused by dilation of the pupils), an empty, dizzyfeeling of the head ,and an intense nausea that isnot relieved by vomiting.The effects may not wear

366 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFToff for two or three days. We recall that theTen Thousand of Xenophon were made ill by laurelhoney. However, I doubt if anywhere in the worldthere is a more luxuriant bloom of laurel and ofrhododendron than where I live in the Great SmokyMountains, and yet I have not heard of a singlecase of poisoned honey in this region. Doubtlessthis is due to the profusion of other nectar-bearingtrees and plants. Bees will not work on laurelwhen there is plenty of basswood and tulip and sourwood,which bloom in the same months.Beeswax.—^Wax is a valuable commodity in thebackwoods. To prepare it, break up the honeycomb,press out the honey, then boil the comb untilmelted in a small quantity of water, squeeze itthrough coarsely woven cloth, and cool it in molds.The Sport of Bee Hunting.—^There is an elementof luck in bee hunting, and a spice of smalladventure, that entitle it to rank among field sports.One must match his wits against the superior agilityof the game ; he must keep his eyes skinned, followa long chase, and risk the stings of conflictif he would enjoy the sweets of victory.The most unlucky thing that can happen is tospend half a day pursuing bees and then line themup in some farmer's hives. As Robinson's **UncleJerry" said: 'Tve lined bees nigh onto three mile,an' when a feller 's done that, an' fetches up agina tame swarm in someb'dy's do' j^ard, it makes himkinder wamble-cropped."feel

CHAPTER XXIEDIBLE PLANTS OF THE WILDERNESSThere is a popular notion that our Indians inolden times varied their meat diet with nothing butwild roots and herbs. This, in fact, was the caseonly among those tribes that pursued a roving lifeand had no settled abodes, such as the "horse Indians"and "diggers" of the Far West—and not allof them. The "forest Indians" east of the Mississippiand south of the Great Lakes, particularlysuch nations as the Iroquois and Cherokees, lived invillages and cultivated corn, beans, squashes, pumpkins,and tobacco. Still, wild plants and roots oftenwere used by these semi-agricultural peoples, in thesame way that garden vegetables are used by us, and,in time of famine, or invasion, they were sometimesalmost the sole means of sustenance.To-day, although our wild lands, such as areleft, produce all the native plants that were knownto the redmen, there is probably not one white huntteror forester in a thousand who can* pick out halfof the edible plants of the wilderness, nor who wouldknow how to cook them if such were given to him.Nor are many of our botanists better informed.Now it is quite as important, in many cases, taknow how to cook a w^ild plant as it is to be able tofind it, for, otherwise, one might make as serious amistake as If he ate the vine of a potato Instead ofits tuber, or a tomato vine instead of the fruit.Take, for example, the cassava or manioc, which isstill the staple food of most of the inhabitants oftropical America and is largely used elsewhere. Theroot of the bitter manioc, which is used with thesame impunity as other species, contains a milky sap367

368 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTthat is charged with prussic acid and is one of themost virulent vegetable poisons known to science.The Indians somehow discovered that this sap isvolatile and can be driven off by heat.The root iscleaned, sliced, dried on hot metal plates or stones,grated, powdered, the starch separated from themeal, and the result is the tapioca of commerce, orfarina, or Brazilian arrowroot, as may be, which weourselves eat, and feed to our children and invalids,not knowing, perchance, that if it had not been forthe art of a red savage, the stuff taken into ourstomachs would have caused sudden death.Another example, not of a poisonous but of anextremely acrid root that the Indians used forbread, and which really is of delicious flavor whenrightly prepared, in the common Indian turnip.Every country schoolboy thinks he knows all aboutthis innocent looking bulb. He remembers whensome older boy grudgingly allowed him the tiniestnibble of this sacred vegetable, and how he, therecipent of the favor, started to say **Huh! 'tain'tbad"—and then concluded his remark with what wegood, grown-up people utter when we jab the blackinkpen into the red-ink bottle!How^ever, not all of our wild food-plants areacrid or poisonous in a raw state, nor is it dangerousfor any one with a rudimentary knowledge ofbotany to experiment with them. Many are easilyidentified by those who know nothing at allof botany.I cannot say that all of them are palatable;but most of them are, when properly prepared forthe table. Their taste in a raw state, generallyspeaking, is no more a criterion than is that of rawbeans or asparagus.It goes without saying that this chapter and theone that follows are not written for average campers—townfolkmostly, who know almost nothingabout our wnld flora. They are for the more daringsort who go far from the beaten trail, fend forthemselves, and owe it to themselves to study mattersof this kind before venturing into inhospitable

EDIBLE PLANTS 369regions. I have in mind more than one example ofextreme suffering, and even of tragedy, that mighthave been averted by such precaution. Besides,there is a great number of people on this continentwho spend a good part of their lives far back in thewoods, where cultivated vegetables are hard to get.Having myself "lived the life," I know how insistentgrows the craving for green stuff to vary themonotonous diet, and how profitable as well aspleasant is a little amateur botanizing with a pocketguide, such as Schuyler Mathews's Field Book ofAmerican Wild Flowers^ which suffices to identifymost of the plants on the foj lowing lists.I have been much amused, by way of variety, atthe attitude of a few skeptics who seem to doubtthat the writer knows what he is talking about.One of my correspondents even wrote to inquirewhether I "had any personal experience in eating^,ny of these plants !" I suppose he inferred from mycitations of authorities here and there that the wholething was cribbed. It is not fashionable nowadays,I know, for writers who seek popularity to quotedirectly from others, or even to acknowledge indebtednessfor ideas that they appropriate throughparaphrasis. However, I am old-fashioned enoughto give credit where credit Is due, whenever I canidentify the one from whom I first got a fact oridea that to me was new. In the following cataloguemy citation of an authority does not mean,then, that I have not tried the thing for myself, althoughin some cases that is so. During the yearsthat I have lived in the woods I have tested agreat variety of wild "roots and yarbs"—tried themin my own stomach; otherwise I would not havewritten a line on the subject. Here is a ratherodd example, taken from my notebook under date ofPvlay 10, 1 9 10, at which time I was boarding witha native family on upper Deep Creek, Swain County,North Carolina:Mrs. Barnett to-day cooked us a mess of green'sof her own picking. It was an olla podrida consist-

370 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTing of (1) lamb's quarters, (2) poke shoots, (3)sheep sorrel, (4) dock, (5) plantain, (6) young topsof "volunteer" potatoes, (7) wild mustard, (8) cowpepper. All of these ingredients were boiled togetherin the same pot, with a slice of pork, and theresulting "wild salat," as she called it, was good.This is the first time I ever heard of anyone eatingpotato tops; but a hearty trial of them has provedthat the tops of young Irish potatoes, like the youngshoots of poke, are wholesome and of good flavor,whereas it is well kno»wn that the mature tops ofboth plants are poisonous.I am told that the young leaves of sweet potatovines *'make an excellent spinach."To give a detailed account of all the edible wildplants of the United States and Canada, with descriptionsand illustrations sufficing to identify them,would require by itself a book as large as this. 1have only space to give the names and edible propertiesof those that I know of which are nativeto, or, as wild plants, have become naturalized inthe region north of the southern boundary of Virginiaand east of the Rocky Mountains. Besidesthose mentioned below, there are others which growonly in the southern or western states, among themore Important being the palmetto, palm, yam,cacti,Spanish bayonet, mesquite, wild sago or coontie,tule plant, western camass, kouse root, breadroot, screw bean, pimple mallow, manzafilta, pinons,jumper nuts, many pine seeds, squaw berry, lyclumberry—but the list Is long enough. Those who wishfurther details should examine the publications ofthe U. S. Department of Agriculture, and especiallythose of one of Its officers, Mr. F. V. Covllle, whohas made special studies In this subject.I have given the botanical name of every plantcited herein, because without it there would beno guarantee of Identification. The nomenclatureadopted is that ot Britton and Brown In theirIllustrated Flora of the Northern States and Can"dda (Scrlbner's Sons, New York), which, as it con-

EDIBLE PLAINTS 371tains an Illustration of every plant, Is of the firstassistance to an amateur in identifying. WhereverGray's nomenclature differs, it is added in parentheses.The months named under each plant are those Inwhich it flowers, the earlier month In each casebeing the flowering month In the plant's southernmostrange, and the later one that of the northernmost.In the case of wild fruits, the months arethose in which the fruit ripens.It is necessary to remember that most of theedible plants become tough and bitter when theyhave reached full bloom.SUBSTANTIAL FOODSAcorns.—The eastern oaks that yield sweetmast are the basket, black jack, bur, chestnut, overcup,post, rock chestnut, scrub chestnut, swampwhite, and white oaks, the acorns of chestnut andpost oaks being sweetest; those producing* bittermast are the black, pin, red, scarlet, shingle, Spanish,water, and willow oaks; of which the black andwater oak acorns are most astringent.None of these can be used raw, as human food,without more or less ill effect from the tannin contained.But there are tribes of western Indian,who extract the tannin from even the most astringentacorns and make bread out of their flour.The process varies somew^hat among different tribes,but essentially it as as follows:The acorns are collected when ripe, spread outto dry in the sun, cracked, and stored until the kernelsare dry, care being taken that they do not mold.The kernels are then pulverized in a mortar to afine meal, with frequent siftlngs to remove thecoarser particles, until the w^hole Is ground to a fineflour, this being essential. The tannin Is then dis'solved out by placing the flour In a filter and let-

,72 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTting water percolate through It for about twohours, or until the water ceases to have a yellowishtinge. One form of filter is contrived by layinga coarse, flat basket or strainer on a pile of gravelwith a drain underneath. Rather fine gravel is nowscattered thickly over the bottom and up the sidesof the strainer, and the meal laid thickly over thegravel. Water is added, little by little, to set freethe tannin. The meal is removed by hand as muchas possible, then water is poured over the remainderto get it together, and thus little is wasted. Themeal by this time has the consistency of ordinarydough.The dough Is cooked Is two ways: first, by boilingit in water as we do corn-meal mush, the resultingporridge being not unlike yellow corn-meal mushin appearance and taste ; it is sweet and wholesome,but rather Insipid. The second mode Is to makethe dough Into small balls, which are wrapped Ingreen corn leaves. These balls are then placed inhot ashes, some green leaves of corn are laid overthem, and hot ashes are placed on the top, and thecakes are thus baked.(Covllle, Contrib. to U. S. Herbarium, VII. No.3.—Palmer, In Amer, Naturalist, XII, 597. Anothermethod, used by the Porno Indians, who add 5 percent, of red earth to the dough, is described byJ. W. Hudson In the Amer. Anthropologist^ 1900,pp. 775-6-)Nuts.—Among the Cherokees, and also in Italyand In Tyrol, I have eaten bread made from chestnuts.The Cherokee method, when they have cornalso. Is to use the chestnuts whole, mixing them withenough corn-meal dough to hold them together, andthen baking cakes of this material enclosed In cornhusks, like tamales. The peasants of southernEurope make bread from the meal of chestnutsalone—the large European chestnut, of course,^ beingused. Such bread Is palatable and nutritious,but lies heavily on one's stomach until he becomesaccustomed to it.

:EDIBLE PLANTS 373Our Indians also have made bread from thekernels of buckeyes. These, in a raw state, arepoisonous, but when dried, powdered, and freedfrom their poison by filtration, like acorns, theyyield an edible and nutritious flour. The methodis first to toiist the nuts, then hull and peel them,mash them in a basket with a billet, and then leachthem.The resulting paste may be baked, or eatencold.Hazel nuts, beech nuts, pecans, and wankapinsmay be used like chestnuts. The oil expressedfrom beech nuts is little inferior to the best oliveoil for table use, and will keep sweet for ten years.The oil from butternuts and black walnuts used tobe highly esteemed by the eastern Indians eitherto mix with their food, or as a frying fat. Theypounded the ripe kernels, boiled them in water,and skimmed oH the oil using the remaining pasteas bread. Hickory nut oil was easily obtained bycrushing the whole nuts, precipitating the brokenshells in water, and skimming off the oily "milk,"which was used as we use cream or butter. Thenut of the Ironwood (blue beech) Is edible.The kernel of the long-leaved pine cone is edibleand of an agreeable taste. Many western pineshave edible "nuts." The acridity of pine seedscan be removed by roasting.KINDProteinper ct.Fatper ct.Beechnut 21.8Butternut 27.9Chestnut, dry ..10.7Hickory nut .... 15.4Peanut 29.8Pecan 12.1Pine nut, Pinon 14.6Walnut 18,2By comparisonBeef, r'd steak .19.8White bread.... 9.2

374 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTAll nuts are more digestible when roasted thanwhen eaten raw.Arrowhead^ Broad-leaved. Swan or SwampPotato. Sagittaria latifolia {S. variabilis). Inshallow water; ditches. Throughout North America,except extreme north, to Mexico. July-Sep.Tuberous roots as large as hens' eggs, were animportant article of food among Indians. Rootsbitter when raw, but rendered sweet and palatableby boiling. Excellent when cooked with meat.Indians gather them by wading and loosening rootswith their feet, when the tubers float up and aregathered. Leaves acrid.Arum, Green Arrow. Peltandra Virginica(P.undulata. Arum Virginiciim) . Swamp or shallowwater. Me. and Ont. to Mich., south to Fla, andLa. May-June.Rootstock used by eastern Indians for food, underthe name of Taw-ho. Roots very large; acridwhen fresh. The method of cooking this root, andthat of the Golden Club, is thus described by CaptainJohn Smith in his Historic of Virginia (1624),p. 87 : "The chiefe root they haue for food is calledTockawhoughe. It groweth like a flagge in Marishes.In one day a Salvage will gather sufficient for aweek.These roots are much of the greatnesse andtaste of Potatoes. They vse to cover a great manyof them with Oke leaues and Feme, and then coverall with earth in the manner of a Cole-pit [charcoalpit] ; over it, on each side, they continue a greatfire 24 houres before they dare eat it. Raw it isno better than poyson, and being roasted, exceptit be tender and the heat abated, or sliced and dryedin the Sunne, mixed with sorrell and meale or suchlike, it will prickle and torment the throat extreamely,and yet in sommer they vse this ordinarilyfor bread."Arum, Water. Wild Calla. Calla paUustris.Cold bogs. Nova Scotia to Minn., south to Va.,Wis., Iowa. May-June."Missen bread is made in Lapland from roots

EDIBLE PLANTS 375They areof this plant, which are acrid when raw.taken up in spring when the leaves come forth, areextremely well washed, and then dried. The fibrousparts are removed, and the remainder driedin an oven. This is then bruised and chopped intopieces as small as peas or oatmeal, and then ground.The meal is boiled slowly, and continually stirredlike mush. It is then left standing for three or fourdays, when the acridity disappears." (Lankester.)Broom-Rape^ Louisiana. Orobanche Ludoviciana{Aphyllon L.). Sandy soil. 111. to Manitoba,south to Texas, Ariz., Cal. June-Aug."All the plant except the bloom grows underground, and consequently nearly all is very whiteand succulent. The Pah Utes consume great numbersof them in summer. . . .Being succulentthey answer for food and drink on these sandy plains,and, indeed, are often called sand-food." (Palmer.)Bulrush^ Great. Mat-rush. Tule-root. Scirpuslacustris. Ponds and swamps. ThroughoutNorth America: also in Old World. June-Sep.Roots resemble artichokes, but are much larger.Eaten raw, they prevent thirst and afford nourishment.Flour made from the dried root is w^hite,sweet and nutritious. A great favorite withthe western Indians, who pound the roots and makebread of them. When the fresh roots are bruised,mixed with water, and boiled, they afford a goodsirup.Camass^ Eastern. Wild Hyacinth. Quamasiahyacyiithia {Camassia Fraseri). In meadows andalong streams. Pa. to Minn., south to Ala. andTexas. Apr.-May.Root is very 'nutritious, wath an agreeable mucilaginoustaste.Golden Club. Orontium aquatkum. Swampsand ponds. Mass. to Pa., south to Fla. and La.,mostlv near coast. Apr.-May.The Taw-kee of coast Indians who liked thedried seeds when cooked like peas. The_ raw rootis acrid, but becomes edible when cooked like arrowarum

376 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTGrass^ Drop-seed^ Sand Drop-seed. Sporoboluscryptandrus. Also Barnyard or CockspurGrass {Panicum Crusgalli).When the seeds, which are gathered in greatquantities by western Indians, are parched, ground,mixed with water or milk and baked or made intomush, they are of good flavor and nutritious. Alsoeaten dry.GrasSj Panic. Panicum, several species.The ripe seeds are collected, like the above, cleanedby winnowing, ground into flour, water added andthe mass is kneaded into hard cakes, which, whendried in the sun are ready for use. Also made intogruel and mush.Grass^ Floating Manna Panicularia fluitans(Glyceria fL).The seeds are of agreeable flavor and highly nutritiousmaterial for soups and gruels.Greenbrier^ Bristly. Stretch-berry. SinilaxBona-nox. Thickets. Mass. and Kansas, south toFla. and Texas. Apr-July.The large, tuberous rootstocks are said to havebeen used by the Indians, who ground them intomeal and made bread or gruel of it.In the South a drink is made from them.Greenbrier^ Long-Stalked. Smilax Pseudo-China. Dry or sandy thickets. Md. to Neb.,south to Fla. and Texas. March-Aug.Bartram says that the Florida Indians preparedfrom this plant "a very agreeable, cooling sort ofjelly, which they call conte [not to be confoundedwith coontie or wild sago] ; this is prepared fromthe root of the China brier (Smilax Pseudo-China). . They chop the roots in pieces which are afterwardswell pounded in a wooden mortar, then beingmixed with clean water, in a tray or trough, theystrain it through baskets. The sediment, whichsettles to the bottom of the second vessel, Is afterwardsdried in the open air, and is then a very finereddish flour or meal. A small quantity of this,mixed with warm water and sweetened with honey,

EDIBLE PLANTS 377when cool, becomes a beautiful, delicious jelly, verynourishing and wholesome. They also mix it withfine corn flour, which being fried in fresh bear's oilmakes very good hot cakes or fritters."Ground-Nut. Wild Bean. Indian Potato.Aplos Apios {A. tuberosa). Moist ground. NewBruns. to Fla., west to Minn, and Kan., south toLa. July-Sep.This is the famous hopniss of New Jersey Indians,the saagaban of the Micmacs, openauk of Virginiatribes, scherzo of the Carolinas, taux of the Osages,and 7JLodo of the Sioux, under one or other of whichnames it is frequently met by students of our earlyannals. "In 1654 the town laws of Southampton,Mass., ordained that if an Indian dug ground-nutson land occupied by the English, he was to be setin the stocks, and for a second offence, to be whipped."The Pilgrims, during their first winter, livedon these roots.The tubers vary from the size of cherries to thatof a hen's egg, or larger. They grow in stringsof perhaps 40 together, resembling common potatoesin shape, taste, and odor. When boiled they arequite palatable and wholesome. The seeds in thepod can be prepared like common peas.Indian Turnip. Jack-in-the-Pulpit. Arisaematiiphyllum (Aru/n trlphyllmn) . Moist woods andthickets. Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Minn.,Kan., La. April-June. Fruit ripe, June-July.The root of this plant is so acrid when raw that,if one but touch the tip of his tongue to it, in afew seconds that unlucky member will sting as iftouched to a nettle. Yet it was a favorite breadrootof the Indians. I have found bulbs as muchas II inches in circumference and weighing halfa pound.Some writers state that the acridity of the rootis destroyed by boiling, while others recommend baking.Neither alone will do. The bulb may beboiled for two hours, or baked as long, and, whilethe outer portion will have a characteristically

378 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpleasant flavor, half potato, half chestnut, the Innerpart will still be as uneatable as a spoonful of redpepper. The root should either be roasted or boiled,then peeled, dried, and pounded in a mortar, orotherwise reduced to flour. Then if it is heatedagain, or let stand for a day or two, it becomesbland and wholesome, having been reduced to astarchy substance resembling arrowroot. Even ifthe fresh root is only grated finely and let stand exposedto air until it is thoroughly dry, the acriditywill have evaporated with theinjuice.The roots may be preserved for a year by storingdamp sand.It is said that the Indians also cooked and atethe berries.LiLYj Turk^S-Cap. Lilium superbum. Meadowsand marshes. Me. to Minn., south to N. C.and Tenn. July-Aug.LiLY^ Wild Yellow. Canada Lily. LiliumCanadense. Swamps, meadows and fields. NovaScotia to Minn., south to Ga., Ala., Mo., June'July."Both of these lilies have fleshy, edible bulbs.When green they look and taste somewhat like rawgreen corn on the ear. The Indians use them, insteadof flour, to thicken stews, etc." (Thoreau.)LiLY^ Yellow Pond. Spatter-dock. Nymphaeaadvena {Nuphar ad,). Ponds and slow streams.Nova Scotia to Rocky Mts., south to Fla., Texas,Utah. Apr.Sep.The roots, w^hich are one or two feet long, growfour or five feet under water, and Indian womendive for them. They are very porous, slightlysweet, and glutinous. Generally boiled with wildfowl, but often roasted separately. Muskrats storelarge quantities for winter use, and their housesare frequently robbed by the Indians. The pulverizedseeds of the plant are made into bread or gruel,or parched and eaten like popcorn.Nelumbo, American. Wankapin or Yoncopln.Water Chinquapin. Nelumbo lutea. Ponds and

EDIBLE PLANTS 379swamps. Locally east from Ontario to Fla., abundantwest to Mich., Okla., La. J uly-Aug.Tubers of root somewhat resemble sweet potatoes,and are little inferior to them when well boiled.A highly prized food of the Indians. The greenand succulent half-ripe seed-pods are delicate andnutritious. From the sweet, mealy seeds, whichresemble hazel nuts, the Indians made bread, soups,etc. The *'nuts" were first steeped in water, andthen parched in sand to easily extricate the kernels.These were mixed with fat and made into a palatablesoup, or w^ere ground into flour and baked.Frequently they were parched without steeping, andthe kernels eaten thus.Orchis^ Showy. Orchis spectabilis. Richwoods. New Brunsw. to Minn,, south to Ga.,Ky., Neb. Apr.-June."One of the orchids that springs from a tuberousroot, and as such finds favor with the countrypeople [of the South] in the preparation of a highlynourishing food for children." (Lounsberry.)Peanut^ Hog. Wild peanut. Falcata comosa(Glycine comosa). Moist thickets. New Brunsw.to Fla., west to Lake Superior, Neb., La. Aug-Sep."The underground pod has been cultivated as avegetable." (Porcher.)Potato^ Prairibi. Prairie turnip. Indian orMissouri Breadroot. The pomme blanche of thevoyageurs. Psoralea Esculenta. Prairies. Manitobaand N. Dak. to Texas. June,The farinaceous tuber, generally the size of ahen's egg, has a thick, leathery envelope, easily^separable from the smooth internal parts, which becomefriable when dry and are readily pulverized, affordinga light, starchy flour, with sweetish, turnipliketaste. Often sliced and dried by the Indiansfor winter use. Palatable in any form.Rice, Wild. Zizania aquatica. Swamps. NewBrunsw. to Manitoba, south to Fla., La., Texas.June-Oct.The chief farinaceous food of probably 30,000 of

38oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTour northern Indians, and now on the market asa breakfast food. The harvesting is usually doneb)' two persons working together, one propellingthe canoe, and the oae in the stern gently pullingthe plants over the canoe and beating oil the ripeseed with two sticks. The seed, when gathered, isspread out for a few hours to dry, and is thenparched in a kettle over a slow fire for half an hourto an hour, meanwhile being evenly and constantlystirred. It is then spread out to cool. After thiij^it is hulled by putting* about a bushel of the seedinto a hole in the ground, lined with staves or burntclay, and beating or punching it with heavy sticks.The grains and hulls are separated by tossing themixture into the wind from baskets. The grainwill keep indefinitely.Before cooking, it should have several washingsin cold water to remove the smoky taste. It iscooked with game, or as gruel (boil 35 minutes),or made into bread, or merely eaten dry. Its foodvalue is equal to that of our common cereals. **Anacre of rice is nearly or quite equal to an acre ofwheat in nutriment." (For details see BulletinNo. 50 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.Dep't. of Agriculture.)SiLVERWEED. Wild or Goose Tansy. Goose^grass. Potentilla Anserina. Shores and saltmeadows, marshes and river banks. Greenland toN J., west to Neb.; Alaska, south along RockyMts. to N. Mex. and Cal. MaySep.Roots gathered in spring and eaten either raw orroasted. Starchy and wholesome. When roastedor boiled their taste resembles chestnuts.Sunflower. Helianthus, many species. Prairies,etc. July-Sep. "The seeds of these plants formone of the staple articles of food for manv Indians,and they gather them in great quantities. The agreeableoily nature of the seeds renders them verypalatable. When parched and ground they arehighly prized, and are eaten on hunting excursions.The m.eal or flour is also made into thin cakes and

EDIBLE PLANTS 381baked in hot ashes. These cakes are of a gray color,rather coarse looking, but palatable and very nutritious.Having eaten of the bread made from sunflowers,I must say that it is as good as much of thecorn bread eaten by whites." (Palmer.)The oil expressed from sunflower seeds is a goodsubstitute for olive oil.Valerian, Edible. Tobacco-root. Valerianaedulis. Wet open places. Ontario to B. C, southto O., Wis., and in Rocky Mts. to N. Mex andAriz. May-Aug."I ate here, for the first time, the kooyah or tobacco-root(Valeriana edulis) ^ the principal edibleroot among the Indians who inhabit the upper watersof the streams on the western side of the [Rocky]mountains. It has a very strong and remarkablypeculiar taste and odor, which I can compare tono other vegetable that I am acquainted with, andwhich to some persons is extremely offensive. . . Torather an agreeable one,others, however, the taste isand I was afterwards always glad when it formedan addition to our scanty meals. It is full of nutriment.In its unprepared state it is said by theIndians to have very strong poisonous qualities, ofwhich it is deprived by a peculiar process, beingbaked in the ground for about two days." (Fremont,Exploring Expedition, 1845, p. 1 35-)POT-HERBS AND SALADSAll of the plants hitherto mentioned are native tothe regions described. In the following list will befound many that are introduced w^eeds; but a considerableproportion of these foundlings may nowbe seen in clearings and old burnt tracts in thewoods, far from regular settlements. Directions forcooking greens are given in Vol. I., pp. 369-371.Adder's-Tongue, Yellow. Dog's-tooth Violet.Erythronium Americamim. Moist woods and thickets.Nova Scotia to Minn., south to Fla., Mo., Ark.Mar,-May.Sometimes used for greens.Bean, Wild Kidney. Phaseolus f>olysiachyus

382 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT(P. perennis). Thickets. Canada to Fl?.., westto Minn., Neb., La. July-Sep.Was used as food by the Indians; the Apaches eatit either green or dried.Bellwort. Uviilaria perfoliata. Moist woodsand thickets. Quebec and Ont. to Fla. and Miss.May-June."The roots of this and other species of Uvulariaare edible when cooked, and the young shoots are agood substitute for asparagus." (Porcher.)Brooklime^ American. Veronica Americana,Brooks and swamps. Anticosti to Alaska, south toPa., Neb., N. Mex., Cal. Apr-Sep.''A salad plant equal to the watercress. Delightfulin flavor, healthful, anti-scorbutic." {Sci. Amer.)Burdock, Great. Cockle-bur. Arctium Lappa,Waste places. New Brunsw. to southern N. Y.,and locally in the interior. Not nearly so widelydistributed as the smaller common burdock (A,minus). July-Oct.A naturalized weed, so rank in appearance andodor that nothing but stark necessity could havedriven people to experiment with it as a vegetable.Yet, like the skunk cabbage, it is capable of beingturned to good account. In spring, the tendershoots, when peeled, can be eaten raw like radishes,or, with vinegar, can be used as a salad.The stalkscut before the flowers open, and stripped of theirrind, form a delicate vegetable when boiled, similarin flavor to asparagus. The raw root has medicinalproperties, but the Japanese eat the cooked root, preparingit as follows: The skin is scraped or peeledoff, and the roots sliced in long strips, or cut intopieces about two inches long", and boiled with saltand pepper, or with soy, to impart flavor; or theboiled root is mashed, made into cakes, and friedlike oyster plant.Charlock. Wild Mustard. Brassica arvensis(B. Sinapistrum) . Fields and waste places. Naturalizedeverj^where. May-Nov.Extensively used as a pot-herb; aids digestion*

EDIBLE PLANTS 383Chickweed. Alsine media. {Sfellaria m.).Waste places, meadows, and woods. Naturalized;common everywhere. Jan-Dec.Used like spinach, and quite as good.Chicory. Wild Succor}\ Chichorhwi Intyhus.Roadsides, fields, and waste places. Nova Scotiato Minn., south to N. C. and Mo. July-Oct.All parts of the plant are wholesome. Theyoung kaves make a good salad, or may be cookedas a pot-herb like dandelion. The root, ground androasted, is used as an adulterant of coffee.Clover.Trifolium, many species.The coast Indians of California use clover as afood. The fresh leaves and stems are used, beforeflowering. ''Deserves test as a salad herb, withvinegar and salt."CoMFREY. Symphytum officinale. Waste places,Newf. to Minn., south to Md. Naturalized,June-Aug.Makes good greens when gathered young.Cow Pea. China Bean. Vigna Sinensis,Escaped from cultivation. Mo. to Texas and Ga.July-Sep.The seeds are edible.Cow Pepper. A plant resembling toothwort(Dentaria diphylla) but bearing a yellow instead ofa white flower, and developing a bur. Tops used inthe southern Appalachians for salad, and the rootsas a substitute for horseradish.Cress^ Rocket. Yellow Rocket. Bitter Cress.Barharea Barharea {B. vulgaris). Fields and wasteplaces. Naturalized. Labrador to Va., and locallyin interior; also on Pacific coast. Apr.-June.The young, tender leaves make a fair salad, butinferior to the winter cress.Cress^ Water. Roripa Nasturtium (Nasturtiumofficinale). Brooks and other streams. NovaScotia to Manitoba, south to Va. and Mo. Naturalizedfrom Europe. Apr.-Nov.A well-known salad herb. The leaves and stemsare eaten raw with salt, as a relish, or mixed as9 salad-

384 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTCress^ Winter. Scurvy Grass. Barharea prae^cox. Waste places, naturalized. Southern N. Y.,Pa., and southward. Apr.-June,Highly esteemed as a winter salad and pot-h,erb;sometimes cultivated.Crinkle-Root. Two-leaved Toothwort. Dentariadiphylla. Rich woods and meadows. NovaScotia to Minn., south to S. Car. and Ky. May,The rootstocks are crisp and fleshy, with a spicyflavor like watercress. Eaten with salt, like celery.Crowfoot^ Celery-Leaved or Ditch. Ranunculussceleratus. Swamps and wet ditches, NewBrunsw. to Fla., abundant along the coast, and locallywestward to Minn. Apr.-Aug.Porcher cites this as a good example of the destructionof acrid and poisonous juices by heating.The fresh juice is so caustic that it will raise ablister, and two drops taken internally may excitefatal inflammation. Yet the boiled or baked root,he says, is edible. When cleansed, scraped andpounded, and the pulp soaked in a considerablequantity of water, a white sediment is deposited,which, when washed and dried, is a real starch.Cuckoo-Flower. Meadow Bitter-cress. Cardaminepratensis. Wet meadows and swamps. Labradorto northern N. J., west to Minn, and B. C.Apr.-May.Has a pungent savor and is used like water cress;occasionally cultivated as a salad plant.Dandelion. Taraxacum Taraxacum {T. Officinale).Fields and waste places everywhere; naturalized.Jan.-Dec.Common pot-herb ; also blanched for salad. Inboiling,change the water two or three times.DocK^ Curled. Rumex Crispus. Fields andwaste places, everywhere; naturalized. June-Aug.The young leaves make good pot-herbs. Theplant produces an abundance of seeds, which Indiansgrind into flnur for bread or mush.Ffrns. Many species.The young stems of ferns, gathered before they

EDIBLE PLAxNTS 385are covered with down, and before theleaves haveuncurled, are tender, and when boiled like asparagusare delicious.The rootstocks of ferns are starchy, and after beingbaked resemble the dough of wheat; their flavoris not very pleasant, but they are by no means to bedespised by a hungry man.Fetticus. Corn Salad. Valerianella Locusta.Waste places. N. Y. to Va. and La. Naturalized.Apr.-July.Cultivated for salad and as a pot-herb. TheyOung leaves are very tender.Flag, Cat-tail. Typha latifolia. Marshes.Throughout North America except in extremenorth. June-July.The flowering ends are very tender in the spring,and are eaten raw, or when boiled in water makea good soup. The root is eaten as a salad. "TheCossacks of the Don peel oi¥ the outer cuticle of thestalk and eat raw the tender white part of the stemextending about 18 inches from the root. It has asomewhat insipid, but pleasant and cooling taste.'*Garlic, Wild or Meadow. Allium Canadense.Moist meadows and thickets. Me. to Minn., southto Fla., La., Ark. May-June.A good substitute for garlic. "The top bulbsare superior to the common onion for pickling."Ginseng, Dwarf. Ground-nut. Panax trifolium{Aralia trifolia). Moist woods and thickets.Nova Scotia to Ga., west to Minn., Iowa, 111.Apr.-June.The tubers are edible and pungent.Honewort. Deringa Cariadensis (CryptotaeniaC). Woods. New Brunsw. to Minn., south toGa. and Texas. June-July.In the spring this is a wholesome green, used insoups, etc., like chervil.Hop. Cannabis sativa. Waste places. NewBrunsw. to Minn., south 'to N. C, Tenn., Kansas.Naturalized. July-Sep.Used for yeast. "In Belgium the young shoots

;386 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof the plant just as they emerge from the groundare used as asparagus."Indian Cucumber. Medeola Virginiana.Rich,damp woods and thickets. Nova Scotia to Minn.,south to Fla. and Tenn. May-June."The common name alludes to the succulent,horizontal, white tuberous root, which tastes likecucumber, and was in all probability relished by theIndians." (Matthews.)Jerusalem Artichoke. Canada Potato. Girasole.Topinambour. Helianthus tuberosus. Moistsoil. New Brunsw. to Manitoba, south to Ga.and Ark. ''Often occurs along roadsides in theeast, a relic of cultivation by the aborigines."Now cultivated and for sale in our markets.Thetubers are large, and edible either raw or cooked,tasting somewhat like celery root. They are eatenas vegetables, and are also pickled.Lady's Thumb. English Smartweed. PolygonumPersicaria. Waste places throughout thecontinent, except extreme north. Naturalizedoften an abundant weed. June-Sep.Used as an early salad plant in the southernmountains.Lamb's Quarters. White Pig\veed. Chenopodiumalbum. Waste places, range universal,like the above. Naturalized. June-Sep.A fine summer green and pot-herb, tender andsucculent. Should be boiled about 20 minutes, thefirst water being thrown away, owing to its badtaste. The small seeds, which are not unpleasantwhen eaten raw, may be dried, ground, and madeinto cakes or gruel. They resemble buckwheat incolor and taste, and are equally nutritious.Lettuce^ Spanish. Indian or Miner's Lettuce-Claytonta perfoliata. Native of Pacific coast, butspreading eastward. Apr.-May.The whole plant is eaten by western Indians andby whites. In a raw state makes an excellent saladalso cooked with salt and pepper, as greens.Lupine, Wild. Wild Pea. Lupinus perennis.

.EDIBLE PLANTS 387Dry, sandy soil. Me. to Minn., south to Fla.,Mo., La. May-Jmie.Edible; cooked like domestic peas.Mallow^ Marsh. Althaeea Officinalis. Saltmarshes. Mass. to N. J. Summer.The thick, very mucilaginous root, has familiaruse as a confection ; also used in medicine as a demulcent.May be eaten raw.Mallow^ Whorled or Curled. Malva verticillata{M. crispa) . Waste places. Nova Scotia toMinn., south to N. J. Naturalized. Summer.A good pot-herb.Marigold^ Marsh. Meadovr-gowan. Cowslip.Caltha palustris. Swamps and meadows.Newfoundland to S. C, west through Canada toRocky Mts., and south to Iowa. Apr.-June.Used as a spring vegetable, the young" plant beingthoroughly boiled for greens. The flower budsare sometimes pickled as a substitute for capers.Beware of mistaking for this plant the poisonouswhite hellebore (Veratrum viride)Meadow Beauty. Deer Grass. Rhexia Virginica.Sandy swamps. Me. to Fla., west to north N. Y.,Ill, Mo., La. July-Sep.The leaves have a sweetish, yet acidulous taste.Make a good addition to a salad, and may be eatenwith impunity.Milkweed. Asclepias Syriaca {A. Cornuti).Fields and waste places generally. June-Aug. Alsoother species.The young shoots. In spring, are a good substitutefor asparagus. Kalm says that a good brown sugarhas been made by gathering the flowers while thedew was on them, expressing the dew, and boilingitdown.Mushrooms. The number of edible species Islegion. It Is not difficult to distinguish the poisonousones, when one has studied a good text-book;but no one should take chances with fungi until hehas made such study, for a few of the commonspecies are deadly, and for some of them no remedy

388 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTis known. A beginner would do well, perhaps, toavoid all of the genus Amanita. All mushrooms onthe following list are of delicious flavor.Coprinus comatusHypholoma appendiculatumTricholoma perso?iatumBoletus subaureus.Boletus bovinusBoletus subsanguineousClavaria hotrytesClavana cinereaClavaj'ia inaequalisClavaria vermicularisClavaria pistillarisLactarius volemusLactarius deliciosusRussula alutaceaRussula virescensCantharelles cibariusMarasmius oreadesHydnum repandumHydnum caput-MedusaeMorchellaesculentaMorchella deliciosaIt would be well for every outer to learn the easilydistinguishable beefsteak fungus (Fistulina hepatica)and sulphur mushroom {Polyporus sulphureus)that grow from the trunks of old trees andstumps, as they are very common, very large, and"filling."Mustard. Brassica, several species. Fields andwaste places. Naturalized.The young leaves are used for greens.Nettle. Urtica dioicaj and other species; alsothe Sow Thistle, Sonchus oleraceus. Fields andwaste places.Should be gathered, with gloves,when the leavesare quite young and tender. A pleasant, nourishingand mildly aperient pot-herb, used with soups,

EDIBLE PLANTS 389salt meat, or as spinach; adds a piquant taste toother greens. Largely used for such purposes inEurope.Nightshade^ Black or Garden. Solanumnigrum. Waste places, commonly in cultivated soil.Nova Scotia to Manitoba, south to Fla. and Texas.July-Oct.This plant is reputed to be poisonous, thoughnot to the same degree as its relative from Europe,the Woody Nightshade or Bittersweet {S. Dulcamara).It is, however, used as a pot-herb, likespinach, in some countries, and in China the youngshoots and berries are eaten. Bessey reports thatin the Mississippi Valley the little black berries aremade into pies.Onion^ Wild. Allium, many species. Richwoods, moist meadows and thickets, banks and hillsides.Used like domestic onions.Parsnip^ Cow. Mastei-wort. Heradeum lanatum.Moist ground. Labrador to N. C. and Mo.,Alaska to Cal. June-July."The tender leaf and flower stalks are sweet andvery agreeably aromatic, and are therefore muchsought after [by coast Indians] for green food inspring and early summer, before the flowers haveexpanded. In eating these, the outer skin is rejected."Peppergrass, Wild. Lepidium Virgintcum.Fields and along roadsides. Quebec to Minn.,south to Fla. and Mexico. May-Nov.Like the cultivated peppergrass, this is sometimesused as a winter or early salad, but it is much inferiorto other cresses. The spicy pods are goodseasoning for salads, soups, etc.Pigweed, Rough. Beet-root. Amaranthusretroflexus. Fields and waste places. Throughoutthe continent except extreme north. Naturalized.Aug. -Oct.Related to the beet and spinach, and may be usedfor greens.

390 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTPigweed, Slender. Keerless. Amaranthus hybridus{A. chlorostachys). A weed of the samewide range as the preceding. Naturalized. Aug.-Oct.Extensively used in the South, in early spring,as a salad plant, under the name of "keerless."Plantain, Common. Plantago major. A naturalizedweed of general range like thje preceding.May-Sep.Used as early spring greens.Pleurisy-Root. Asclepias Tuberosa. Dryfields. Me. to Minn., south to Fla., Texas, Ariz.June-Sep.The tender young shoots may be used like asparagus.The raw tuber is medicinal; but whenboiled or baked it is edible.Pokeweed. Phytolacca decandra. A commonweed east of the Mississippi and west of Texas.Now cultivated in France, and the wild shoots aresold in our eastern markets.In early spring the young shoots and leaves makean excellent substitute for asparagus.The root is poisonous (this is destroyed by heat),and the raw juice of the old plant is an acrid purgative.The berries are harmless.Prickly Pear. Opuntia. Several species.Dry, sandy soil. Along eastern coast, and on westernprairies and plains.The ripe fruit is eaten raw. The unripe fruit,if boiled ten or twelve hours, becomes soft and resemblesapple-sauce. When the leaves are roastedin hot ashes, the outer skin, with its thorns, is easilyremoved, leaving a slimy but sweet and succulentpulp which sustains life. Should be gathered withtongs which can be extemporized by bending a greenstick in the middle and beathing it over the fire.Primrose, Evening. Onagra biennis (Oenotherab.) . Usually ;n dry soil. Labrador to Fla.,west to Rocky Mts. June-Oct.Young sprigs are mucilaginous and can be eatenas salad. Roots have a nutty flavor, and are usedin Europe either raw or stewed, like celery.

EDIBLE PLANTS 391Purslane. Pussley. Portulaca Oleracea.Fields and waste places. A weed of almost worldwidedistribution. Summer,This weed was used as a pot-herb by the Greeksand Romans, and is still so used in Europe. Theyoung shoots should be gathered w^hen from 2 to5 inches long. May also be used as a salad, orpickled. Taste somewhat like string beans, with aslight acid flavor. The seeds, ground to flour, havebeen used by Indians in the form of mush.Red-Bud. Cercis Canadensis.French-Canadians use the acid flowers of thistree in salads. The buds and tender pods arepickled in vinegar. All may be fried in butter,or made into fritters.Saxifrage, Lettuce. Saxifraga micranthidifolia.In cold brooks. Appalachian Mts. from Pa.to N. C. May-June.Eaten by Carolina mountaineers as a salad underthe name of "lettuce."Shepherd^s Purse. Bursa Bursa-pastoris{Capsella B.). Fields and waste places everywhere.Naturalized. Jan.-Dec.A good substitute for spinach. Delicious whenblanched and served as a salad. Tastes somewhatlike cabbage, but is much more delicate.Skunk Cabbage. Spathyema foetida {Symplocarpus/.). Swamps and wet soil. Throughoutthe east, and west to Minn, and Iowa. Feb.- April.The root of this foul-smelling plant was bakedor roasted by eastern Indians, to extract the juice,and used as a bread-root. Doubtless they got thehint from the bear, who is very fond of this, oneof the first green things to appear in spring.SoLOMON''s Seal. Polygonatum biflorum. Woodsand thickets. New Brunsw. to Mich., south toFla. and W. Va. April-July.Indians boiled the young shoots in spring andate them ; also dried the mature roots in fall, groundor pounded them, and baked them into bread.raw plant is medicinal.The

392 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSorrel^ Mountain. -Oxyria digyna. Green*land to Alaska, south to White Mts. of N. H. and inRocky Mts. to Colo. July-Sep.A pleasant addition to salads.Sorrel, Sheep. Rumux Acetosella. Dry fieldsand hillsides. Throughout the continent, except inextreme north. May-Sep,The leaves are very acid. Young shoots may beeaten as a salad. Also used as; a seasoning forsoups, etcThe European sorrels cultivated as salad plantsare R. Acetosa, R. scutatusj and sometimes R.Patientia.Sorrell, White Wood. Oxalis Acetosella.Cold, damp woods.Nova Scotia to Manitoba, mts.of N. C, and north shore of Lake Superior.MayJuly.Not related to the above. "The pleasant acidtaste of the leaves, when mixed with salads, impartsan agreeable, refreshing flavor." The freshplant, or a "lemonade" made from it, is very usefulin scurvy, and makes a cooling drink for fevers.Should be used in moderation, as it contains binoxalateof potash, which is poisonous. Yields the druggist's"salt of lemons."Storksbill. Pin-clover. Erodium cicutarium.Waste places and fields. Locally in the east, abundantin the west. April-Sep. Naturalized.The 5^oung plant is gathered by western Indiansand eatenraw or cooked.Strawberry Bute. Blitum capitatum (Chenopodiumc). Dry soil. Nova Scotia to Alaska,south to N. J., 111., Colo., Utah, Nev. June-Aug.Sometimes cultivated for greens. Used like spinach.Trillium. Wake-robin. Beth-root. Trilliumerectum; also T. undulatum and T. grandiflorum.Woods. Nova Scotia to Minn., and south to Fla.April-June.The popular notion that these plants are poisonousis incorrect. They make good greens when

EDIBLE PLANTS 393cooked. The root has medicinal qualities.TucKAHOE. Pachyma cocos. A subterraneanfungus which grows on decaying vegetable matter,such as old roots. It is found in light, loamy soilsand in dry waste places, but not in very old fieldsor in woodlands. Outwardly it is woody, resemblinga cocoanut or the bark of a hickory tree. Theinside is a compact, white, fleshy mass, moist andyielding when fresh, but in drying it becomes veryhard, cracking from within. It contains no starch,but is composed largely of pectose. The Indiansmade bread of it, and it is sometimes called IndianBread. (For details, see an article by Prof. J. H.Gore in Smithsonian Report^ 1881, pp. 687-701.)Unicorn Plant. Martynia Lousiana {M. proboscidea). Waste places. Me. to N. J. and N. C.Native in Mississippi Valley from Iowa and 111.southward. July-Sep.Cultivated in some places. The seed-pods, whileyet tender, make excellent pickles. The Apachesgather the half-ripe pods of a related species anduse them for food.Vetch^ Milk. Astragalus, several species.Prairies. May-Aug.Used as food by the Indians. The pea is hulledand boiled.Violet^ Early Blue. Viola palmata. Drytfoil, mostly in woods. Me. to Minn.; south to Ga.and Ark. April-May.''The plant is very mucilaginous, and is employedby negroes for thickenig soup, under the name ofSvild okra.' " (Porcher.)Waterleaf. Hydrophyllum Virginicum.Woods. Quebec to Alaska, south to S. C, Kan.,Wash. May-Aug.'Turnishes good greens. Reappears after beingpicked off, and does not become woody for a longtime."WILD FRUITSIt would extend this chapter bevond reasonablelimits if I were to give details of all the wild fruits

SepĊommon Barberry. Berberis vulgaris. Sep.394 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTnative to the region here considered.As fruits maybe eaten raw, or require no special treatment incooking, a mere list of them, with the time of ripening,must suffice:Rhamnus Carolijiiana. Sep.Carolina Buckthorn.Woolly-leaved Buckthorn. Bumelia languinosa.June-July.Buffalo-berry. Lepargyraea argentea. July-Aug.American Barberry. Berberis Canadensis. Aug.-Naturalized.Bailey's Blackberry. Rubus Baileyanus.Bristly Blackberry. R. setosus.Dewberry. R. Canadejisis. June-July.High Bush Blackberry. R. villosus. July-Aug.Hispid Blackberry. R. hispid us. Aug.Low Bush Blackberry. R. trivialis.Millspaugh's Blackberry. R. Millspaughii. Aug.-Sep.Mountain Blackberry. R. Alleghaniensis. Aug^-Sep.Sand Blackberry. R. Cuneifolius. July-Aug.Dwarf Bilberry. Vaccinium caespitosum. Aug,Great Bilberry. V' uliginosum. July-Aug.Oval-leaved Bilberry. V. ovalifolium. July-Aug.Thin-leaved Bilberry. V. membranaceum. July-Aug.Black Blueberry. V. atrococcum. July-Aug.-Canada Blueberry. V. Canadense. July-Aug.Dwarf Blueberry. V. Fennyslvanicum. June-July.High Bush Blueberry. V. corymbosum. July-Aug.Low Blueberry. V. vacillans. July-Aug.Low Black Blueberry. V. nigrum. July.Mountain Blueberry. V. pallidum. July-Aug.Southern Black Huckleberry. F. virgatum. July.Mountain Cranberry. Windberry. V. Vitis-Idaea. Aug.-Sei>.Black Huckleberry Gaylussacia resinosa. JulyAug.

EDIBLE PLANTS39b'Box Huckleberry. G. brachycera.Dwarf Huckleberry. G. dumosa. July-Aug.Tangleberry. G. frondosa. July-Aug.Appalachian Cherry. Frunus cuneata.Choke Cherry. P. Virginiana. July-Aug. (Ediblelater.)Sand Cherry. P. puuiila. Aug.Sour Cherry. Egriot. P. Cerasus. June-July.Naturalized.Western Wild Cherry. P. demissa. Aug.Western Sand Cherry. P. Besseyi.Wild Cherry. Crab Cherry. P. Avium. Naturalized.Wild Black Cherry. P. serotina. Aug. -Sep.Wild Red Cherry. P. Pennsylvanica. Aug.American Crab-Apple. Sweet-scented C. Maluscoro?iaria. Sept.-Oct.Narrow-leaved Crab-Apple. M. angustifolia.Soulard Crab-Apple. M. Soulardi.Western Crab-Apple. M. loensis.American Cranberry. Oxycoccus macrocarpus.Sep.-Oct.Small Cranberry. Bog C. O. Oxycoccus. Aug.-Sep.Southern Mountain Cranberry. O. erythrocarpus.July -Sep.Cranberry Tree. Viburnum Opulus. Aug. -Sep.Crowberry. Curlew-berry. Empetrum nigrum.Summer.Golden Current. Buffalo or Missouri C. Ribei,aureum.Northern Black Currant. P.. Hudsonianum.Red Currant. R. rubrum.Wild Black Currant. R. floridum. July-Aug.Elderberry. Sambucus Canadensis. Aug.Wild Gooseberry. Dogberry. Ribes Cynosbati.Aug.Missouri Gooseberry. R. gracile.Northern Gooseberry. R. oxyacanthoides. July-Aug.Round-leaved Gooseberry. R. rotundifolium. July-Aug.

,96 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTSwamp Gooseberry. R. lacustre. July-Aug,Bailey's Grape. Vitis Baileyana.Blue Grape. Winter G. V. bicolor.Downy Grape. V. cinerea.Frost Grape. V. cordifolia. Oct.-Nov-Missouri Grape. F. pahjiata. Oct.Northern P'ox Grape. V. Labrusca. Aug.-Sep.Riverside Grape. Sweet-scented G. V. vulpina,July-Oct.Sand Grape. Sugar G. V. rupestris. Aug.Southern Fox Grape. V. rotundifolia. Aug.-Sep.Summer Grape. V. aestivalis. Sep.-Oct:Ground Cherry. Physalis, several species.Hackberry. Celtis occidentalis. Sep.-Oct. Berriesdry but edible.Black: Haw. Viburnum prunifolium. Sep.-Oct.Scarlet Haw. Red H. Crataegus mollis. Sep.*OctṀay Apple.Mandrake. Podophyllum peltatum.July.Passion-flower, Passiflora incarnata; also P.Fruit known as Maypops.lutea.Pawpaw. Asimina triloba. Fruit edible whenfrost-bitten.Persimmon. Diospyros Virginiana. Fruit edibleafter frost.Beach Plum. Prunus martima. Sep-Oct.Canada Plum. P. nigra. Aug.Chickasaw Plum. P. angustifolia. May-July.Low Plum. p. gracilis.Porter's Plum. P. Alleghaniensis. Aug.Watson's Plum. P. JVatsoni.Wild Goose Plum. P. hortulana. Sep"Oct.Wild Red Plum. Yellow P. P. Americana.Aug.-Oct.Ground Plum. Astragalus crassicarpus ; also A.Mfxicanus. Unripe fruit resembles green plums,and is eaten raw or cooked.Black Raspberry. Thimble-berry. Rubus occidentalis.July.Cloudberrv. R. Chamae?norus,

EDIBLE PLANTS 397Dwarf Raspberry. R. Americanus. July-Jug-Purple Wild Raspberry. R. neglectus. July-Jug,Purple-flowering Raspberry. R. odoratus. July-Sep.Salmon-berry. R. parviflorus, July-Sep.Wild Red Raspberry. R. strigosus. July-Sep.Service-berry. June-berry. Jmelanchier Canadensis.June-July.Low June-berry. J. spicata.Northwestern June-berry. J. alnifolia.Round-leaved June-berry. J. rotundifolia. Jug.Shad-bush. J. Botryapium. June-July.Silver Berry. Elaeagnus argentea. July-Aug.Creeping Snowberry. Ohiogenes hispidula. Jug.-Sep. Berries have flavor or sweet birch.American Wood Strawberry. Fragaria Jmericana.Northern Wild Strawberry. F. Canadensis.Virginia Strawberry. Scarlet S. F. Virginiana.Black Thorn. Pear Haw. Crataegus tomentosa.Oct.Large-fruited Thorn. C. punctata. Sep.-Ort.Scarlet Thorn. C. coccinea. Sep.-Oct.MAPLE SUGAR AND SIRUPAnyone who has access to maple trees in thespring of the year can make the best of sirup andsugar, without any special appliances, provided hetakes some pains to keep the sap clean and unsoured.The sap season generally begins about the middleof March and lasts until the third week in April, butvaries with a late or an early spring. Sap maybegin to flow in mid February, or may be held backuntil the first of April. It continues "good" fromthree to six weeks; that is, until the buds swell, afterwhich the sap becomes strong and "buddy." Itflows best on a warm day succeeding' a freezingnight. Trees with large crowns yield the most sap.Those standing in or near cold springs dischargethe most and sweetest sap. An average tree mayyield, in favorable aveather, about two gallons of sapin 24 hours.The Indians' and early frontiersmen's method of

398 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtapping a tree was to "box" it by cutting- a slantingnotch in the trunk, about 8 inches long, two or threefeet from the ground, and inserting an elder orsumac spout in the bark below the lower end of thenotch, from which the sap was caught in a troughor pail; or, two gashes would be cut like a broad V,and a spout was put in at the bottom. Such notchingyields a rapid flow, but spoils the tree.A better way is to bore a hole through the- outerbark and just into the sapwood (say from one totwo inches depth) on the sunny side of the tree, andinsert a spout. With wooden spouts the hole mustbe larger than when iron ones are used, but makeit no larger than necessary (certainly not over oneinch), or you will injure the tree. The hole shouldslope slightly upward.Place a bucket under each spout. It may benecessary, in a wild region, to drive stout stakesaround the buckets in such way that they cannot berobbed; for wild animals, as well as domestic ones,are inordinately fond of maple sap, which seems toexhilarate them when taken in large quantities.Collect the sap every morning^ before it can getwarm from the heat of the sun, as it sours easily.Boil it in a kettle to the consistency of honey; thendip it out, pass through woolen strainers, and allowit to stand several hours until impurities have precipitated.It is then ready for use.To make maple sugar, boil the sirup in a kettledeep enough to keep it from boiling over. Keep itsimmering over a slow fire until a heavy scum risesto the surface. Skim this off, and continue the boilinguntil, when a little of the sirup is stirred in asaucer, it grains (granulates); or until, when spreadon the snow, it candies on cooling. Then pour itoff into molds. As a rule, it takes about four gallonsof sap to make a pound of sugar, and 35 gallonsto make a gallon of sirup,but there are wide variations,according to quality of sap.Sap may be reduced to sugar by alternate freezingand thawing, the ice being throvyn away each timeit freezes.Just as good sugar and sirup are made from thered maple and from the silver (white or soft) mapleas from the sugar maple (rock maple or sugar tree),but the sap is not quite so rich in sugar, and therunning season is shorter. Since these trees budearlier than sugar maple, they should be tappedearlier. The sap of the ash-leaved maple (com-

EDIBLE PLANTS 399monly called box elder) has similar qualities; alsothat of the striped maple (moosewood, striped orswamp dogwood), but this tree seldom grows largtenough to be worth using.There is a decided maple flavor in the sap of tlieshellbark hickory. A good sirup can be concoctedby steeping a handful of the dried and crushed innerbark of this tree in hot water to a strong "tea" andadding sufficient brown sugar. An extract commerciallymade from the bark is used in making aspurious "maple sirup" out of cane or corn sirup. Itis safe to say that not one-tenth of the allegedmaple sugar and sirup now on the market is freefrom this or similar adulteration.As a backwoods expedient, sirup may be madefrom the abundant and sugary sap of the black birch(sweet birch). In times of scarcity the pods of thehoney locust have been utilized to the same end.They must be used within a month after maturity;later they become bitter.BEVERAGESNone of our native plants contain principles thatact upon the nerves like the caffein of coffee or thethein of tea; consequently all substitutes for coffeeand tea are unsatisfying, except merely as hot drinksof agreeable taste. Millions of war-bound peopleare suffering this deprivation now.In the South, during the Civil War, many pitifulexpedients were tried, such as decoctions of parchedmeal, dried sweet potatoes, wheat, chicory, cottonseed,persimmon-seed, dandelion-seed, and the seedsof the Kentucky coffee-tree. Better substitutes forcoffee were made from parched rye,from the seedsof the coffee senna (Cassia occidentalis) called"Magdad coffee," and from the parched and groundseeds of okra. Governor Brown of Georgia oncesaid that the Confederates got more satisfaction outof the goldenrod flowers than out of any othermakeshift for coffee. "Take the bloom," he directed,"dry it, and boil to an extract" (meaningtincture).Teas, so-called, of very good flavor can be madefrom the dried root-bark of sassafras, or from itsearly buds, from the bark and leaves of spicewood,

400 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfrom the leaves of chicory, ginseng, dittany, thr.sweet goldenrod {Solidago odora), and cinquefoil.Other plants used for the purpose are Labrador tea,Oswego tea, and (inferior) New Jersey tea. Ourpioneers also made decoctions of chips of the arbor-vitae(white cedar) and of sycamore, the driedIcuves of black birch, and the tips of hemlock boughs,sweetening them with maple sugar ; but here we approachthe list of medicinal teas, which is well-nighendless. The Indians made a really good "mapletea" by boiling sassafras-root bark for a short timein maple sap.Agreeable summer drinks can be made by infusingthe sour fruit of the mountain ash {PyrusAmericana)^ from sumac berries (dwarf and stag"-horn), and from the fruit of the red mulberry.The sweet sap of both hard and soft maples, boxelder, and the birches (except red birch) is potable.Small beer can be made from the sap of black birch,from the pulp of honey locust pods, the fruit ofthe persimmon, shoots and root-bark of sassafras,and the twigs of black and red spruce. Ciderhas been made from the fruit of crab-apples andservice-berries.CONDIMENTSVinegar can be made from ma2le or birch sap, orfrom fruit juices, by diluting with water and addin}?:a little yeast. The very sour berries of sumac turncider into vinegar, or they may be used alone.Our fields and forests afford many pleasant condimentsfor flavoring. Sassafras, oil of birch, wintergreen,peppermint and spearmint will occur to everyone. Balm, sweet marjoram, summer savory andtansy are sometimes found in wild places, wherethey have escaped from cultivation. The rootstockof sweet cicely has a spicy taste, with a strong odorof anise, and is edible. Sweet gale gives a pleasantflavor to soups and dressings. The seeds of tansymustard were used by the Indians in flavoring dishes.Wild garlic ("ramps"), wild onions, peppergrass,snowberry and spicewood may be used for similarpurposes.Perhaps the greatest privation that a civilized manBuflfers. next to having no meat, is to lack salt anH

EDIBLE Pl|

402 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof the substitutes is the red osier dogwood (Corntisstoloniferd) or the related silky cornel (C. sericea)commonly miscalled red willow. These shrubs arevery abundant in some parts of the North. Thedried inner bark is aromatic and very pungent, highlynarcotic, and produces in those unused to it a heavinesssometimes approaching stupefaction. Youngshoots are chosen, or such of the older branches asstill keep the thin, red outer skin. This skin isshaved off with a keen knife, and thrown away.Then the soft, brittle, green inner bark is scrapedoff with the back of the knife and put aside for use;or, if wanted immediately, it is left hanging to thestem in little frills and is crisped before the fire. Itis then rubbed between the hands into a form resemblingleaf tobacco, or is cut very fine with laknife and mixed with tobacco in the proportion oftwo of bark to one of the latter.A more highly prized kinnikinick is made fromthe leaves of the bear-berry or uva-ursi {Arctosiaphylos-uva-ttrsi), called sacaoommis by the Canadiantraders, who sell it to the northern Indians for morethan the price of the best tobacco. The leaves aregathered in the summer months, being then milderthan in winter. Inferior substitutes are the crumbleddried leaves of the smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) andthe fragrant sumac (R. aromatica), which, like tea,contain so much tannin that they generally producebronchial irritation or sore throat.

CHAPTER XXIILIVING OFF THE COUNTRY—IN EXTREMISAs I said at the beginning, the supreme test ofwoodcraft comes when the equipment has beendestroyed by some disaster. Such misfortunes arenot uncommon; if we seldom hear of them it isbecause they happen in far-away, isolated places,and the survivors are not interviewed by the press.A man gets lost and has to wander for a week,two weeks, or longer, before he meets a humanbeing. A canoe is smashed to bits in a rapid, ahundred miles from the nearest outpost, and themen get ashore with nothing but the clothes theystand m and the contents of their pockets. Andworse has happened. Robinson Crusoe had a prenticejob compared to the actual experiences ofhundreds of men and women whom fate has thrown,destitute of tools or weapons, far from the pathsand courses of civilization.The pity is that such disasters befall, in so manycases, people who have no knowledge of how tomeet them. Helplessness breeds despair. Onewoodsman, at such a time, will rustle more foodthan a company of tenderfoots. At the worst hewill find something to keep him going—somethingthat the others, though starving, would pass bywithout knowing that it could give them energy.In this sort of emergency, needless to say, thereis but one law: self-preservation. Game laws andother rules of sportsmanship are, for the time, nonexistent.The sufferer will kill anything that canbe eaten, in any way that he can get it. If all403

404 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTjxame has migrated, and fish cannot be caught, hewill eat anything that will give him strength, nomatter how unpleasant it would be at other times.A man without a gun will depend, for animalfood, chiefly upon fish and upon such game as hecan capture with snares. When one ventures intothe wilderness he knows well enough that he maymeet disaster at the most unexpected moment, andthere is no excuse for him ever being caught withouta jackknife, a waterproof box filled withmatches, a compass, a good length of stout fish-line,and some hooks. (A woodsman sleeps in histrousers, and he will not even risk bathing wherethere is danger of losing them.) If he must spendall the daylight in traveling, he can at least set outa night-line for fish and snares for rabbits or othermammals.Snaring.— It issm.allnot worth while here to describedeadfalls, pitfalls, coop traps, and the like; for ouradventurer probably has no tool to make them, noranything to bait them with. Anyway, a snare willserve just as well, takes much less time and materialto set up, and game can be caught In it withoutany bait at all.Ground snares, which catch by the feet or legs,are not to be considered, as they are likely to bebroken by the animal's frantic plunges, or may bechewed off, unless made of wire. The surest wayis to fix a noose to a spring-pole, and set it with atrigger, so as to catch the animal round the neckand jerk it up into the air where its struggles aresoon over.Just how to set a snare depends upon what kindof animal you try for. Take, for example, rabbits(I use this word generically to include cottontailsand hares of all degrees). They are the commonestof game everywhere, from far north tofarthest south, in swamps, in woodlands, on theplains, and up the mountains to tree limit. Sincethey are fond of beaten paths, and are not of asuspicious nature, they can be caught without bait;

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 405although their food is such that even a lost mancan find it if he chooses to bait his snares. Theydo not hibernate, but are out all the year round. Sothe rabbit is a lost man's main chance in the meathneȦ good snare for setting in a runway is shownin Fig. 190. It catches "coming or going." Asmall, springy sapling (A), growing a few feet to190.—Runway snareone side of the rabbit path, is trimmed, and willhe bent over for setting. If none grows in theright place, cut one and drive it firmly into a holemade with a sharpened stick, or lash it to a treeor stub. The best place for a snare is in the bendof a runway with plenty of bushes on both sides.Drive a stout stake at Cj and notch it for thetrigger D. Plant opposite it, at F, a dead branchthat forks over top of snare so the animal will rununder, but not in such a way as to entangle theloop when sprung. Now take a length of soft brassor copper wire, or a strong cord (No. i-o braidedlinen fish-line is good), twist or tie it to the endof spring-pole and around the little wooden trigger,and form the long part into a noose. Bend thepole and set the trigger, as shown, extending loopover the runway, a couple of inches off the ground.The noose may be about six inches in diameter. If

4o6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTof wire, it can be held in place by drawing it lightlyinto the cleft end of a stub, as at Ej or a splitstick stuck in the ground for that purpose. If cordis used, hold it in place with little twigs or withblades of grass bent round it and drawn back intonicks made with a knife in the stakes at each side,as at F. No bait is needed.This is also a good snare to set at the mouth ofa den or burrow.As for baited snares, there are many Ingeniousways of rigging them.^ One example will suffice.The bait itself will depend, of course, upon thekind of animal to be caught. For rabbits it maybe succulent roots or wild fruits. The 'coon, 'possum,and skunk have a varied diet: grasshoppers,crickets, beetles, grubs, mussels, fish, crayfish, frogs,snakes, lizards, birds, eggs, nuts, fruits, roots; andlots of other things. The wildcat and the lynx arelured by any kind of meat, particularly if it is bloody.If the bait is so small or so delicate that it cannot beFig.^.//^191.— Baited snaretied to the bait-stick,make for it a little panof bark fastened to thestick. All wild animalsare passionately fond ofsalt, and, if you haveany of it, a pinch of saltrubbed on the bait willmake it all the more en^ticing.The snare shown inFig. 191 is easy to rig,requires only a shortlength of wire or cord,and goes off like a hairtrigger. Its dimensions will depend on the size ofthe animal it is set for. The idea is to have theloop only large enough for the prey to stick itshead through without touching on more thanone. side, if any, and just high enough from the

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 407ground so as not to catch by a leg or foot. Thebait sets back only far enough for the noose to catcharound the throat and behind the ears—except incase of a 'coon, which always reaches in with itspaw, so the bait-stick must be set far enough backto allow for this.For rabbits, cut a limber stick about two feetlong and as thick as your thumb; sharpen bothends, bend in the middle, and drive in the ground inthe form of an arch (A), The end of the springpole,when bent over, comes just over the top ofthis arch (D). Now cut a stick (B) of lengthcorresponding to height of arch, trim one end to aslightly wedge-shaped point, and tie the bait to themiddle. A similar stick (C) is cut of such lengththat, when rigged as here shown, the bait will standat the right distance back of the arch. The figureshows how the noose is attached. If the groundis soft, set the butt of the bait-stick on a fiat stoneor chip.To make the animal stick his head in through thearch, instead of elsewhere, drive dead sticks in asemi-circle, with the arch for an entrance, leavingtwigs on them to give a natural appearance to thelittle den.Such a snare can be used with success on largeanimals, a stronger spring-pole and noose being required,of course, and the pen made larger, accordingly.Even such powerful beasts as the bearand the moose can be caught with snares of twistedrawhide or rope—but we are considering only smallgame.When setting for animals that are wilyand suspicious, use no green sticks, but sound deadones, rub dirt over the cuts, drop no chips aboutthe snare, leave the ground undisturbed, and handlethings as little as possible, for your own scent is a"give-awa3%"It is of no use to set snares or other traps exceptwhere there is recent "sign," such as tracks, droppings,twigs and bark nibbled, feathers or hair of

4o8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsinlmals eaten, and so on. You must find whereyour quarry lives, or where it often goes in searchoffood.If there is likelihood of a finely-set snare beingsprung by birds or mice, make the ends of thetrigger-sticks flat, with good bearing, and tie thebait on so firmly that it w^ll take a smart tug torelease the trigger.A very simple and effective snare for birds, aswell as for small mammals, is rigged by droppingacross a traila small evergreen or other bushy treeor runway, so that its stem is a foot or so above theground (depending upon size of animal) ; thentrim off enough under branches to leave an openingin the middle of the trail, and set a noose in it,attached to the tree. Two or three such openingsmay be made, with a noose in each. Scatter baitalong the path on both sides of the tree. An animalfinding a noose drawing about its neck willpush onward, mstead of backing out, and so chokeitself to death.If 5^ou have neither wire nor cord to make nooseswith, use any of the strong, pliable rootlets, orbark cords, mentioned in Chapter XV. After oneanimal is captured, its skin and intestines can bemade into strings or thongs for such purposes.Fishing for the Pot.—Trout, perch, pickerel,and various other fishes, may be taken with hookand line any month in the year—when they are inthe humor. In cold weather, fish the deep stillwater, through holes in the ice, if there are any.Where suckers lie motionless, in plain view, theycan be snared with a wire noose by dropping itgently in front and under one of them, and givinga jerk. Other fish sometimes may be taken in thesame way. In hot weather, if 5^ou have no tackleat all, seek a small spring-hole, close its outlet withsticks and brush, build an artificial outlet, withrocks, etc., leading to a flat; then get into thespring-hole, thrash around with a stick, poke under

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 409the ledges, and scare the fish out to where theywill be stranded, so you may catch them with yournaked hands. Some spring-holes can be made intotraps themselves by digging a deeper outlet andrunning the water off.Bait.—The commonest of all baits, earthworms,are not common in a wilderness. Generally theyare creatures of the barnyard and garden. Out inthe big woods they are too scarce to consider, exceptas accidental findings. If you chance uponan old lumber camp or saw-mill site, you may findworms in abundance by digging under piles ofchips and sawdust. Sometimes, in a damp placein the forest, you can get active little red fellows(fine bait) under overturned rocks or logs, or underthe moss on the banks of brooks. The largestworms I ever saw are found, after a warm shower,or just before nightfall, on the grassy summits of*'balds" in the Great Smoky Mountains, nearly6,000 feet above sea-level; some of them are fulltwo feet long.The best all-round bait is a lively minnow. Youmay catch minnows on a very small hook withmost of the barb filed off, or even on a bent pin,baited with a tiny bit of meat, a maggot, a grub,or a small insect. In winter, try a spring-hole,or cut through the ice close to shore.Three men working together can capture plentyof minnows in a few minutes, wherever there is asmall stream, by using what we called in the Ozarksa "brush seine." Simply get a lot of willows orother pliable brush, lay the stuff overlapping tolength desired, and twist a little until the branchletsinterlock (like a farmer twisting a hay rope).Then, with a man at each end to haul, and anotherat the middle to hold the "seine" down in thewater, drag the shallows and run the minnowsashore.On dark days, or in rough or turbid water, thebest baits are shiners, silversides (redfins), andother bright colored minnows; but they do not live

410 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTlong on the hook.In sunny weather, and for clear,still water, chubs and other tough species are preferred,being moie active and enduring. Almostany small fish will do in a pinch. Young yellowperch make excellent bait if the dorsal spine isclipped off. On the Potomac and the Susquehannarivers a favorite bass bait is what they call a madtom,which is nothing but a small yellow catfish(stone cat) with its spines cut off. To keep a tomfrom running under a rock and anchoring himselfthere, they peel a bit of skin off the back of hishead: one bump on that tender spot cures him!For bass, pickerel, and mascalonge (spell it tosuit yourself—here in the Carolina mountains thenatives call it the "jack fish"— yes, we have thereal mascalonge) don't use minnows under threeinches, if you can get better ones. A half-poundbass will get away with a five-inch minnow.When fishing with a short line and no reel, hookyour minnow through the back, instead of themouth, just behind the dorsal fin,being careful notto injure the backbone. The reason is that youhave no chance to let your bass run and turn theminnow for swallowing—you must strike quick,while he is holding it by the middle. (Now don'tget your own back up, Mr. Angler, this wholechapter is for men in extremity, and sportsmanshiphas nothing to do with it.)Frogs often are good bait in still fishing (theonly method we are considering), although mostfavored by bait casters. Use none but small ones;the big fellows are of no account except for yourown eating. The young of the common leopardfrog is best. Hook him through both lips, fromthe bottom up, but to one side, so as to miss theartery In the center of the upper jaw. Let thehook come out near one eye ; then the frog willwriggle around in trying to right himself. Keephim in motion a good deal, and bring him up nowand then for a breathing-spell, or he will drown.Young frogs are to be found from June to August

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 411along the grassy banks of creeks, muddy marginsof ponds, around springs, and wet swales. Tocapture without a net, approach stealthily untilwithin sure reach; then strike swiftly, with fingersoutspread.In May and June, tadpoles can be used withsuccess. The little red newt (often called "springlizard," although it is not a reptile but a batrachian)is greedily taken by trout and other fish. It aboundsin the woods as early as April, under stones anddecaying logs or stumps, and comes out in greatnumbers after w^arm rains.Crayfish (generally called "crawfish," by some"crabs") are found under flat stones in shallowwater. They shed their hard armor periodically,and are at their best as bait when in the "shedder"stage. In this condition they may be hookedthrough the body, avoiding the heart, which liesclose to the back just forward of where the tailjoins the body. When in the hard shell, pass thehook upward through the tail; or, if the hook istoo small to project enough in this way, pass itinto the shell and out again. Use a float on theline, so as to keep the crayfish a few inches offthe bottom, or he will cling like grim death to thefirst thing he can get hold of. Bass are very fondof crayfish at times.One of the best natural baits for bass, when thewater is clear, is that fierce-looking creature calledhellgrammite, dobson, or grampus. This is thelarva of a large winged insect,the horned corydalis.It is found under stones or other submerged objectsin shallow, swift-running water. To catchit, turn the stone over, upstream; the hellgrammitethen will curl up into a ball and float down intothe net or hat held to receive it. Seize it by thesides of the neck, to avoid its sharp pincers, and,holding your hook sidewise so the barb will behorizontal, pass the point under and close up againstthe hard "collar" on the back of the neck, frombehind forward, bringing the hook out just be-

412 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFThind the thing's head. A hellgrammite Is so toughand tenacious of life that two or more fish may becaught with one of them. Like the crayfish, itshould be kept off the bottom by a float or by movingit frequently. The mature corydalis fly canbe used as bait, after plucking off its wings, but itit much softer than the larva and does not livelong on the hook.From early spring until June, or even July, itis easy to get "stick bait" (the larva of the caddisfly) in almost any trout stream. This little whitegrub or creeper, with short black thorax and blackhead armed with nippers, makes for itself a cylindricalcase out of tiny twigs, bits of leaf, sand, etc.,stuck together with silk that it secretes, the wholebeing a good example of protective resemblance,for it looks just like a broken piece of dead twig.Caddis worms, hidden in these cases, strew the bottomof still shallows at the sides of streams, alongivith trash collected there by the eddies. Pinch offone end of the case, draw the worm out by itshead, and impale it on a small trout hook. Fishtake it very greedily.Various other aquatic larvae, such as those oistone flies, drakes, and water beetles, will be foundin spring and summer under stones and sticks, orattached to them, in shallow water with rocky orAlmost any creeper that you findgravelly bottom.in such a place isgood bait.Throughout the hot summer months the best ofall live baits for trout are certain species of grasshoppers.Some of these may be captured even aslate as October. There is a little, hard-bodied,green grasshopper, active and hard to catch, that appearsearly in the season and Is a good fish lureat that time; but the later green ones are too softand pulpy to stay on a hook, and they seldom bringa strike, anyway. Then there are the large, slowflying,dry-looking locusts that become so numerouslate in summer—they are worthless. What thefish want, and will go after, are the medium-sized

LIVING OFF THE ^Oi/XTRY 415'hoppers with darkish, well marked bodies, red oryellow under wings, and a juicy appearance. In thedog-days, when trout lie deep in the pools, sluggishand scornful of all other lures, it takes this sortof a grasshopper, kicking madly along the surface,to interest, excite, and compel your big old stageito an athletic contest.The time to catch grasshoppers is in the earlymorning, when the grass is still heavy with dew,or after a shower, or by moonlight after the deWhas fallen. They are cold and torpid then, and youcan pick up a boxful in no time. Common waysof hooking are through the upper part of the thorax,or through the "breastplate" and upward out throughthe head. Either of these will do in rippling water,though the bait dies quickly; but to provoke a lazytrout from the bottom of a still pool you mustgive your 'hopper every chance and encouragementto play the gymnast, and keep it up. This he cer^tainly cannot do if impaled through the vitals.Tie a loop of thread around his bodj^, under thewings and just ahead of the hind legs. Then runa small hook, from behind and forward, through thisloop, on the under side of the insect's body, so thatthe bend of the hook hangs straight down betweenthe legs and pointing backward. Harnessed in thisway, the grasshopper is uninjured, and he is naturallybalanced on the water. Drop him in, as farabove the pool as circumstances will permit, andletthe current carry him along while he kicks likea fury to rid himself of his incumbrance. It is alump and a sot of a trout who can stand such aperformance over his very nose.Crickets have the same "season" as grasshoppers,and are used in the same way. You will find themunder rocks and logs, or they can be captured inthe open after a shower. Bass are not so fondc{ grasshoppers and crickets as trout are; and yet,Inthe hot months, there are times when our notionalsmall-mouth will take nothing else.During the time of frost, bait may be bard to

414 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTget ; but fish have less choice then, and, correspondingly,are not so fanciful about their diet, whenthey have any appetite at all. Grubs may be foundin decaying tree trunks, down-logs and stumps,which you can kick open or knock to pieces. Manyinsects hibernate under logs and rocks, loose oldbark, rotting leaves, etc., and so do snails and lizards.A warm, thawing day will bring many ofthem out.If the wanderer has saved a bit of bacon, he hasfish bait ready at hand, flaving caught one fish,then he has bait for others by utilizing the "throatlatch" (the V of tough skin and tendon directlyunder the tongue), or a strip of white, glisteningfish belly, which he will skitter on the water toimitate the motions of a live minnow. If the skinof a small trout or perch is used, leave the belly finon.Night Liljes.—If one has enough stout lineand hooks, he can set out a trot-llne overnight,and stand good chance of fresh fish for breakfast.Methods vary, according to circumstances. Supposeyou are on the bank of a river, and have noboat. To one end of your line tie a stone aboutthe size of your fist. Three feet back of it tie onyour first snood, and add others at similar intervals—two,three, or more of them. The snoodis a bit of line, twelve to eighteen inches long, witha stout hook at the end of it. Coil the rest of theline neatly on the bank and tie Its near end to astake driven firmly Into the ground. Bait thehooks, as directed below. Now get a forked stickas long as a broom-handle, poke Itscrotch under thestone, and heave the line into the stream. In thisway there Is no danger of hooking your hand whenthrowing. The stick gives extra leverage; so don'tthrow too hard, or you will outrun your line andbreak It. If there Is slack line left, draw it In untilyou feel the tug of the stone anchor. Then drivea Umber stick In front of your stake, split its top,and draw your line through the split to keep all

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 415taut. If a fish hooks Itself while you are by, youwin know it by the jerking of the trigger stick.Then haul in and bait afresh. In this way weused to catch barrels of catfish, redhorses, buffaloes,and white suckers, w^hen I w^as a kid, out West.We would set out several trot-lines, put a ball ofmud on each trigger stick, go off skylarking, comeback, and—wherever a mud ball had tumbled offwe knew we had a fish!If minnows or crawfish or hellgrammltes are usedas bait, or If the bottom is rough, it is a good planto float the hooks of a trot-line a few Inches off thebottom. This also keeps the bait in sight of passingfish. A split cork, or a bit of light wood, aboutfour Inches back of each hook, will do the business.For bait on a set-line you can use anything thatfish will eat, and this is a broad order, since mostof your catch will be ground-feeders who are notat all fastidious. For catfish one of the best baitsis raw, red meat. Entrails and other offal of animalsyou may have snared will do very well. Softor delicate bait, such as liver, should be threaded onthe hooks, or inclosed in a bit of mosquito netting,if you should chance to have any. This hindersturtles and eels from stealing the bait.Lacking a long line, you can tie short **bushlines," here and there along the bank at likelyplaces, to limbs of projecting trees, or to poles securelyplanted In the bank. It pays to take upthe outlines several times during the night, to rebait,and to get fish or turtles that might break awayif left on too long.Frogs.—Hitherto we have considered frogs onlyas bait. Let my revered and oft-quoted mentor"Nessmuk" tell how to get them for the pan. Aman without equipment can easily extemporize allthat is needed."And when fishing is very poor, try frogging. Itis not sport of a high order, though it rnay be calledangling—and it can be made amusing, with hook andline, . . . There are several modes of takino- the

4i6CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTfestive batrachian. He Is speared with a frog-spear;caught under the chin with snatch-hooks; taken withhook and hne; or picked up from a canoe [or ashore]with the aid of a headlight, or jack-lamp. The twolatter modes are best.To take him with hook and line: a light rod, six toeight feet of line, a snell of single gut with a 1-0Sproat or O'Shaughnessy hook, and a bit of brightscarlet flannel for bait; this is the rig. To use it,paddle up behind him silently, and drop the rag justin front of his nose. He is pretty certain to take iton the instant.Knock him on the head before cuttingoff his legs. ..."By far the most effective manner of frogging isby the headlight on dark nights. To do this mostsuccessfully, one man in a light canoe, a good headlight,and a light, one-handed paddle, are the requirements.The frog is easily located, either by hiscroaking or by his peculiar shape. Paddle up tohim silently and throw the light in his eyes; you maythen pick him up as you would a potato. I haveknown a North Woods guide to pick up a five-quartpail of frogs in an hour, on a dark evening. On thetable, frogs' legs are usually conceded first place fordelicacy and flavor. . . . And, not many yearsago, an old pork-gobbling backwoodsman threw hisfrying-pan into th** river because I had cookedfrogs' legs in it. While another, equally intelligent,refused to use my frying-pan because I had cookedeels in it; remarking sententiously, 'Eels is snakes,an' I know it.*"''Small Deer."—It goes without saying thatmen traveling through a barren region cannot befastidious in their definition of "game." All's meatthat comes to a hungry man's pot. A few wordshere may not be amiss as to the edible qualities ofcertain animals that are not commonly regardedas game, but which merit an explorer's considerationfrom the start; also as to some that are notrecommended.Probably most sportsmen know that 'coon is notbad eating, especially when young, if it is properlyprepared ; but how many would think to removethe scent-glands before roasting a 'coon? Theseglands should be sought for and extracted from all

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 417animals that have them, before the meat is put inthe pot. Properly dressed, and, if necessary, parboiledin two or three waters, even muskrats, woodchucks,and fish-eating birds can be made palatable.(See Vol. I., pp. 281, 313, 316, 318.)Prairie-dog is as good as squirrel. The flesh ofthe porcupine is good, and that of the skunk isequal to roast pig. Beaver meat is very rich and•cloying, and in old animals is rank; but the boiledliver and tail are famous tid-bits wherever thebeaver is found. A man would have to be hardpressed to tackle any of the other fur-bearers asfood, excepting, of course, bear and 'possum.The flesh of all members of the cat tribe, wildcats,lynxes, and panthers, is excellent. DoctorHart Merriam declares that panther flesh is bettertlian any other kind of meat. The EnglishmanRuxton, who lived in the Far West in the time ofBridger and the Sublettes and Fitzpatrick, says:^'Throwing aside all the qualms and conscientiousscruples of a fastidious stomach, it must be confessedthat dog meat takes a high rank in the wonderfulvariety of cuisine afforded to the gsurmandand the gourmet by the prolific mountains. Now,when the bill of fare offers such tempting viandsas buffalo beef, venison, mountain mutton, turkey,grouse, wildfowl, hares, rabbits, beaver-tails, etc.,etc., the station assigned to dog as No. 2 in thelist can be w^ell appreciated—No. i, in delicacy offlavor, richness of meat, and other good qualities,being the flesh of panthers, w^hich surpasses everyother, and all put together."Lewis and Clark say of dog flesh:"The greaterpart of us have acquired a fondness for it. . . .While we subsisted on that food we were fatter,stronger, and in general enjoyed better health thanat any period since leaving the buffalo country."Again they say: "It is found to be a strong, healthydiet, preferable to lean deer or elk, and muchsuperior to horse flesh in any state." Many othertravelers and residents in the early West commended

4i8CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTdog meat; but the animals that they speak of weresuch as had been specially fattened by the Indiansfor food, and not starved and hard-worked sledgeanimals.One who was driven by starvation to eat wolf'sHesh says that it "tastes exactly as a dirty, wet dogsmells, and it Is gummy and otherwise offensive.'*But it seems that tastes differ, or, more likely, thatall wolves are not alike. Ivar Forsheim of Sverdrup'ssecond Norwegian polar expedition says:"They were two she-wolves in very much bettercondition than beasts of prey usually are, with theexception of bears. The fat really looked so whiteand good that we felt inclined to taste it, and ifwe did that, we thought we might as well try thehearts at the same time. Although most peoplewill consider this a dish more extraordinary thanappetizing, I think prejudice plays a large parthere; as, at any rate, we found the meat far betterthan we expected."I am assured by more than one white man whohas eaten them that the flesh of snakes and lizardsis as good as chicken or frogs' legs. One of myfriends, however, draws the line at the prairierattler. Once when he was on the U. S. GeologicalSurvey he came near starving In the desert,and had to swallow his scruples along with a snakediet. "Probably," he said, "a big, fat diamond rattlermight be all right, but the little prairie rattleris too sweetish for my taste; It's no comparison topuff-adder; puff-adder, my boy, Is out of sight!"This much I can swallow, by proxy; but whenDan Beard speaks approvingly of hellbenders as aside dish, I must confess that I'm like Kipling'selephant when the alligator had him by the nose:"This Is too buch for be!"Another of my acquaintances assured me thatthe prejudice against crow (real Corvus) Is notwell founded, and I found by testing that he wasin the right. The great gray owl is good roasted,despite what it may be when "blled." The flesh of

.LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 419the whippoonvill is excellent. Turtles' eggs arebetter than those of the domestic fowl (soft-shellturtles deposit their eggs on sandbars about thethird week in June)It is the testimony of gourmets who survived thesiege of Paris that cats, rats, and mice are the mostmisprized of all animals, from a culinary point ofview. "Stewed puss," says one of them, "is byfar more delicious than stewed rabbit. . . Thosewho have not tasted couscoussou of cat have nevertasted anything."Anyway, who are we, to set up standards as tothe fitness or unfitness of things to eat? Weshudder with horror at the idea of eating dog orcat, but of such a downright filthy animal as the pigwe eat ears, nose, feet, tail, and intestines. Howabout our moldy and putrid cheeses, our boiled cabbageand sauerkraut, raw Hamburgers and "high"game? The hardihood of him w^ho first swalloweda raw oyster! And if snails are good, w^hy notlocusts, dragon flies, and the like? I tell you fromexperience that when you get to picking the skippersout of your pork, and begrudge them the holes theyhave made in it, you will agree that any kind offresh, wild meat that is not carrion is clean andwholesome. Caspar Whitney, after describing hismenu of frozen raw meat in the Barren Grounds,says: "I have no doubt some of my readers will bedisgusted by this recital ; and as I sit here at my deskwriting, with, but to reach out and press a buttonfor dinner, luncheon—w^hat I w^ill—I can hardlyrealize that only a few months ago I choked anIndian until he gave up a piece of muskox intestinehe had stolen from me. One must starve to knoww^hat one w411 eat."I trust that none of my readers may be cast downby reading these somewhat lugubrious pages. Afterail, it is not so bad to learn new dishes; but thinkof the predicament of that poor weight—he was amissionary to the Eskimo, I believe—who. being cast

420 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT;adrift on an ice floe, and essaying to eat his boots,did incontinently sneeze his false teeth into themiddle of Baffin's Bay!IN EXTREMIS.—The Far North isFamineLand, the world over, and to it we must look forexamples of what men can subsist on when drivento the last extremity.In all northern countries, within the tree limit, itis customary, in starving times, to mix with thescanty hoard of flour the ground bark of trees. Itis possible to support life even with bark alone. TheJesuit missionary Nicollet reported, more than twocenturies ago, that an acquaintance of his, a FrenchIndian-agent, lived seven weeks on bark alone, andthe Relations of the order, in Canada, contain manyinstances of a like expedient. Those were hardtimes in New France! Such an experience as thiswas dismissed with a single sentence, quite as amatter of course: ''An eelskin was deemed a sumptuoussupper; I had used one for mending a robe,but hunger obliged me to unstitch and eat it."Another brother says: "The bark of the oak, birch,linden, and that of other trees, when well cookedand pounded, and then put into the water in whichfish had been boiled, or else mixed with fish-oil,made some excellent stews." Again: "they [theIndians] dried by a fire the bark of green oak, thenthey pounded it and made it into a porridge." Itseems that the human stomach can stand a lot oftannin, if it has to do so.The young shoots of spruce and tamarack, theinner bark (in spring) of pine, spruce, and hemlock,young leaf-stems of beech, hickory and other trees,the buds of poplar, maple and wild rose, and theyoung leaves and flowers of basswood are nutritiousbut these can be had only, of course, in spring. Farbetter than oak bark are the inner barks of alder,quaking aspen, basswood, birch, sweet bay, cottonwood,slippery elm (this especiall}'^ is nutritious),

LIVING OFF THE COUNTRY 421white elm, pignut hickory, yellow locust, stripedmaple, poplar, and sassafras. The Chippewas boilthe thick, sweetish bark of the shrubby bittersweetor staff-tree {Celastrus sea ndens) and use it forfood. Young saplings of white cedar have a sweetpith of pleasant flavor which the Ojibways used inmaking soup.The following entry In the diary of Sir JohnFranklin sounds naive, when stripped of its context,but there is a world of grim pathos back of it:''There was no tripe de rochej so we drank tea andate some of our shoes for supper."The rock tripehere referred to (Umbilicaria ai-ctica or Dillenii) Isone of several edible lichens that grow on rocks andare extensively used as human food in lands beyondthe arctic tree limit. Reindeer moss {Cladoniarangiferina) and the* well-known Iceland moss{Cetraris Icelandica) are other examples. Theseare starchy, and, after being boiled for two or threehours, form a gelatinous mass that Is digestible,though repulsive In appearance, one of the earlyJesuits likening it to the slime of snails, and anotheradmitting that "it is necessary to close one's eyes toeatIt."

CHAPTER XXIIIACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES : THEIRBACKWOODS TREATMENTThe present chapter isboiled down for the use ofmen of little or no surgical experience, who maysuddenly find themselves wounded, or with an injuredcompanion on their hands, when far awayfrom any physician.In operating upon a comrade, the main things areto keep cool, act promptly, and make him feel thatyou have no doubt that you can pull him throughall right. Place him in a comfortable position, andexpose the wound. If you cannot otherwise removethe clothing quickly and without hurting him, rip itup the seam. First stop the bleeding, if there isany; then cleanse the wound of dirt (but do notwash it) ; then close it, if a cut or torn wound;then apply a sterilized dressing; then bandage it inplace. Of course, if the injury is serious, you willimmediately send a messenger hot-foot for a surgeon,provided there is any chance of getting one.As for the patient himself, let him never say die.Pluck has carried many a man triumphantly throughwhat seemed the forlornest hope. Let me take spacefor an example or two.Kit Carson once helped to amputate a comrade'slimb when the only instruments available were arazor, a handsaw, and the kingbolt of a wagon.Not a man in the party knew how to take up anartery. Fine teeth were filed in the back of thesaw, the iron was made white-hot, the arm wasremoved, the stump seared so as to close the blood-422

vessels,ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 423and—the patient recovered.Charles F. Lummis, having fractured his rightarm so badly that the bone protruded, and beingalone in the desert, gave his canteen strap two flatturns about the wrist, buckled it around a cedartree, mounted a nearby rock, set his heels upon theedge, and threw himself backward. He fainted ;but the bone was set. Then, having rigged splintsto the injured member with his left hand and teeth,he walked fifty-two miles without resting, beforehe could get food, and finished the 700-mile trampto Los Angeles with the broken arm slung in abandanna.Richardson tells of a Montana trapper who, havinghis leg shattered in an Indian fight,and findingthat gangrene was setting in, whetted one edge ofhis big hunting knife, filed the other into a saw, andwith his own hands cut the flesh, sawed the bone,and seared the arteries with a hot iron. He survived.First-aid Materials.—Many of the operationshereinafter described can be performed with extemporizedmaterials; but antiseptics and sterilizeddressings, ready at all times for instant use, are soessential in the treatment of wounds and other injuries,that every wise traveler will carry on hisperson some sort of first-aid packet. Even if thisbenothing more than one of the Red Cross dressingsfor small wounds and a few antiseptic tablets,sealed up in a waterproof and greaseproof envelope,which weighs practically nothing and takes up hardlyany room, it may make all the difference bet\veena quick cure and long suffering or death from bloodpoisoning.The pocket emergency case that Imentioned on page 103,along with a soldier's firstaidpacket for major injuries, are sufficient to giveemergency treatment in any case, yet the two togetherweigh less than half a pound and can bfcarried in a coat Docket.

424 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTDj'essings.—Roller bandages are not recommended,save to men already trained to use themproperly. Anybody, on the other hand, can applythe small ready-to-use Red Cross dressings, andadhesive plaster for strapping them on where theycannot be tied. For large wounds, the triangularbandage in a soldier's packet is easy for anyone touse, as there are cuts and directions printed on itshowing how to apply it to any part of the person.A roll of adhesive plaster (zinc oxide plaster) isalmost indispensable; but never apply it directly toa wound—first cover the hurt with a sterilized pad.Court plaster, although the commonest of first-aiddressings, is the poorest. It is likely to be surgicallyunclean, and has no antiseptic properties, but, on thecontrary, it seals up the wound so as to confinewhatever germs may have invaded it—the veryworst thing it could do, for it defeats Nature in hereffort to get rid of the poison by suppuration. Flexiblecollodion ("new skin") is likely to do the samething, unless the cut or abrasion is first sterilizedwith a strong antiseptic.Never turn a compress (or other dressing) overand use the other side; it is infected.Antiseptics.—Such dressings, however, are notenough in themselves to cleanse wounds and keepthem free from infection. A supply of some goodantiseptic is indispensable in the kit. Those commonlyused in domestic practice are either bulkyliquids, impracticable on a "go-light" trip, or ineffectivepowders, like boric acid, that are only soothing,not really germicidal.Mercury bichloride (corrosive sublimate) is apowerful agent, but it is so corrosive that it doesnot make fit solutions in metal vessels, which areall that a woodsman or explorer has. Besides, itis a deadly poison. Carbolic acid in solution is toobulky, and the full-strength liquid is mean to carryon a rough trip.

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 425Hitherto I have recommended Iodine; but abottle of it will make a sad mess of things if it leaksor breaks; an ampule in the pocket case serves forbut one treatment, and, being in a wooden tube, isbulk}^ in proportion. Iodine is poisonous, corrosive,painful In use, and impossible on delicate tissues.It has the further disadvantage that it clots bloodserum, and so cannot penetrate a punctured woundunless the hole is slit open with a knife.Thanks to the discoveries of Dr. Carrel, withcalcium hj^pochlorite, In the military hospitals ofFrance, and of Dr. Dakin, who has produced achlorine-carrier that does not deteriorate, we nowhave what seems to be the ideal antiseptic. I amat present using Dakin's antiseptic, as made hereunder the trade name of chlorazene. It Is put upin tablet form. Chlorazene is neither poisonous norcorrosive In any marked degree. It can be employed,in proper solution, anywhere, even In the eye, aswell as for sterilizing Instruments and the hands ofthe operator. Yet It Is one of the most powerfulof all known antiseptics.Stimulants.—In many accidents a stimulant isrequired. Don't carry whiskey—If you don't drinkit up yourself the first time you feel bad, then someonew^Ill surely steal It. For the camp medical kit,get a bottle of pure grain alcohol. Put a fakea death's-— label on It "Antiseptic—Poison"—^wlthhead that even a savage w^Ill understand. For Internaluse, give a teaspoonful of it In three timesthe quantity of water. For dressing wounds, orgiving an alcohol rub, use three parts alcohol totwo of water; for a sprain, half-and-half.Another good and quickly diffusible stimulant Isaromatic spirits of ammonia, one teaspoonful in halfa glass of water. It Is useful for various otherpurposes that will be mentioned later.No liquid can well be carried In a pocket emergencycase ; but there Is room for a few strychnine

426 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTsulphate tablets to be used as a heart tonic andnerve bracer in case of snake bite, shock, exhaustion,alcoholism, or as may otherwise be needed.The dose is 1-30 grain hypodermically or 1-20 grainby mouth.Emetics.—To treat poisoning, and some otherailments, an emetic is required. A tablespoonful ofsalt,or of dry mustard, in half a pint of lukewarmwater, will serve the purpose. Repeat if necessary.Liniments and Lotions.—Most of the "patent"liniments are humbugs, considering the claims madefor them. Treatment with heat or cold, as thecase may be, is far more curative, nine times out often, and an alcohol rub will take good care of theother tenth.An excellent astringent lotion for sprains andbruises can be prepared by dissolving in water oneor more tablets of lead acetate and opium, whichare small enough for the emergency kit.Wherever witch hazel grows, one can make hisown decoction (strong "tea") of the bark; it is alsogood as a poultice. The inner bark of kinnikinick,otherwise known as red willow or silky cornel,makes a good astringent poultice for sprains andbruises.Ointments.—^These seldom aregood applicationsfor wounds. Grease attracts and holds dirt; dirtbreeds infection. But there is proper use for somezinc ointment, resinol, unguentine, or carbolizedvaseline, in cases of skin affections, sunburn, ivypoisoning, erysipelas, blistered feet, and so on.Extemporized Dressings.—In case no regularantiseptic is at hand, there are pretty good wounddressings to be found in the woods. Balsam obtainedby pricking the littleblisters on the bark ofbalsam firs is one of them. Others are the honeylikegum of the liquidambar or sweet gum tree, rawturpentine from any pine tree, and the resin procuredby boxing (gashing) a cypress or hemlock

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 427tree, or by boiling a knot of the wood and skimmingofi the surface. All of these resins are antiseptic,and the first two are soothing.Poultices may be needed to relieve the tension ofan Inflamed part and to hasten suppuration ("drawthe pus to a head"). They have no other curativeeffect than hot-water compresses, but act more efficientlybecause they hold the heat better and do notrequire so frequent renewal. A poultice is easilymade from cornmeal or oatmeal (flaxseed is notsupposed to be in the kit). Mix by stirring a littleat a time into boiling water, making a thick pastefree from lumps ;then spread on cloth to a thicknessof 3^-Inch, leaving a i^-lnch margin all aroundfor folding In. The poultice should be madethoroughly antiseptic by dissolving tablets in thewater. To prevent It from sticking, grease thepart or smear It wnth oil. Then put on the poulticeand, If convenient, cover w^Ith a waterproof material.Remember that a cold poultice does no good whatever,and that an old one should not be reheatedmake a new one. Renew a large poultice evervfour or five hours, a small one every one or twohours.The w^oods themselves afford—plenty of materialsfor good poultices. Chief of these Is slippery elm,the mucilaginous inner bark of w^hich, boiled Inwater and kneaded Into a poultice. Is soothing toinflammation and softens the tissues. Good poulticescan also be made from the soft rind of tamarack,the root bark of basswood or cottonwood,and many other trees or plants. None of theseshould be spread more than l4~i"ch thick. Ourfrontiersmen, like the Indians, often treated woundsby merely applying the chewed fresh leaves of alder,striped maple (moosewoody, or sassafras. You mayremember Leatherstocking (he was "Hawkeye"then) advising a wounded companion that "a littlebruised alder w^ill work like a charm." Saliva carriesr.erms: so don't chew but bruise the leaves.

428 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT\ poultice of the leaves of the common plantainweed is a first-rate application for burns, scalds,bruises, erysipelas, and ivy poisoning. The powderedleaf applied as a paste, or simply the dry leafpowdered, stops bleeding in a short time.Mustard plasters are used as counter-irritants.A strong one is made of equal parts of dry mustardand flour; for gentler effect use less mustard in proportion.Make into a paste with lukewarn, water,and spread between layers of thin cloth. Leave iton 15 to 20 minutes, or until the skin is wellreddened.Heat and Cold.—Direct application of heat isone of the prime resources of first-aid. A canteenwill do instead of a hot-water bag, or a hot stonemay be rolled in blanketing or other thick cloth ; buta better expedient, because it shapes itself to whateverpart it is applied to, is a bag partly filled withhot sand, salt, rice, or the like. The stuff may beheated quickly in a frying-pan. If the patient isunconscious, you must be careful not to burn him.Observe his skin, frequently, and feel the cover ofthe hot article, which should not rise above 115 deg.To produce the most effect, heat should be appliedbetween the thighs, between the arms and the body,and to the soles of the feet. Cloths wrung out inhot water, then inclosed in dry ones, are the bestmeans to reduce swelling after an injury.Cold is used also to reduce swelling, as well asto stimulate breathing, and to reduce temperaturein sunstroke. Of course, ice cannot be obtainedin the wilderness, save in winter, but, ifthe affectedpart cannot be soaked in a running stream, thencloths may be wrung out in water from a spring orcold brook, or an arrangement can be rigged to dischargea continuous stream of it upon the patient.Unconsciousness.— If you should find a personlying in a stupor or quite unconscious, seek thecause, before treating him, or you may do more

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 429harm than good. If it be a case of drowning orfreezing, you will know at once. Sunstroke ismarked by a hot, dry skin. Bleeding, bruises, andswelling speak for themselves. If, however, thereare none of these symptoms, examine the patientwith care.Observe, first, w^hether the face is pale or flushed.If pale, and the pupils of the eyes are natural, it isa simple case of fainting; if the pupils are dilated,the face pale, with cold sweat, the pulse weak andquick, probably there has been concussion of thebrain.On the other hand, a flushed and turgid face,respiration snoring, a slow and full pulse, are symptomscommon to apoplexy, drunkenness, and opiumpoisoning. It is very important to distinguish betweenthese. Odor of liquor in the breath is notconclusive ; for a person struck down by apoplexymay have been drinking. A drunken man may havefallen and suffered concussion of the brain, thuscomplicating the case.In apoplexy due to hemorrhage in the brain, oneside of the patient generally is paralyzed. He cannotbe aroused, even with ammonia to the nose.His eyeballs are not sensitive to touch. A mandrunk or "doped" generally can be aroused for amoment by dashing cold water in his face. A bottleof liquor, laudanum, or morphine, is likely to befound on or near him. In alcoholic poisoning thepupils are dilated and equal; in opium poisoning,they are extremely contracted.Drowning.—Clean any mud or water from themouth with a handkerchief on the finger, loosen alltight clothing, and expose the chest and waist. Slipyour hands under the man's waist and lift him highenough for his head to hang down and drain thewater out of him. Give two or three quick, smartingslaps on his naked chest with the open hand.If this fails to restore breathing, then start at once

;430 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTto perform artificial respiration. The best wayfor an inexperienced person, or for one who has towork alone, is what is called the ''prone-pressuremethod," as follows:Turn the patient face downward on the ground,arms extended above the head, face to one side. Ifhis tongue does not fall forward, grasp it with ahandkerchief and pull it out, so that air may enter.Kneel astride of him, and grasp him firmly onboth sides of the chest, just above lower margin ofribs. Press steadily and heavily downward andforward, for three seconds^ to expel the air from thelungs. Then, gradually (two seconds) release thepressure. The elasticity of the chest makes it expandand draw air into the lungs. Repeat this operationwith a regular rhythm of 12 to 15 to theminute. You will conserve your own strength byswinging your body forward and backward so asto let your weight fall vertically upon the wristsand then be released.While you are doing this, if there is an assistant,have him remove the patient's wet clothing, dry himwithout rubbing, and cover him with a dry blanketor articles of clothing; but do not let this interruptyour own work for a singje moment. Do not rubnor apply heat to restore circulation until naturalbreathing has been established ; to do so might befatal.Continue this treatment until the subject showssigns of life ; then, with more gentle pressure, untilthe breath comes naturally. There must be no letup. Two or more helpers can work in relays,changing about without losing the "stroke." Inmost cases the patient revives within thirty minutesbut it may take an hour or two of continuous workto restore life. Do not be discouraged.As soon as natural breathing has been restored,rub the person's limbs and body with firm pressuretoward the heart, to bring back circulation. Now

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 431wrap him in warm blankets and apply hot stonesor other dry heat, as described early in this chapter.When he can swallow, give him hot stimulants, alittle at a time. Then let him sleep.Rescue of the Drowning.—In case you mustswim for the drowning person, then, if possible atthe moment, take with you a float of some sort forhim to cling to. It takes only a small buoyantobject to support a man's head above water. Castoff at least your shoes before striking out.When you get near,shout cheerily that you willget him out all right if he does not struggle. Buta drowning person is likely to get frantic, as soonas water enters his lungs, and grasp desperately ata rescuer. So be cool and w^arj^ You must manoeuvrefor position, lest he drown you both. If hesinks once or twice, little harm will be done—it mayeven be for the best. The first two sinkings arevery slow, and he does not go down deep.Get at him from behindj if possible. If he turnson you and tries to seize you, reach your left armforward and push him away with your handagainst his lower jaw. He may succeed in grippingyour arm: in that case, turn so as to get your footunder his chest, and push him away with a powerfulkick. If he should be strong enough, however, tohold you in a grip that you cannot loosen, then takea good breath and sink with him. You can standit longer than he can; his hold will relax beforeyour own- air gives out. The "death grip" thatnever loosens is common in fiction, but rarely, ifever, in fact. In the unlikely event that he shouldhold out longer than you consider safe, strike himin the face and break loose. This sounds brutal,but itmay be the only way to save him, and yourself,too.If the person is tractable, or has w^eakened untilno longer dangerous, get him by the hair,or by aninside hold on the collar, and. swimming ahead ai

432 CAMPIlNCi AND WOODCRAFThim on your back or side, tow him out. If he isnaked and short-haired, then, if he is not insanelystruggling, he can be rescued by approaching frombehind, rolling him suddenly on his back, turningon your own back, partly under him, and drawinghis head up on j^our chest. A child or woman, eventhough struggling, may be managed in this way ifyou seize one of the wrists and pull it behind theperson's head. Then swim out on your back.When a drowning man has sunk to the bottom,in smooth water, his exact position is shown by aiibubbles that occasionally arise.If some one has broken through the ice, and thenis no plank nor rope to be had, lie down fiat on yourbelly and crawl out near enough to reach him astick or toss one end of your coat to him. Thenback out, still lying flat, so as to distribute youiweight over as much surface as possible, and puUwhile he helps himself as well as he can.Cramp while Swimmhig.—This may resultfrom going into the water too soon after eating, orwhen overheated, or from staying in so long as tobecome chilled. It Is not serious for a swimmerwho keeps his wits, but if he gets frightened it maycost his life. Turn on your back and keep yourchest inflated.Float, and swim with the unaffectedlimbs. Even If you be far from shore, the crampedmember may soon relax if you keep cool.Suffocation.—If a person has suffocated frominhaling gas or smoke, or from cbokfng or hanging,get him Into the fresh air a? quid'ly as possible,loosen his clothing, sprinkle cold w^ter on face andbare chest, and, It he still fails to breathe, performartificial respiration as for drowning. Then applyheat and give astimulant.Fainting.—If attacked with vertigo, b(^i?d yourhead down so It Is between the knees, to h'^lo theblood into It ; do not keep this up If not 7)rompt'veffective. Cold air, and sprmkling with cold water,often prevents fainting;

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 433If one has fainted, take him into the fresh airand lay him on his back, with feet higher than head(unless the face is flushed or blue). Loosen theclothing. Spatter the face and chest with coldwater. Rub limbs toward the heart. Apply ammoniato the nose. When consciousness has returned,give a stimulant, or put the patient to bedand apply heat.Never raise a fainting person to a sitting posture.Shock.—In case of collapse following an accident,operation, or fright: treat firstas for fainting.Then w^rap the person in blankets, apply heat, andrub his limbs toward the body, keeping him w^ell^rrapped up the while. If he is conscious, and notbleeding externally or internally, give him hot teaor coffee, or just one good drink of liquor, or ammonia.But if the shock is from an injury andto checkattended by bleeding, the first thing to do isthe flow of blood.Stunning (Concussion of the Brain).—Lay theman on his back with head somewhat raised. Hotwater poured on hishead will help to arouse him.Apply heat as for shock, but keep the head coolwith cold wet cloths. Rub his limbs. Ammoniamay be held under the nose, but do not give anystimulant: that would drive the blood to the brain^where it is not wanted. Keep the patient quiet.Light diet and laxatives.Lightning Stroke.—If the heart has stopped,the case is fatal. If not, but breathing is suspended,practice artificial respiration for at least half anhour, and other treatment as for drowning. Electricburns are treated like any other.Sunstroke.—Observe the difference betweenthis and heat exhaustion (see below). In sunstrokeproper the face is red, the skin very hot and dry,and the subject is quite unconscious. Lay him ina cool place ;position same as for stunning. Removeas much of his clothing as practicable. Hold a vesselor hatful of cold water four or five feet above

434 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFThim, and pour a stream first on his head, then onhis body, and last on his extremities. Continueuntil consciousness returns.If this cannot be done,then rub cold cloths over face, neck, chest, andarmpits. Hold ammonia under the nose. Whenthe patient becomes conscious, let him drink coldwater freely, but no stimulants.Heat Exhaustion.—Generally the person isconscious, but very depressed and weak. His faceis pale and covered with clammy sweat. Do notapply cold externally, but let him sip cold water.Give a little strong black coffee, or a mild stimulant.Let him rest in bed.Apoplexy.—^When a blood-vessel bursts in thebrain, the subject falls unconscious. The face isflushed, lips blue, eyelids half open, eyes insensitiveto touch, respirations snoring, pulse full and slow,skin usually cool. Generally one side of the bodyis parah/zed. The case may or may not be fatal.Lay the patient In bed with head and shoulderspropped up. Apply cold cloths to the head and heattc the limbs. No stimulants. Absolute quiet andrest.Alcoholism.—If you find a man lying apparentlydead drunk, make sure, first, that It Is not acase of apoplexy.Usually a dash of cold water in the face willrouse a drunken man. Make him vomit. Then acup of hot coffee will aid to settle the stomach andclear the mind. To sober quickly, and brace himup, administer a teaspoonful of aromatic spirits ofammonia in half a cup of water.If the skin Is cold and clammy, lay him in acomfortable position, apply dry heat, keep the mancovered, and rub his limbs toward the body to Increasecirculation. Keep the bowels open. Feedfirst with concentrated broth or soup well seasonedwith red pepper. Give him some liquor at judiciousIntervals, If it can be procured (to deny It Is

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 433a brutality of ignorance) until he gets on his feet.But if there is none, give him red pepper tea (enoughcayenne steeped in hot water to make the stomachtingle). This braces his nerves and helps to avert"the horrors."If threatened with collapse, apply heat, and injectstrychnine.In delirium tremens, watch the patient carefully,that he may not injure himself or others, or commitsuicide; but avoid physical restraint as far as possible.The serious sj'mptoms are due chiefly tosleeplessness, which is to be combatted with suchmeans as you have at hand. Try trional, veronal,or a bromide, if you can get them. An opiate is thelast resort. If the heart w^eakens, give ammonia orstrychnine.Fit or Convulsion.—Kneel by the patient's headplace one arm under it, and undo collar and belt.Insert in the mouth something that he cannot swallow,such as a stick, or a pocket-knife wrapped inhandkerchief, to prevent the tongue from being bitten.Get him away from anything against whichhe might strike and injure himself, but do not tryto open his hands or restrain his movements. Whenthe attack has passed, do not rouse, but let himsleep, with warmth to the feet.Hysteria.—Do nothing. Appear quite indifferent.A show of sympathy will only make mattersworse.Ptomaine Poisoning.—The exciting cause iseating certain varieties of food that have partly putrefied,such as meat, sausage, fish, shellfish, cheese, andespecially, in the case of campers, canned meats, etc.,that have spoiled.It isdistinguished from cholera morbus by markednervous symptoms (t\vitching of facial muscles,tingling sensations, dilated pupils, breathlessness,dizziness, perhaps convulsions) and usually a lowtemperature.

436 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTCause repeated vomiting by giving three or fourglasses of warm water, each containing salt or mustard.Then give stimulants to support the heartand nerve force. Put the victim to bed, with headlow, and apply dry heat. If a syringe can be procured,empty the lower bowel with an injection ofsoapsuds and water. After a thorough cleaning out,give an intestinal antiseptic.Poisoning from Mushrooms (or from unknownplants)—Treat as for ptomaine poisoning. Incase of mushroom poisoning, if the patient can swallow,get some charcoal from the camp-fire, powderand administer it. This may absorb much of the poison.Castor oil is the best purgative, to be followedby a soapsuds enema. Atropine by injection, if youhave it; otherwise, unless you can get a physicianwithin two or three hours, the chance of recovery isslight; but do your best.Snake Bite.—The only dangerous snakes in theUnited States are the rattlesnake, the copperhead,and the cottonmouth moccasin. The small coralsnake (harlequin, bead snake) of the Gulf states,and the Sonoran coral snake of New Mexico andArizona, are somewhat venomous, but their bite isnot fatal to a healthy adult. The Gila monster ofthe Southwest is a dangerous lizard—the only onethat is venomous—but can scarcely be provoked tobite.All other snakes and lizards of our country andCanada are harmless—their bite is no more to befeared than that of a mouse. The notion that thebite of our so-called ''puff-adder, " "spreading adder,"''blowing viper," must be dangerous, because thesnake puff's up its neck and hisses like a goose, or thatthe common watersnake is a moccasin and consequentlyvenomous, is all moonshine, like the storyof the hoop-snake and the snake with a poisonoussting in its tail.However, that other notion that a rattlesnake'sbite is not a serious matter is moonshine, too. Men

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 437who know nothing about other rattlers than thelittle prairie rattlesnake are not competent to expressan opinion on the subject.A bite from any venomous snake is dangerous, inproportion to the size of the snake, and to the amountof venom that enters the circulation. A bite thatdoes not pierce an important blood vessel is seldomfatal, even if no treatment is given, unless the snakebe quite large.The rattlesnake, copperhead, and cottonmouth areeasily distinguished from all other snakes, as allnostrilFig. 192.—Head of rattlesnake (after Stejneger)three of them bear a peculiar mark, or rather a pairof marks, that no other animal possesses.The markis the pit, which is a deep cavity on each side of theface between the nostril and the eye, sinking intothe upper jawbone. Its position is shown in theaccompanying cut (Fig. 192). All of them have anupright elliptical,instead of round, pupil in the eye.All venomous snakes have fangs, and no harmlessones have them. The fangs are in the upper jawonly. In the coral snakes they are permanentlyerect, but in the other venomous snakes here namedthey lie flat against the roof of the mouth, when notin use, pointing backward, and are erected by thereptile in striking. They are long, slender, sharplypointed, perforated like a hypodermic needle, andconnected by a duct with the venom glands which liebehind the e^-es. Auxiliary fangs lie in a sac underneaththe regular fang on each side, and, in case

438 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT—the latter is broken ofi or extracted, a new fang willbe ready for business within a few days.Here are a few characteristics of the pit vipers,as our three deadly snakes collectively are called:1. Copperhead (also called deaf adder, uplandmoccasin, pilot snake, chunk head).—A small snake,2 to 3 feet long, with moderately thick body, broadand triangular head quite distinct from the neck,tail short, dark colored, and pointed. Color ofback, a bronze hazel or light reddish brown ; with 15to 20 darker bands, which are narrow on the backand expand to wide blotches on the flanks, the shapeoeing somewhat like that of a dumb-bell with veryshort handle. Head, a bright copper-red, with twosmall dark-brown spots close together on the foreheadat upper part of head-shield, and with a creamcoloredband around the mouth.The copperhead inhabits the mountainous and hillyregions from Massachusetts southward to the Gulf,and westward (south of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa,and Nebraska) to Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.Its venom is as deadly as that of the rattlesnake,but it is not secreted in as large quantity as that ofthe larger rattlers; consequently the wound is notlikely to be so serious. Still, the copperhead is aparticularly dangerous creature, because it gives nawarning of its presence, nor, according to my observation,does it try to get out of the way, but holdsits ground and springs at any intruder.Only one species.2. Cottonmouth moccasin (water moccasin).A larger snake, ordinarily about 3 ft., sometimes4 ft. long. Stout body, head shaped like that ofthe copperhead and similarly distinct from the neck.Back brown, reddish, or olive, with 11 to 15 ratherinconspicuous bars, or pairs of bars, of dark brown,'with light centers on each flank. Tail short, pointed,and dark brown or banded. Belly brownish-yellowmottled with dark blotches.

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 439Habitat, North Carolina southward to the Gulf,westward through Kentucky, southern Illinois, andMissouri, to Oklahoma and eastern Texas.Not so poisonous as the larger kinds of rattlesnakes,but still dangerous to human life. Quitenumerous in the southern states. More aggressivethan the rattlesnake, striking at everything withinreach; but usually rather deliberateabout striking,first opening its mouth widely for some seconds, asif to intimidate, and showing the white interior(hence the name "cottonmouth"). Usually foundnear water, and often on low limbs overhanging thewater.Only one species. The other so-called "moccasins"are either the copperhead or harmless snakes.3. Rattlesnake.—Of rattlers we have no less thansixteen species, but only two of them, the massasaugaand the banded or timber rattlesnake, are found inthe eastern and central states. The little prairierattlesnake, which is not very dangerous, is abundanton the plains west of the Missouri River. Thegreat diamond rattlesnake of the South, which sometimesgrows to a length of nearly nine feet, is themost formidable member of this group. The smallground rattlesnake of the southern states is aggressive,and gives only a faint warning, and on this accountis more dreaded by the negroes than the largerspecies; but its bite is seldom fatal to grown people.The other species are confined to the Southwest andthe Pacific coast.Rattlesnakes are easily identified by their rattles.These generally last only long enough to become 8or 10 jointed. Rattles with as many as 15 to 18joints are quite rare. The number of rattles doeslot indicate the snake's age.Their office is not clearlyunderstand. Doctor Stejneger says: "They are asubstitute for a voice."When a rattlesnake sees a man approaching, itgenerally lies quiet to escape observation, so long as

440 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTIt thinks itself concealed. It seldom strikes unlessprovoked. If alarmed when it is wide-awake, itnearly always springs its rattle before striking, thesound being very similar to that made by our common"locust" or cicada. If the reptile Is trodden onwhen asleep, it strikes like lightning, and does itsrattling afterward. Unfortunately for us, the poisonoussnakes do their sleeping in the day time andhunt at night. They are prone to seek the warmthof bed-clothes, and sometimes will coil up alongsideof a sleeping man. Mosquito netting is an effectivebar against snakes. Snakes despise musk, tobacco,and turpentine.A snake is not obliged to coil before striking, butcan strike from any position ; it will coil first, however,unless attacked very suddenly or taken at adisadvantage. A snake does not intentionallythrow its venom ; but, if it misses its mark, the actof hissing may throw the poison several feet. Theblow is delivered with lightning rapidity, and thefangs are instantly sunk into the victim. No snakecan leap entirely from the ground, nor can it strikemore than two-thirds Its own length, unless it bartheadvantage of striking downhill or from somtpurchase on a rock or bush. A snake does not expendall its venom at one blow. It is not renderedpermanently harmless by extracting its fangs, forauxiliary ones,in a sac inin various stages of development, liethe roof of the mouth, and the foremostof these soon will emerge and be ready for business.The venoms of different species of snakes differ incomposition and in action. That of the cobra, forexample, attacks the nerve centers of the cerebrospinalsj'stem, causing paralysis that extends to thelungs and finally to the heart, but the local symptomsare not very severe. In marked contrast arethe effects of rattlesnake bite, which spread veryrapidly through the sj^stem, making the blood thin^nd destroying its power to clot. The wound ic

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 441speedily discolored and swollen. Within about fifteenminutes, if no cautery or ligature or serum injectionhas been applied, the victim becomes dull andlanguid, breathing with difficulty. The venom firstenfeebles the heart, then the lungs. Great swellingand discoloration extend up the limbs and trunic.The temperature rises, the victim staggers, becomesprostrated, is attacked with cold sweats and vomiting,may swoon repeatedly, and death may ensuew^ithin ten or twelve hours. If an important bloodvessel has been pierced by a fang and considerablevenom injected, the victim may die within twentyminutes.Rattlesnake poison has a tendency to rot the bloodvessels,and may cause a general seepage of bloodthroughout the system. In some cases a whole limbis soaked to the bone with decomposed blood. Frequentlythere is suppuration, and gangrene may setin, from which a patient who had recovered fromthe constitutional symptoms may die a week or moreafter the injury was received.Much depends upon the part struck, and the quantityof venom injected. Often it happens that onlyone fang penetrates, or only the surface of the skinmay be scratched. Bites on the bare skin are moredangerous than those received through the clothing.In a large majority of cases the wound does nottouch a blood-vessel directly, and the patient willrecover with no other treatment than a ligaturepromptly applied, and a free cutting and kneadingof the wound to expel as much as possible of thepoison before it has had time to enter the circulation.Such measures, however, must be taken at once, asabsorption works quickly.Remedies.—The only positive antidote for snakepoison, after it has entered the circulation, is antivenomserum. This is prepared by injecting intoa horse or mule a fractional dose of the venom of asnake, or a mixture of those of different species

442 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTWhen the animal recovers from the effects of thispreliminary dose, a slightly larger one is injected,and so on, every two or three weeks, for a year ortwo. Finally the serum of the animal's blood hasdeveloped an anti-toxin that makes him immune tosnake venom. Some of his blood is then withdrawn,and the serum is separated, sterilized, and put upeither in liquid or dried form in sealed tubes. Thesemust Ix kept in a cool, dark place, to preserve theserum from deteriorating. A large hypodermicsyringe is used to inject the serum into a patient.This treatment will cure the gravest cases of snakebite, if employed before the victim has collapsed.As it is not toxic, it is safe for even inexperiencedpeople to use.As I have said, there are marked differences Inthe nature and effects of venoms, according to thespecies of snake. Cobra venom, from which theChalmette serum is principally derived, whileeffective in treating such bites as would be receivedin India, is not so sure a remedy Inour country as an anti-venom developed by usingthe poison of rattlesnakes or other species of theCrotalidae. To cure bites Inflicted by the deadlysnakes of South Africa, Fitzslmons employs a mixtureof venoms from various species In that regionwith which to Immunize horses and develop a remedialserum. In South America, Dr. Vital Brazil, ofthe Institute of Serum-Therapy of Sao Paulo hasmade several types of serums that are specific forbites of the rattlesnake, the lance-head snake, thecoral snakes, respectively, and one compounded fromthree venoms, to be used when the Identity of thesnake is unknown.The chief disadvantage of anti-venom serum Isthat Its kit Is too bulky to be carried habitually onthe person. If, however, It Is kept in camp, anda first-aid remedy for snake bite Is always In one'spocket during the snake season, the adventurer needfear no snakes whatever.

;ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 443The first-aid for snake bite is very simple andcompact. It consists merely of a little permanganateof potash (potassium permanganate) and a lancet ora sharp penknife blade, with belt or other article ofclothing that can be used like a tourniquet. Thepermanganate can be used either in crystals or intablet form. It must be carried in a waterproofcontainer of glass or rubber. A convenient arrangementis a hard rubber tube resembling a fountainpen, but only 2^2 inches long and weighing lessthan an ounce, which is sold for a dollar by someoutfitters. One of the capped ends contains somepermanganate, and the other a small spear-shapedlancet (to be honed keen before it is fit to use).Permanganate of potash merely neutralizes suchvenom as it comes in direct contact with ; it does notfollow up the poison and kill at a distance from thewound. Since snake venom diftuses rapidly throughthe system, it is absolutely necessary to use the peimanganatequickly. If more than three minuteshave elapsed before application, its value is doubtfulif more than five minutes or six minutes, it will dono good all.Treatment.— (i).When one has been struckby a venomous snake, he should waste no timechasing the creature to kill it. Within a minute,at most, he should have a ligature bound betweenthe wound and his body to cut off the return flowof blood and lymph to the heart. (It is assumedthat he has been struck in a limb, as generallyhappens.) The ligature may be a neckerchief,handkerchief, or a strip of cloth torn from theshirt, twisted, and tied as tightly as possible aroundthe limb. A belt w4th tongueless buckle is excellentfor the purpose. A stout cord will do. Ifthe bite is an\^vhere below the knee, apply theligature just above the knee ; if below the elbow,then just above the elbow, because here there isonly one bone and compression is more effective.Another may be tied closer to the wound if a footor hand has been bitten.

44+ CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTDo not twist the ligature up so tightly with astick as to bruise the flesh. Remember, its objectis not to compress an artery, but only the veins,all of which lie near the surface.(2). Make three parallel cuts, say an inch longand a quarter-inch deep, lengthwise of the limband through the seat of the wound, then two crisscrossthrough the fang punctures (unless the bitebe on the wrist or top of foot, where you mightsever sinews). This is better than a simple X-cutbecause it makes the wound bleed more freely andopens it more thoroughly to receive the permanganate.Plenteous bleeding carries out a good dealof the poison by itself. Assist it by squeezing or"milking" the wound. The poison of North Americansnakes (not of the cobra) is harmless to thestomach, and so it may be sucked out, provided thatthe operator has no hollow tooth, nor scratch orabrasion of the mouth, through which it mightreach the circulation. It is useless to suck merelythe tiny fang punctures—you must first cut themopen.(3). Moisten, with saliva, enough of the permanganateto fill the wound (if it is in tablets,crush two or three of them in the palm of thehand) and rub it thoroughly into the cuts. It isextremely caustic ; but the emergency calls for heroictreatment.(4). If you have a companion, send him atonce for the anti-venom kit, or for a doctor. If youare alone, and far from help, stay where you are.Moving about would only force circulation andaggravate the case. The chances are fine foryour recovery without any further treatment. If3'ou have strychnine, swallow 1-20 grain to stimulatethe heart and nerves, whenever you feel them "goingback on you." Or, if you have it, use whiskey orammonia.Whiskey is not an antidote; It has no effect atall on the venom ; Its service Is simply as a stimulantfor the murderously attacked heart and lungs, and

jprint,1 There\ wayI actsIforImasters,"ifaith;juvant,\Onej(thatACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 445as a bracer to the victim's nerves, thus helping himover the crisis. For this purpose some pretty stiffdrinks may be needed, if strychnine is not to behad ; but don't guzzle inordinately ; an excess, byits depressive reaction later, may weaken the systemalarmingly after the venom itself has been conquered.(5). In half an hour you should gradually loosenthe ligature, permitting some blood to flow backfrom the injured limb and fresh blood to enter it.Then tighten again. This admits only a little ofthe poison at a time to the heart. Repeat the alternatetightening and loosening at intervals for aconsiderable time, until the danger is over. Toleave the ligature unloosened for more than an hour,at the farthest, would put you in grave danger ofgangrene.Herbal Remedies.—Many species of w^ildplants are supposed to have the property of counteractingthe effects of the poison of serpents. In anybackwoods community you may find some one whoclaims to know some sovereign herb that will dothis. In the seventh edition of my Book of Campingand Woodcraft (1915) I named many of theseplants and discussed them. This book is out ofbut may be consulted in public libraries byanyone curious in such matters. Scientists of todayhave no faith whatever in herbal "cures."are plants that will assist Nature in theof heart and nerve stimulants, or possibly byinducing copious sweating; but there is none thatas a real antidote against snake poisoning. Asthe backwoodsmen who use herbs as "snakeitwill be observed that they have firmin the efficacy of "lots o' whiskey" as an ad-if not as a panacea sine qua non.time I asked an old moonshiner, "Quill'*was his first name) "if a snake bit you, whenyou had no whiskey, what would you do?"\"And no liquor to be had?""Yes."

446 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFT"Sir, if a snake tuk sich advantage of me, I'dthrow him in the fire!"Bites of Other Animals.—Ordinarily the biteof a non-venomous animal needs no other attentionthan cleansing and an antiseptic dressing, unlessthere is enough laceration to require surgical measures.Still, the bite of any animal, from mouseto man, may be dangerous. Germs from foulteeth may be carried into the wound. Vindictive andlong-sustained anger sometimes seems to create avirus in the saliva, so that the bite of a teased andinfuriated animal may act almost as a venom. Ifthere be reasonable doubt, cauterize the wound asfor snake bite, or with nitrate of silver, or with anail brought to a white heat (not so painful as ifonly red-hot). This will not, in all likihood, preventan attack of hydrophobia if the animal wasrabid, but it will kill such other poison or germs asmay have been introduced.Rabies.—Hydrophobia (fear or aversion forwater) is only a symptom, and is shown only byman, not, as is commonly believed, by dogs. Notwithstandingthat there are cranks (even a few ofthem in the medical profession) who assert thatthere is no such disease as rabies, it is in fact themost terrible ailment that afflicts mankind. In agreat majority of cases, unless the patient is giventhe Pasteur treatment in due time, he will sufferthe most excruciating agony, and death is certain,since no known drug is of any avail. Faith in thecurative powers of **the madstone" is nothing but asuperstition: the compacted fiber from an animal'sstomach, or calculus, or porous stone, which goesby that name merely clings if there happens to bea discharge of blood or pus from the wound, anddraws out no virus whatever ; for there is none inthe circulation—the virus of rabies travels along thenerves.Epidemics of rabies are by no means confined todomesticated animals. They occur among wolves,ioxes. jackals, hj^enas, bears, skunks, rats, and even

:ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 447among birds. It is likely that this disease accountsfor the sudden disappearance of certain animalsfiom a given locality, when other explanations fail,as was the case with wolves in the AUeghanies aboutthe beginning of the 19th century.* In Arizonaand other parts of the Southwest it is generallybelieved that the bite of the little spotted or rockskunk is more than likely to transmit rabies ; sothe animal often is called ''hydrophobia skunk." Ihave already discussed this matter in Vol. I., p. 262.As regards symptoms, there are two types ofrabies(1). Furiant or irritable.—First the animal's dispositionchanges: if formerly playful, it becomesmorose; if quiet and dignified, it now grows unusuallyaffectionate, as if seeking sympathy. In thecourse of a day or two it becomes irritable, and maysnap if startled. It begins to wander about, and disappearsat intervals, hiding in corners or dark places,from which it resents being removed. Its bark isindiscribably changed. There is no appetite, and theanimal has difficulty in swallowing. Saliva maydribble from the mouth, but it does not froth as ina fit. Restlessness and irritability increase until thebeast becomes furious, biting at anything thrust towardhim, and even at imaginary objects. Thecreature now. begins to take long journeys, and willassault other animals, but never makes any outcryduring these attacks. Then signs of paralysis appear.It overcomes first his hind legs, then theHe dieslower jaw, and ultimately becomes general.in from five to eight days after the appearance ofthe symptoms.(2). Dumb or paralytic.—This type is uncommon.There is no marked irritability. The animal liesstupidly in seclusion. Paralysis comes early and isquickly progressive. Death usually ensues in two orthree days.In man, the period between the bite and the appearanceof the symptoms averages forty days. It*See Notes on the Settlement and Indian Wars of the WesternParts of Virginia and Pennsylvania, from 1763 to 17S3, by theRev. Dr. Josepli Doddridge, a contemporary and excellentauthority.

448 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTmay be a j^ear or more; It may be only two weeks,or even less if the bite was a bad, lacerating oneaffecting important nerves, or in the face. Consequently,when a man is bitten by an animal knownto be rabid, or by one that develops rabies withinless than forty days after it has inflicted the bite,he should be sent at once to a Pasteur institute.he goes in time, he has ninety-nine chances in ahundred to recover. Otherwise, unless the woundwas so superficial as to have done no injury underthe skin,isand it was promptly cauterized, his chancescarce one in a hundred.Insect Stings and Bites.—These have alreadybeen discussed at some length in Vol. L, pp. 241-259.An application of honey, moistened salt, or ofammonia, or a cloth saturated in a solution of bakingsoda, or even wet earth, will suffice in allordinary cases. Our most dangerous insect is thecommon housefly: **it does not wipe its feet."Wounds—^There is no room in this chapter todescribe and illustrate the structure and mechanics•ofthe body, nor how to apply bandages and splints,nor to give any but general directions for the treat-If onement of wounds, dislocations and fractures.is going far from medical help, I cannot too highlyrecommend that he should take some Instruction Insuch matters, or at least carry with him the veryclear and concise American Red Cross AbridgedText-book on First Aid (general edition), by MajorCharles Lynch, of the Medical Corps, U. C. A.This book, as w^ell as a variety of first-aid packetsand fitted boxes, is sold by the American Red Cross,Washington, D. C, from whom a catalogue may beproc'jred on application.Bleeding.—Rather free bleeding Is good for awound, because the blood washes out many. If notall, of the dangerous pus germs that may haveentered at the time of the Injury. Do not touchthe wound with thefingers, nor with anything elsethan a surgically clean Instrument and compress,^^bservc whether the bleeding Is arterial or venous.If

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 449If it comes from a vei?!, the blood will be dark red01 purplish, and will flow in a steady stream. Ifan artery is cut or lacerated, the blood will be brightred, and it probably will spurt in jets. Bind the.compress on firmly. Generally this will suffice tostop the bleeding.In case of arterial bleeding, try to locate theartery above the wound (between it and the heart)by pressing very hard where you think the arterymay pass close to a bone, and watch if this checksthe flow. If so, then, if the vessel is only a smallone, just continue the pressure: it is likely that aclot wall form and the artery close itself. In extremity,the flow from even a large artery can bechecked for a while by pressing very firmly withthumb and finger directly into the wound. Thereis record of an Austrian soldier who stopped bleedingfrom the great artery of the thigh for fourhours by plugging the wound with his thumb ; if hehad let go for a minute he w^ould have bled to death.But if the injury is so situated that a tourniquetcan be applied (anywhere except in the neck, body,or very close to the body) one can readily be extemporized.Tourniquet.—^Tie a strong bandage (handkerchief,belt, suspender, rope, strip of clothing) aroundthe wounded member, and between the wound andthe heart. Under it, and directly over the artery,place a smooth pebble, a cartridge, piece of stick, orother hard lump. Then thrust a stout stick underthe bandage, and twist until the wound stops bleeding.The lump serves two purposes: it bringsthe most pressure where it will do the most good,and it allows passage of enough blood on either sideto keep the limb from being strangled to death.However, do not apply more pressure than is neededto stop the bleeding—excessive pressure of a hardlump may rupture the blood-vessel.If the position of the artery above the woundcannot be determined, then, in case of a gapingwound that would be hard to plug, apply the tourni-

450 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTquet without any lump, and twist it very tight indeed.This can only be done for a short time, whileyou are preparing to ligate the artery ; if prolonged,it will kill the limb, and gangrene will ensue. Incase of a punctured wound, such as a bullet hole,it is better to push a plug of sterilized gauze hardaown in the wound itself, leaving the outer endprojecting so that a bandage will hold the plug firmlyon the artery. This must be done, anyway,wherever a tourniquet cannot be used.higating.—^The above expedients are only temporary;for a cut artery, if of any considerable size,must be ligated—that is to say, permanently closedby tying one or both of the severed ends. To dothis you must have at least a pair of sharp-pointedfcrceps or strong tweezers. Get hold of the endof the artery with this, draw it out, and have someone hold \\.. Then take a piece of strong threadthat has been sterilized in boiling salt water (supposingyou have no regular antiseptic) make a loopin it as for a reef knot, but pass the right hand endof the thread twice around theother, instead of once (Fig.193—surgeon's knot—it willnever slip). Slip this loopFig. 193.—Surgeon's ^^^^n over the forceps andknot around the end of the artery,and draw tight. If the vesselbleeds from both ends, ligate both. When anartery is merely ruptured, not severed, cut it cleanin two before operating; it will close better.Nosebleed.—If the nose does not stop bleedingof itself, hold against the nape of the neck a clothwrung out in cold water. Put a roll of paperbetween the upper lip and the gum. Do not blowthe nose nor remove the clots. Holding the armsabove the head will help. If the bleeding stillcontinues, dissolve a teaspoonful of salt in a cupof water, and snnii some of this brine up the nose.Should these measures fail, make a plug by rollingup part of a half-inch strip of gauze or soft cloth,

AUCIUEJN lb AiSU IlMEKCjENCIES 451push the plug gently up the nose with a pencil,pack the rest of the strip tightly into the nostril,and let the end protude. If there is leakage backwardinto the mouth, pack the lower part of plugstill more tightly. Leave the plug in place severalhours; then loosen with warm water or oil, and removevery gently.Internal Bleeding.—This may be either fromthe stomach or from the lungs. In hemorrhagefrom the stomachy the blood is vomited. It is brownor "coffee-ground," and may be mixed with food.There is tenderness and pain in the region of thestomach.Bleeding from the lungs is preceded by a saltishtaste in the mouth. Blood rushes from the mouthand nose. It is bright red and frothy.Although the disease producing one or other ofthese symptoms may be grave, yet the attack ofbleeding itself is not likely to result seriously. Ineither case the first-aid treatment is absolute restin bed, and cold cloths over the affected part. Ifthe bleeding is from the stomach, the patient's headshould be kept low; if from the lungs, the headand shoulders should be propped up, unless therebe a tendency to faintness.Cleansing Wounds.—All inflammation ofwounds, suppuration, abscesses, erysipelas, *'bloodpoisoning,"gangrene, and lockjaw, are due to livinggerms and nothing else. These germs are notWeborn in the wound, but enter from the outside.may as well say they are present everywhere, exceptIn the air (pus germs do not float in air).To prevent their entrance is much easier than tokill them once they have gained foothold.The only guarantee of a wound healing nicely isto make and keep it surgically clean. Sterilizeeverything that is to be used about a wound : hands,instruments, and the dressing. Do not trust anythingto be germ-free merely because it looks clean.The micro-organisms that cause inflammation of awound, fever, putrefaction, inay kirk anv where.

452 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTeven in spotless linen fresh from the laundry, unlesskilled by antiseptics.Do not swab out a fresh wound, nor even washit; that would only drive germs deeper in. Simplycover it with a sterilized dressing for the time being,and cleanse it later with an antiseptic wash, ifneed be. Plain water is likely to contain germs. Ifit is necessary first to pick out hard foreign matterthat has been driven into the wound, do so withan instrument sterilized by heat or by antiseptics, ormade from a freshly cut green stick.Whenever practicable, shave off the hair forsome distance around the wound. Hairs, no matterhow small, are grease-coated and favor the lodgmentand growth of germs. Shaving also scrapesoft the surface dirt and dead scales of skin.Closing Wounds.—Never cover a w^ound withcourt plaster. It prevents the free escape of suppuration,inflames the part, and makes the placedifficult to cleanse thereafter. Collodion shouldbe used only to cover small, clean abrasions of theskin, protecting the raw surface.The only legitimate uses for adhesive plasterareto hold a compress in place where bandaging isdifficult, and, in case of a cut, to keep the edgesclosed without sewing the skin. In the latter case,after placing a narrow compress over the cut, thewound may be drawn together by crossing it withnarrow but long strips of plaster, leaving spacesbetween. A better way, by which I have nicelyhealed some rather bad gashes, is as follows:Lay a broad strip of adhesive plaster on each sideof the cut, half an inch apart, and extending beyondthe wound at each end. Stick these strips firmlyin place, except about a quarter of an inch of theinner margins, which are left loose for the present.With needle and thread lace the strips (deep stitches,so they'll not pull out) so as to draw the edgesof the wound together, and then stick the innermargins down, not covering the wound.Sewing a wound should be avoided by inexperi-

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 453enced persons, unless It really is necessary, as inthe case of a foot partly severed by an axe-cut. Ifan ordinary needle and thread must be used (by ncmeans an easy job) sterilize them by soaking ioa boiling solution of salt and water. (It is hereassumed that no better antiseptic agents are available.Sugar and water, or vinegar will do in apinch.) Do not sew continuously over and over,but make a deep stitch and snip off the thread, leavingenough at each end to tie with by and by. Repeatthis at proper intervals, until enough stitcheshave been taken; then, go back and tie them, oneafter another, with surgeon's knot (Fig. 193).Such sewing is easy to remove when the proper timecomes, say within about six days.Punctured Wounds.—To remove a splinter:slipthe point of a small knife-blade under the protrudingend and catch it with the thumb-nail; or,use a needle sterilized in flame, or tweezers. Bitsof glass should be cut out, lest they break.If a fish-hook is embedded in the flesh, never tryto pull it out backward. Push it through until thebarb appears, clip this off with nippers, and withdraw.If you have no nippers, cut the hook out—infact this is good treatment, anyhow, for the woundthen is open for antiseptic treatment, and will healwithout danger of festering.A puncture from a rusty nail, or the like, shouldbe slit open so that your antiseptic Is sure to reachthe bottom. This hurts less than cauterizing, andis quite effective. If a small punctured wound Isnot cut open, soak It in sterilized hot water, andsqueeze out as much as possible of the poisonousmatter that may have been Introduced. Nevercover a punctured wound with plaster or collodion.Gunshot Wounds.— If It is only a flesh woundfrom a rifle or pistol, simply apply a sterilized compressand bandage It In place, being careful not totouch the bullet hole with your fingers or anythingelse unclean. When a bone Is broken, apply spllntrIf the bullet has not gone through, but Is deeply

454 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTembedded, let it alone ; the chances are that It will dono serious harm. Never probe a bullet wound. Donot pick out pellets of shot unless they are just underneaththe skin.If bits of clothing have been driven Into thewound, and they are not too deep to reach by alittle cutting, remove them ; the cloth Is almost sureto be alive with germs.When there Is extensive laceration, as from an expandingbullet, or from a charge of shot fired atclose quarters, check the bleeding, apply an antisepticdressing, keep the patient still so as not torenew bleeding, and treat for shock. No stimulants,unless absolutely necessary to prevent collapse.Bruises.—Severe bruises should be treatedpromptly by applying very cold water to the part,if It can be obtained. A cloth wrung out in veryhot water Vi^ill accomplish the same purpose, whichis to limit swelling, prevent discoloration, and reducepain. "It always seems strange that the twoopposites—cold and heat—should have the sameeffect on the blood-vessels, but this is actually thecase. . . . Every one knows how shrunken thehands look after they have been In hot water forsome time."Sprains.—^These, too, may be treated with eitherheat or cold. Perhaps the best way, before swellinghas commenced, is to Immerse the injured memberin very cold running water, or let cold waterdrain on It from an elevated vessel. The joint itself,should be elevated, too. If possible. Keep thisup as long as you can stand It. Then dissolvetablets of lead acetate and opium (directions onbottle) In water, soak a cloth In it, bind round thejoint, and keep the cloth wet with the lotion.If no treatment can be applied until the joint hasalready become swollen and painful, then immerseit in water as hot as can be borne, and raise theheat gradually thereafter to the limit of endurance(much hotter than you could stand at first).Whenthe pain lulls, change to an application of cloth

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 455wrung out In very cold water, and keep pouringcold water on as this warms up. A little later,strap the joint with adhesive plaster.According to Gibnej-, the following treatmentfor a sprained ankle "Involves no loss of time, requiresno crutches, and Is not attended with anyimpairment of functions":A number of strips of rubber adhesive plaster,about 9 to 12 inches in length and of appropriatewidth, are prepared. Beginning at the outer borderof the foot, near the little toe, the first strip partiallyencircles the joint, and ends behind the foot. Thesecond strip is begun on the inner side of the footand is applied on the opposite side, nearly meetingthe first strip behind. Other strips are applied inlike manner, each one over-lapping the last andcrossing its fellow of the opposite side in front, sothat the ankle issnugly and smoothly encased, carebeing taken not to encircle completely the joint withany one strip. After having bound the foot firmly,it is well to add one broad strip, running around thefoot from the internal side of the leg down the internalside of the foot, across the sole of the foot,and up the outside of the leg, "as much as possibleto take the place of the middle fasciculus of the externallateral ligament, which is so often the onemost injured." It is a good plan to place a pad ofabsorbent cotton over the external malleolus[outerknob of ankle] and in the depression below, to preventundue pressure and chafing. Any one of theinjured ligaments may receive a similar reinforcementfrom an extra strip. Then apply a rollerbandage smoothly over the entire surface, allowingit to remain until the plaster takes firm hold.The pain of a sprained joint may be alleviatedby gently rubbing in a mixture of equal parts ofalcohol and water, or arnica, or witch hazel.Rubbingshould always be toward the body.Hernia (Rupture).—This may result from violentexertion, over-lifting, or other cause. Havethe patient lie on his back, with a pillow or padunder his hips, and thigh drawn toward the body.Tell him to breathe evenly and naturally. Gently

456 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpress the neck of the hernia back in line with themiddle of the canal through which it has descended.If it does not return after a little manipulation, applycold cloths for an hour, then try again. Donot persevere long enough to set up inflammation. Ifsuccessful, cover with a pad tightly bandaged overthe groin. If not, keep the patient on his backuntil medical help arrives.Dislocations.—If a joint is dislocated, or abone broken, don't grasp the limb at once and pull;but first consider the anatomy of the injured part.Rough and unskilled handling is likely to do moreharm than good.A dislocation means that the head of a bone hasslipped out of its socket, probably tearing the ligaments,and has failed to slip back again as in asprain. Some dislocations, particularly of the wristor ankle, are hard to distinguish from fractures.When you must operate on a comrade, go tqwork at once, before the muscles have become rigidand the joint badly swollen. Should much difficultybe experienced, do not persist in trying to getthe joint into place, but surround it with flannelcloths wrung out in hot water, and support withsoft pads, until a surgeon can be found.After a dislocation has been reduced, the jointmust be kept rigid with bandages or splints for aconsiderable time, as the ligaments are weak and arecurrence of the trouble is all too easy.Three dislocations out of every four are in theshoulder, arm, or hand, and among these, dislocationof the shoulder Is most frequent.Fingers.—Pull straight out away from thehand. Generally the bone will slip into place.Dislocation of the thumb is more likely to beforward than backward. Press the thumb backwardand at the same time try to lift the headof the bone into its socket. If you fail, after oneor two trials, go for a surgeon.Wrist.—Fracture is more common than dislocationof the MTist.If in doubt, treat as a fracture.

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 457When there Is only a bone out of joint, It may bereplaced by pulling strongly upon the hand.Elbow.—Leave this dislocation tor a surgeon,if practicable. Otherwise, have the patient sit ona chair or log, and plant your foot against it. Placeyour knee against the front of his upper arm justabove the bend of the elbow. Then, grasping thebone of the upper arm with your right hand, andthe wrist with your left, forcibly bend the forearm,using your knee as a fulcrum. If the dislocationIs forward, however, pull upon the forearmwhile the upper arm Is fixed. Your thumb canassist In pressing the head of the bone in the desireddirection. Put the arm in a sling (handhigher than elbow) and bandage it in place toprevent movement.Shoulder.—About one-half of all cases of dislocationare of the shoulder joint. Have the manlie down flat on his back, and seat yourself by hisside, facing him. Remove your shoe, put your footin his arm-pit, grasp the dislocated arm In bothhands, push outward and upward with the heel,and at the same time pull the w^rlst downward andoutward, then suddenly bring It against the patient'ship. When a snap Is heard or felt, the jointis In place. Bandage the upper arm to the side,with a thick pad under the arm-pit, forearm carriedacross chest, and hand on opposite shoulder.Lower Jaw.—This dislocation must be reducedImmediately. It looks serious, and alarms the patient,but in realitv Is very simple to reduce. Wrapboth of your thumbs In several thicknesses of cloth,to protect them. Place them upon the patient'slower back teeth, and press forcibly downward andbackward, while the fingers force the chin upward.As soon as the jaw starts Into place, slip yourthumbs off the teeth Into the cheeks, to avoid beingseverely bitten. Put a jaw bandage on the patient.Hip.—To reduce this dislocation Is a job fornobody but a good surgeon.

458 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTKnee.—Try a strong, steady pull. If successfulapply a splint. There will be a great tendency toinflammation, which is to be combatted with coldapplications, or lead and opium lotion.Ankle.—The patient lies down and bends hisleg to a right angle at the knee. Then he, or anassistant, grasps his hands around the thigh andpulls backward, while you pull the foot steadilytoward you. When reduced, support the jointwith a right-angled splint made by nailing twopieces of board together in that position, one for thefoot and the other for the lower leg.Fractures.—If a bone is broken, and a surgeoncan be summoned within a couple of days, do nottry to reduce the fracture. Place the man in acomfortable position, the injured part resting on apad, and keep him perfectly quiet. In lifting thelimb to slip the pad under, one hand should supportthe bone on each side of the break. Be verycareful that the flesh and skin shall not be cutby the knife-like edges of broken bone, as suchafter-injury may have serious consequences.It may be, however, that 5^ou must act ?.s surgeonyourself. If the bone is broken in only oneplace, and it does not protrude, the injury is notserious. Get splints and bandages ready. Rip theclothing up the seam, and steadily pull the brokenparts in opposite directions, without the slightesttwisting. Begin gently, and gradually increasethe strain. It may take a strong pull. When thetwo pieces are end to end, an assistant must gentlywork them till they fit. This will be announcedby a slight thud. Then apply splints, and bandagethem so as to hold the injured member immovablewhile the fracture heals.Bark, when it can be peeled, makes the bestsplints for an arm or leg. Pick out a sapling(chestnut, basswood, elm, cedar, spruce) as nearthe size of the limb as possible. Remove the barkin two equal pieces by vertical slits.These should

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 4596e longer than the bone that Is broken, so as toclamp the connecting joints as well. Cover theconcave insides with cloth, dr)^ moss, crumpled grass,or other soft padding, to cushion the limb and preventirritation. The edges of splints should notquite meet aroand the limb. Then get a longbandage, about two inches wide. Having set thebone, apply the splints on each side, and bandagethem firmly enough to hold in place, but by nomeans so tightly as to impede circulation.In default of bark, almost anything will do forsplints that isstiff enough to hold the parts in place—barrel staves, thin boards, sticks, bundles ofrushes, etc. Pad them well.If a bone is broken in more than one place, orif it protrudes through the skin, and you cannotfetch a surgeon to the patient, then get him outof the w^oods at all hazards. The utmost painsmust be taken in transporting him, lest the sharpedges of the bones saw off an artery or pierce animportant organ.Transportation of Wounded.—A two-horselitter is better than a travois ; but if the latter mustbe used, then make one shaft a little shorter thanthe other, so that, in crossing uneven places, theshock will not all come at one jolt."A travois may be improvised by cutting polesabout 16 feet long and 2 inches in diameter at thesmall end. These poles are laid parallel to eachother, large ends to the front, and 2^ feet apart;the small ends about 3 feet apart, and one ot themprojecting about 8 or 10 inches beyond the other.The poles are connected by a crossbar about 6 feetfrom the front ends and another about 6 feet backof the first, each notched at its ends and securelylashed at the notches to the poles. Between thecrosspieces the litter bed, 6 feet long, is filled in withcanvas, blanket, etc., securely fastened to the polesand crossbars, or twith rope, lariat, rawhide strips,etc., stretching obliquely from pole to pole in manyturns, crossing each other to form the basis for alight mattress or an improvised bed; or a litter maybe made fast between ^he poles to answer the same

46oCAMPING AND WOODCRAFTpurpose. The front ends of the poles are then securelyfastened to the saddle of the animal. A breaststrap and traces should, if possible, be improvisedqnd fitted to the horse. On the march the bearersshould be ready to lift the rear end of the travoiswhen passing- over obstacles, crossing streams, orgoing up-hill." {U. S. A. Hospital Corps.)An emergency litter can be made of two coats andtwo strong poles. Turn the sleeves of the coatsinside out. Place the coats on the ground, endsreversed, bottom edges touching each other. Runthe poles through the sleeves on each side. Buttonup the coat, and turn the buttoned side down.Another way is to spread a blanket on theground with the two poles at the edges of its longsides. Then roll the edges on the poles till awidth of about 20 inches is left between them. Turnstretcher over before using it.An excellent litter is a big trojjgh of heavy bark,padded or lined with browse, and attached to aframe swung between two poles.Always test a stretcher before placing a patientupon it. Do not carry it upon the shoulders, exceptas the rear man does so in going up a steepplace. Keep it level. Carry the occupant feetforemost, unless going up-hill. The bearers shouldwalk out of step, to avoid a jolting motion.Two men can carry one, if he is conscious, verycomfortably by forming a ''two-handed seat." NumberI grasps with his right hand the left wrist, andwith his left hand the right shoulder, of the otherbearer. Number 2 grasps with his left hand theright wrist, and with his right hand the left shoulder,of No. I. The injured person is seated on hiscomrades' crossed fore-arms, and throws his ownarms over their shoulders.One man can carry another across his back,though the stricken one be insensible,evenand a heavyweightat that. Turn the patient on his face.If he is conscious, tell him to relax (m.ake himselflimp). Step astride his body, facing toward his

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 461head. Lean forward and, with your hands underhis arm-pits, lift him to his knees. Then, claspingyour hands over his abdomen, lift him to his feet.Immediately grasp his right w^ist with your lefthand, draw the arm over your head and down uponyour left shoulder. Then, shifting yourself infront, stoop and clasp the right thigh with yourright arm passed between his legs, your right handseizing the patient's right wrist. Finally grasp thepatient's left hand with your left, steady it agains

462 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTRescue from Fire.—Tie a wet handkerchiefover your nose and mouth. If unable to breathewhen erect, crawl with head as low as possible. Ifthe clothing catches fire, lie down and roll overslowly, beating out the fire with the hands orsmothering it with earth. When rescuing anotherperson whose clothing is aflame, throw him downand do the same, or wrap him as tightly as possiblein a blanket, coat, or the like, leaving only his headout. Woolens do not burn with a flame like cottonand linen.Frostbite^ Freezing.—In extreme cold, let eachmember of a party watch the others for the whitespots that denote frostbite. These should be rubbedwith a woolen mitten or glove, rather thansnow. If the freezing is severe, so that the tissuesare stiff, rough rubbing and twisting may breakthem. The return to warmth must be gradual, asa sudden reaction is dangerous to the vitality of theparts. Keep out in the cold, rub the frozen surfacegently with snow, or ice-water, until the naturalcolor of the skin isrestored.To toast frost-bitten fingers or toes before a firewould at least bring chilblains, and thawing outrapidly a badly frozen part would result in gangrene,making amputation necessary. When circulationis restored, rub with kerosene, whiskey, oralcohol and water. This will keep the skin frompeeling off. In case the frostbite Is old andblackened, or the skin has begun to slough off,treatit just as you would a burn.When In danger of freezing to death, compelyourself to keep awake and moving. If there aretwo or more of you, beat each other unmercifullywith sticks. To sleep Is death. Do not drink liquor:the reaction from It Is likely to be fatal.In rescuing one who is almost insensible fromcold, take him Into a cold room. Rub his limbstoward the body to restore circulation, first wnthrough cloths wet In cold water, then In warmer an(iwarmer water, finally with alcohol and water.

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 463Heat the room gradually. As soon as he can swallow,give him a stimulant.If the patient has stopped breathing, use artificialrespiration (see Drowning), for severalhours if necessary. While one person is doing this,another must keep up the rubbing and massage."Instances are on record of recovery after severalhours of suspended animation,"Chilblains.— If unbroken, rub lightly withdiluted alcohol, whiskey, or alum water. If broken,apply boric acid or an ointment. The Red Crosstreatment is: 'Taint every two or three days withtincture of iodine pure or diluted with alcohol.Several coats of collodion at intervals of a fe^vdays are also good, as the collodion exerts considerablepressure on the dilated blood-vessels."Corns.— "Hard corns should never be cut, butshould be rubbed down smooth with sandpaper afterwashing the skin. They should then be coveredwith a corn plaster or a piece of adhesive plaster.Cutting a corn, if you get below the hard skin, islikely to prove very dangerous, as it often resultsin blood-poisoning."Soft corns should be treated by careful washingand drjang of the foot, especially between the toes,then dusting in a little talcum powder and keepingthe toes separated by a small piece of gauze."{Red Cross.)Ingrowing Toe-nail.—Toe-nails should alwaysbe cut straight across; rounding off the cornersis one great cause of the complaint. A pieceof tinfoil, doubled or trebled, may be inserted betweenthe granulations and the nail and all keptdusted with boric acid.Chafing, Blisters.—See Page 140.Boils.—These come from infection of the hairfollicles. Hot antiseptic poultices will help drawthe boil to a head. I am aware that the practiceof poulticing boils and felons Is discredited by manyauthorities; but this, I think, is chiefly due to thefact that a poultice as commonly made is an Ideal

464 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTbreeding-ground for germs. That can be preventedby the addition of a good non-irritant antiseptic.The advantage of a poultice over a fomentationis that it holds the heat longer, and so does not requireconstant renewing. Its function is to bringthe pus near the surface where it can readily beopened. Deep lancing entails more risk of generalinfection, besides being dangerous in the neighborhoodof large blood-vessels.As soon as the first evidence of pus appears, openthe boil with a thin blade that has been held for amoment in a flame to sterilize it. Cleanse boththe cavity and the adjacent skin with a strong antiseptic,and cover with a sterilized dressing, to berenewed frequently. Press out the core as soonas it will come.If the least trace of pus is allowed to remain onthe skin, there is danger that other hair follicles maybe infected, from which a crop of boils would result.Abscess, Felon.—Treatment is similar to thatof a boil, but, after an abscess has been opened andcleaned, a strip of sterilized gauze should be lightlypacked in the opening to afford drainage and keepthe wound from closing prematurely. This drainshould be renewed twice a day, with thorough antisepticcleansing all around. The pus is deadly.Be careful that none of it gets on your skin oran3^thing else but the fire where it belongs.(Poison Oak, Poison Sumac).Ivy PoisoningWe have three species of plants that secrete anoil which poisons human beings (no other animals)by contact. Most virulent of these is the poisonsumac or "poison elder" {Rhus vernix), which isdistinguished from other sumacs by bearing a whitefruit like thin clusters of very small grapes, andby its leaf, the edge of which is smooth instead ofnotched.The so-called poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron)is readily told from the harmless Virginia creeperbv having three leaves, instead of five, and fromthe wild bean vine by its lack of conspicuous flowers—

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 465and pods. There are two varieties: one with asmooth-edged leaf, and the other (rarer) withtoothed edges. By some it is called poison vine;by others, poison oak. The latter name should bereserved for Rhus diversilobaj which does not groweast of the Rocky Mountains. All three of theseplants are really sumacs, notwithstanding that the"ivy" creeps on the ground, or climbs trees, walls,or fences, like a true vine.When poison ivy is in bloom, the spores of itspollen are blown hither and yon by every breeze,and those minute spores bear some of the poisonousoil that makes the plant an enemy of the humanrace. That is why people who are particularlysusceptible may be poisoned if they go within tenfeet of the plant.The poison is of an acid nature; consequently ifone rubs his skin with an alkali (such as baking soda,weak ammonia, soap, or wood ashes) before handlingthe plant, or immediately after doing so, hewill be uninjured. Usually one is not aware thathe has come in contact with such a plant untilthe sj^mptoms of poisoning appear. As soon as hisskin reddens and begins to itch he should wash instrong soapsuds, and then with alcohol. Generallythis will suffice. It he lets the case go until littlewatery blisters appear between the fingers and inflammationsets in, he must use stronger measures.The druggist's prescription is: Add powderedsugar of lead (lead acetate) to weak alcohol (50%to 75%) until no more will dissolve; strain, andwash the affected parts with It several times a day.A camper is not likely to have this remedy at hand.It is a dangerous poison if swallowed.Common baking soda, so often mentioned In thisbook, is more likely to be available. Dissolve asmuch of It In warm water as the water will takeup, and apply. A similar solution of boric acidis even better. Aftenvard rub some reslnol orother good ointment over the affected narts.I have cured cases of Ivy poisoning that wet-e

466 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTtwo or three days old, where both eyes were swelledshut and other parts correspondingly affected, withapplications of the tincture of grindelia. But whatacts as a specific in many instances may do littlegood in another. Edward Cave recommends "boilinga dime's worth of cardamon seeds (capsuleswith seeds in them) in a pint of water, for a badcase, and applying the 'tea' thus made as a lotionwhen cold.The more frequent the application thequicker the remedy." Another cure, that is highlypraised by J. S. McGehee, is three parts olive oiland one part carbolic acid. If this does notredden the skin a little, he adds more of theacid, very gradually, testing until ft "nips." Twoapplications, eight or ten hours apart, generallycure. This, of course, would not be safe to useover a large surface.Foreign Body in the Eye.—As I do most ofmy roaming alone, I usually have in my pocket atiny mirror with which to help myself if a "redpepper" gnat flies into my eye, or something elseof the sort happens, when I am miles from help.If a foreign body lodges beneath the lower eyelid,there is little or no pain; but if beneath the upperlid, or if embedded in the eyeball, a man is quiteout of action until the thing is removed. If theoffender cannot be seen, it is probably under theupper lid. When a man is alone, the best he cando in such a case is to pull the upper lid over thelower and hold it so until the tears have a chanceto wash the irritating particle away. Close thenostril on the other side, and blow your nose hard.Do not rub the eye, for that might embed the thing.In examining another person's eye, first havehim look up while you press the lower lid down.If the particle is under the upper lid, have himsit down with head bent backward. Stand behindhim, place a match across the upper lid half aninch from its edge, and turn the lid up and backover the match.

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 467After a foreign substance has been removed, afew drops of olive oil or castor oil will soothe theeye. l1iis is tlie best treatment, too, if tliere isa splinter that you are unable to remove by carefulpicking.The best wash for inflamed eyes is boric acidin as little water as is required to dissolve it.Snow Blindness.—This "is an inflammation ofthe eye due to the reflection of intense light fromthe snow. There is blindness, flowing of tears,the whites of the eyes are bloodshot, the lids swollen,Often a pus discharges from the eyes, which ishighly contagious and when brought into contactwith, healthy eyes is liable to transmit the disease.Treatment of snow blindness:1. Apply cold cloths which have been on iceor wetted in cold water. Do this for half anhour three times a day, changing the cloths as theybecome warm.2. Several times a day hold the eyelids openwhen lying down and pour into them a stream ofcooled water which has firstbeen boiled.3. At night smear the lids and eyelashes withsome pure salve to prevent them gluing togetherwhile asleep.Prevention of snow blindness:The natives of the far North use eye-covering?which entirely shut out the light except a narrowslit through which they see. Some use smokedglass goggles while still others smear their faceswith grease and lampblack to break the glare. Itis common among mountain climbers to use actors'grease paint for this purpose. In the Winnipegregion of Canada there are used "horse hair" goggleswhich are superior to any other protection to theeyes in snow work. They are made entirely ofhair woven in a loose mesh, convex over the eyes.I would advise anyone traveling In the North toprovide himself with them in preference to glass,which is coated with frost at every change of tem-

468 CAMPING AND WOODCRAFTperature, is always cold to the face, and is liableto be broken." {Outing.)Insect in the Ear.— "Hold a brip;ht light tothe ear. The fascination which a bright light hasfor insects will often cause them to leave the earand go to the light. If this fails, pour in warm oilfrom a teaspoon, and generally the intruder willbe driven out." (Pilcher.)Earache.—Let the patient hold his head toone side at a right angle. Heat a spoon, pour alcoholinto it, and hold close under the head sothat the fumes will enter the ear Or, heat oliveoil just hot enough not to burn, put a few dropsin the ear, and follow with a small plug of cotton.Earache often is relieved by a bag of hot salt, orthe like, as described below for toothache.The following is recommended by H. W. Gibson:''Take the heart of an onion, heat it in anoven, and put it in the ear, but not so hot as toburn. This not only relieves the earache, buthelps to send the sufferer to sleep."Toothache.—If there is a cavity, clean it outwith cotton on the end of a toothpick ; then fillit with another small bit of cotton dipped in iodine,oil of cloves, or ammonia, or dusted with bakingsoda."Toothache, scourge of the wilderness, he curedin a novel way. With a thread and a sheet ofwriting paper he made a cornucopia, the open endof which he placed flat upon a dish ; he then setfire to the upper end of the cornucopia, whereuponthe burning paper generated a drop of yellow liquid.This liquid— it is extremely bitter—he applied, witha toothpick and cotton, to the cavity, and the toothacheperished amid the howls of the possessor ofthe tooth." {A, W. North.)Probably the yellow liquid is largely creosote. Ihave seen my partner treat his own tooth this way.If there is no cavity, but an abscess, it may sometimesbe checked by applying to the gum a counter-

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES 469irritant, such as spirits of camphor on a pledget ofcotton, or a bit of doug;h in which red pepperhas been mixed, or by painting it with tincture ofiodine. A small cloth sack partly filled with hotsalt, rice, or sand, and placed under the patient'sface as he lies in bed is effective in many cases.THE END.

—INDEX TO VOLUME IIAbscess, 464Abysses,. 343To descend, 351Accidents, 422Acorns, To make edible,371Aiming a rifle, 176"Lead" in, 182Uphill and downhill, 184Where to hold in, 183Alcoholism, 428, 434Almaj»»ac, 96Alone. See Going aloneAngler's knots, 293Animals as food, 416Ankle, Sprained, 142, 455Antiseptics, 424Anti-venom serum, 441Apoplexy, 428, 434Arteries,. Ligating, 450Arts, Lost, 58Axe, Care of, 193Choice of, 187Grinding, 187, 188Short, 144Axe-heive, Making, 187Removing broken, 187Axemanship, 187Chopping, Timberhewing, TreefellingSee alsoBack-packing. 97, 143Bait Fish, 409Bark as food, 420^as sign of direction, 56Clip, 262dipper, 262fish bucket, 263470B a rk Continued..kettle, 257roofs, 221rope and twine, 264shelters, 221tray, 262troughs, 261tub, 261utensils, 256water bucket, 260Barking trees, 22^Base lines, 38Baskets, Splits for, 269Bast rope and twine, 264Bathing," 100Bear hunting, 51, 173, 185oil, 331Skinning a, 303Beathing wood, 212Bedding, 101, 144Extemporized, 30, 31Bed-tick, 102Beds, Browse, 220Bee baits, 356huntin.g, 354Bees, Cross-lining, Z60Flight' of. 360Bee-hives, 361Robbing, 362Bee-trees, 362Beeswax, 366Benches, 252Berries, 393Beverages, Woodland, 399Big game shooting, 173,'176See also Bear hunting,Deer hunting-Bird skins, 307

—INDEX472Biscuits. See Hardtack,Meat biscuitsBites of animals, 446of insects, 448See also Snake biteBivouacs, 27, 32Blanket packs, 118roll, 118Blazes. 26, 35, 41, 60Age of, 61See also Line, FollowingaBleeding. 448Internal, 451Blisters, To prevent, 140Treatment of, 140^'Blow-downs," 44Blow-guns, 14Boards,See ClapboardsBoatswain's chair, 287, 352Boiling in bark kettle, 257in trough, 257Boils, 463Bones, Broken, 458Book-learning. 16Bough beds, 220Bouillon cubes, etc., 164Brain, Concussion of. 433Bread substitutes, 163, 371Brooms, 255Browse beds, 220To pick, 220Bruises. 454Brides, 44Buck ague, 185Buckets, Aluminum, 103Bark. 260, 263Buckskin, To make, 309To select, 309Bullets, Rifle, 180Bunks, 248, 250Burns, 460Burnt-woods, 44Bush marks, 41Butter, 166Cabin, Axeman's, 248i. building, 236Cabin. Continued.chimneys, 238, 245chinking, 248corners, 240fittings, 248floor, 244. 249joists, 242Materials for. 239Timber for. 240walls, 242, 249windows, 245, 250, 320See also RoofsCaches, 229Camp-fire, 149Smoke from, 31, 101See also Fire, BivouacCamp plan, 230Camps, Masked, 232Candles, To make, 333Candlesticks, 333Canebrakes. See LostCanned food. Objectionsto, 107, 162, 170Canteens, 133Cape, Waterproof, 99Cartridges for rifles, 180Catgut, To make, 317Cave districts, 339exploration, 337, 347measurements, 351"sign," 338Caves, how formed, 340Cavern, Lost in, 21Caverns, 337Cellar, 232, 239Cements, 327Chafing, 105, 140Chairs, 251Split-bottom, 252Cheesecloth, Uses of, 103Cherokee Indians, 13Chilblains, 463Chill, To avoid, 141Chimnej:, 238, 245Chocolate, 166Chopping, 189See also TimberCircle, Traveling in a, 35

472 INDEXCitric acid, 167, 170Clapboards, 206Clothing, 99, 144Coffee, Substitutes for, 399Cold as first-aid treatment,428"Combinations," 131Common, Disregard ofthe, 50Compas§, Care of, 70in camp, 70Selection of, 69Use of, 35, 36, 43, 69Variation of, 72Compass-plants, 57Concealment. See Caches,Masked campsConcentrated foods. SeeFoodsCondiments from wildplants, 400Conifers, Tips of, 56Convulsions, 435Cookinsf kit. Individual,102, 112, 114, 115on the march, 145, 147Copperhead snake, 438Cordage^ Root and vine,266Corn, Parched, 150, 155Corner marks, 68Corns, 463Corseaiix^ 264Course, Keeping a, 71Cramp, Muscular, 141while swimming, 432Cycling kits, 110, 112, 114Deer hunting, 176, 180,181, 184See also Buck agueDelirium tremens, 435Depth, To measure, 95Dessicat.ed foods. SeeFoods, ConcentratedDiagnosi

INDEX4.73Feet, Care of, 139To toughen. 139See also Chilblains,Corns.Toe-nailsFelons, 464Fire, Bivouac. 29. 31making withoutmatches, 32precautions, 29Rescue from, 462Fire-drill. 33Fireplace, 238, 245First-aid, 422for snake bite, 443kits. 103. 423materials. 423fish bait, 409bucket. Bark, 263skins. To mount, 326Fish-hook, To extract. 453Fishing for the pot. 408rod. Extemporized, 213Fits, 435Flavoring, See CondimentsFlour, Prepared, 107Fog. See LostFood bags. 107, 171Foods. Concentrated, 150,162Footwear, 139, 146Fording. 45Forest, Sameness of the,49travel, 43Foot -logs, 44Fractures, 458Freezing, 462Froe, Use of. 208Frogging. 415Frostbite. 462Fruits as food, 169Dehvdrated, 170Wild. 393Frying-pan. 102Furniture, Rustic, 250Furs, Preparation of, 298,304Glaze, 165Glue, To make, 327Gluts, To make, 202Going alone, 21. 147, 181light. 98, 109Graining knife, 311Great Smoky Mountains,13, 24. 51Ground sheet. Ill, 113Guideposts, Nature's, 49,53Guides. 16. 181Celestial. 48. 76, 78Gunshot wounds, 453Handcuff knot, 291Hardtack, 163Hatchet,. 32, 144Haversacks, 122Head, Skinning a. 298, 300Heat as first-aid treatment,428exhaustion, 434Height, To measure, 93,95Hernia, 455Hewing. See TimberHides, Preparation of,303Hiding. See Caches,Masked campsHiking, i'f^' Trips afootHitches. 271Hitching tie. 286Hobnails, 350Homing instinct, 50. 52Hominy mortar, 154Honey, Poisonous, 365,Wild, 364Hoops, 269Horn cup, 328Huntsman's, 329W^orking in, 328Hot-water bottle, 134, 135Hunter's equipment, 145,maxims 180

474 INDEXHunting, 180Going alone in 148, 181What to look for, 181See also Bear hunting,Deer huntingHydrophobia, 446Hysteria, 435Indian camp, 216tanning, 310, 324Indians as pathfinders, 21as pedestrians, 136Skill in wildcraft, 58In extremis, 420Insect bites and stings,^448Instinct of direction, 50,52_Iron rations, 157Ivy poisoning, 464Jam as ration, component,168Jerked vension, 155, 161Kinnikinick, 401Kits, Cooking, 102Cycling, 110, 112, 114First-aid, 103, 423One-man. See EquipmentKnapsack, Military, 121Miniature, 104Norwegian, 126Tourist, 127See also Pack sacksKnots, 271Lace-leather, 316Lamps, Slush, 332Landmarks, 88See also PathfindingLanterns, 348Extemporized, 334Lashings, 289Laurel. See ThicketsLay of the land, 26. 34See, also PathfindingLean-to, Bark, 223Brush,. 218Frames for, 219Log, 227Slab, 225Leather, Lace, 316Whang, 315See also Buckskin, Hides,Pelts, Rawhide,Skins, TanningLeveling, 95Ligating arteries, 450Lights. See Candles,Lamps, Lanterns,TorchesLine, Following a, 62Lumberman's, 64Surveyor's, 64Trapper's, 63Lines, Township and section,66Liniments, 426Liquor, Carrying, 134Litters, Extemporized, 460Living off the country, 403Locality, "Bump" of, 50,52Log camps, 227Logs, Notching, 241Lonesomeness, 15, 148Lost, Getting, 19in canebrakes, 21, 24in cavern, 21in flat woods, 22, 23in fogj 37, 52in hilly country, 22, 24in overflow country, 22in snowstorm, 31, 37, 63,462in thickets 24To avoid getting, 20, 37,38, 40, 71, 97What to do when, 25See also Living off thecountryLotions. 426Lutes for vessels, 327Lye, To make, 336

INDEX 475Mad animals, 446 North, To find. See Corn-Magnetic variation, 72 pass. Guide-postsMaple sugar and sirup, 397 (Nature's), Mcri-Mapping-, 89 dianMaps. Scale of. 84 "North-and-South plant,'*Topographical, 37 58Marching. See Feet, Notice,. What to, 50Thirst, Trips afoot Nuts a§ food, 167, 372Marksmanship in thewoods. 173 Oil, Bear's, 331Masked camps, 232 Gun, 330Match boxes. 349 Rattlesnake. 331pouches, 108 Ointments, 426Matches, Waterproofed, Orientation, 50108 Outfits^ for bee hunting,Maul, To make a, 201 . ^^^Measuring inaccessibleJ^'" ^^Y^ ^^P^°^^'^tA°"';liSdistance, 92 ^^^ ^^''n4'l45°°'''inaccessible height orOverflow' country. Seedepth. 93LostMeasurements, Extempor- Over-strain. 138ary, 90 Ox-gall, 319Meat biscuits, 164dessicated, 157, 161 Paces of animals. S7extracts, 165 Pacing distances. 85"straight," 152, 167 Pack baskets, 131frames, 132Membranes, 318Tvr -J' u 1 i ^77 harness. 119Meridian by pole star, ^^^^^ -^27by shadow 76 Combination. 131by watch. 76Duluth. 129. 145Milk powder, 108 Nessmuk, 128Moccasin snake, 438 Whelen, 130. 145Mortar, 247 See also Knapsacks,Mosquito bar, 101 RucksacksMoss, Growth of, 53. 55 straps,. 123, 128Mountain climbing, 141 Packing. See also RationsMushrooms, Edible, 387 Packs for pedestrians. 118.Poisonous, 436 -.^"^ ., . ^ .p..Mustard plaster, 428 5''*"^"^'''i.°^99° I9iHang of. 99, 122, 124,125. 126, 133Nails, 108^ Panic, 20Nature's guide-posts, 49 Parchme'nt. To make, 319Nectar, 357 Translucent. 320Night lines, 414 Parfleche. 315Nosebleed, 450 Paste, 327

^76INDEXPathfinding, Z1 , 60See also TrailingPedestrian trips. SeeTrips afootPedometers, 86Pelts, Preparation of, 298,304Pemmican, 156, 166Pillow, Air, 112Pillo.w-bag, 102Pinole. 150Pits. See AbyssesPlants, Edible wild, 367Plasmon, 163Plasters. 428"Point-blank'" sight adjustment,176Poison ivy, 464oak, 464siimaCj 464Poisoning, Ivy. 464Mushroom, 436Ptomaine, 435Pole star, To find, 7SPoncho, 99Pot-herbs, Wild. 369, 381Poultices, 427, 463Primus stoves, 115Provisions, Caching, 229Ptomaine poisoning, 435Puncheons, 201, 204Quicksand, 45, 47Quilts, Eiderdown, 114,117Rabies, 446Raisins, 167, 170Ration lists, 106, 146, 172packing, 170Rations,. Emergency. SeeFoods, ConcentratedRattlesnakes, 439Oil of, 331Rawhide, To make, 314Resins, 199Respiration, Artificial, 430Ria^a. To make a, 316Rifle, Accuracy of, 177Ammunition for, 179Choice of, 179Running shots with, 182shooting. 173sights, 175Snap-shooting with, 183Trajectory of, 177Right angle, To set out a,92River, Width of, To measure,93Riving timber. See Clap«boardsRobes. Indian-tanned, 324Rockahominy, 150Roofs. Bark, 221, 248Canvas, 248Clapboard, 243Paper, 237Plank, 237Scoop, 226Root and vine cordage,266Ropes, Bast. 264See also RiataRough travel, 43. 121Roughing it, Folly of, 146Route sketching, 80Rucksacks. 123Norwegian, 126Rupture, 455Saccharin, 169Salads, Wild, 369, 381•Salt, Carrying, 107Substitutes for, 400Sawing, 193"Sawyers," 240Scalds, 461Scoop roofs, 226Seasoning wood, 212Serum, Anti-venom, 441Set lines, 414Shaving-horse, 210Sheepshanks, 91, 286Shelter cloths. 100

helters. 215Natural, 28, 31Shingles. 210Shock, 433Shooting. Sec RifleSights, Rifle, 175Signal halyard hitch, 91Signalling by shots, 30by smoke, 26Signs of direction. SeeGuide-posts, Nature'sSinew, 318Sirup, Maple, 397Skin stretchers, 303, 307,314Skinning pelts, 299Skins, Fleshing, 322Smoking, 313Softening, 312, 323Stretching, 303Tanning, 321Slab camps, 225Sleeping-bags, 144Eiderdown, 112Sleeping out, 27, 34Slings, 287"Small deer," 416Smoke from camp-fire, 31101signals, 26Snake bite, 436Herbal "remedies" for,445Treatment of, 443Snake skins, To tan, 325Snakes, Venomous, 437Snaring fish, 408game^ 404Snow blindness, 467Snow, Melting, in barkvessel, 260Sno^A^storm. See LostSoap making, 335Socks, 139Solitude, 15, 148Sound, Velocity of, 87Soups, Condensed, 164INDEX477Southern Highlanders. 13.14Splicing. 292Splints. 458Splits. 211. 269Splittin^g, See Clapboards.Splits, TimberSprains, 454Stalactites and sialagmites.346Still hunting. 180See also Deer huntingsStimulants, 425Stings, 448Stools, 252Storehouse, Secret. SeeCachesStoves, 249Vapor, 112, 114, 115Straddle-bug frame. 217Streams. Crossing, 44Stretcher-bed, 101Stretchers for wounded,460Stretchers, Skin, 303, 307,314Stunning, 433Suffocation, 432Sugar, 167Sugar Maple. 397Sun, To find, on cloudyday, 48_Sundialj To make, 96Sunstroke, 433Surgeon's knot, 273. 450Surveys, Modern, 65Old, 65Suspenders, 105Sweets, 167, 397Symptoms, 428Tables, 248, 251Tanning, 321Indian, 310, 324Target shooting, 173Tea tabloids. 171Teas from wild plants, 399Teepee, Bark. 223

478 INDEXTents, Featherweight, 111,113, 116for hiking trips, 104Silk, 113Thickets, 24, 43, 44, 52Thirst, To relieve, 141Thongs^ Cutting and splicing,316Thread, Bast, 265Sinew, 318Tilt, Bark, 222Timber for cabin building,240Bending, 213Hewing, 200Seasoning, 212Splitting, ,201Time, 96Tobacco, Substitutes for,401Toe-nails, Ingrowing, 463Tomahawk. See HatchetTomahawk shelters, 215Tools for cabin building,238for hiking kit, 103Toothache, 468TorcheSt 335Tourniguets, 443, 449^Township and sectionlines, 66Tracking, 27Trail m.aking, 40Trailing, 27, 62See also PathfindingTrails, Concealment of,235Trapping. See SnaringTravois, 459Tree, Height of. To measure,93Trees, Annual rings, 56,61. 203"Board," 204Felling, 190Identification of, 49Lines of cleavage, 203Logging up. 192Study of, 49To p_eel, 221See also AxemanshipjWoodsTrips afoot, 97, 118. 143See also EquipmentTrophies, Preparation of,298Trot lines, 414Tump lines, 119Tump or head-band, 121Twine, Bast, 265Unconsciousness, 428Utensils, Bark, 256Dehydrated,Vegetables,170Venison, Jerked, 155Venom, Snake, 436Vertigo, 432Vinegar making, 400Walk, How to, 136Walking trips. See TripsafootWashstand, 251Wattled work, 224Way, Fjndmg the. SeePathfindingWedges, Wooden. SeeGlutsWhang leather, 315Whistles, 108Wikiups, 224Wildcraft, 18Wind-breaks, 29, 31, 217Windfalls, 44Winding rods, 292Windows, 245, 250, 320Withes, 268Woodcraft. 13, 16, 50, 52,56. 150Wood, Bending, 21.'^Hewing, 200Seasoning, 212Splitting, 201

—Woods, Close-grained, 199Compact, 197difficult to season, 198difficult to split, 196Durable, 198easily split, 196, 204easily wrought, 197Flat. Sec LostFlexible, 197for special purposes, 200Woods, Hard, 195Heavy, 200in wide boards, 198liable to check, 198liable to warp, 198Light, 200not liable to check, 197Perishable. 199Pliable, 197INDEX 479Woods. Continued.Qualities of. 194Resinous, 199Soft, 195Springy, 197Stiff, 196Strong, 195Tough, 196See also Trees"Woods sense," 52Woodsman't gait, 136Wounded, Transportationof, 459Wounds, 448Cleansing. 451Closing. 452Gunshot. 453Punctured, 453

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