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Notes from the PublisherTechnical cooperation between developing countriesworksThis is the second part of a series onNACA’s history, development andexperiences. The preceding issuedescribed the Network’s passage froma regional project to an independentorganization and the preparations doneand efforts made towards stability. Thisinstallment relates the period duringwhich NACA firmly demonstrated thattechnical cooperation among developingcountries does work and movedit, in the words of Chen Foo Yan, thecoordinator from 1980-89 and the actingcoordinator in 1990-91, “from therealm of lip service to reality.”The core of the cooperation isprovided by the Regional Work Programme,a rolling plan divided intofive-year periods. It is formulated bygovernments reflecting their commonobjectives and interests, and developedby a wide collaboration among stakeholdersand partners.As an intergovernmental organization,cooperation among membersunderpins NACA’s operation. Suchcooperation facilitates the exchange ofknown technology, exchange of scientificfindings, dissemination of newknowledge and information, and exchangeof expertise. Networking makesthe above activities economical andeffective: there is no duplication fromlack of communications, participatinginstitutions and experts build on andadd value to each others’ work, theycan work together to solve a commonproblem, and the strengths of each andevery institution are brought to bear onaddressing common issues. By doingthings in different ways they complementone another’s efforts. They alsoreach groups they would not normallywork with directly. Such cooperativework also contributes to strengtheningthe capacities of every participant, andtherefore of the whole network. Thenew information and communicationsOctober-December 2005technology (ICT) tools greatly facilitatenetworking although they may notnecessarily enhance cooperation.This section describes a number ofuseful lessons from NACA, as a networkingarrangement:1. Technical cooperationworksSharing resources and responsibilitiesamong institutions (and countries)through networking is probably theonly practical and cost-effective meansavailable for solving the diverse problemsfaced by aquaculture due to thediversity of species, farming systems,and environments, and varying levelsof development among countries. Thenetworking (and sharing) approach isalso in line with governments’ objectivesof regional self-reliance throughtechnical cooperation. Cooperationbecomes more compelling in the faceof limited resources of governmentsand donors, and the need to best utilizeinternal resources and external support.The complex and many challengesfaced in the development of aquaculture,a relatively new economic activity,also argue for a collaborative approachto make efficient use of resources tosolve problems. Adding a very importantdimension to cooperation, theNACA members have committed tothe principle that the stronger membersshall assist the others.2. Ownership andcontinuity of initiativesPrograms and projects are developed sothat they address the priority issues andneeds expressed by members (governments).These expressed needs andpriorities are translated and formulatedinto a regional action plan (by the TechnicalAdvisory Committee of NACA),Pedro Buenois the Director-General ofNACA. He is theformer Editor ofAquaculture AsiaMagazine.which is adopted into the regional WorkProgram – a rolling Five-Year Plan - bythe Governing Council. Three attributesof the NACA work program emergefrom this arrangement; the program is:(i) owned by members; (ii) a product ofconsultations among the various stakeholders,and (iii) implemented by themembers themselves in a cooperativeand coordinated way that builds on thecapacities in the countries and complementthose of the regional institutions.These attributes make two importantconditions happen: (i) governmentscommit resources to implement theprograms, and (ii) governments andinterested institutions in the respectivecountries take up the results in theirpolicy and programs, assuring continuityof the various initiatives, rather thenbeing terminated when the project ends.Another significant point is that theregional program is based on commonneeds and priorities of the members,not on the overriding interests of oneor two.3. Strategy for capacitybuilding of the NetworkWhen NACA evolved from a UNDP/FAO Project to an independent intergovernmentalbody (in 1990 after 9years as a regional project), it adopteda major change in operational strategy.It had to: (i) become self-sustaining inorder to finance core activities (such astechnical advice, information exchange,and overall network activities coordinationand secretariat administration),3

(ii) generate revenues by provision ofservices against payments, (iii) developprograms and projects for collaborativeassistance of donors and developmentagencies, and (iv) enter into partnershipswith other institutions and workwith them on areas of common interest.Partnership and collaborationbecomes mutually beneficial if the independenceof the organization is maintained.In practical terms, NACA’s programsshould be developed and ownedby the members and not imposed uponor influenced by external agencies; ithas the basic organizational capacityand resources to operate the programs;and the interest of donors should matchthe priorities of the organization, notthe other way around.4. Demonstrating resultsThe overall strategy in project implementationwas to: (i) increase aquacultureproduction through effectivetransfer of proven technologies in theregion; (ii) train senior personnel in theplanning and management of aquaculturedevelopment and productionprojects; (iii) help justify governmentfinancial support to national aquacultureprojects; and (iv) take on only relevantadaptive research that facilitatesincreasing production, leaving basicresearch to complementary activitiesfrom academic institutions.Priority was thus given to producingearly visible and measurable resultsfor increasing aquaculture productionin the region. This was aimed to assertthe economic and social importance ofaquaculture for the attention of developmentpolicy planners in governments.This was achieved by effectivetransfer of established viable, commercialtechnologies and techniquesthrough applied and adaptive researchin both host and recipient countries.The trials of established aquacultureproduction systems adapted them to localconditions. Through the cooperationamong the centers, technical and managerialdetails of established aquacultureproduction practices were systematicallytransferred by way of trainingcourses, workshops and seminars, aswell as specialized technical assistance(i.e. expert exchange) and via informationdissemination.5. Providing the scienceto traditional productionpracticesIn Asia, established aquacultureproduction technologies have a longhistory. They were evolved throughtraditional trial-and-error practices.Research was then disciplinary or veryspecifically problem-focused ratherthan systems-oriented. NACA thusemphasized research that would promotescientific understanding of vitalinter-relationships of salient dependentand independent variables for theimprovement of production systemsof importance to the region. As anexample, the age-old highly productiveintegrated fish farming systems inChina – evolved through many centuriesinto an art by Chinese farmers -were studied and given scientific basis.As such, the technology was providedscientific explanation and thereforetransferred more easily throughout theregion through workshops, training,information and extension. It then alsobecame susceptible to further scientificimprovement.Three conclusions on the benefitsfrom a regional networking arrangement(of governments) emerge from theabove discussion:1. From the point of view of results, abroad-based collaboration on specificprograms that involve numerousinstitutions can multiply benefitsto the institutions themselves, togovernments and to the people in theaquaculture industry. Cooperation inareas of mutual interests – throughspecific programs or projects- can effectively muster resources,expertise and institutional supportto implement regional projects, promotingsynergy, avoiding duplicationof activities, and expanding therange of beneficiaries. NACA hasgenerated support for the implementationof major regional and nationalactivities from bilateral, multilateraland investment agencies.2. From the capacity building perspective,training of national personneland upgrading of facilities have createda multiplier effect for variousassistance programs. The improvementsthat NACA brought abouton regional and national capacities(that include trained people, moreefficient operating and managementsystems, and upgraded facilities)have attracted and made it easierfor donor assistance programs tobe effectively implemented. Themultiplier effects include (a) widerdissemination of results, (b) assuranceof follow-up activities withingovernments thus ensuring continuityof project-initiated activities inthe NACA program of work, and (c)utilization of strengthened nationalinstitutions by various assistanceprograms.3. Cooperation and commitment arethe basic forces that move the organization.AnnouncementThe Second InternationalSymposium on Cage Aquaculturein Asia3-8 July 2006, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China.The first cage culture symposium wassuccessfully held more than five yearsago and the aquaculture communitywill be meeting again in Hangzhou city,China to discuss the recent advances,potentials, challenges and problems ofcage aquaculture in Asia.The second international symposiumon cage aquaculture in Asia (CAA2)scheduled for 3-8 July 2006 will discussthe following topics:• Recent advances and innovations incage culture technologies.• Cage design, structure and materials• Site and species selection.• Nutrition, feed, feeding technologiesand management.• Disease prevention and health management.• Economics and marketing.• Sustainable management and development.• Policy and regulation.• Constraints to cage culture development.• Conflicts between cage culture andother stakeholders.For more information, contact:Secretariat, 2nd International Symposiumon Cage Aquaculture in AsiaTel. and Fax +86-571-86971960,Email: CAA2@zju.edu.cn.4 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Sustainable aquacultureSmall-scale pond culture inBangladeshA large number of benefi ciaries from aquaculture.In my previous column, “Asia DevelopmentBank study on Aquaculture andPoverty” (Aquaculture Asia Vol. X, No.3, pages 6-8), I outlined a recent studyto assess channels of effects of aquacultureto generate livelihoods and reducepoverty. Here I present more detailsof a case study from the ADB studyof small-scale fish farmers in Kishoreganjin the Greater Mymensingh Area(GMA), which is the major area forfreshwater aquaculture in Bangladesh.Freshwater aquaculture, primarilythrough farming of carps, plays animportant role in rural livelihoods inBangladesh. It provides employmentand income as well as accounting for60-80% of the animal protein consumedby the population and is a majorsource of essential vitamins, mineralsand fatty acids. Freshwater aquacultureprovides more than a third of the totalfisheries production in the country.October-December 2005Peter Edwards is a consultant, parttime Editor and Asian RegionalCoordinator for CABI’s AquacultureCompendium, and Emeritus Professorat the Asian Institute of Technologywhere he founded the aquacultureprogram. He has nearly 30 yearsexperience in aquaculture in the Asianregion. Email: pedwards@inet.co.th.Over the last decade there has been adramatic increase in freshwater aquacultureproduction, from 124,000 t in1986 to 561,000 t in 2000, with averageyields increasing from 0.84 to 2.44 t/ha.Kishoreganj was one of 22 districtstargeted by the Department of Fisheries(DOF) from 1988 to 1997 under theADB-financed Second Aquaculture DevelopmentProject for the disseminationof improved fish culture practices usingsemi-intensive rather than traditionalextensive carp polyculture technology.The province also benefited from theDANIDA-financed Mymensingh AquacultureExtension Project from 1989 to2003 as well as various developmentprojects funded by the Government,bilateral agencies and multilateralorganizations in collaboration with theDOF.The ADB case study was based inpart on a survey of 100 fish farminghouseholds who owned individuallymanaged ponds. The householdrespondents were selected from threeupazilas typical of the GMA but wherethere had not been intensive extensionsupport. To avoid any significant biasdue to direct assistance, the respondentswere selected from those who had notbeen appointed by DOF as demonstrationfarmers or as extension contactagents.There was an abundant carp seedsupply, as is the case in many partsof Bangladesh, from a large numberof hatcheries. Carp seed prices havedeclined in recent years. Nursing of fryto fingerlings is commonly carried outby household-level small-scale nurseriesin villages, providing employmentto owners and hired labour. Travellingseed traders carry a few thousand fingerlingseach in aluminium containerson foot or bicycle.Traditionally, much of the farmedfish came from ponds constructed asborrow pits, dug to raise the level ofland for village homesteads and roadson the flood plain. With the growingimportance of freshwater aquaculture,ditches that were formerly only floodedseasonally have been converted intoperennial ponds through deepening andexpansion in area.Among the 100 fish farminghousehold respondents, 98% farmeda carp polyculture of up to nine fishspecies. Over 80% of respondentsstocked fingerlings of at least 5-7 cm,and 25% of these stocked fingerlings ofat least 8-10 cm. Among respondents,98% used pond fertilizers (mainly cowmanure and urea but some used poultry5

Sustainable aquaculturemanure and triple superphosphate) and99% used supplementary feed (mainlyrice bran and oil cake but some usedbanana leaves and grass). Over 90%harvested fish more than once per year,almost half using hired local labourersspecialized in providing harvestingservices. Almost half of respondentseither drained or dried their ponds onoccasions.It came as no surprise that theproductivity of the fishponds washigh because of the relatively sophisticated,semi-intensive aquaculturepractice. The average extrapolatedannual fish pond yield in this study was3.1 t/ha, only a little lower than thatof households in ponds in the GMA,3.3 /ha, whose owners received directsupport from the DANIDA-fundedMymensingh Aquaculture ExtensionProject.Small-scale farming householdsbenefited from both sales and consumptionof fish. All respondents sold fish(an average of 244 kg) and 99% ofrespondents consumed fish (an averageof 56 kg). In 2002 each householdreceived an average farm gate price ofTk.39/kg, a gross revenue of Tk.9,500and a net income of Tk.5,400 from fishfarming (US$ 1 = Tk. 58 approximately).The marketing chain for fish wasshort with most farmers selling theirfish locally, either in their own villageor at a nearby upazila market. Mostfarmers did not sell directly to consumersbut dealt with market intermediaries,further generating employment.Households had only moderate experiencein fish farming with over 50%of respondents reporting no more than3-5 years of experience. All surveyedfarmers reported that their current fishfarming practices originated locally;and 90% of them claimed that they hadacquired information on fish farmingfrom other farmers and 40% fromfriends and neighbours. As respondentswere purposefully selected from upazilaswhere there had not been intensiveextension support, and farmers who hadnot been appointed by DOF as demonstrationfarmers or extension contactagents, the major source of informationdissemination was farmer-to-farmer.The requisite fish farming technologyhad been introduced into the area initiallythrough projects but diffusion offeasible and relatively simple, low-costA typical fi sh pond.technology readily occurred throughfarmer-to-farmer contact. The farmersclearly had benefited from aquacultureas 55% of respondents indicateda willingness to pay a modest amountof cash, or in kind as a portion of theharvest, for good extension advice if itwould significantly increase their fishharvest. Thus, privatisation of extensionservices appears to be a feasiblestrategy to reach a large number offarmers and potential new entrant farmersin aquaculture in the area.Most of the respondents (69%) reportedthat they had relied on their ownfinancial resources for operating fishAn itinerant seed trader.ponds. It would thus seem that lackof credit may not hinder small-scalefarmers to stock ponds with fingerlings,particularly when much of the fertilizerand supplementary feed can be obtainedfrom on or around the farm.In the context of rural Bangladesh,fishpond owners may be generally categorizedas relatively better-off amongrural households. However, they donot necessarily escape from poverty.Among small landowners in Bangladeshwith moderate access to land of0.5-1 ha, including fish ponds, 34%live below the poverty line. They donot produce much surplus from farm-6 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Sustainable aquacultureA fi sh harvesting team at work.ing and are vulnerable to crises. Evensome fishpond owners who may becategorized as medium-size landownerswith 1-2 ha of land are also vulnerable,and 25% of them live below thepoverty line with the rest precariouslyabove it. They can easily slide intopoverty when faced with an unexpectedcrisis. A large majority of therespondents in the study were exposedto several crises, the most serious beingillness of household members, shortageof food and damage due to floods, erosion,heavy rain and cyclones.The respondents were optimisticabout the benefits of fish farming.Compared to 5 years ago, the surveyedhouseholds overwhelmingly confirmedthat :• their food and fish consumption hadincreased;• they had benefited from employmentand cash income;• conditions of natural resources forfish farming had not declined;• access to aquaculture technologyhad improved; and• adoption of fish farming technologyhad increased.The respondents were also optimisticabout their future in fish farming andanticipated that they would continueto benefit from aquaculture. A largemajority (90%) of respondents wouldcontinue to farm fish while the restwere undecided. The minority whowere undecided about continuing tofarm fish reported various reasons suchas potential conflicts related to multiplepond ownership, inadequate knowledge,low profitability, and insufficienttime for fish farming.The study on which this column isbased is available on the ADB web siteand as a printed book with the title “AnEvaluation of Small-scale FreshwaterRural Aquaculture Development forPoverty Reduction:http://www.adb.org/Documents/Reports/Evaluation/sst-reg-2004-07/default.asp?p=opereval.Also listed at oneFish:http://www.onefish.org/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND04MTU1MS4yNDk2MDomNj1IbiYzMzlkb2N1bWVudHMmMzc9aW5mbw~~#koinfo.For a hard copy contact: NjomanGeorge Bestari, Senior EvaluationSpecialist, Operations EvaluationDepartment, Asian Development Bank,Email: nbestari@adb.org, Tel: (632)632-5690, Fax: (632) 636-2161.Agronomic Management of Wetland CropsThe productive potential of wetlandshas received little attention despite theabundance of such areas in Asian countries,which is comparable in area to arablecroplands. Wetlands, whether theyare permanent or ephemeral in nature,have significant potential to produceaquatic crops including fish for foodand ornamental purposes, fodder crops,medicinal and aromatic plants. AgronomicManagement of Wetland Cropsseeks to redress this issue by providingguidance on selection and cultivationand utility of wetland crops, with referenceto soil and water characteristics.The book begins with an introductorysection that describes the generalfeatures of wetlands including theircharacteristics, importance, classification(including of coastal wetlands),water quality and some of the commonproblems they face from a commonpublic perception of being ‘marginal’lands. The second section of the bookcontains seven chapters devoted towetland crops, including aquatic foodcrops, ornamental plants, non-foodcommercial crops, fodder crops,medicinal leafy vegetables, aromaticplants and aquatic weeds. The bookis 315 pages in length and includesaround 100 photographs.Dr A.M. Puste is Professor ofthe Department of Agronomy, BidhanChandra Krishi ViswavidyalayaAgricultural University. He has morethan 25 years in water management andmany aspects of wetland research.October-December 20057

People in aquacultureCommunity based aquaculture - issues and challengesH.K.De and G.S.SahaTechnology Evaluation and Transfer Division, Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture, Bhubaneswar, Orissa 751 002.In many parts of the world capturefisheries are under pressure or in crisis.Many of the management problemsin fisheries have been attributed to theremoteness of government from thepeople and the activities it wishes toregulate. Fisheries management is notso much about managing fish, it’s allabout managing the way people andfishers capture fish and affect theirenvironment. With India’s populationincreasing and expected to touch1.33 billion by 2020, the demand forfish is growing. However, because ofthe shift in consumption pattern as aconsequence of economic development,the demand for food fish is also on theincrease. When supply cannot copewith demand, price rises and it is thepoor who find fish disappearing fromtheir food basket 1 .Participatory fisheriesmanagementParticipatory fisheries management isan innovative approach to decentralizemanagement authority and make thefishermen resource managers 2 . The ideaof resource users as resource managersmakes sense because it is in theirinterest to ensure that the long-termproductivity, stability, sustainability,equity, bio-diversity of the fisheriesresource are looked after. Many fishermenfeel that government interventionin fisheries has lacked commitment andsustained effort, with many fisheriespolicies and assistance programmeslacking consistency and continuity.Fisheries management has traditionallybeen carried out in a very impersonalkind of way. The old ‘custodian’fisheries management system, developedand followed over a hundredyears, were rendered ineffective inthe fifties and sixties due to variousreasons. The time has come for governmentsto recognize the rights andconcessions of the people eking out aliving from the fisheries resources; theemphasis on direct financial gain mustalso be subordinated to environmentalsustainability; and the people must beinvolved and take some responsibilityin the management of the resource. Forthese things to happen, the people whohave often been considered as unauthorizedintruders and denied access tofishery resources, must be accepted aspartners in the process of development.Community based aquaculturemanagement, based on the principles ofparticipation, is receiving increased attention.In Orissa, several fish farminggroups have been organized and givenlease of community tanks for productiveuse. It is often argued that communitybased management of fisheriesoften delivers better results than ‘traditional’government based management.However, quantitative data in supportof such assertions are difficult to find.We have made an attempt to evaluatethe performance of community-basedaquaculture in qualitative terms. Factorsresponsible for the success or failureof community-based aquaculturehave also been identified.The studyThe study was undertaken in PuriDistrict of Orissa and in Purulia Districtof West Bengal. We adopted a casestudy approach where in-depth datawas collected from both successful andnot so successful community basedaquaculture systems. We conductedfocus group interviews of 70 membersof such groups to elicit the reasons forsuccess or failure of such communityinitiatives.ConstraintsWe identified a range of importantconstraints based on discussionwith the experts in related fields andthrough review of relevant literature.We presented the list of constraints tothe respondents, who were asked torank each against a three-point scaleof severity; a score of three indicateda strong constraint; two indicated aneutral reaction or no opinion; andone a weak constraint. Constraintswere ranked based on the mean scoreobtained and are discussed below,in order of the perceived severity byrespondents.1. Conflict in distribution ofbenefitInequitable distribution of benefits wascited as the most severe constraint tothe development of community basedaquaculture by 80% of the respondents.There are some members who rarelytake part in any of the activity, andwhose participation is rather passive innature. Though efforts are being madeby the Panchayet (village committees) alot of improvement is required. Sharingof benefit equally among the membersmay create bitterness in such instances;in other words respondents felt that therelative efforts of participants shouldbe a factor that is considered in thedistribution of benefits.2. Dominance of individualsThe second important constraint identifiedby the respondents was dominanceof community-based aquaculture byparticular individuals, for exampleduring the conduct of meetings. Trueparticipation may not occur unless theviews of each member are respected. InPuri District we observed that only oneor two members would actively speakat a meeting and the others simplyattend and agree to whatever he or shesays.3. Absence of community love,sense of mutual cooperationAn honest and respected local leadercan foster community love and derivecommitment for mutual support. Theabsence of such a leader can be an importantconstraint to community basedaquaculture management, which cannot8 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

People in aquacultureTable 1. Constraints to community based aquaculture (n=70)Constraint Mean score RankConflict on distribution of produce/benefits 77.7 1Domination of individuals in the whole affair 73.7 2Absence of community love, sense of mutual371.1cooperationConflict on right to catch small assorted fish 55.5 4Poor technical skill of farmers 48.8 5Failure of executive committee to protect the interest646.6of the membersMarket intermediaries 44.4 7succeed without the willing support andcooperation of all members. Seventyone percent of the respondents felt thatthere is need for more commitmentand involvement of all participants inachieving the common goal.4. Right to catch small, assortedfishFringe dwellers, who used to look atcommunity water bodies as commonresources, continue to catch fish asif it is their right to do so. Self-helpgroups that had obtained a lease tocultivate water bodies felt that this wasdetrimental to fish production. In afew cases in Orissa as well as in WestBengal the conflict had led to closureof the community based aquaculturemanagement activity and the waterbody lay unproductive. This is thefourth important constraint in descendingorder of severity. Some communitybased aquaculture groups enacted theirown restrictions on the kind of nets thatcould be used by fringe dwellers andimplemented checks to ensure that highvalue fishes were not being caught.5. Poor technical skill of farmersOctober-December 2005Technical knowledge and skill of fishfarmers was found to be poor. Futuretechnologies are going to be knowledgeand skill intensive. Surveys indicatedthat the majority of fish farmers followage-old practices and as a consequencethey get a very low yield (sometimesbelow 1 ton/ha/yr.). Farmers also lackexpertise in dealing with disease andmortality. McNeil 2 emphasized technicalcompetency to bring about theadoption of new knowledge and skill.Informal education, group discussions,community video and method demonstrationswould help reinforcing theskills needed to improve production.6. Failure of executive committeeto protect the interest of themembersRespondents reported that executivecommittee members who are supposedto protect the interest of members haveat times failed to do so. Though it wasnot ranked as a significant constraintby respondents, some communitybased aquaculture management activitiesceased to function owing to suchfailures. The siphoning of benefits bya few members for their own personalgratification was an issue reported by47% of the respondents.7. Market intermediariesDisposal of fish at poses a great problemat times. In our survey 44 % of therespondents indicated that this was aconstraint. In the absence of organisedmarketing farmers have two options -(i) take it to nearby market and wait forthe customer or (ii) sell it to a middlemanat a much lower price. Quite oftenthe farmers resort to the second optionand as a consequence get a poor price.ConclusionThe past decade has witnessed anenormous expansion in the potentialscope of fisheries in developing countries.This change is an expression ofessentially two interrelated factors – (i)a broad movement towards increasedparticipation of local people in developmentand (ii) recognition of fisheries asa weapon to fight poverty and malnutrition.If sustainable aquaculture managementis to occur, the movement mustbe broad based involving a broad rangeof stakeholders. Fishermen, NGOs, linedepartments, research institutes all holdpart of the answer.While participatory management ofwater bodies for culture based fisheriesare being promoted it should not bepresumed that this will in itself lead toequitable distribution within the localpopulation. Community based aquaculturehas many advantages and maybe used as an alternative to conventionalcentralized fisheries managementsystems. Community based aquaculturehas the potential to allow allstakeholders a greater participation inthe decision making process, hence itcreates a more transparent managementsystem. It will also improve compliancebecause stakeholders will developa feeling of ownership concerning alldecisions. A more effective fisheriesmanagement will result, as stakeholderswill be more inclined to voluntarilycomply with rules that they had themselvesagreed to.References1. De, H.K and G.S.Saha (1999) Participatory fisheriesmanagement Aquaculture Asia IV (3) pp 31-32.2. De, H.K and G.S.Saha (2005) Aquaculture extensionin India – few emerging issues IN Development initiativesfor farming community (eds.) Baldeo Singhand R. N.Padaria ISEE, New Delhi. pp 418-423.3. McNeil, T.S. (1984) The human side of aquaculture.Proc. of the National Aquaculture ConferenceStrategies for Aquaculture Development in Canada,75 pp.Why don’t you join ouronline community?2,000 members700 free publications• www.enaca.org •9

People in aquacultureAquaculture as an action programme: An exercise inbuilding confidence and self worthB. Shanthi, V.S. Chandrasekaran, M. Kailasam, M. Muralidar, T. Ravisankar, C. Sarada and M. KrishnanCentral Institute of Brackish Water Aquaculture, 75 Santhome High Road, R.A. Puram, Chennai – 600 028, IndiaThe ageing of the population is one ofthe biggest challenges facing presentday social policy makers. There will benearly 100 million people of pensionableage, with the steepest increaseamong those of 80 or more, whosenumbers are set to quadruple between1960 and 2020 1 .It is important that the senior citizensof the developing countries arealso given the opportunities to developsocial and economic skills that willsustain their interest for life and valuesof life. It is equally important that theyalso get involved in social activitiesthat will help them to keep physicallyand mentally occupied.Beliefs about desirable levels ofactivity in older people need to bechanged. Despite the natural effects ofageing, including diminishing capabilities,chronic diseases and handicaps, wenow have the knowledge, the technologyand the skills to prolong personalindependence and a reasonable qualityof life 2 .Action will be needed to relievephysical symptoms and address fearsabout perceived ability to undertakephysical activity 3 . Various forms ofeconomic activities have been suggestedto keep people in the seniorcitizen age group productively occupied.Gardening, carpentry, small-scalefloriculture and masonry are some ofthe activities that have been promotedfor engaging people in this age groupproductively.The emerging multi-disciplinaryfield described as ‘ageing and technology’sets out to prevent or compensatefor declining abilities or age-relatedproblems, improve the quality of lifefor older people and assist their careers,and acquire a better understanding ofthe ageing process 4 .Medical experts have come up withspecific programmes for older peopleto live healthier and longer lives, suchas doing exercise or other things theyResidents of the home.wanted to do. No, researchers havefound an easier way: people 65 yearsand older can extend their lives by doingthings that are easy and enjoyable 2 .The Central Institute of BrackishwaterAquaculture (CIBA) has beenactive in research and development andtransfer of such technologies throughpractical demonstrations. These effortshave been focused towards the disadvantagedsections of the populationalso. The institute has come out with anumber of technologies that have greatrelevance for conducting programmesto build confidence and self-worthamong the not-so-privileged sections ofsociety.This article deals with one suchdemonstration programme, in whichsmall-scale backyard aqua farming canbe advocated as a productive hobby forsenior citizens.The demonstration siteA home for the aged known as “Anbagam”(House of Love) is being runby the Church of South India, Adyar,Chennai. The home was started in 1968and was established in 1969 in thepresent permanent premise. There are42 inhabitants living in Anbagam. Thehome provides a good ambience foraged people and provides proper carein terms of food, shelter and clothing.The home has a small man-made pondof approximately 0.033 hectares, beingaround 25 metres long and around 16metres wide and 75cm deep. The waterlevel is maintained by daily pumping tocompensate for seepage and evaporation.The water and soil of the pond weretested and deemed to be suitable forbrackishwater aquaculture, so culture ofbrackishwater fishes was trialled withtechnical support from CIBA. Expertsfrom CIBA visited and surveyed thepond, and suggested the possibilitiesand process of culturing suitable brackishwaterspecies of fish and shrimp.10 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

People in aquacultureAnbagam demonstration pond.Seed stockingMilkfish (Chanos chanos) seed of 15-70mm size, collected from the wild,were stocked at the rate of 8,000/haalong with tiger shrimp Penaeusmonodon seed (PL 12) procured froma local shrimp hatchery, at 70,000/ha.The pond was stocked in May, with theintent to carry out polyculture.Water quality in the pondThe pond water quality parameterswere monitored at frequent intervals.Water samples were collected everymonth and analysed for temperature,pH, salinity, hardness, alkalinity, totalammoniacal nitrogen, nitrite nitrogenand dissolved oxygen (table 1).During the culture period, salinity,pH and temperature ranged between8-10ppt, 7.1-9.1 and 29-33°C. Dissolvedoxygen content, total ammoniaand nitrite nitrogen concentrationswere within permissible levels over theentire culture period.Pond soil analysis revealed that thesoil pH decreased from 8.12 to 7.89 andthe organic carbon content increasedfrom 0.78 to 9.96% at harvest time,indicating the accumulation of organicmatter on the pond bottom (table 2).Feeding6pm. The feed ratio increased graduallyas the fish and shrimp gained weight.CIBA starter feed was provided in theinitial phase for 30 days for the tigershrimp followed by grower feed for thenext 30 days and finisher feed up to 40days. A check tray was used to monitorfeed consumption.Shrimp and fish productionThe harvesting was carried out withcast nets and by hand picking. The milkfish attained an average size of 265mm(range 230-300mm) and 275g weight(range 250-300g) in 130 days, and thetotal yield of milkfish was around 40kg.The survival rate was around 92%for milkfish and 20% for shrimp.The shrimp and fish production wasequivalent to 330kg/ha and 1,212kg/harespectively.Economic analysis ofpolyculture trial carried outin AnbagamThe results of the economic analysisdone of the data obtained from thetrial conducted in Anbagam pond arepresented in table 3. This analysis consistsof two parts: Actual data from thepresent trial is in part A. This includesthe items given free of cost to theparticipants. In part B, the same datais analysed taking market value as thecost of items for the free items listed inthe trial. The general assumptions madeare kept common for both scenarios. Itis clear from the analysis presented thatboth enterprises are viable activities forthe inhabitants of Anbagam.The gross return was Rs. 2000 fromshrimp and Rs 1200 from milk fish.The net return realised from shrimpwas Rs. 1520 and from milkfish Rs575. In the given situation of inhabitantscarrying out the culture withoutaid, the activity is still viable with a netreturn of Rs. 775 for shrimp and Rs.191 from milk fish. The undiscountedbenefit:cost ration of 1.63 and 1.19 forshrimp and milk fish is acceptable.The income could be further improvedif the survival of the stock couldbe maintained at 60%. This is reflectedby the sensitivity analysis done withthe data presented above showing thatthe net return could be increased toRs. 3,805 from tiger shrimp alone ifthe survival rate could be improved toConventional fish feed containing ricebrand and oil seed cake mixture wasgiven to milk fish twice daily at therate of 3% of body weight, at 9am andCast net catch of milk fi sh and tiger shrimp.October-December 200511

People in aquaculture60%. In this sum, the activity is a viablelivelihood option for the inhabitantsof Anbagam.Confidence building andself-worthThe ultimate objective of the trial wasnot just to demonstrate the economicviability of the activity, but to demonstratethe positive social benefits andimproved quality of life that accrued tothe elderly people of Anbagam throughtheir participation. Any extensionexercise in terms of an action programmeneeds to be monitored not onlyin terms of physical output generatedby the experiment, but also in terms ofthe participation of the people. In thistrial, all 42 of the elderly people livingin Anbagam actively participated in thefish farming project during the entireculture period. We noted that peopleassisted each other and enthusiasticallyidentified themselves with the farmingactivity. The participants themselvesindicated that they felt an overall improvementin their physical and mentalwell-being during the course of thework, partly due to a degree of physicalactivity but also from a sense ofinvolvement.The aged people engaged themselvesin monitoring pond water depth,supplementing the water pumpingoperations, feeding, netting and relatedactivities. The whole programmeenabled them to improve the qualityof time that they spend in their dailylife. The trial also offered them anopportunity to affirm their self-worthby increasing their income through thesale of fish and shrimp produced fromthe backyard pond of their home.Harvested shrimp.Harvested milk fi sh.AcknowledgementThe authors are thankful to Dr. P.Ravichandran, Director of CIBA, forhis guidance and encouragement. Theauthors are also thankful to Dr MathewAbraham, Dr. A.R. Thirunavukarasu,Dr. S.M. Pillai, Dr. N. Kalaimani, Dr.S.A. Ali, Dr. B.P. Gupta, Principal Scientists,for their active participation andperiodic review of the farm operations.Scientists and residents of the house with the shrimp and fi sh they have harvestedfrom their backyard pond.12 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

People in aquacultureTable 1. Water quality parameters during the trials.Month Temp. pH Salinity(ppt)Hardness(ppm)Alkalinity(ppm)Total ammonianitrogenNitrite N(ppm)Dissolved oxygen(ppm)June 30-32 7.1-8.2 8-10 1087.5 97 0.177 0.234 8.0July 29-30 7.2-8.0 8-10 1248 95 0.416 0.18 14.9August 32-33 7.2-8.1 8-10 1186 99 0.495 0.218 7.4September 29-30 7.2-8.3 8-10 1309 102 0.546 0.284 7.9References1. Becker, G.S. (1976). The Theory of the Allocationof Time. In: The Economic Approach to HumanBehaviour, University of Chicago Press.2. Gershuny, J. (2000). “Withdrawal from Employmentof Older Finnish Workers”, Australian Journal ofLabour Economics, Vol 4, No. 4: 340-359.3. Age and Ageing 2004. Age and Ageing, Vol. 33 No.3: 287-292. British Geriatrics Society, London.4. OCECD (2000a). “How will ageing affect Finland?”.OECD Economic Surveys, Finland. Paris.Table 2. Pond soil analyses during the trials.Month PH E.C. (ds/μ) Organic carbon %June 8.12 2.8 0.78July 8.04 3.0 0.84August 8.10 3.1 0.92September 7.89 3.1 0.96Table 3. Economic analysis of the trial outcomes.Assumptions Tiger shrimp MilkfishArea 0.033ha 0.033haStocking rate/ha 70,000 8,000Survival rate 20% 92%Average harvest weight 25g 275gPrice/kg Rs. 200 Rs. 30Costs/return operating costs Quantity Value Total Quantity Value TotalFry 2,000 Free Free 265 Free FreeFeed 1.5 Free Free 60 Free FreePower - - 480 - - 625Total operating costs - - 480 - - 625Gross return 10 200 2,000 40 30 1,200Net return - - 1,520 - - 575Without aidFry 2,000 0.35 700 265 0.75 198.75Feed 1.5 30 45 185Power 0 0 480 0 0 625Total operating costs - - 1,225 - - 1,008.75Gross return 10 200 2,000 40 30 1,200Net return 775 191.25Undiscounted benefit:cost ratio 1.63 1.19Sensitivity analysis with 60% survivalGross return 30 200 6,000Total operating costs + increased feed 2,195Net return 3,805Undiscounted benefit:cost ration over total operationalcosts1.73October-December 200513

People in aquacultureThe STREAM ColumnTransforming policy recommendations into pro-poor service provision - the NACARegional Lead Center in India and the STREAM Initiative working together for changeIn eastern India a great many peoplehave been working towards revisedprocedures and institutional arrangementsfor service delivery for aquaculture.This work has centered onimplementing recommendations thatarose from and were prioritized byfarmers and fishers 1 .NACA, through DFID NRSP supportto its STREAM Initiative, hasbeen working closely with the CentralInstitute for Freshwater Aquaculture(CIFA), the Regional Lead Center forIndia. Together they have been supportinggovernment and NGO serviceproviders to implement the recommendationsof farmers and fishers, some ofwhich have now become policy in thenortheastern Indian states of Orissa,West Bengal and Jharkhand.A priority recommendationof farmers and fishers was to“develop infrastructure for timelyproduction of fingerlings at locallevel”In western Orissa the supply of fingerlingsis one of the key constraintsto aquaculture development. Some ofthe government hatchery infrastructurefor local seed production has falleninto disrepair. There is also limitedhuman and physical capacity in thegovernment sector for nursing seed tofingerling size, which is the most valuablestage for poor farmers utilizingseasonal water bodies 2 . The Governmentof Orissa this year undertook anexperiment on fingerling production inNuapara District together with an NGOand a one community-based One-stopAqua Shop (OAS) 3 in West Bengal,which acquired access to ponds forfingerling production and commenced afingerling supply service.The experiment involved inexpensive,plastic-reinforced fibreglass hatchingand spawning tank designs thatwere tested by a previous CIFA “Plasticsin Aquaculture” project, but whichhad not yet emerged from on-stationtrials. It was undertaken by a watershedBilenjore hatchery.Project Implementing Agency (PIA) ofthe Western Orissa Rural LivelihoodsProject (WORLP), the NGO SahabhagiVikas Abhiyan (SVA), with CIFA andNACA through STREAM providinghatchery design and training to operatethe system for spawning Indian MajorCarps and Common Carp. The hatcherywhich costs around 1/10th of the costof a traditional concrete hatchery canproduce around 25 million seed.Fish hatchery Nuapara, OrissaIn addition, SVA and STREAM workedtogether to plan and operate a networkof self-help groups, each with suitablesmall shallow water bodies, to nursethe seed from the hatchery to fry (25-30mm) and fingerlings (100-150 mm) intime for stocking both seasonal andperennial water bodies. It is importantto link nursing management withhatchery management. This is becauseit takes longer to prepare a pond to producean abundant crop of natural feed,to receive first-feeding spawn, than tospawn seed for stocking. Schedulingpond preparation and spawning is acrucial issue for success, with implicationsfor communications and managementof nursing networks. One smallhatchery with a 3-m spawning tank and3 x 2 m hatching tanks can service 100SHGs with fish seed over its 30-dayperiod of operation during the rainyseason, with a pay-back period (basedon capital and operating costs) of twoseasons. Each SHG (with on average 3x 0.02-ha nursery ponds around 1.5-mdeep) can realize an operating profit ofaround $1,000 over a one-to-two monthnursing period. One hundred SHGsproduce collectively enough fingerlingsto stock around 2,000 ha of water area(several meters deep) with a productioncapacity of around $1 million of marketablefish at local rates. In the contextof western Orissa, this is an attractiveincome-generating option for NGOsLate night spawning.14 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

People in aquacultureoperating hatchery modules, with interestalso from the small-scale privatesector, SHGs within a nursing network,and government who wish to increasefish production to match state demand.The federation of SHGs that operatesan OAS in Kaipara Village, WestBengal, has taken ponds for fingerlingproduction on lease, acquired fishingnets and other equipment, which itleases to SHGs. They have commenceda fingerling supply service that satisfiesa local demand and provides a return tosupport the operation of the OAS.Another recommendation was toextend the lease period of pondsSingle year leases for fish ponds werecommon but unpopular. A longertimeframe allows for better managementand a greater overall return oninvestment. As a result of positivefollow up at national and state levelsto this recommendation from farmersand fishers, the pond lease periodis now increased to up to five years inOrissa, West Bengal and Jharkhand andefforts are under way to make it easierfor Self Help Groups (SHGs) to bid forthe leases of their local tanks. Thereis evidence emerging that the new arrangementis more attractive to SHGsthan the annual lease, and that takingon such leases can be beneficial to theimprovement and stability of rurallivelihoods. An example of a groupresponding to this change is describedin the STREAM story The KhandkhlegoanStory 4 .There is no preference given to localSHGs; the lease auction system remainsan open bidding process with thelease going to the highest bidder. Thechange is that SHGs are being encouragedto bid and are becoming betterinformed about the timing of auctions.The groups are more organized; moreempowered and are developing greaterresolve to win auctions. Many still havelittle guidance on appropriate upperlimits for lease bids in relation to potentialcosts and benefits, so STREAMis currently working with NR Internationaland the Orissa government toprovide this.October-December 2005A third recommendation was forthe establishment of ‘single-pointunder-one-roof service provision’and a forth to change howinformation is made available tofarmersThe establishment of local institutionscalled One-stop Aqua Shops (OASs)is proving popular with SHGs andfarmers, as well as service providers.Fisheries Extension Officers find iteasier to service the needs of an administrativeblock if, at least some of thetime, farmers can come to them. Banksand suppliers of inputs and servicesalso strongly welcome the opportunityto reach an otherwise disparate market.So far a total of nine OASs have beenestablished. Different OAS modelshave emerged: an experiment in the reformof the Fish Farmers DevelopmentAgency (FFDA) in the governmentsector of Jharkhand; developments byNGOs in Orissa one associated with ahatchery; and community-based serviceprovision enabled through a federationof SHGs in West Bengal.NACA through STREAM workingwith Orissa Watershed DevelopmentMission, the Western Orissa RuralLivelihoods Project and NR Internationalhave developed a new series ofBetter-Practice Guidelines in Oriyalanguage about rural aquaculture fordistribution through Orissa’s OASs.There are 19 different titles, and so far95,000 are distributed to OASs in thestate.Yet another recommendationwas to ‘encourage integratedaquaculture including simplifiedprocedures for accessinggovernment schemes and bankloans’Extension agencies and financial loanservices have rapidly recognized thevalue of OASs as a focal contact point.OAS Kaipara Run by Federation ofSelf-Help Groups.They are beginning to use OASs formeeting with poor clients and potentialpoor borrowers.The State Bank of India encouragesthe rural banking sector to offertargeted financial services, throughlocal branches, to people who are poor.Encouragingly, this is not altruism,extremely well targeted micro-credit isan excellent business opportunity recognizedby the banking sector becauseof the repayment rates by small-scaleentrepreneurs they have experienced.Micro-credit providers, like, for example,Mallyabhum Gramin Bank inWest Bengal have welcomed the launchof OAS to help to share informationabout and opportunities to accesstheir products. Mr Bipra Das Midya,Area Manager, and Mr Ajit Banerjeeof Mallabhum Gramin Bank, Purulia(who featured in the Back to Jabarrahstory and other project reports of DFIDNRSP research), have ledger data forloans to SHGs choosing to adopt ruralaquaculture with better repayment ratesthan any other rural income generatingoptions.So where does all this lead?The good news is that farmers andfishers have had an opportunity to voicetheir recommendations for changes.The great news is that their voices havebeen heard and their recommendationsare finding their way into policy; andthe early indications are that the resultingpolicies are popular. The modularapproach to developing hatchery infrastructureand an associated network ofnursery pond operators (mainly Self-Help Groups), based on the experimentconducted in western Orissa, has beenvery successful and has been adoptedby the Government of Orissa, OrissaWatersheds Development Mission, as a15

People in aquaculturedevelopment plan for improving timelyproduction of fingerlings at local levelin its five-year plan (2006-10).The OAS concept has been carefullynurtured and its implementation isbeing successfully piloted by differentstakeholders in all three states. NGOshave been especially receptive andhave developed good facilities. TheSHG federation in Kaipara, West Bengal,is using the OAS to draw down thesupport they need and has implementedmany innovative income-generatingideas, providing goods and services foraquaculture locally as well as a sourceof revenue to sustain the OAS. Thedevelopments within the governmentsector are visible to government and arebeing monitored; because governmentoutlets are essentially seen as cost-centres,they do not share the flexibilityof the voluntary or private sector tobecome financially self-sustaining. Theconcept of local-level institutions likeOASs generating their own income istesting the government bureaucracyand its implementation. However, thecommitments of staff, infrastructureand materials from different sectorswithin government have given rise tosustained opportunities for the implementationof the OAS concept.OAS Kaipara, West BengalIn an age where previously unprecedentedlevels of communication arebecoming possible even in the mostremote of Orissa’s rural districts, theOAS has became a focus of improvedservice provision and is changing theway that information is being madeavailable, which is what farmers andfishers originally requested as a serviceprovision priority. The OAS and localhatcheries enable service providers toget ‘closer’ to communities through thedevelopment of information and servicefocal points.We invite your comments and feedbackrelated to the STREAM Column,which can be relayed to:STREAM Regional Officec/o NACADepartment of Fisheries ComplexKasetsart University CampusPhaholyothin RdBangkhen, Bangkok 10903ThailandPhone: +662 561 1728/29Fax: +662 561 1727Email: stream@enaca.orgAll references may be downloaded from:http://www.streaminitative.org.1. DFID NRSP R8100 reports.2. DFID NRSP R6759 reports.3. DFID NRSP R8334 reports.4. Available from www.streaminitiative.org/Library.Grow-out of juvenile spotted Babylon to marketable size inearthen ponds II: Polyculture with sea bassS. Kritsanapuntu 1 , N. Chaitanawisuti 2 , W. Santhaweesuk 2 and Y. Natsukari 31. Faculty of Technology and Management, Prince of Songkla University, Suratani, Thailand; 2. Aquatic ResourcesResearch institute,Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,Thailand 10330; 3. Faculty ofFisheries, Nagasaki University, 1-14Bunkyo-Machi, Nagasaki, 852 Japan.In our previous study (see AquacultureAsia Vol. 10 No. 3, July-September2005), we conducted a trial growoutand economic analysis of monocultureof juvenile spotted Babylon Babyloniaareolata to marketable sizes in Thailand,in disused earthen shrimp ponds.The enterprise budgets, based on theprice of spotted Babylon at farm gateof $9.00/kg, resulted in a gross return,net return, return to capital and managementand return on investment of$37,936, $14,691, $16,932 and 7.38,respectively. This demonstrated theeconomic feasibility of this approach,offering an alternative crop for farmersduring a period in which the shrimpindustry is undergoing a price slumpdue to an international over supply.The second part of our research hasfocused on farming spotted Babylonin polyculture as a measure to increasethe production and profitability of thesystem. Several marine shellfish specieshave been used in other polyculturesystems in the past, augmentingharvests through more efficient use ofspace and food resources, and the polycultureof shellfish with fish presentedsome possibility of a complementaryarrangement 1 . More recently, Chaitanawisutiet al. 2 reported the results ofpolyculture of spotted Babylon andAsian seabass L. calcarifer in concreteponds (3.0 x 4.5 x 0.5m), suppliedwith a flow-through seawater system.Average growth of spotted Babylonwas 1.17g/month, survival 96%, FCR1.34 and total production 29.0kg. Whilethis trial demonstrated the technicalfeasibility of the system, the economicfeasibility must also be proven for thesuccessful development of spottedBabylon aquaculture operations. Wetherefore set out to conduct a financialinvestment analysis tied to biological,production, cost, and market price variables,which we used to make decisionsabout culture methods and economicviability for commercial operation ofthis enterprise. The outcome of theanalysis was used to develop commercialland-based grow-out operations ofspotted Babylon in earthen ponds inThailand. This article is a summary ofour findings and experience.16 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Research & farming techniquesPond design and operationThis study was conducted at the Researchand Technology Transfer Unitof Thai Babylon Breeding and Culture,Chulalongkorn University, Petchaburiprovince, Thailand. A total farm area of0.8 ha was used, comprising 0.3 ha ofgrow-out earthen ponds, 0.4 ha seawaterreservoir and 0.08 ha accommodationand office. Eight 20 x 20m earthenponds of 1.5m depth were used for themonoculture and polyculture trials.Pond walls were 1.5m in height, 3.0min width at the base and 2.5 m in widthat the top. The pond bottoms werecovered with 10-15cm layer of coarsesand. Each grow-out pond was fencedwith a plastic net of 15 mm mesh sizeand 1.2 m in height, supported withbamboo frames for strengthening. Wefound that the bottom of the plasticnet must be buried under the sand to adepth of about 6cm to limit movementof snails along the pond bottom andpond wall, and to ease harvesting. Priorto the start of the grow-out, all pondswere dried for two weeks and thenfilled with ambient unfiltered naturalseawater from a nearby unlined canal toa depth of 70 cm. The seawater intakesystem was powered by one 5.5-hpengine equipped with water pump of12.5cm diameter outlet pipe. Two airblowers (2 Hp) were used to supplyhigh volume air for all grow-out ponds.PVC pipes of 2.54 cm in diameter wereconnected to the outlet of the air blowerand extended to the pond dike of eachpond. Four polyethylene pipes of 18mlength and 1.6c m diameter were connectedto the PVC pipe and extendedacross the pond, suspended approximately10cm above the bottom withbamboo stakes. Each pipe was piercedwith 10 holes of 1.5mm in diameter,Production of spotted Babylon after harvest.Production of sea bass after harvest.And here they are...on sale in aBangkok restaurant (photo from theEditor’s camera phone).October-December 2005Babylonia are becoming popular throughout the region - these werephotographed at Huangsha Live Seafood Wholesale Market in Guangzhou, China.17

Research & farming techniquesapproximately 2m apart, to provideaeration. Aerators were operated for 16- 20 hours per day and turned off duringfeeding.Polyculture trialsA 20.0 x 20.0 x 1.5 m grow-out earthen pond for polyculture of spotted Babylonwith sea bass in a total farm area of 0.8 ha.Spotted Babylon and sea bass fingerlingswere purchased from a privatehatchery. Individuals from the samecohort were sorted by size to minimizedifferences in shell length and toprevent possible growth retardation ofsmall Babylon by larger individuals.The spotted Babylon juveniles had anaverage shell length of 1.1cm and bodyweight of 0.5 g, respectively. Seabassfingerlings were stocked at an averageof 12.7cm and 37.2g. The ponds wereinitially stocked with 200 snails/m 2(80,000 snails per pond) and 5 fish/m 2(2,000 fish per pond), respectively.Grow-out operationClose up of seawater inlet and containment fence.Sea bass were fed to satiation withfresh trash fish twice daily in the morning(09:00) and evening (17:00). SpottedBabylon were fed with fresh trashfish to about 15 - 20% of body weightonce daily in the morning, after the fishwere satiated. The feeding of spottedBabylon was monitored daily using fiftybaited traps. The amount of food wasadjusted every 30 day after measuringbody weight. Fifty percent of seawaterwas exchanged at 15 day intervals andseawater was sampled before waterexchange at 25 cm above pond bottomfor analysis of temperature, salinity,pH, alkalinity, nitrite – nitrogen andammonia – nitrogen following standardmethods as described by APHA et al.1985. Dissolved oxygen was measureddaily. Spotted Babylon were cultureduntil they reached the marketable sizeof 120-150 snails/kg. Grading by sizewas not conducted.GrowthBabylonia seed for stocking.There was no significant differencein the growth rate of spotted Babylonbetween monoculture and polyculturewith seabass. The average growth ratefor snails in polyculture over sevenmonths were 0.51 g/month body weightand 0.33 cm/month. At the end of thetrial the mean (±SE) final body weightof snails was 4.10 ± 0.57g and shell18 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Research & farming techniqueslength was 3.6 ± 0.75cm. The foodconversion ratio for the trial was 2.71and final survival was 84.30%.Fig 1. Growth in body weight of spotted Babylon, B. areolata, in polyculture withsea bass in earthen ponds over a period of seven months.ProductionThe size of the snails produced in thetrial equates to around 214 ± 43.90snail/kg and total yield per productioncycle was equivalent to 10,450 kg/ha.Around 87.6% of snails were in the sizeclass 100-250 snails/kg and the remainder(12.4%) were

Research & farming techniquesTrash fi sh used for feeding of both spotted Babylon and sea bass.Table 1. Parameters used for the economic analysis for polycultureof spotted Babylon with sea bass in a total farm area of 0.8 ha ofearthen ponds in Thailand.ParameterValueA. Farm dataTotal farm area (ha) 0.8Pond size (ha) 0.04Total pond area (ha) 0.32Total area of seawater reservoirs (ha) 0.4B. Stocking dataAverage initial weight of spotted Babylon (g) 0.5Average initial weight of sea bass (g) 2.3Stocking density of spotted Babylon (No./m 2 ) 200Stocking density of sea bass (No./m 2 ) 5C. Harvest dataSpotted BabylonDuration of grow-out (months) 7Average final weight (g) 6.9Average final survival (%) 84.30Feed conversion ratio (FCR) 2.71Yield per production cycle (kg/ha) 10,450Farm gate sale price (US$/kg) 8.75 – 9.25Sea bassDuration of grow-out (months) 6Average final weight (g) 300 - 1200Average final survival (%) 46Feed conversion ratio (FCR) 4.47Yield per production cycle (kg/ha) 12,250Farm gate sale price (US$/kg) 1.89 – 2.25production cycle was estimated to beUS$2,241. The major ownership costitems were depreciation (accounting foraround 76%), land (22%) and intereston investment (about 1.5%) (Table3). Operating costs per productioncycle were estimated to be US$21,004.The five major operating cost items,rounded to the nearest percentage point,were purchasing of spotted Babylonand sea bass seed (around 62%), feed(16%), hired labor (8%) interest oninvestment (7%), and electricity andfuels (5%). (Table 4). Total cost perproduction cycle for polyculture ofspotted Babylon and sea bass in a totalfarm area of 0.8 ha was US$23,245, ofwhich approximately 10% was the costof ownership and 90% was operatingcost.The cost of producing spottedBabylon marketable sizes in this growoutfarm design is $6.95/kg (Table 5).Enterprise budgets of a 0.8ha farmunder polyculture of spotted Babylonand sea bass in earthen ponds arepresented in Table 6. Under a scenarioof a farm gate price of US$9.00/kg forspotted Babylon and US$2.35/kg forseabass the gross return of the systemis US$37,936, net return US$14,691,return to capital $16,932 and return oninvestment 3.50. The breakeven farmgate price-point and yield of the pilotfarm was $6.95/kg for spotted Babylonat a production of 2,582 kg per cycle.Cash-flow budgets were developed toexamine profitability in relation to thetiming of expenditures and earning.Under the farm data, stocking data andharvest data obtained in this study, afarm gate price of $9.00/kg results in apositive cash flow by year two (Table7).A positive net return and a paybackperiod of less than five years are oftenused as business investment criteria.Under the farm design and prevailingeconomic circumstances of this studypolyculture of spotted Babylon andAsian seabass is both technically andeconomically feasible, although there ismuch scope to improve culture efficiencythrough investigations to optimizepond design, water depth, feedingstrategies (particularly feed competition)and water and pond management.The profitability also can be improvedby targeting production, decreasing theculture period to 5-6 months, reducing20 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Research & farming techniquesthe juvenile price to $0.01/piece andconducting more than one productioncycle per year.Literature cited1. Hunt, J.W., M.S. Foster, J.W. Nybakken, R.J. Larsonand E.F. Ebert. 1995. Interactive effects of polyculture,feeding rate, and stocking density on growth ofjuvenile shellfish. Journal of Shellfish Research. 14:191-197.2. Chaitanawisuti, N. Kritsanapuntu, A. and Natsukari,Y. 2001. Growth trials for polyculture of hatcheryrearedjuvenile spotted Babylon, Babylonia areolataLink 1807, in flow-through seawater system. AquacultureResearch 32: 247-250.3. APHA, AWWA, and WPCF. 1985. Standard methodsfor the examination of water and wastewater,16 th Edition. American Public health Association,American Water Works Association and WaterPollution Control Federation, Washington, DC, 1268pp.Table 2. Estimated investments requirement for polyculture of spotted Babylon with sea bass in a totalfarm area of 0.8 ha of earthen ponds in Thailand.Item Investment (US$) % of total costLand rental 500 10.34Construction of eight 20 x 20 x 1.5m grow-out earthen ponds and one 0.4ha1,700 35.14seawater reservoirConstruction of accommodation and storage house 250 5.17Construction of four 3.0 x 5.0 x 0.7 m canvass nursery ponds and housing 625 12.92Water pumps and housing 500 10.34Blowers and housing 500 10.34Traps for sampling and harvesting 100 2.06Operating equipment (PVC pipes, plastic tanks, lighting, salinometer, thermometer,162 3.35etc.)Miscellaneous 500 10.34Total investment 4,837 100Table 3. Estimated ownership costs per production cycle for polyculture of spotted Babylon with seabass in a total farm area of 0.8 ha of earthen ponds in Thailand.Item Investment ($) % of total costLand 500 22.31DepreciationConstruction of grow-out earthen ponds and seawater reservoirs 340 15.17Construction of accommodations and facilities 125 5.58Construction of canvass nursery ponds and housing 312 13.92Water pumps and housing 250 11.16Blowers and housing 250 11.16Traps for sampling and harvesting 1000 4.46Equipment (PVC pipes, plastic tanks, lighting, salinometer, thermometer, etc.) 81 3.61Miscellaneous 250 11.16Interest on fixed cost 33 1.47Total ownership cost 2,242 100Table 4. Estimated operating costs per production cycle for polyculture of spotted Babylon with sea bassin a total farm area of 0.8 ha of earthen ponds in Thailand.Item Investment (US$) % of total costSpotted Babylon seed 11,200 53.32Seabass seed 1,800 8.57Fuels and lubricants 586 2.79Electricity 378 1.80Feed for spotted Babylon 1,358 6.47Feed for seabass 1,920 9.14Labour (2 full time) 1,750 8.33Repairs and maintenance 375 1.79Ice for feed storage 108 0.51Interests on operating capital 1,529 7.28Total operating cost 21,004 100October-December 200521

Research & farming techniquesTable 5. Estimated total cost per production cycle for polyculture of spotted Babylon with sea bass in atotal farm area of 0.8 ha of earthen ponds in Thailand.Item Investment ($) Percent of total costOwnership costs 2,241 9.64• Land 500 2.15• Depreciation 1,708 7.35• Interest on investment 33 0.14Operating costs 21,004 90.36• Spotted Babylon juveniles 11,200 48.18• Sea bass juveniles 1,800 7.74• Fuel and lubricants 586 2.52• Electricity 378 1.63• Feed for spotted Babylon 1,358 5.84• Feed for sea bass 1,920 8.26• Hired labour 1,750 7.53• Repairs and maintenance 375 1.61• Ice for storage of feed 108 0.47• Interests on investment 1,529 6.58Total cost per production cycle 23,245 100Table 6. Enterprise budgets of a total farm area of 8,000 m 2 for polyculture of spotted Babylon with seabass in a total farm area of 0.8 ha of earthen ponds in Thailand.ParameterValueProductionSpotted Babylon * (kg) 3,344Sea bass * (kg) 3,920Costs per production cycleInitial investment requirements 4,837Ownership costs ($) 2,241Operating costs ($) 21,004Total cost ($) 23,245ReturnsGross return ($) 37,936Net returns ($) 14,691Return to capital and management ($) 16,932Return on investment 3.50*Total yield of spotted Babylon and sea bass per production cycle at 0.4 ha- Price at farm gate for spotted Babylon and sea bass of $9.00 and $2.25/kg, respectivelyTable 7. A seven-year cash flow for polyculture of spotted Babylon with sea bass using a total area ofgrow-out earthen ponds of 0.4 ha in Thailand. A stocking density of spotted Babylon of 200 snails/m 2 andprice at farm gate of $9.00/kg.Item Year 1 ($) Year 2 ($) Year 3 ($) Year 4 ($) Year 5 ($) Year 6 ($) Year 7 ($)Investment 4,837 - - - - - -Ownership cost 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241 2,241Operating cost 21,004 21,004 21,004 21,004 21,004 21,004 21,004Total cost 28,082 23,245 23,245 23,245 23,245 23,245 23,245Gross return 37,936 37,936 37,936 37,936 37,936 37,936 37,936Net return 14,691 14,691 14,691 14,691 14,691 14,691 14,691Cumulative -13,391 1,300 15,991 30,682 45,373 60,064 74,75522 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkAsia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkMagazineNow available in ThaiA practical guide to feeds andfeed management for culturedgroupersInfluence of economic conditions ofimporting nations and unforeseenglobal events on grouper marketsSih Yang SimDeakin University, School of Ecology and Environment, PO Box423, Warrnambool, Victoria 3280, Australia. Correspondence by email:sysim70@gmail.comA guide to small-scale marinefinfish hatchery technologyGroupers, family Serranidae, are agroup of expensive marine finfishspecies often served in most diningbanquets in Southeast Asian countries.The grouper species that are commonlyfound in the seafood markets belong tothe Sub-family Epinephelinae and canbe divided into three commonly culturedspecies groups, i.e. Cromileptes,Epinephelus and Plectropomus, whichare normally traded either live or freshchilled in seafood markets. Groupersthat are sold whole are generally smallor plate-size fishes ranging from 300g to 1 kg, greater than 1 kg are sold asfillet or block. Fresh chilled grouperis sold at discounted rates, generally25-30% lower in comparison to thelive form. Therefore, many farmers inthe Asia-Pacific region concentrate onfarming and selling live grouper. Thedemand for live grouper mainly comesfrom China, Hong Kong, and to a lesserextent Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan.Cultured grouper amounts to only8.6% of 52,000 t of the total wildcaught grouper production in Asia,valued at US$238 million (FAO, 2003).Cultured grouper production is on anupward trend, increasing from 0.1 %in 1983 to 1.5% in 2003 in terms ofcontribution to total marine food fishproduction (FAO, 2003).Most grouper are cultured in floatingnet cages either in the open sea or at theseaward end of estuaries. Many farmsfatten wild caught fingerlings and juvenilesand in this situation monocultureis not the usual practice as wild seedis typically supplied as a mix of species.The major constraints for grouperaquaculture have been the inconsistentsupply of fingerlings and artificial dietsfor grow-out. The depletion of wildseed stock has led to the developmentof grouper hatchery technology in theregion, particularly in China, Indonesia,Malaysia, Taiwan and Thailand. Hatcherysurvival rate for many grouper speciesin the region is still low, rangingfrom less than 2% to around 10% (Lim1993), but generally being less than 5%(Sugama et al., 1999). However, thevery high fecundity of grouper speciescompensates for this low survival, helpingto make hatchery operations viable(Bunliptano and Kongkumnerd, 1999).Most grouper farmers in the regionstill use trash fish as the main feedin culture operations. Artificial feedsare used in grouper culture in Indonesia,Hong Kong, and Taiwan, butDownload from www.enaca.orgOctober-December 200523

Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkMarine Finfish AquacultureMagazineAn electronic magazine of theAsia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi shAquaculture NetworkContactAsia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi shAquaculture NetworkPO Box 1040Kasetsart Post Offi ceBangkok 10903, ThailandTel +66-2 561 1728 (ext 120)Fax +66-2 561 1727Email grouper@enaca.orgWebsite http://www.enaca.org/marinefi shEditorsSih Yang SimAsia-Pacifi c Marine Finfi shAquaculture Networkc/o NACAsim@enaca.orgDr Michael J. PhillipsEnvironmental Specialist &Manager of R&D, NACAMichael.Phillips@enaca.orgSimon WilkinsonCommunications Managersimon.wilkinson@enaca.orgDr Mike RimmerPrincipal Fisheries Biologist(Mariculture & StockEnhancement)DPIF, Northern Fisheries CentrePO Box 5396Cairns QLD 4870AustraliaMike.Rimmer@dpi.gov.authe adoption of artificial feeds is stillrelatively limited. This article evaluatesthe economic conditions of importingcountries and the impact of unforeseenglobal events on market susceptibility,and consequently on grouper culture.Materials and methodsOfficial statistics on import of livemarine food fish from 1999 to 2004were obtained from the Agriculture,Fisheries and Conservation Department(AFCD) of Hong Kong, which in turnis based on Hong Kong Trade Statisticsof the Department of Census and Statistics.The statistics on grouper specieswere abstracted from the original livemarine food fish data. Statistics on theconsumption of live marine food fishin Southern China were not available,therefore discussion on grouper consumptionand market trends are basedon Hong Kong statistics only.The wholesale market prices forvarious live marine finfish specieswere obtained from two major marketswebsites in Hong Kong and SouthernChina. These websites provide dailyupdates on the wholesales prices forthe major live marine food fish speciestraded in Hong Kong and SouthernChina. These two websites are:• Fish Marketing Organization(FMO), Hong Kong (http://www.fmo.org.hk/indexeng.html) is a selffinancing,non-profit organization.The FMO currently operates sevenwholesale fish markets in HongKong.• Huangsha Live Seafood WholesaleMarket in Guangzhou, SouthernChina (http://www.gzhsfisher.com/index2.php), is the biggest liveseafood market in China.The wholesales grouper prices fromthese two markets were collected dailythrough the internet. Additional marketinformation and market prices in China,Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand andVietnam were collected during fieldvisits.The gross domestic product (GDP)statistics for Hong Kong and Chinawere collected for the period from1996-2004. GDP is the most widelyused indicator to determine the economicconditions of a given nation byeconomists. If GDP is lower, the economicconditions of a given nation willbe weaker and hence the employmentand income will be affected negatively.In addition, the timing of a SevereAcute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)outbreak and World Health Organization(WHO) warnings were alsocollected to examine the correlationbetween extra-ordinary events and itsaffect on economic conditions.A time series analysis based onthese data was carried out to look atthe effects of economic conditions onvolume imported; SARS outbreak ondemand; price fluctuation during SARSperiod; and the avian bird flu on priceand demand.FindingsGeneral marketsUse of live grouper is often limitedto Chinese cuisine, and consequentlyChina and Hong Kong are the two mainmarkets. These markets are limitedbut lucrative with a total of HK$ 719million of grouper imported into HongKong in 2004, although this is significantlylower (19.8%) than the 2000level of HK$ 896 million. In accordancewith marketing theory groupercan be considered as a “niche market”product, which caters to a small, specializedsegment of the seafood marketwith high return (Kotler, 1991). Thequantities of live grouper and other marinefinfish species and the value of theimports from 1999 to 2004 are given inTables 1 and 2, respectively. It is evidentthat grouper accounted for 56.7 to52.6 % and from 77.9 to 82.4 % of thetotal imports in volume and in value,respectively, indicating the importanceof grouper in the live seafood market inHong Kong.Although Hong Kong also farmsmarine food fish, the quantity producedfrom local farms can only satisfy 12%of the total live fish demand. In 2003,the total cultured fish production inHong Kong was around 1,500 t, valuedat US$9.7 million. Hong Kong has atotal population of 6.8 million, with anannual per capita consumption of fishof around 37 kg (Sim et al., 2004). Theremaining 88% of the live food fish demandcan only be satisfied by imports,particularly from Asian countries. Thedetails of each country that exportedlive marine food fish into Hong Kong24 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Networkfor the period from 1999 to 2004 arepresented in Table 3 (volume) andTable 4 (value), respectively.Since 1997, the market for highvalue live marine food fish species,particularly groupers, has experienced“demand shocks” that are thought tohave been brought about by two majorincidents. The first was the Asianfinancial/economic crisis that occurredin 1997, which brought down a majorityof Asian economies and currencies,including Hong Kong, which experienceda sharp 10% decline from 1997to 1998. The second was the outbreakof diseases such as the severe acuterespiratory syndrome (SARS) in HongKong in 2003, which caused businessand leisure travel to drop significantly.Effects of general economicfactors on marketsIn 1996, Asian countries such as HongKong, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,Singapore, South Korea, Taiwanand Thailand were growing rapidlywith the real GDP growth ranging from4.9 to 8.6% (Karunatilleka, 1999). InJuly 1997, the Asian economic crisisTable 1: Imported quantities (tonnes) of various live marine food fish into Hong Kong from 1999 to 2004.The percentage contribution of grouper to the total volume of imports is given in percentage.Species 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Green Grouper 2,128,792 3,702,581 1,763,506 1,500,925 2,169,574 1,939,592Other Grouper species 2,127,960 2,226,945 2,283,640 1,716,752 1,516,834 1,438,046Tiger Grouper 495,520 172,014 343,408 418,297 488,488 588,142Flowery Grouper 787,623 265,695 324,658 344,431 250,814 366,649Giant Grouper 31,936 23,894 27,605 31,707 62,460 87,447Humpback Grouper 18,475 14,969 18,135 26,374 8,760 27,191Sub-total - Grouper 5,590,306(41.2%)6,406,098(42.4%)4,760,952(39.4%)4,038,486(33.9%)4,496,930(37.1%)4,447,067(33.4%)Leopard Coral Trout 1,754,478 2,649,263 2,301,554 2,468,726 2,337,101 2,452,218Spotted Coral Trout 350,056 202,374 256,589 317,837 199,803 104,260Sub-total – coral trout 2,104,534(15.5%)2,851,637(18.9%)2,558,143(21.2%)2,786,563(23.4%)2,536,904(20.9%)2,556,748(19.2%)Other Marine Fish 3,653,129 5,037,069 4,163,289 4,689,351 4,899,884 6,069,041Mangrove Snapper 1,912,875 613,752 494,838 238,619 101,800 185,150Humphead Wrasse 104,129 81,572 36,952 48,673 46,401 33,471Other Wrasses & Parrotfish 217,598 109,160 70,538 102,856 39,817 14,572Sub-total – other marine fish 5,887,731(43.3%)5,841,553(38.7%)4,765,617(39.4%)5,079,499(42.7%)5,087,902(42.0%)6,302,234(47.4%)Total (kg) 13,582,571 15,099,288 12,084,710 11,904,546 12,121,736 13,305,779Source: Hong Kong Trade Statistics from Census and Statistics Department (1999 to 2004).Table 2: Imported value (HK$ ‘000) of various live marine food fish into Hong Kong from 1999 to 2004. Thepercentage contribution of grouper to the total value of imports is given in percentage.Species 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Green Grouper 150,057 214,598 117,011 102,207 119,089 100,400Other Groupers 154,515 163,212 226,536 190,035 130,871 110,704Tiger Grouper 55,195 17,573 43,647 61,509 50,824 60,564Flowery Grouper 99,681 32,047 40,277 47,611 31,881 42,214Giant Grouper 4,689 2,189 3,795 4,471 6,872 9,361Humpback Grouper 7,302 6,141 7,243 10,500 3,070 13,253Sub-total - grouper 471,439(45.5%)435,760(39.9%)438,509(45.1%)416,333(42.3%)342,607(40.5%)336,496(38.5%)Leopard Coral Trout 276,716 427,381 314,648 366,566 344,692 367,903Spotted Coral Trout 58,977 32,669 54,199 43,529 26,247 14,955Sub-total - coral trout 335,693(32.4%)460,050(42.1%)368,847(37.9%)410,095(41.7%)370,939(43.9%)382,858(43.9%)Other Marine Fish 113,901 152,069 119,246 111,885 109,093 135,133Mangrove Snapper 78,915 27,794 22,727 9,710 3,223 5,458Humphead Wrasse 23,858 13,556 10,293 13,451 11,839 10,118Other Wrasses & Parrotfish 11,884 4,190 13,503 23,011 7,627 2,975Sub-total - other marine fish 228,558(22.1%)197,609(18.0%)165,769(17.0%)158,057(16.0%)131,782(15.6%)153,684(17.6%)Total (HK$) 1,035,690 1,093,419 973,125 984,485 845,328 873,038Source: Hong Kong Trade Statistics from Census and Statistics Department (1999 to 2004).October-December 200525

Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkTable 3: Live marine food fish imported quantity (tonnes) into Hong Kong by country from 1999-2004.Countries 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Thailand 3,537.8 2,990.0 3,018.6 3,020.3 3,181.9 2,755.5China 1,175.9 1,844.6 1,816.9 2,089.2 2,605.1 2,731.5Philippines 661.8 1,214.6 1,205.5 1,433.3 1,584.5 1,557.7Australia 440.6 750.3 1,152.3 1,392.7 1,136.7 981.5Indonesia 1,097.7 1,167.5 1,284.3 1,193.5 999.7 1,040.6Malaysia 782.7 501.8 483.3 497.2 644.1 965.4Taiwan 1,080.2 1,030.6 471.4 102.0 207.2 314.7Japan 0.7 55.5 60.4 77.9 87.8 129.3Maldives 66.5 38.0 113.5 59.0 57.0 80.1Cambodia 20.4 38.5 35.8 43.6 43.5 27.1Vietnam 191.0 188.4 200.0 131.9 23.2 45.1Others 98.4 61.2 115.8 126.5 49.0 65.8Total (kg) 9,153.5 9,880.9 9,957.7 10,166.8 10,619.9 10,696.3Source: Hong Kong Trade Statistics from Census and Statistics Department (1999 to 2004).Table 4: The value of live marine food fish imported into Hong Kong (in HK$ ‘000) by country from 1999-2004.Countries 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004Australia 58,950.1 107,575.0 150,529.2 205,148.3 162,235.2 167,369.0Philippines 65,857.6 124,587.0 121,261.0 140,375.0 155,107.7 140,231.0Indonesia 127,147.4 128,460.7 153,842.6 144,338.2 122,415.6 114,800.0Thailand 175,014.6 131,143.8 137,608.1 95,761.1 100,912.9 89,495.0Malaysia 72,044.7 62,879.3 60,478.8 56,800.7 54,543.8 71,611.0China 16,850.4 24,666.4 28,267.2 31,352.1 36,654.1 28,428.0Taiwan 53,398.9 41,047.9 22,343.0 7,414.9 14,980.9 24,218.0Maldives 7,055.0 4,500.0 11,178.0 5,604.0 5,470.0 7,855.0Japan 45.3 833.1 905.9 2,024.5 3,776.9 9,538.0Cambodia 947.2 3,333.0 1,954.6 1,839.2 2,140.0 1,898.0Vietnam 15,560.1 14,378.5 14,222.4 9,214.9 1,948.8 2,689.0Others 10,195.1 6,574.6 11,354.6 9,895.8 4,656.2 5,657.0Total 603,066.4 649,979.2 713,945.3 709,768.6 664,841.9 663,789.0Source: Hong Kong Trade Statistics from Census and Statistics Department (1999 to 2004).began to affect regional economies andHong Kong, although its currency waspegged to the US dollar at HK$1 =US$0.1282, also suffered significantlywith a sharp decline of GDP growthfrom 5.1% in 1997 to –5.0% in 1998.During this period, the importation oflive marine food fish into Hong Kongexperienced a sharp 15% or 4,132 t decline(Pawiro, 2000). A further declineof -42.45% was experienced in 1999.The increase in consumption of livemarine food fish such as groupers onlyexperienced positive growth of 11.2%or 1,516 t in 2000, after an impressivereal GDP growth of 10.2%. This trend,however, was not maintained as the importvolume for 2001 dropped by 20.0% as the economy contracted againfrom 10.2% (2000) to 0.5% (2001). Afurther import decline of 1.53% in 2002was linked with weak real GDP growthrate of 1.9%. The import volume forlive marine food fish picked up in2003 by 1.87% (12,122 t) and 2004 by9.77% (13,306 t), which were linked toreal GDP of 3.2% and 7.5%, respectively.Figure 1 shows the percentageincrease and decrease of the live marinefood fish imported into Hong Kongin relation to the real GDP rates from1997 to 2004, both rates are movingin the same direction i.e. as economiccondition improve, the import quantityincrease and vice versa.Severe Acute RespiratorySyndrome (SARS) outbreaksThe SARS epidemic in 2003 spreadto 29 countries and three regions, witha total of 8,422 cases and 916 deathsby August 7, 2003. The most severelyaffected countries were China, HongKong, Taiwan and Singapore (Siu andWong, 2004). Table 5 provides a list ofdates and events that are of importanceduring the SARS epidemic period thatwere relevant to Hong Kong and thathad significant effects on the inboundtourism and visitors, and thus the economicconditions.The effects of SARS on grouperdemand were indirect and in two ways.Firstly, SARS outbreaks in the regionhad devastating effects on business andleisure travel into Hong Kong, causingthem to fall by an estimated 80-90 %(Fung, 2004) during the SARS period.Visitor arrivals in Hong Kong experienceda 57.9% drop during secondquarter of 2003, which brought growthrate down to -6.2% for the whole year(Table 6). Tourism related income, bothfor inbound tourism and overnight visitorexpenditure, contributed HK$ 74.93billion in 2003 (Siu and Wong, 2004).26 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkSecondly, domestic demand wasalso affected, collapsing during theSARS outbreak period. The local pressin Hong Kong reported that restaurantand retail outlets experienced a 10-50% drop in sales. People who wereemployed in the tourism and service industrieswere the most affected, resultingin increase in unemployment andunder-employment during the SARSepidemic period (Siu and Wong, 2004).Figure 1: The moving trend of the quantity of live marine fi sh imported into HongKong to the Real GDP, from 1997 to 2004.Market price fluctuationsDue to limited access to market pricesin Hong Kong for live marine food fishprior to December 2002 the followinganalysis only examines the impact ofthe SARS outbreak on grouper marketprices in Hong Kong, particularlyfor the three main grouper speciesnamely Epinephelus fuscoguttatus(tiger grouper), E. coioides (greengrouper), and Plectropomus leopardus(coral trout), and one snapper speciesLutjanus argentimaculatus (mangrovesnapper) for comparison.The selection of these species isbased on their specific characteristics.Coral trout is a high priced species andmajority of the supply comes from wildcapture. Tiger grouper, green grouperand mangrove snapper are mostly culturedfrom hatchery produced fingerlings.Tiger grouper and green grouperare medium and low priced grouperspecies, while mangrove snapper is alow priced substitution.Green grouper, tiger grouper andmangrove snapper experienced adecline in wholesale price duringthe SARS period (Figure 2). Greengrouper was the most affected, pricebeing reduced from a peak average ofUS$13.63/kg to US$8.63/kg, a 36.7 %decline. Tiger grouper and mangrovesnapper also followed similar trendswith average prices of US$20.42/kgto US$17.63/kg, and US$6.71/kgto US$5.24/kg, a 13.8% and 21.9%decline, respectively. However, for wildcaught species such as coral trout, thetrend was reverse. The wholesale pricefor coral trout during the same periodexperienced a 17.9% increase (Figure2).October-December 2005Figure 2: Green grouper, tiger grouper, mangrove snapper and coral trout averagewholesale prices in Hong Kong from January to December 2003 (Source: FMO).Avian bird flu effects on marketPpicesA seafood market survey was conductedin Hong Kong and SouthernChina during June 2004, as an activityunder the Asia-Pacific Marine FinfishAquaculture Network. The surveyprovided an insight into the effecton demand and market prices of livemarine food fish during the Avian BirdFlu outbreak period in the region thatbegan in December 2003 (CDC, 2004).Many countries were affected includingChina, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailandand Vietnam. Avian influenza strains A(H5N1) normally infect birds exclusively,however, it has recently beenfound that the avian influenza can alsobe transmitted to other animals such aspigs, cats, etc. (WHO, 2004a; WHO,2004b; WHO, 2004c; WHO, 2004d;WHO, 2004e).The fear of disease transmissionfrom poultry products to humans probablycontributed to a switch in consump-27

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Networktion from meats to seafood, particularlyfish during the avian influenza period(Wu Guo Can and Kwo Hua Wee, pers.comm.), a view also held by the Mr YeHuan Qiang, Deputy Secretary General,Guangdong Fisheries Association (pers.comm.).Although the consumption statisticswere not available for detailed analysis,the wholesale market prices in SouthernChina provide useful informationfor determining the demand for marinefood fish during this period. Demandand price are generally interrelated,higher demand pushing prices upwards,if supply remains constant.Figure 3 shows that the averagegreen grouper price in Southern Chinaincreased from US$9.24/kg to aboveUS$10/kg from January-December2004. However, the average marketprice for tiger grouper remained stablewithin a range of US$17.4-US$22.11/kg, but the trend was for it to increaseslightly (Figure 3). The average marketprice of coral trout was also maintainedat US$44.44-US$62.26 for the period,and showed an upward trend, particularlyafter July 2004 (Figure 3). Themarket prices for these three grouperspecies show a slight spike over theJanuary-February 2004, the periodaround Chinese New Year (CNY).There are two other grouper speciesthat showed a very clear upward movein market prices in Southern China;E. lanceolatus (giant grouper) and C.altivelis (humpback grouper). Giantgrouper is a moderately priced grouperwith an average wholesale market priceof US$13.79-US$25.22/kg (Figure 4).The market price showed an upwardtrend from December 2003 to December2004. On the other hand, humpbackgrouper, the highest priced grouper,averaged US$79.56-US$109.57/kg alsoshowed an upward trend (Figure 4).Figure 3: The wholesale price of tiger grouper, coral trout and green grouper inSouthern China from December 2003 to October 2004 (Source: Huangsha LiveSeafood Wholesales Market).Figure 4: Giant grouper (a) and humpback grouper (b) wholesale prices inSouthern China from December 2003 to October 2004 (Source: Huangsha LiveSeafood Wholesales Market).DiscussionGrouper species are sought after inHong Kong for wedding and birthdaybanquets, other celebrations, and businessreceptions. As a “luxury” fooditem, their consumption is related to thestrength of the Hong Kong economy.The percentage of imported groupertracks the rise and fall of Hong Kong’sreal GDP (Figure 1). On the other hand,low priced substitute species such asmangrove snapper faced a sharp declinein imports from 1,913 t in 1999 to185 t in 2004, as economic conditionsbegan to improve (Figure 5). Basically,consumers change their consumptionpatterns according to economic conditions,which determine their purchasingpower. Bennett’s Law asserts thatas income rises, consumption patternschange and move away from staplefoods toward higher-quality foods;people eat foods considered more enjoyable,and eat out more often (IFPRI2003, Putnam and Allshouse, 1997).The reverse situation was observed in1997 (Skoufias 2003; Rosegrant andRingler 2000) when the Asian economiccrisis and its intensification in28 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network1998 led to demand pattern changesand increasing price- and income-sensitivityby consumers, who moved awayfrom more expensive foods, switchingto staple foods such as cereals.Economic conditions can also beaffected by various indirect extraordinaryevents such as terrorist attacksand influence disease outbreaks. Theterrorist attacks on the World TradeCenter (USA) on September 11, 2001and Bali Bombing in October 2002had a negative influence on the tourismindustry in the region. However, theSARS outbreak had a more severe affectcausing business and leisure travelto decline, domestic demand to contractand unemployment to escalate in HongKong. APEC (2004) reported that thequarterly GDP in Hong Kong for 2003were 4.4%, 0.6%, 4.0% and 4.9%,respectively. Therefore, SARS becamea major draw back on the Hong Kongeconomic growth for 2003, particularlyfor the second quarter. Restaurants aretraditionally the places serving medium-and high-value marine food fishsuch as grouper. A total of 50 restaurantsin Hong Kong closed temporarilyduring the SARS outbreak period, andthe effects were significant, impactingon some 20,000 people working in therestaurant business (Sim et al., 2003).Being the largest market for livegrouper, Hong Kong economic conditionshave a powerful effect on regionalsupply and prices. Although the SARSoutbreak peaked in April 2003, theimpact on grouper prices did not occuruntil July 2003. Cultured species suchas green grouper, mangrove snapperand tiger grouper experienced a sharpdecline in Hong Kong wholesalesprices in July 2003 by 35%, 14.9% and7.9%, respectively. On the other hand,the price trend for wild caught speciessuch as coral trout appeared to bereversed (Figure 2).Figure 5: The import quantities of four major marine food fi sh species during theyears 1999-2004.Guangzhou, Southern China.Table 5: Total live marine food fish imported into Hong Kong from 1997 to 2004 in relation to GDP.Year Import quantity of marine fish (tonnes) % increase /decrease Real GDP growth (%)1997 27,735 NA 5.11998 23,603 -14.90 -5.01999 13,583 -42.45 3.42000 15,099 11.16 10.22001 12,085 -19.96 0.52002 11,900 -1.53 1.92003 12,122 1.87 3.22004 13,306 9.77 7.5October-December 200529

Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkTable 6: The important dates and events on SARS outbreak period for Hong Kong.DateEventNovember 16, 2002 The first case of an atypical pneumonia is reported in the Guangdong province in southern China.March 11, 2003 Outbreak of a mysterious respiratory disease is reported among healthcare workers in Hong Kong.WHO issues a global alert about a new infectious disease of unknown origin in both Vietnam andMarch 12, 2003Hong Kong.WHO issues a heightened global health alert about the mysterious pneumonia with a case definitionof SARS as after cases in Singapore and Canada are also identified. The alert includes a rareMarch 15, 2003 emergency travel advisory to international travels, healthcare professionals and health authorities.CDC issues a travel advisory stating that persons considering travel to the affected areas in Asia(Hong Kong, Singapore, Vietnam and China)WHO issues its first travel warning recommending that all non-essential travel to Hong Kong andApril 2, 2003Guangdong province be postponed.WHO investigative team gives initial report on Guangdong outbreak. The team found evidence ofApril 9, 2003“super spreaders” who were capable of infecting as many of 100 persons.WHO adds Toronto, Beijing, and the Shanxi province of China to the list of regions travelersshould avoid to reduce the risk of becoming infected with SARS and taking the deadly diseaseApril 23, 2003back home with them. WHO officials say the travel advisory will remain in effect for at least thenext three weeks.WHO extends its travel warning to include Hebei province, China. A similar warning to postponeMay 17, 2003 all non-essential travel is in effect for Hong Kong, Taipei, Taiwan and several other areas of mainlandChina, including Beijing, Guangdong, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Tianjin.The WHO lifts its advisory against all but essential travel to Hong Kong and the Guangdong provinceof China saying the SARS situation in those areas has improved significantly.May 23, 2003WHO lifts its travel warning against nonessential travel to several provinces in China, includingJune 13, 2003Hebei, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Tianjin.WHO lifts its travel warning against nonessential travel to Taiwan. CDC downgrades its travelJune 17, 2003 warning for mainland China to a travel alert, although a travel warning from both the CDC andWHO remains in effect for BeijingWHO removes Hong Kong from its list of areas with recent local SARS transmission after 20June 23, 2003 days passed since the last SARS case was reported and isolated, which breaks the chain of humanto-humantransmission and eliminates the risk of infection for both local residents and travelers.WHO removes its last remaining SARS travel warning for Beijing, China. The city was alsoJune 24, 2003 removed from the WHO’s list of areas with recent SARS transmission after 20 days passed sincethe last new SARS case was isolated.CDC downgrades its SARS travel advice for Beijing, China and Taiwan from “advisory” toJune 25, 2003 “alert” status, which does not advice against travel to the regions but informs travelers of a SARShealth concern and advices them to take precautions.CDC lifts its SARS travel alert for Hong Kong retroactively to July 1 because the last SARS caseJuly 9, 2003there was reported on May 31.Source: WebMD (http://my.webmd.com/)The explanation of different in pricetrends for wild caught and farmedgrouper species can be twofold. Firstly,fishers capture wild caught species ona daily basis and if the demand is weakfishing is curtailed. Supply will rapidlybe reduced and the price consequentlyis increased, as in the case of coraltrout. It is also believed that traders canmanipulate the wholesale price of thismoderately high priced species by limitingthe supply of the available stocksto the market. Traders may also applypressure on the farm gate price in orderto maintain their profit margins, evenunder adverse conditions, such as duringthe SARS epidemic (Jim Chu, pers.comm.). Secondly, farmed species arekept in cages or ponds and require dailyfeeding. If the groupers are of marketablesize the farmers still need to sellthem even if the price is low in order tomaintain a cash flow because the costto feed and maintain marketable sizedgroupers is significant. The same situationapplied to Thai and Vietnamesegrouper farmers in 2003 during SARSperiod. In Khanh Hoa, Vietnam, farmerswere reported to have had in excessof 300 t of market sized groupers inponds and cages, waiting for buyers(Buu and Clausen, 2003). As a result ofthe excess supply the farm gate price ofgreen grouper in Vietnam dropped fromUS$5.82/kg in 2002 to US$3.10/kgfor 2003 (Buu and Clausen, 2003). InSouthern Thailand, the farm gate pricefor E. coioides dropped to Baht 120/kgin 2003, but in September 2004, theprice recovered to Baht 240/kg level(US$1 = Baht 40).In May 2003 most of the live reeffish exporters in Bali suspended tradingactivities, as the demand decreasedsignificantly. This negative effect wasalso extended to fingerling tradersand hatchery operators where the exhatcheryprice for grouper fingerlingsreduced by 25% (Sim et al., 2003).Niche market products such asgroupers provide handsome returns to30 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Networkfarmers and traders in the region undernormal conditions. In the long term thesustainability of the market is not onlydependent on technical breakthroughsand technology for better farming, butit is also significantly influenced by theeconomic conditions of the consumingmarkets, which in the case of grouperare predominantly Hong Kong andChina. Extraordinary events such asterrorist attacks and disease outbreaksalso play a vital role in indirectly affectingthe demand for live groupers. Itis of particular importance for farmersin the region to look at local marketsrather than focusing only on exportmarkets to avert such situations. Undoubtedlyprices paid by Hong Kongand Chinese buyers are higher, but therisks involved are also greater. A stabledomestic market can absorb some ofthe farmed production, reducing therisk of exposure to extraordinary eventssuch as the SARS outbreak. A stabledomestic market is particularly importantto small-scale farmers or farmerswho rely on groupers as their mainspecies or income generating activityas it provides a buffer against financialturmoil from such events.AcknowledgementsFinancial support provided by AustralianCentre for International AgriculturalResearch (ACIAR) through the MarineFinfish Aquaculture Project is gratefullyacknowledged. A special thanksis owed to my supervisor, ProfessorSena De Silva, Deakin University forstimulating discussion and encouragingme to write this article, as well asfor reading a number of drafts. TheHong Kong Agriculture, Fisheries andConservation Department (AFCD)provided assistance during the marketsurvey, which I appreciate. I also wishto thank Dr. Thuy Nguyen, NACA, forher help with drafts.ReferencesAPEC 2004. APEC Economic Outlook 2004. APECSecretariat, Singapore. pp 288.Bunliptanon, P., & Kongkumnerd, J., 1999. HatcheryTechnology of Grouper in Thailand. In: APEC/NACA. 2002. Report of the APEC/NACA CooperativeGrouper Aquaculture Workshop, Hat Yai, Thailand,7-9 April 1999. Collaborative APEC GrouperOctober-December 2005Table 7: Visitor arrivals to Hong Kong from 1999 to 2004.Year Visitor Arrivals Growth1999 11,328,272 +11.5%2000 13,059,477 +15.3%2001 13,725,332 +5.1%2002 16,566,382 +20.7%2003 15,536,839 -6.2%2004 21,810,630 40.4%Source: Tourism Commission, Economic Development and Labour Bureau. TheGovernment of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (http://www.tourism.gov.hk/english/statistics/statistics_perform.html).Research and Development Network (FWG 01/99).Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific,Bangkok, Thailand. pp 151.Buu, L. D., & Clausen, J., 2003. Grouper Culture inKhanh Hoa, Vietnam: Status and Perspective. In:Marine Finfish Aquaculture Newsletter – No. 6,July-September. http://www.enaca.org/Grouper/E-Newsletter/MFAN_6.pdf.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),2004. Avian Flu: Outbreak in Asia (November 19,2004) Website http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/outbreaks/asia.htmFAO 2003. FISHSTAT Plus – Version 2.3. http://www.fao.org/fi/statist/fispft/fishplus.asp.Fung, A., 2003. SARS Threatening to Cripple HongKong http://www.atimes.com/atimes/printN.htmlIFPRI 2003. Income Diversification and Poverty in theNorthern Uplands of Vietnam. International FoodPolicy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, D.C. USA. Pp 262. http://www.jbic.go.jp/english/oec/environ/report/vietnam.php.Karunatilleka, E., 1999. The Asian Economic Crisis. ResearchPaper 99/14. Economic Policy and StatisticsSection. House of Commons Library.Kotler, P., 1991. Marketing Management – Analysis,Planning, Implementation, and Control (Seventhedition). Prentice-Hall International Editions. pp756.Lim, L.C., 1993. Laviculture of the Greasy Grouper,Epinephelus tauvina & the Brown-marbled Grouper,Epinephelus fuscoguttatus in Singapore. J. WorldAquaclt. Soc. 24:262-274.Pawiro, S., 2000. Markets for Cultured Grouper andOther Marine Finfish. In: APEC/NACA/BOBP/GOI., 2002. Report of the regional Workshop onSustainable Seafarming and Grouper Aquaculture,Medan, Indonesia, 17-20 April 2000. CollaborativeAPEC Grouper Research and Development Network(FWG01/99). pp 199-207.Putnam, J. J., and Allshouse, J E., 1997. Food Consumption,Prices, and Expenditures, 1970-95. SB-939.US Department of Agriculture, Economic ResearchService, August, Washington, D.C. USARosegrant, M. W., and Ringler, C. 2000. Asian economiccrisis and the long-term global food situation. FoodPolicy 25 (2000) 243-254. International Food PolicyResearch Institute, Washington, D.C. USA.Sim, S.Y., Rimmer, M., & Phillips, M.J., 2003. Price,Demand and Supply of Live Reef Food Fish Species– The SARS Effects. In: Marine Finfish AquacultureNewsletter – No. 5, April-June. http://www.enaca.org/Grouper/E-Newsletter/MFAN_5.pdf.Sim, S.Y., Montaldi, P., Montaldi, A., & Kongkeo, H.,2004. Marine finfish markets in Hong Kong. In:Marine Finfish Aquaculture Magazine – No. 2, July-September 2004. http://library.enaca.org/Grouper/Publications/eMagazine2.pdf.Siu, A., & Wong, Y.C.R., 2004. Economic Impact ofSARS: The Case of Hong Kong.Skoufias, E. 2003. Is the Calorie-Income Elasticity Sensitiveto Price Changes? Evidence from Indonesia.World Development Vol. 31, No. 7, pp.1291-1307,2003.Sugama, K., Trijoko, Wardoyo, Hutapea, J. H., &Kumagai, S., 1999. Natural Spawning and LarvalRearing of Barramundi Cod Grouper, Cromileptesaltivelis in Tanks. In: APEC/NACA. 2002.Report of the APEC/NACA Cooperative GrouperAquaculture Workshop, Hat Yai, Thailand, 7-9April 1999. Collaborative APEC Grouper Researchand Development Network (FWG 01/99). Networkof Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific, Bangkok,Thailand. pp 91-99.WebMD., 2003. SARS: Timeline of an Outbreak.WebMD Medical News. http://my.webmd.com/content/Article/63/72068.htmWHO., 2004a. Avian influenza A(H5N1) in humans andpoultry in Viet Nam. 13 January. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_01_13/en/WHO., 2004b. Avian influenza A(H5N1) - update 28:Reports of infection in domestic cats (Thailand),Situation (human) in Thailand, Situation (poultry)in Japan and China. 20 February. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_02_20/en/WHO., 2004c. Avian influenza: H5N1 detected in pigsin China. 20 August. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_08_20/en/WHO., 2004d. Avian influenza - update: Implicationsof H5N1 infections in pigs in China. 25 August.http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_08_25/en/WHO., 2004e. Avian influenza 2004 – situation in Asia:altered role of domestic ducks. 29 October. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_10_29/en/31

Marine Finfish Aquaculture NetworkPresent status of hatchery technology for cobiaRachycentron canadum in VietnamNhu Van CanAquaculture Research Sub-Institute for North Central – RIA1In Vietnam, cobia is gaining attentionas a candidate for mariculture becauseof its rapid growth rate and succulentflesh. Products made from cobiaare gaining popularity in Vietnamesemarkets and are regarded as a potentialcompetitor for salmon on the internationalmarket.Research on artificial seed productionof cobia commenced in 1998 at theResearch Institute of Marine Products(RIMP) hatchery at Cat-ba (HaiphongProvince) under a research programfor marine finfish hatchery production.Since 2000, cobia production researchhas been concentrated at the ResearchInstitute for Aquaculture No. 1 (RIA 1)marine hatcheries at Cat-ba (HaiphongProvince) and at Cua-hoi (Nghe AnProvince) with financial supportfrom the Vietnamese government andSUMA (DANIDA) and NORAD. Thisresearch program has been very successful,resulting in the first successfulproduction of about 12,000 fingerlingsat the Cat-ba hatchery in 2001 andabout 20,000 cobia fingerlings at theCua-hoi hatchery in 2002. Since then,the RIA 1 hatcheries have regularlyproduced 50,000 cobia fingerlings annuallyto support industry developmentand supply grow-out activities.The Cua-hoi hatchery was establishedearly in 2002 as a new hatcheryfor marine aquaculture belonging tothe Aquaculture Research Sub-Institutefor North Central Vietnam (ARSINC,under RIA1). At Cua-hoi, marine larvalproduction is mainly based on intensivelarval rearing techniques using recirculationsystems. Soon after the Cua-hoihatchery opened, a research program onproduction of some marine finfish speciescommenced with financial supportfrom NORAD and the Government ofVietnam. One of the objectives of theresearch program is to develop appropriatehatchery techniques to improvegrowth and survival of cobia under theclimatic conditions of the North CentralRegion. After three years of operation,a primary protocol for intensivehatchery production of cobia has beenestablished. RIA 1 researchers now areinvestigating options to simplify thehatchery production techniques and toimprove larval survival, especially duringearly larval development.Broodstock managementand spawning performanceCobia broodstock are stocked at densitiesof less than 5 kg/m 3 in marinecages. Cobia may spawn when fishreach two years old and a size of morethan 12 kg. Before the breeding season,fish are fed with high quality ‘trash’ fishsupplemented with squid liver oil andvitamins to improve fecundity and eggquality. Gonadal maturation is evaluatedby cannulation one month before thebreeding season. The eggs and milt canalso be used for broodstock screening,e.g. testing for viral nervous necrosis.When the oocytes reach more than0.8mm in diameter, the broodstock aretransferred from the cages to the breedingtanks in the hatchery. In captivity,cobia can spawn naturally or can beartificially induced through injectionwith LHRHa at a dosage of 20 microgram/kg(females). Male cobia areinjected at half the dose rate of females.The sex ratio (M:F) is spawning shouldbe greater than 1:1 to ensure adequatefertilisation of the eggs. Fish normallyspawn 12–36 hours after hormoneinjection.The spawned eggs are typically1.29 ± 0.042 mm in diameter, and arepelagic and transparent with a single oildrop. After spawning, eggs are collectedusing 0.5mm nylon mesh, countedand checked for fertilization, then incubatedin 500L tanks. The eggs hatch afterabout 24 hours at 27 o C. The newlyhatched larvae are usually around 3.31± 0.1mm, and are transferred directlyfrom the incubation tanks to the larvalrearing tanks as soon as they havehatched. The larvae can be stocked atan initial density of 30–70 individualsper litre without any significant effectson growth and survival rate for the firstrearing period. The results of breedingperformance in 2005 at ARSINC aresummarized in Table 1.The spawning season for cobia occursfrom April to July and normallypeaks in May when seawater temperatureis around 27–28 ° C. The Cat-bahatchery has recorded some maturationand spawning during October – November2004 but larval rearing was notsuccessful at that time. Each femalecan spawn several times during breedingseason. As the spawning season32 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Networkprogresses, egg quantity and quality(fertilization and hatching rates) generallydecline.Larval rearingThe larval rearing techniques usedfor cobia in Vietnam are based ontwo main rearing methods: namelysemi-intensive and intensive. For thesemi-intensive method, cobia larvae arereared using rotifers and/or nauplii ofcopepods as live feeds for the first feedingstage and they are then fed adultcopepods harvested from shrimp ponds.Formulated diets are introduced fromaround day 18–20. This method is simpleand can provide considerable seedproduction for grow-out. However, thesurvival rate is relatively low, below5%. The copepods collected from thewild may also bring parasites thatcontribute to mortality in the later rearingstage. This semi-intensive methodis mainly conducted at Hai-phong andQuang-ninh where brackishwater pondsare available for copepod collection.The intensive rearing method isthe system used in modern hatcherieswhere the live feed productionand most environment factors can bemanaged. At ARSINC, cobia larvaeare reared in 3000L and 6000L cylindro-conicaltanks. These rearingsystems utilise biofilters to maintainstable environmental conditions. Thelarval rearing can be divided into a liveprey feeding stage and a nursing stageafter the larvae have been successfullyweaned to formulated diets.The live prey feeding stage startsat day 2 or day 3 (depending on watertemperature) when the mouths of thelarvae open; at this time the larvae areusually around 4.42±0.18mm TL. Thisstage normally continues for aboutthree weeks and ends when the larvaeare ready to take formulated diets. Assoon as the mouths of the larvae open,October-December 2005the marine alga Tetraselmis sp. andIsocrysis galbana and HUFA-enrichedrotifers are introduced at a density of20–30×10 3 cells/ml and 7–10 individuals/mlrespectively. The HUFA-enrichedArtemia nauplii are introducedfrom day 8 at a density of 0.5–3 individuals/ml.The period of overlap whenco-feeding both rotifers and Artemianauplii should be 4 to 5 days and thelive feed supplementation to the culturesshould increase as feed consumptionincreases. The survival rate of liveprey feeding period is still quite low(around 30%) and variable. Mortalitypeaks normally occur after first feedingstage and at metamorphosis.The weaning diets can be introducedfrom around day 18 using NRD2/3 (an INVE product) or Bio-optima0.2mm (Denmark). The formulateddiets should be introduced to the culturetanks before feeding Artemia. Itnormally takes about one week for thelarvae to fully wean to the formulateddiets. Initially, particle sizes of 0.2mmare fed, and then larger particle sizesare fed according to fish growth. Somerecent experiments implemented fora period of 15 days during the weaningstage revealed that reducing larvaldensity from 4 individuals/L to 1 individual/Lcould increase survival rateTable 1. Record of cobia breeding performance at ARSINC in 2005.ParametersValueWater temperature (°C) 27.6 – 30.5Salinity (ppt) 34 – 35Male : female ratio (mean ± SD) 1.8 ± 0.6Successful spawning rate (mean ± SD) 0.63 ± 0.4Fecundity (spawned egg/kg female) (mean ± SD) 139,000 ± 42,400Fertilization rate (mean ± SD) 0.51% ± 0.4Hatching rate (mean ± SD) 0.35% ± 0.2from 38.4% to 59.7% respectively. Inaddition, increasing feeding frequencycan also increase survival rate.Cobia are carnivorous and becomevery aggressive at metamorphosis. Thiscontributes to reduced survival duringlarval rearing. The mortality due tocannibalism can be reduced by gradingvery frequently and stocking differentgrades in separate tanks. The gradingprocedure needs to be started as soon asthe larvae show signs of cannibalism,and continued until the fish are ready tostock in the sea cages for grow-out.After 45 days nursing, cobia mayreach around 15cm TL; during this timethey are fed pellet diets. The fish thencan be transferred to small sea cagesfor further nursing for about one monthbefore starting grow-out cycle.Future research: Directionsfor improvement of artificialseed productionAlthough the protocol for artificial seedproduction in Vietnam has been established,the survival rate especially at theearly rearing stage is still quite low andvariable. The research and developmenteffort for cobia hatchery techniquesin recent years has revealed the mainissues that need to be addressed to improvesurvival in the hatchery. Amongstpriority topics for research are: improvinglarval nutrition, reducing mortalitydue to cannibalism as well as due tostress during transportation, and geneticselection.Broodstock nutrition improvement isan important research area to improveegg and larval quality. The effect ofHUFA level as well as vitamin E supplementationon egg and larval quality33

Marine Finfish Aquaculture Networkneeds to be clarified and evaluated. Itwill also be important to investigatehow to extend the breeding season toprovide seed throughout the year. Additionalresearch is necessary to establishseed production techniques duringwintertime when grow-out activitiesnormally have to terminate due to badweather conditions.The nutrition for larvae at differentdevelopment stages is very significantbecause cobia larvae grow rapidly.Improving larval nutrition to supportdevelopment will increase survivalrate, reduce production costs as well asshorten the rearing period. In this area,the requirement of HUFA level with appropriateratios of DHA, EPA and ARAshould be determined to develop appropriateformulated diets. In order tosimplify the rearing protocol, researchshould focus on replacing the live preyfeeding period as soon as possible withappropriate larval and weaning diets.Report on grouper hatchery training course in IndonesiaReporter: Nguyen Quoc ThaiDiversification of species is one way inwhich poor people involved in coastalaquaculture can reduce their vulnerabilityto external factors such as the globalprice slump and anti-dumping tariffsfacing the shrimp industry. Diversificationcan help farmers to developa sustainable livelihood, and in somecircumstances to reduce the level ofinvestment required and general levelof risk.Marine fish culture has been practicedby Vietnamese farmers for a longtime although the techniques employedhave largely been dependent on wildseed. Normal practice has been to buygrouper fingerlings from fishing boatsand to fatten them in a cage or pondbefore resale. Some farmers catch theirown grouper fingerling from the wildand culture them at a low density sothat the production is low and not welltargeted to market demand. A few yearsago grouper farming began to expandas an industry, creating increased demandfor wild grouper fingerlings and ashortage of supply. To ensure that farmscan get an adequate supply of highquality seed from a sustainable source,it is necessary to implement grouperhatchery technology in Vietnam and todevelop a seed supply chain that willservice the industry.To realize the huge demand forgrouper fingerlings, as a shrimp hatcheryowner, I had planned to convert partof my hatchery to grouper production.The production duration is longer butI can also make a better profit whileassisting farmers in my area to improvetheir own businesses. Through theNACA website, I heard that a trainingcourse on grouper hatchery technologywould be organized in Indonesia from19 May to 9 June and so I decided toattend.My expectations, prior to attendingthe course were that I would gain:• An overview of marine finfishproduction in ASEAN countries andglobal trends.• Knowledge of grouper hatcherytechnology and techniques formanaging broodstock, breeding andgrowout from larviculture to fingerlingstage.• Develop a good relationship withother people working in marinefinfish hatchery technology in the region,including scientists, researchers,technical workers and othergrouper fingerling suppliers.The course covered many subjectsthat I found interesting. Of particularinterest to me were the sessions onthe status of mariculture in Indonesia,Collaborating organizationslarviculture and nursery of grouper,live feed production, disease and fishhealth management in the hatchery,and the discussions with other farmersdoing business on grouper hatchery andnursery operations.Now that I have completed thecourse I have plans to convert part ofmy shrimp hatchery to a grouper hatchery,so that I will be able to producesimultaneous crops of grouper andshrimp. I want to produce grouper attwo different sizes – fry (2-3cm) andfingerling (7-8cm). I also plan to helptransfer knowledge of grouper hatcherytechnology to other shrimp hatcheryoperators that I know.I have begun the first steps towardsthese goals already. I am currentlyinvolved in nursing seabass fry fordelivery to farms in Nghe An province,collecting grouper fry from the wild fornursery (until I get the hatchery sidegoing), and I am looking for a co-fundingpartner to help establish a live feedculture system.I would like to thanks to organizers,sponsors, lectures and assistant whowere help me attend the course.34 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Aquatic animal healthBiosecured and improved penaeid shrimp (Penaeus monodon)production through organic nursery raceway system in IndiaFelix. S and M. Samaya KannanFisheries Biotechnology Centre, Department of Aquaculture, Fisheries College and Research Institute, Thoothukudi – 628008, Tamilnadu, India.LWEG - Limited water exchange growout pond.RSF - Rapid sand filter.PWA - Paddle wheel aerators.BW - Borewell.Shrimp farming is a highly profitableand a fast growing sector with an enormousscope to increase foreign exchangeand generate employment in adeveloping country like India. Howevershrimp farming needs to be conductedin a way that is socially acceptable,economically viable, technically appropriateand environmentally sound.Brackish water aquaculture in Indiais synonymous with shrimp farming,with the tiger shrimp Penaeusmonodon the mainstay of production.Unfortunately the shrimp farmingsector currently faces some seriousdisease problems and environmentalissues, impacting on production levelsand creating an uncertain and unpredictableharvest. Shrimp productionin raceway tanks with limited or zerowater exchange grow out ponds is anencouraging alternative method tominimize crop losses and environmentaldegradation. Introducing a nurseryphase to shrimp culture systems canincrease control over stock inventories,water quality and feed management 1 .It also allows shrimp to be stocked at alarger and hardier size and potentiallyto increase the number of crops peryear as a shorter period is needed toreach marketable size 2,3,4 . The survivalof nursery systems can be relativelyhigh (85–95%) with higher anticipatedprofit 4,5,6,7,8 . Used appropriately, nurserysystems can also reduce the spread ofdiseases as post larvae can be effectivelyquarantined during the nurseryphase. Thus a significant improvementin yields has been reported from whitespot infected areas in Ecuador whenintensive nursery facilities have beenused rather than direct stocking 9,10,11 .Farms with intensive nursery facilitiescan also stock and store PLs at highdensity to reduce pressure on limitedhatchery supplies 1 .This article describes racewaysystems prototyped at Fisheries Collegeand Research Institute, Thoothukudi,India and an advanced managementstrategy developed to increase juvenileshrimp survival and production forthe initial 50 days (the crucial phaseof shrimp culture) in tropical Indianconditions.Biosecure nursery racewaysystemThis nursery raceway system was suitablymodified and designed based onthe concepts and management developedby the Texas Agricultural ExperimentStation, Shrimp MaricultureResearch Facility 12,13 . Two raceways(dimensions 15m x 3m x 1 m, 45m 3volume, 45m 2 surface area) were usedin this study. The raceways were filledto 0.75 m (operating volume of 30m 3 )with a free board of 0.20 – 0.25m. Theraceways were constructed by excavatingearth and forming dykes, and aftersufficient consolidation, fabricatedpre-cast cement slabs (50mm thickness)were fixed on the bottom and sides. Theraceways were lined with 700 GSMnylon fabric sheet and designed witha 0.5% slope towards the drain at theend, where the drains are located. Theoutlets of raceway tanks fed into a harvestingtank (3m x 1.5m x 2.1m) andfrom which the used water was sentto constructed wetlands for treatment.Each raceway was provided with a13m long and 1m deep central parti-October-December 200535

Aquatic Animal HealthLayout of raceway system.tion, which was made up of waterproofmarine plywood of 20mm thickness,hung vertically with the support offive cross-wooden beams connectedby stainless steel bolts. The height ofthe central partition can be adjusted bychanging the position of the bolts onthe beams. Each raceway was providedwith six airlift pumps, three on eachside of the central partition, supplied bytwo 5HP twin lobe air blowers, operatedalternately every three hours. Oneset of airlift pumps contained three 50mm airlifts of 80cm height. The systemcontained an alarm to warn of powerfailures and a 15 KVA backup generatorwas installed to ensure that blowers andpaddle wheels could be maintained inevent of a blackout. Water was drawnfrom three different subsoil bore wells(as access to sea water was not possibleat this site) with different salinities.Water was therefore pumped to a mixingpond in order to ensure consistentquality, before being passed through abiological, rapid sand / activated carbonfilter and UV sterilizer system for supplyto the raceways. The raceway tankswere situated under a ‘green house’roof made from transparent and nontransparent(alternatively placed) FRProofing for protection and to control oflight penetration. The sides were coveredwith 75% green shade net to avoidthe entry of pests and predators.Rearing shrimp in thenurseryThe raceways were cleaned and washedwith chlorinated water prior to filling.Culture water was also treated withliquid chlorine (10 ppm active chlorine).The raceways were fertilizedwith fermented product and the culturewater inoculated with monoculturediatom, Chaetoceros sp. Racewayswere stocked with fifteen-day-oldpostlarvae certified as free fromwhitespot syndrome virus (WSSV)purchased from a commercial hatchery.The two raceways were stocked at therate of 1000 PL/m 3 (666 PL/m 2 ) and2000 PL/m 3 (1333 PL/m 2 ) raceways.Shrimp were fed with dried crumbledand pelleted commercial feed contained38% crude protein, 5% fat, 12%moisture and 4% ash. Shrimp were fedfive times a day with 60% of the dailyration given at night. The daily rationwas adjusted based on the estimatedbiomass and observed feeding behavior.Raceways were maintained withno water exchange for first 15 days.From day 16 until harvest, the accumulatedsolid wastes were removedfrom the bottom of the raceway tanks atweekly intervals. The loss of water inraceways by evaporation and throughthe process of metabolite removal wascompensated by adding filtered andUV sterilized water. The algal cellconcentration was observed weeklyand indoor/outdoor mass cultured algae(Chaetoceros sp.) was inoculated to theraceways at regular intervals. A specificfermented product was also added tothe raceways to sustain the beneficialmicrobial population in the racewaysand to maintain them as a heterotrophicsystem. The combination of purealgae and fermented product helpedto control ammonia and other harmfulnitrogenous pollutants in the racewayswithin the acceptable limits. Waterquality and physio-chemical parametersviz. temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,transparency, algal composition, etc.were measured daily and ammonia,nitrite and total microbial load wereassessed weekly. The growth rate ofshrimp was measured at weekly intervalsby collecting a random sample.After the rearing period of 50 days boththe raceways were harvested in live andthey were stocked in the limited waterexchange (LDPE lined) growout ponds.While most of the shrimps could beharvested by scoop net from the racewaysthe remainder were harvested atthe end of the nursery period when theraceways were completely drained. Atthe end of the experiment production,36 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Aquatic animal healthTable 1. Water quality parameters* recorded in raceways (on daily basis).Weeks pH DO (ml/l) at dawn Transparency (cm)R1 R2 R1 R2 R1 R21 8.62 ± 0.063 8.48 ± 0.085 5.13 ± 0.18 5.18 ± 0.21 35 ± 3.4 34 ± 4.352 8.55 ± 0.037 8.42 ± 0.038 4.68 ± 0.31 4.98 ± 0.84 31.5 ± 1.9 28.5 ± 1.03 8.57 ± 0.050 8.30 ± 0.082 4.96 ± 0.42 5.296 ± 0.49 26 ± 4.2 25 ± 3.44 8.52 ± 0.050 8.18 ± 0.126 5.51 ± 0.11 5.52 ± 0.21 22 ± 1.25 23 ± 1.95 8.05 ± 0.057 7.90 ± 0.082 5.02 ± 0.29 5.18 ± 0.21 25.5 ± 2.08 25 ± 0.56 8.33 ± 0.049 8.12 ± 0.150 5.35 ± 0.36 5.35 ± 0.32 29 ± 1.99 29 ± 0.967 8.30 ± 0.017 8.15 ± 0.015 5.96 ± 0.66 5.85 ± 0.82 32 ± 3.3 30 ± 1.5R1 = Raceway 1; R2 = Raceway 2; * Daily parameters represented for weeks.Table 2. Parameters recorded in raceways (on weekly basis).Weeks Ammonia (mg/L) Nitrite (mg/L) Algal cell count (cells/mL) Microbial Load (cfu/mL)R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 2 R 1 R 21 0.071 0.066 0.67 0.07 5.2 x 10 4 5.4 x 10 4 13.5 x 10 3 13.7 x 10 32 0.064 0.069 0.78 0.078 5.75 x 10 4 7.5 x 10 4 7.8 x 10 3 5.4 x 10 33 0.066 0.065 0.49 0.39 5.0 x 10 4 5.41 x 10 4 13.6 x 10 3 15.1 x 10 34 0.25 0.28 0.15 1.5 5.45 x 10 4 5.3 x 10 4 7.75 x 10 3 13.2 x 10 35 0.10 0.14 0.4 1.35 6.3 x 10 4 6.7 x 10 4 22.1 x 10 3 22.3 x 10 36 0.112 0.22 0.36 0.09 4.9 x 10 4 6.2 x 10 4 28.3 x 10 3 28.4 x 10 37 0.075 0.069 0.093 0.49 5.0 x 10 4 6.5 x 10 4 21.8 x 10 3 14.8 x 10 3R1 = Raceway 1; R2 = Raceway 2.Table 3: Results of Raceway Trial using P. monodon.Raceway Stocking density Mean initial weight (g) DOC Biomass (kg/m 3 ) Harvest (kg) SurvivalRW 1 1,000 / m 3 0.001 45 0.718 21.53 82%RW 2 2,000 / m 3 0.001 45 0.428 12.83 52%survival rate, food conversion ratio(FCR) and other bio-growth parameterswere estimated.OutcomeOf the two stocking densities 1,000 and2,000/m 3 attempted in the raceways, thestocking density of 1,000/m 3 attainedthe maximum biomass yield of 0.72kg/m 3 , which was 67% higher than thebiomass (0.43 kg/m 3 ) obtained from theraceway with the stocking density of2,000/m 3 . Further, the 1,000/m 3 stockingdensity also recorded the highestsurvival rate of 82% compared to 52%in the other raceway system. Similarnursery raceway trials carried out byusing P. vannamei undertaken by BartRied and Arnold 14 recorded a survivalrate of 48% and 82% for 2,132/m 3 and970/m 3 stocking densities, respectively.The raceway trials undertaken forthe first time in India for P. monodonconfirmed that the stocking density of1,000/m 3 in nursery raceway systems ismore appropriate under the conditionsof these trials, although further work isOctober-December 2005required to assess the optimum stockingdensity. The results obtained fromraceway shrimp trial are given in table3.In recent years, many improvementshave been made in bio-filtration andwater sterilization that can increase thecarrying capacity and production potentialof recirculating systems by improvingwater quality parameters. Heterotrophicmicrobial-based managementhas a major role in disease prevention,stress reduction and in maintaining waterquality, in particular the conversionof nitrogenous metabolites into lesstoxic forms and biofilms play a role inabsorbing suspended particles.Indoor biosecure raceway-basedshrimp production is gaining popularityin many western countries andalso in China’s southwestern Guangxiprovinces, as farmers seek alternativesto traditional outdoor pond culture. Although,operating costs of indoor biosecureculture systems are relatively high,their eco-friendly nature and improvedcapacity to manage disease risk is leadingshrimp farmers all over the worldto investigate this approach 15 . Highstocking density, higher yields andlower disease risk coupled with a morepredictable harvest from indoor tankscan compensate for the greater investmentrequired. Indoor biosecure shrimpproduction also requires less land areacompared to traditional farming methodsfor raising tiger shrimp, and is wellsuited to conducting the initial nurseryphase if shrimp are shifted to limitedwater exchange outdoor tanks / pondsafter 45-50 days of culture to attainfaster growth in a short period.Another potential benefit is thatraceways could be partitioned intonursery raceways and growout racewaysand managed separately to attainfaster growth and higher yields 16 . Innursery raceways stocking densitiesas high as 4,000 to 7,800 PL/m 2 wereattempted successfully in Texas, USA 17in 40 to 50 days DOC for P. vannamei.The system does not require the useof any chemicals, drugs or additionalinputs and the entire crop is raisedaccording to ‘organic farming’ concepts.It has the potential to go a long37

Aquatic Animal Healthway towards the vision of developinga biosecure shrimp culture system ata reasonably cost-effective budget fortropical countries like India.AcknowledgementThe authors wish to acknowledgethe assistance of the Department ofBiotechnology, New Delhi who fundedthe research project “Prototyping ofraceway based third generation shrimpproduction technology” to implementthis innovative culture system. Dr.Samocha, Texas A&M University providedvaluable technical advice, whichis greatly appreciated. The AHRDP,Govt. of India who funded (Dr.S.Felix)for the training at Texas A&M Universityis acknowledged.References1. Samocha, T.M., Benner, R. 2001. Use of Intensivenursery systems in commercial shrimp productionoperation in Texas. Industry Briefs Vol. 7(1): 1,3.2. Clifford, H.C., III. 1985. Semi-intensive shrimpfarming. Pages 13-40 in G.W. Chamberlain, M.G.Haby and R.J. Miget, editors, Texas shrimp farmingmanual, an update on current technology. Texas AgriculturalExtension Service, Texas A&M UniversitySystem, College Station, Texas.3. Briggs, M.R.P and J.H. Brown. 1991. Intensiverearing of postlarval Penaeus monodon in concretenursery tank system. Journal of the World AquacultureSociety 22(3) : 16A (Abstract).4. Fast, A.W. 1991. Marine shrimp pond grow-outconditions and strategies: A review and prognosis.Aquatic Sciences 3:357-400.5. Hirono, Y.1983. Preliminary report on shrimpculture activities in Ecuador. Journal of the WorldAquaculture Society 14:451-457.6. Aquacop. 1985. Overview of penaeid culture research:impact on commercial culture activity. Pages3 –10 in Y.Taki, J.H. Primavera, and J.A. Llobrera,editors. Proceedings of the First InternationalConference on the Culture of Prawns/Shrimps.SEAFDEC, Iloilo City, Phillippines.7. Sturmer, L.N., T.M. Samocha and A.L. Lawrence.1992. Intensification of penaeid nursery systems.Pages 232-346 in A.W. Fast and L.G. Lester, editors.Culture of Marine Shrimp: Principles and Practices.Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,The Netherlands.8. Samocha, T.M. and Lawrence, A.L. 1992. Shrimpnursery systems and their management. Paperpresented at the World Aquaculture Society AnnualMeeting, Orlando, Florido.9. Samocha, T.M., T. Blacher, and E. Estrada. 2000a.High-density nursery of Litopenaeus vannamei inraceway system with limited water discharge inwhite spot infected area. Paper presented at the 4 thLatin American Aquaculture Congress and Exhibition,October 25-28, 2000, ATLAPA ConventionCenter Panama City, Panama.10. Samocha, T.M., T. Blacher, J. Cordova and A. DeWind. 2000b. Raceway nursery production increasesshrimp survival and yields in Ecuador. Advocate,Vol. 3(6) : 66-68.11. Samocha, T.M.T. Blacher, J.Cordova and A. DeWind. 2001. Use of intensive nursery raceway systemwith limited water discharge to improve productionof Litopenaeus vannamei in white spot infectedarea in Ecuador. Abstract of a paper presented atthe Aquaculture 2001, Annual Meeting of WorldAquaculture Society, January 21-25, 2001, Orlando,FL.12. Samocha, T.M., A.L. Lawrence and J.M.Biedenbach. 1993b. The effect of vertical nettingand water circulation pattern on growth and survivalof Penaeus vannamei post larvae in an intensiveraceway system. Journal of Applied Aquaculture2(1) : 55-64.13. Samocha, T.M., A.L. Lawrence and W.A. Bray.1993c. Design and operation an intensive nurseryraceway system for penaeid shrimp. Pages 173-210in J.P. McVey, and J.R. Moore, editors. CRC Handbookof Mariculture, Vol. I Crustacean Aquaculture.CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA.14. Bart Reid and C.R. Arnold. 1992. The Intensiveculture of Penaeus vannamei Boon in a RecirculatingRaceway System. Journal of World AquacultureSociety. 23(2) : 146-153.15. Wang, J., 2003. Going Indoors. Asian AquacultureMagazine. January-February 2003, 28-30.16. Samocha, T. M., Hamper, L., Emberson, C.R.,Davis, A.D., McIntosh, D., Lawrence, A.L., and VanWyk, P.M. 2002. Review of some recent developmentsin sustainable shrimp farming practices inTexas, Arizona and Florida. Journal of AppliedAquaculture, 12(1); 1-42.17. Samocha, T.M., F.L. Castille., A.L. Lawrence,and S.E. Talley. 1993a. Early spring growth trialof Penaeus vannamei postlarvae at high stockingdensities in raceways. Techniques for modern aquaculture,American society of agricultural engineers.pp. 230-240.Management of monogenean parasites in brackishwaterfinfishK.P. Jithendran, M. Natarajan and I.S. AzadCentral Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture, 75 Santhome High Road, Chennai - 600 028Monogenean trematodes (flukes) area group of parasites best described asa kind of flatworm. They are commonlyfound on the gills, skin and finsof fishes, hence the common name of‘skin flukes’ or ‘gill flukes’. More than100 families of monogenean trematodesinfect fishes at all salinity levelsand temperatures. This article describesmonogenean parasites of farmed brackishwaterfishes, viz., sea bass, grouper,mullet and pearl spot, along with strategiesfor their management.The parasitesMonogeneans are external parasites(ectoparasites) that complete theirentire life cycle on a single host. Theadults vary in size from less than 1 mmto around 5 mm in length. They attachto the host with a specially adaptedstructure on the posterior end of theparasite (haptor or opisthaptor). Thisorgan has hooks that allow the parasiteto attach firmly to the host fish whilefeeding, creating a serious threat tofish health, particularly in aquaculturesystems where a high density of hostfish may allow them to proliferate.38 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Aquatic animal healthExcessive parasite loads are generallyassociated with crowding, inadequatesanitation and deterioration of waterquality (Snieszko, 1974), and can resultin mass mortalities in cultured fish,even in large fish such as sea bass.Although monogeneans are commonlyfound on wild fish, they are rarely adirect cause of disease or death in freerangingpopulations. Some of the mostcommon monogenetic trematodes ofbrackishwater fishes include: Gyrodactylusspp., Dactylogyrus spp., Diplectanumspp. and Benedenia spp.Gyrodactylus spp.The adult worms are typically less than1 mm in length, with bifid anterior endand opisthaptor with 16 marginal hooksand 2 large anchors or hamuli. Eyespotsare absent. They are most frequentlyfound on the skin and less commonlyon the gills. They infect a variety offish species including economically importantfishes such as sea bass, grouper,mullet and pearl spot.Members of this genus are of particularimportance in aquaculture wherelarge populations of fish are confinedin small volumes of water (ponds orcages), forcing more frequent contactbetween fish than would normally occurin a natural habitat. Rapid increasesin populations of these flatworms canoccur in such environments. One of themost interesting features of these parasites,and which also makes them sodevastating, are their unusual reproductivecycle. Unlike other monogeneans,which produce eggs, Gyrodactylus spp.are live-bearing. The larvae developinto a functional preadult internallywithin the parent and already havetheir own larvae developing internallybefore birth. These in turn also havelarvae developing internally and so on– such that a single adult can containfour generations of larvae developinginternally! This is known as polyembryony,the result of which produces fourindividuals from a single fertilisation,giving the parasites the capacity for anexplosive growth in numbers. Whenfish are living closely together, as in acage or pond environment, it is easy forthe adult worms to move from one fishto another thus spreading the infection.The life cycle of these parasites can occurentirely on a host, but they can alsoOctober-December 2005survive for short periods in the absenceof a host.Dactylogyrus spp.These parasites are typically between0.2 to 0.5 mm in length, reaching amaximum length of 2.0 mm. Theyhave a scalloped head, seven pairs ofmarginal hooks and usually one pair ofmedian hooks on the opisthaptor. Thedactylogyrids have two to four pigmentedspots known as “eyes” or “eyespots” on the forward quarter of thebody. All dactylogyrids are egg layers.Dactylogyrus spp. occur in a widevariety of fishes including sea bass,grouper, mullet and pearl spot of allsizes. Seabass, mullet and pearl spot fryare particularly susceptible, succumbingwith high mortality. Gill hyperplasia(proliferation of cells in the gilltissue, causing the filaments to thicken)is seen in heavy infections and resultsin serious deformation of gill lamellae.Heavily infected fish may alsoexhibit blood changes that includedlow hematocrit values and depletion ofhemoglobin (anaemia).Diplectanum spp.The adults are elongate, approximately1 mm in length with a well delimitedopisthaptor armed with 14 marginalhooks, 2 pair of anchors, 3 transversebars, and a dorsal and a ventralauxiliary attachment organ known asa squamodisc. Two pairs of eyes arepresent. The eggs are elongate and pearshaped with long thread-like attachmentmechanisms. Lower temperatureshave been found to be suitable for eggdevelopment of these parasites.Diplectanum spp. have been recordedmainly in sea bass and groupers.These parasites only infect the gills ofsea bass, which appear off-color witha thick mucous layer and occasionalhemorrhagic spots. Heavy parasiticinfestations interfere with respirationand cause mortality. Infected fish oftenshow respiratory abnormalities andswim near the water surface and causelarge-scale mortality even in broodstockfishes (Rajendran et al., 2000).Benedenia spp.Benedenia spp. are relatively largeparasites, flattened in shape with elongatedbody measuring up to 3.5 mmwith 2 pairs of eye spots. The rear endis armed with disc like opisthaptor withhooks. The forward end possesses onepair of suckers.Monogenean parasites belonging toBenedenia spp. are an important problemoften causing large-scale mortalityof fishes maintained in captivity. Theparasites have been found to infestboth the gills and skin of sea bass andgroupers. Fish with severe infectionshave small focal hemorrhages on thebody, which often result in secondarybacterial infections (Jithendran et al.,2005).Benedenia spp., a common parasite(Photo L. Tak Seng).Clinical signs and effectsMost monogeneans flatworms arebrowsers, moving about the body surfaces,and feeding on skin mucus andgill debris. Most species are host- andsite-specific, requiring only one host tocomplete an entire life cycle. In fact,some adults will remain permanentlyattached to a single site on the host.Fishes that are infested with skin-inhabitingflukes become lethargic, swim39

Aquatic Animal Healthnear the surface, seek the sides of thepond and their appetite dwindles. Theymay be seen rubbing the bottom orsides of the holding facility (flashing).The skin where the flukes are attachedshow areas of scale loss. Heavy gillinfestations result in respiratory disease.Gills may be swollen and pale,respiration rate may be increased, andfish will be less tolerant to low oxygenconditions. “Piping”, gulping air at thewater surface, may be observed in severerespiratory distress. In most casesinfestations are not severe enough tocause epidemics. However, under intensiveculture and adverse environmentalconditions that favours the parasiteand cause stress to fish may result inmass mortality. It is well recognizedthat a few unhealthy / stressed animalsare more susceptible to infection andharbour majority of the parasites. Secondaryinfection by bacteria and fungiare common on tissue that has beendamaged by monogeneans.TransmissionTransmission of monogenean flukesfrom fish to fish is primarily by directcontact, as most monogeneans tend tohave direct life cycles and hence cancontribute to population explosionsin aquaculture systems, resulting inclinical disease (SEAFDEC, 2001).Oviparous monogeneans (i.e., Dactylogyridae)release eggs into the water,which on hatching, release ciliated freeswimming larvae that seek out a freshhost on which to settle and mature.Viviparous monogeneans (i.e., Gyrodactylidae)release live larvae, whichmay attach to the same host as theparent or be carried by water to anotherhost. There are two common genera offlukes, Gyrodactylus and Dactylogyrus,which differ markedly in their reproductivestrategies as well as their preferredattachment sites on host fish. Gyrodactylusare generally found on thebody and fins of fish. Each individualparasite has both male and female reproductiveorgans. Adult parasites carrya fully developed embryo (identical tothe adult) which in turn, carry young ofthe next generation. Therefore, each individualparasite may represent severalgenerations. This reproductive strategyallows populations of Gyrodactylus tomultiply very quickly, particularly in aclosed system where water exchange isminimal. Members of the genus Dactylogyrusprefer to attach to gills of hostfish. Unlike Gyrodactylus, parasites inthe genus Dactylogyrus attach to gillsand are egg layers. Gill flukes are oftenfavoured with a high degree of protectiondue to the gill hyperplasia andincreased mucous secretion. Further,the eggs can be resilient to chemicaltreatment, which make the use of multipletreatments appropriate to controlthis group of organisms. When the eggshatch, free-swimming larvae emergewhich are ciliated and which are carriedto a new host by water currents as wellas by their own movement. The timerequired for maturation of Dactylogyrusfrom eggs to adult is temperaturedependent. In tropical water only a fewdays are required for completion of thelife cycle, whereas at cooler temperatures,generation time is extended tofive or six months.Diagnosis and managementDisease control is a vital component ofa broodstock programme since a singleoutbreak of a parasite or associatedsecondary infections can wipe out anentire stock. The brood stock manager’sbest strategy is coupling prevention andearly detection by maintaining the fishunder optimal environmental conditions.The best way to manage monogeneansis to avoid introducing parasitesto an established system. This can bedone by dipping fish prior to placingthem into the system, and by followinga quarantine protocol wheneverfeasible. If quarantine is not possible, asimple way to minimize introduction ofmonogeneans, as well as other externalparasites, is to dip fish in fresh or saltwater, depending on species. Salt-waterfish can be dipped in fresh water, whichwill eliminate many single-celled externalparasites, and freshwater fish canbe dipped in seawater to accomplishthe same goal. This practice will notcompletely eliminate the risk of introducingparasites to an established tankor system, but it does help minimize thenumbers that are brought in.Ideally, fish should be quarantinedfor at least three weeks prior to beingplaced into a new system. While inquarantine, a definite diagnosis canonly be made via a skin scrape or gillbiopsy. Any parasites that are identifiedusing biopsy techniques can then bespecifically treated and eliminated. Ifbiopsies cannot be done, then prophylactictreatment with a broad-spectrumparasiticide, such as formalin or potassiumpermanganate, should be carriedout. In severe cases it is important to doa follow up at the end of the treatmentto see how effective it has been. A quarantinesystem should be very simpleso that fish are readily accessible forobservation and handling, water can beeasily changed, and treatments readilyadministered.Treatment of monogeneans is usuallynot satisfactory unless the primarycause of increased fluke populations isfound and alleviated. Further, knowledgeof the life cycle is critical to theunderstanding of parasite pathology,epizootiology and to the managementand control of parasitic diseases inaquaculture systems. Fish that are verysick do not tolerate formalin well andall fish should be carefully watchedduring chemical administration(Kabata, 1985). Short bath treatment(30-60 min) with 100-200 ppm formalinor hydrogen peroxide (1000 ppm)under strong aeration has been foundto be effective for control of most ofthe monogenean parasites in brackishwatersystems. If adverse reactions areobserved, fish should be removed fromthe treatment tank at once and placed inclean water.Potassium permanganate is alsoeffective against monogeneans, andis the treatment of choice if bacteriaor fungi are invading damaged tissues.Potassium permanganate can beadministered as a prolonged bath (24hrs) at a concentration of 2 mg/L or asa short-term bath at a concentration of10 mg/L. Again, fish must be observedcarefully while they are in contactwith the chemical and they should beremoved at once if they appear to bedistressed.Freshwater dips should be given tosaltwater fish prior to placing them intoa new system. Freshwater baths are effectivein dislodging the parasites fromthe fish. A salinity shock with 3 - 7 %sodium chloride dip for 3 minutes alsokills Dactylogyrus and Gyrodactylusspp. This is very helpful in preventingthe initial introduction of monogeneans,40 Aquaculture Asia Magazine

Aquatic animal healthhowever complete elimination of theparasites from the system is difficult.Effective management of farms canminimise parasite numbers and is an alternativeto use to chemotherapeutants.These problems are essentially a decisionregarding management and controlof parasitic diseases accommodatingthe ecological and economic factors.ReferencesJithendran, K.P., Vijayan, K.K., Alavandi, S.V. and Kailasam,M. (2005). Benedenia epinepheli (Yamaguti,1937), a monogenean parasite in captive broodstockof grouper, Epinephelus tauvina (Forskal). AsianFisheries Science 18: 121-126.Kabata, Z. (1985). Parasites and diseases of fish culturedin the tropics. Taylor and Francis Ltd., 4 John St.London. p 316.Rajendran, K.V., Thirunavukkarasu, A.R. and Santiago,T.C. (2000). Mortality of captive broodstock, Latescalcarifer (Bloch) due to monogenetic parasite,Diplectanum latesi (Tripathi, 1957). J. Aqua. Trop.,15: 199-206.SEAFDEC (2001). Health management in Aquaculture,(eds. Gilda Lio Po, Celia R. Lavilla and Erlinda RCruz-Lacierda), SEAFDEC, Philippines. pp. 55-73.Snieszko, S.F. (1974). The effect of environmental stresson outbreak of infectious diseases of fishes. J. FishBiol., 6: 197-208.Vembanad Lake: A potential spawner bank of the giantfreshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii on thesouthwest coast of IndiaParamaraj Balamurugan 1 , Pitchaimuthu Mariappan 2 and Chellam Balasundaram 11. Crustacean Aquaculture and Behaviour unit, Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli.620 024. Tamilnadu, India, email bal213@rediffmail.com; 2. Department of Biotechnology, J.J. College of Arts and Science,Pudukkottai, 622404, India.Macrobrachium rosenbergii broodstock of more than 100g, collected from Vembanad lake.In India, seed of the giant freshwaterprawn Machrobrachium rosenbergii(often known locally as scampi) isproduced with variable levels of successas no specific criteria are followedto evaluate broodstock quality forhatchery seed production. Moreover,commercial hatcheries obtain brooderseither from wild stock 1 or from growoutponds 2 . The soaring demand forseed cannot be fully met from the wild.Moreover, wild stocks of M. rosenbergiihave declined rapidly in recent yearsdue to over exploitation 3 , habitat lossand increased pollution particularly inOctober-December 2005southeast Asia 4 . This has been documentedfrom countries including Bangladesh,India, Indonesia, Malaysia, thePhilippines and Thailand 5 . These days,commercial farms are the main supplysource of broodstock for hatcheries.Inevitably, the stocks used by commercialfarms are experiencing a decline inproductivity due to inbreeding depressionas hatchery-produced siblings are‘recycled’ as broodstock over multiplegenerations 5 . Farm reared females alsoattain sexual maturity much earlier thantheir wild counterparts 6 ; the size at firstmaturity is also smaller and characterizedby relatively poor fecundity andlarval viability. These issues generallyresult in a reduction in the meansize of cultured scampi in subsequentgenerations. The recent occurrence of‘white tail disease’ in farm reared M.rosenbergii is also a major threat to itsculture in India. These issues need to beaddressed, and over fishing of the wildstock reduced, in order to improve thesustainability of the industry and to laya foundation for genetic improvementprograms of farmed stocks.Vembanad Lake, situated in Kerala(Lat 9º 28’ & 10º 10’ N and long 76º41

Genetics & biodiversity13’ & 31’ E) is the largest brackishwater body on the southwest coast ofthe Indian peninsula. The lake is approximately60km in length and coversan area of around 21,050ha 1 . It actsas a giant reservoir, protecting againstfloods and is in itself a major ecologicalresource. The lake has a unique featureof possessing two different ecosystems,retaining an estuarine condition in thedownstream region (the Cochin backwaters)and a freshwater habitat in theupstream regions (Thanneermukkomto Alleppey). In the 1950s and early1960s giant freshwater prawn werea lucrative component of the fisheryin Vembanad Lake and its confluentrivers. As an important component ofshrimp exports and earner of foreignexchange for Kerala, it emerged as themost valuable species in the inlandwaters of the state. However, since the1980s stocks of the giant freshwaterprawn have declined substantially dueto various interventions including overfishing 7 . From literature it is knownthat Vembanad Lake is endowed withcommercial-scale capture fisheries forboth Palaemonid and Penaeid shrimp.The Macrobrachium fishery itself isone of the major fishery activities withseveral species present, accounting forabout 1.63% of the exploited fishery resourcesof the lake. The annual yield ofdifferent freshwater prawns include: M.rosenbergii 39.27 tons, M. idella 68.3tons, M. scabriculum 6.78 tons and M.equidens 3.34 tons 8 .Berried females start appearing inthe catches in July-August and increaseuntil October-November. Theslow moving ovigerous females thatbecome abundant in the lake afteraugust are compelled to undertakea lengthy breeding migration. It hasbeen reported that over 23 tons ofberried females are exploited annuallyfrom the lake, the highest beingin October. Males are predominantlyfound between January to June and thefemales are predominant during theperiod August to December. Females ofaround 100-150g dominate the catch,representing approximately 44% 7 . Onlyabout 30% of the total spawner stock isthought to successfully reach the breedinggrounds.It is noteworthy that the broodersof Vembanad Lake are characterizedby a greater size and higher fecunditythan wild brooders from other areas.Females between 157-258mm andweight of 34.2g-202g have an absolutefecundity ranging from 30,000 to227,000 eggs 9 . Unfortunately, removalof wild brooders for hatchery operationsreduces the supply of wild seed tosupport the natural population.Recently it has been realized thatwild brooders give much better qualityseed. The practice of carelessly selectingbroodstock from hatchery populations,often from the same batch, hascreated vicious cycle of inbreeding,leading to poor quality seed. VembanadLake has the potential to provide highqualitybroodstock for the industry,until such time as appropriate broodstockmanagement strategies are inplace to maintain the genetic integrityof hatchery-reared populations. Restrictionson the fishing of M. rosenbergii,at least during breeding season, wouldenhance and conserve the wild stock.It would also be useful to encouragethe construction of hatcheries adjacentto the breeding grounds, where berriedfemales are found, and the establishmentof sanctuaries and hatcherieswould be a useful step towards theestablishment of a broodstock enhancementprogram 10 . Broodstock purchasedfrom the fisherman for seed productionshould be returned to the waters so asto minimize the impact on the wildstock. Harikrishnan and Kurup 1 haveemphasized that the temporal and spatialavailability of berried prawns in thelake for establishing berry procurementcenters. In this connection, it wouldbe useful for the state government andfreshwater prawn fishery authority totake necessary steps to regulate andmonitor stock levels and the fishery activityin the lake, particularly during thebreeding season, in order to avoid overexploitation of this valuable resource.References1. Harikrishnan, M and M.B. Kurup, 1996. Temporaland spatial availability of ovigerous females of Macrobrachiumrosenbergii (de Man) in Vembanad lake.Proceedings of the Eighth Kerala Science Congress.pp 441-443.2. Balamurugan, P., Mariappan, P. and C. Balasundaram.2004.Impacts of mono-sex Macrobrachiumculture on the future of seed availability in India.Aquaculture Asia., April-June, Vol. IX(2): 15-16.3. Hien, T.T.T., Minh, T.H., Phuong, N.T., Wilder, M.N.,1998. Current status of freshwater prawn culturein the Mekong River Delta of Vietnam. JIRCASJournal, 6, 89-100.4. Mather, P.B., de Bruyn, M., 2003. Genetic diversity inwild stocks of the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachiumrosenbergii: Implications for aquaculture andconservation., 26 (4), 4 -7.5. New, M. B., 2000. History and global status of freshwaterprawn farming. In M.B.New and W.C.Valenti(Eds). Freshwater prawn culture: the farming ofMacrobrachium rosenbergii. Blackwell Science,Oxford. pp. 1-11.6. Wilder, M.N., Wei- Jun, Y., Do Thi Thanh, H.,Masachika, M., 1999. Reproductive mechanismsin the giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachiumrosenbergii and co-operative research to improveseed production technology in the Mekong DeltaRegion of Vietnam. UJNR Technical reports, No.28,pp. 149-156.7. Kurup, B.M. and M. Harikrishnan. 2000. Revivingthe Macrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man) fishery inVembanad lake, India. Naga, The ICLARM Quarterly(Vol. 23, No 2). April-June.8. Kurup, B.M., Sebastian, M.J., Sankaran, T.M. andP. Rabindranath. 1992. Fishery and Biology ofMacrobrachium spp of the Vembanad Lake. In: E.G. Silas (Ed) freshwater prawns. Kerala AgriculturalUniversity. Pp 78-89.9. Sureshkumar, S. and B.M. Kurup. 1998. Fecundityindices of giant freshwater prawn, Macrobrachiumrosenbergii (de Man). J. Aqua. Trop. 13(3): 181-188.10. John, M. C. 1957. Bionomics and life history ofMacrobrachium rosenbergii (de Man). Bull. Cent.Res. Inst. Univ. Travencore, Tiruvandrum Ser.C5(1): 93-102.250,000 free downloadsand 2,000 registeredmembersWe are pleased to announced thatthe publication download counteron the NACA website (activesince March 2004) has just tickedover the 250,000 mark. We arealso pleased to welcome the2,000th registered member ofour online community, MichaelSheam from Singapore.Why don’t you join us?www.enaca.org42 Aquaculture Asia Magazine