The rise of rulers with total power in Europe and Asia led to World ...

The rise of rulers with totalpower in Europe and Asia ledto World War ILDictators of the 1930s and1940s changed the course ofhistory, making world leadersespecially watchful for theactions of dictators today.°Joseph Stalin oAdolf Hitler¯ totalitarian o Nazism~ Benito Mussolini ¯ Francisco Fmnco~ fascism °Neutrality ActsMartha Gellhorn arrived in Madrid in 1937 to cover thebrutal civil war that had broken out in Spain the yearbefore. Hired as a special correspondent for Coflier’s Weekly,she had come with very [ittle money and no special protection.On assignment there, she met the writer ErnestI-Iemingway, whom she later married. To Gellborn, a youngAmerican writer, the Spanish Civil War was a deadly strugglebetween tyranny and democracy. For the people ofMadrid, it was aIso a daily struggle for survival.~ You would be walking down a street, hearing only the citynoises of streetcars and automobiles and people calling toone another, and suddenly, crushing it all out, would be thehuge stony deep booming of a falling shell, at the corner. There was no place torun, because how did you know that the next shell would not be behind you, orahead, or to the left or right? ~--Tl~e Face of WarLess than two decades after the end of World War i--"the war to end allwars’--fighting erupted again in Europe and in Asia. As Americans read about distantbattles, they hoped the conflicts woald remain on the other side of the world.Martha Gellhom,one of the firstduring theSpanish Civil War,734 CHAPTER 24The seeds of new conflicts had been sown in World War i. For many nations,peace l~ad brought not prosperity but revolution fueled by economic depressionand struggle. The postwar years also brought the rise of powerful dictators drivenby the belief in nationalism~loyalty to one’s country above afl else~and d~eamsof territorial expansion.

Full Page View Section Page PageAdolf Hitler offers economic stabilHyto unemployed Germans during theGreat Depression and becomeschancellor in 1933.all opposition after V. L Lenin, foundo-|)fthe communist ~g ~qe dies.becomes a powerless figurehead.GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU|LDER!, ][te~io~ In which countries did authoritarian leaders come to power?~ .....~,Who were the leaders?2. Lo~atlo~ What geographic features might have led Japan to expand?THE RiSE OF FASCISIW iN iTALY While Stalin was consolidatin 8 his power inthe Soviet Union, Ber~lto ~v~ussolini was establishing a totalitarian regime inItaly, where unemployment and inflation produced bitter strikes, some communisi-led.Alarmed by these threats, the middle and upper classes demandedstronger leadership. Mussolini took advantage of this situation. A powerful speaker,Mussolini knew how to appeal to Italy’s wounded national pride. He played onthe fears of economic collapse and communism. In this way, he won the supportof many discontented Italians.By 1921, Mussolini had established the FascistParty. Fascism (~sh"fz’am) stressed nationalism andplaced the interests of the state above those of individuals.To strengthen the nation, Fascists argued, powermust rest with a single strong leade~ and a small groupof devoted party members. (The Latin fasces--a bundleof rods tied around an ax handle--had been a symbol ofBENITO MUSSOLINI unity and authorHy in ancient Rome.)In October !922, Mussolini marched on Rome withthousands of his followers, whose black uniforms gave them the name "BlackShirts." When important government officials, the army, and the police sidedwith the Fascists, the Italian king appointed Mussolini head of the government.Calling himself II Duce, or "ti~e leader," Mussolini gradually extended Fascistcontrol to every aspect of Italian life. Tourists marveled that fl Duco had even"made ttm trains run on time." Mussolini achieved this efficiency, however, bycrushing all opposition and by making Italy a totalitarian state. ~

Section Pagepag e Sectiona jobless soldier drifting around Germany. In 1919, he joined a struggling groupAdolt Hitler,Party. Despite its name, this party had no ties to socialism.Hitler proved to be such a powerful pnblic speaker and organizer that hequickly became the party’s leader. Calling himself Der Fgihrer--"the Leader"--heIn his book Mein Kampf [My Struggle], Hitler set forth the basic beliefs ofNazism that became the plan of action for the Nazi Party. Nazism (nfit’s’fz’am),been born in Austria, dreamed of uniting alI German-speaking people in a greatGerman empire.Germans--especially blue-eyed, blond-haired "Aryans"--formed a "master race"Summarlzi~g~ What were thekey ideas andgoals that Hitlerpresented in MeinKampf?accomplished only by "the might of a victorious sword." ~By mid 1932, the Nazis had become the strongest political party in Germany.In January 1933, Hitler was appointed cbancellor (prime minister). Once in power,Hitler quickly dismantled Germany’s democratic Weimar Republic. In its place heestablished the Third Reich, or Third German Empire. According to Hitler, the ThirdWorld War Looms 7~7

JAPANtokyoGEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDERMILITARISTS GAIN CONTROL IN JAPAN HaIl%,ay around theworld, nationalisticmilita~y Ieaders were trying to take control of the imperial government ofJapan. These leaders shared in common with Hitler a belief in the need for moreliving space for a growing popu|ation. Ignoring the protests of more moderateJapanese officials, the militarists launched a surprise attack and seized control ofthe Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. Within several months, Japanesetroops controlled the entire provinca, a large region about twice the size of rI~xas,that was rich in natural resources. ~The watchful League of Nations had been established after World Was t to preventjust such aggressive acts. In this greatest test of the League’s power, representativeswere sent to Manchuria to investigate the situation. Their report condemnedJapan, who in turn simply quit the League. Meanwhile, lhe success of theManchurian invasion put the militarists firmIy in control of Japan’s government.AGGRESSION IN EUROPE AND AFRICA The tai]ure of the League of Nationsto take action against Japan did not escape the notice of Europe’s dictatm’s. In1933, Hitler pulled Germany out of the League. In 193S, he began a militarybuildup in violation of the Jkeaty of Versailles. A yea~ later, he sent troops intothe Rhineland, a German region bordering France and Belgium that was demilitarizedas a result of the Treaty of Versailles. The League did nothing to stop l {itler.

Meanwhile, Mussolini began building his new RomanEmpire. His first target was Ethiopia, one of Africa’s fewremaining independent countries. By the fall of 1935, tensof thousands of Italian soldiers stood ready to advance onEthiopia. The League ol Nations reacted with brave talk of"collective resistance to all acts of unprovoked aggression."When the invasion began, however, the League’sresponse was an ineffective economic boycott--little morethan a slap on Italy’s wrist. By May 1936, Ethiopia had fallen.In desperation, Haile Selassie, the ousted Ethiopianemperor, appealed to tlre League for assistance. Nothingwas done. "It is us today," he told them. "It wiI! be youtonrorrow."CIVIL WAR BREAKS OUT iN SPAIN In 1936, a group ofSpanisb army officers led by General Francisco Franco,rebelled against the Spanisb republic. Revolts broke out allover Spain, and the Spanish Civil War began. The wararoused passions not only in Spain but throughout theworld. About 3,000 Americans formed the AbrahamLincoln Battalion and traveled to Spain to fight againstFranco. "We knew, we just knew," recalled MarthaGellhom, "that Spain was the place to stop fascism."Among the volunteers were African Americans still bitterabout Mussolini’s invasion of Ethiopia the year before.Such limited aid was not sufficient to stop the spread offascism, however. The Western democracies remained neutral.Although the Soviet Union sent equipment and advisers,Hitler and Mussolini backed Franco’s forces with troops,weapons, tanks, and fighter planes. The war forged a closerelationsbip between the German and Italian dictators, whosigned a formal alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis.AAer a loss of almost S00,000 lives, Franco’s victory in 1939established him as Spain’s fascist dictator. Once again atotalitarian government ruled in Europe. ~AFRICAN AMERICANS STANEBY ETHIOPIANSWhen Mussolini invaded Ethiopia,many Europeans and Americans--especially African Americans--were outraged, Almost overnight,African Americans organizedto raise money for medical supplies,and a few went to fight inEthiopia. Years later, the Ethiopianemperor Halle Selassie (shownabove) said of these efforts,"We can never forget the helpEthiopia received from NegroAmericans during the terriblecrisis .... It moved me toknow that Americans of Africandescent did not abandon theirembattled brothers, but stoodA French journalistescapes from Spain toFrance with a child herescued from a streetWorld WaF Looms 739

Full page View Section Page Page 5e~t!0nMost Americans were alarmed by the international conflicts of tire mid-1930s butbelieved that the United States should not gel involved. In 1928, Ihe UnitedStates had signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact. The treaty was signed by 62 countriesand declared that war would nol be used "as an instrument of national policy."Yet it did not include a plan to deal with countries that broke their pledge. ThePact was, therefore, only a small step toward peace./~IVIERICANS CLING TO ~SOLP.TIONISI~q In the early 1930s, a flood of booksargued that the United States had been dragged into World War I by greedybankers and arms dealers. Public outrage led to the creation of a congressionalcommittee, chaired by North Dakota Senator Gerald Nye, that held hearings onthese charges. The Nye committee fueled the controversy by documenting thelarge profits that banks and manufacturers made during the war. As the furor grewover these "merchants of death," Americans became more determined than ever toavoid war. Antiwar feeling was so strong that the Girl Scouts of America changedthe color of its uniforms from khaki to green to appear less militaristic. ~Americans’ growing isolationism eventually had an impact on PresidentRoosevelt’s foreign policy. When he had first taken office in 1933, Roosevelt felt growingcomfortable reaching out to the world in several ways. He officiaIly recognizedthe Soviet Union in 1933 and agreed to exchange ambassadors with Moscow. liecontinued the policy of nonintervention in Latin America--begun by PresidentsCoolidge and Hoover--with his Good Neighbor Policy and withdrew armedforces stationed there. In 1934, Roosevelt pushed the Reciprocal Trade AgreementAct through Congress. This act lowered trade barriers by giving the president thepower to make trade agreements with other nations and was aimed at reducing"IT AIN’T WHAT IT USED TO BE"During the late 1930s, Americans were dividedabout becoming involved in "Europe’s quarrels."Some people felt that the United States should bemore involved in the economic and political problemsoccurring across the Atlantic. Isolationists--peoplewho beIieved the United States should stay completelyout of other nations’ affairs except in thedefense of the United States--strictly opposed intervening,The idea that America and Europe were twoseparate worlds divided by an ocean that couldguarantee safety was quickly eroding.SKILLBUILDERAnalyzing Political Cartoons:£. What does Uncle Sam’s turning I~is back onEurope show about American attitudes in thelate 1930s?2. What U.S. policy does the cartoon imply?3. Why might the Atlantic Ocean have appeared toshrink in the late 1930s?SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24.CHAPTER 24

tariffs by as much as S0 percent. In an effort to keep the United States out offuture wars, beginning in 1935, Congress passed a series of LNeutrality Acts. Thefirst two acts outlawed arms sales or loans to nations at waL The third act waspassed in response to the fighting in Spain. This act extended the ban on armssales and loans to nations engaged in civil wars.NEUTRALfT¥ BREAKS DOWN Despite congressional efforts to legislate neutrality,Roosevelt found it impossible to remain neutral. When Japan launched anew attack on China in July !937, Roosevelt found a way around the NeutralityActs. Because Japan had not formally declared war against China, the presidentclaimed there was no need to enforce the Neutrality Acts. The United States continuedsending arms and supplies to China. A few months later, Roosevelt spokeOut strongly against isolationism in a speech delivered in Chicago. He called onpeace-loving nations to "quarantine," or isolate, aggressor nations in order to stopthe spread of war,At last Roosevelt seemed ready to take a stand against aggression--that is, untilisolationist newspapers exploded in protest, accusing the president of leading thenation into war. Roosevelt backed off in the face of criticism, but his speech didbegin to shift the debate. For the moment the conflicts remained "over there."1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.°Joseph Stalin ¯ Benito Mussolini oAdolf Hitlero totalitarian ¯ fascism ¯ Nazism Neutrality ActsMAIN iDEA2. TAKING NOTESUsing a web diagram like the onebelow, fitl it in with the mainambition of each dictator.CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING CAUSESHOW did the Treaty of Versailles sowthe seeds of instability in Europa?Think About:~ effects of the treaty on Germanyand the Soviet Union~ effects of the treaty on nationalpride~ the economic legacy of the warDRAWING CONCLUSIONSWhy do you think Hitler foundwidespread support among theGerman people? Support youranswer with details from the text,5. FORMING GENERALIZATIONSWould powerful nations or weaknations be more likely to follow anisolationist policy? Explain.What ambitions did the dictatorshave in common?World War Looms

Using the sudden mass Hitler’s actions started World ¯ ~4eville o nonaggressionattack called blitzkrieg~ War I1 and still serve as a Chamberlain pactGermany invaded and quickly warning to be vigilant about ,Winston Churchill ¯ blitzkriegconquered many European totalitarian government. .appeasement °Charles de Gaullecountries.In 1940, CBS correspondent William Shirer stood in the forestnear Compi~gne, where 22 years earlier defeated Germangenerals had signed the armistice ending World War I. Shirerwas now waiting for Adolf Hitler to deliver his annisticeterms to a defeated France. He watched as Hitler walked upto the monument and slowly read the inscription: "Here onthe eleventh of November 1918 succumbed the criminalpride of the German empire.., vanquished by the free peopleswhich it tried to enslave." Later that day, Shirer wrote adiary entry describing the fi~hrer’s reaction.~’1 have seen that face many times at the great moments of his life. Buttoday! It is afire with scorn, anger, hate, revenge, triumph. He steps off the monumentand contrives to make even this gesture a masterpiece of contempt .... Heglances sbwly around the clearing, and now, as his eyes meet ours, you grasp thedepth of his hatred, But there is ~fiumph there to--revengeful, triumphant hate~"~Berlin Diary: ??~e Journal of a h~reign Correspondent, 1934-1941Again and again Shirer had heard Hitler proclaim that "Germany needspeace .... Germany wants peace." The hatred and vengefulness thai: drove thedictator’s every action, however, drew Germany ever closer to war.a journalist andhistorian, becamewell known for hisradio broadcastsfrom Berlin atthe beginning ofWorld War II.On November S, 1937, Hitler met secretly with his top military advisers. He boldly@dared that to grow and prosper Germany needed the Iand of its neighbors.His plan was to absorb Austria and Czechoslovakia into the Third Reich. Whenone of his advisors protested that annexing those countries could provoke wa~,Hitler replied, "’The German Question’ can be solved only by means of force, andthis is never wRhout risk/’

FUll Page View Section Page Page Sectiondid Germany makein its quest forlebensraum?UNION WiTH AUSTRIA Austria was Hitler’s first target.The Paris Peace Conference following World War 1 had createdthe relatively small nation of Austria out of what was leftof the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The majority of Austria’s 6million people were Germans who favored unification withGermany. On March 12, 1938, Gee:man troops marched intoAustria unopposed. A day later, Germany announced that itsAnschluss, or "union," with Austria was complete. The UnitedStates and the rest of the world did nothing.BARGAINING FOR THE SUDETENLAND Hitler thenturned to Czechoslovakia. About 3 million German-speakingpeople lived in the western border regions ofCzechoslovakia called the Sudetenland. The mountainousregion formed Czechoslovakia’s main defense againstGerman attack. (See map, p. 744.) Hitler wanted to annexCzechoslovakia in order to provide more living space forGermany as well as to control its important naturalresources.Hitler charged that the Czechs were abusing theSudeten Germans, and he began massing troops on theADOLF HITLER$889-:2945"All great world-shaking eventshave been brought about not bywritten matter, but by the spokenword[" declared Adotf Hitler. A shyand awkward speaker at first,Hitler rehearsed carefully. Heeven had photographs (shownabove) taken of his favoritegestures so he could study themand make changes to produceexactly the desired effect.Hitler’s extraordinary power as aspeaker, wrote Otto Strassecstemmed from an intuitive abilityto se~3se "the vibration of thehaman heart.., telling it what itmost wants to hear."Czech border. The U.S. correspondent William Shirer, then stationed in Berlin,wrote in his diary: "The Nazi press [is] fulI of hysterical headlines. All lies. Someexamples: ’Women and Children Mowed Down by Czech Armored Cars,’ or’Bloody Regime--New Czech Murders of Germans.’"Early in the crisis, both France and Great Britain promised to protectCzechoslovakia. Then, just when war seemed inevitable, Hitler invited Frenchpremier ]~douard Daladier and British prime minister Neville Chamberlain tomeet with him in Munich. When they arrived, the fflhrer declared that theannexation of the Sudetenland would be his "last territorial demand." In theireagerness to avoid war, Daladier and Ghamberlain chose to believe him. OnSeptember 30, !938, they signed the Munich Agreement, wbich turned theSudetenland over to Germany without a single shot being fired. :~Chamberlain returned home and proclaimed: "My friends, there has comeback ftom Germany peace with honor, i believe it is peace in our time."World War Looms

Full Page ViewGEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER$. Region Which European countries did Germany invade?2. HocatJon How was Germany’s geographic location a~advantage?Chamberlain’s satisfaction was not shared by Wins~.on Churchill,Chamberlain’s political rival in Great Br!tain. In Churchill’s view, by signing theMunich Agreement, Daladier and Chamberlain had adopted a shamefu! policy ofappeasement--or giving up principles to pacify an aggressor. As Churchill bluntlyput it, "Britain and France had lo choose between war and dishonor. They chosedishonor. They will have war." Nonetheless, the House of Commons approvedChamberlain’s policy toward Germany and Churchill responded with a warning.olden time."As Churchill had warned, Hitler was not flnisbed expanding the Third Reich. Asdawn broke on March 15, 1939, German troops poured into what remained ofCzechos!ovakia. At nightfall Hitler gloated, "Czechoslovakia has ceased to exist."After that, the German dictator turned his land-hungry gaze toward Germany’seastern neighbor, Poland.744 CHAPTER 24

: ................ ..................BackgroundLuftwaffe inGerman means"air weapon."Evaluating~ HOW didGerman bIitzkriegtactics rely ontechnology?THE SOVIET UN~ON DECLARES NEUTRALITY Like Czechoslovakia, Polandhad a sizable German-speaking population, tn the spring of 1939, Hitler began hisfamiliar routine, charging that Germans in Poland were mistreated by the Polesand needed his protection. Some people thought that this time I-titler must bebluffing. After all, an attack on Poland might bring Germany into conflict withthe Soviet Union, Poland’s eastern neighbor. At the same time, such an attackwould most likely provoke a declaration of war from France and Britain--both ofwhom had promised military aid to Poland. The result would be a two-front war.Fighting on two fronts had exhausted Germany in World War L Surely, manythought, Hitler would not be foolish enough to repeat that mistake.As tensions rose over Poland, Stalin surprised everyone by signing anonaggresslon pact with Hitler, Once bitter enemies, on August 23, 1939 fascistGermany and communist Russia now committed never to attack each othenGermany and the Soviet Union also signed a second, secret pacL agreeing todivide Poland between them. With the danger of a two-front war eliminated, thefate of Poland was sealed.BLITZKRIEG IN POLAND As day broke on September 1, 1939, the GermanLuftwaffe, or German air force, roared over Poland, raining bombs on militarybases, airfields, railroads, and cities. At the same time, German tanks raced acrossthe Polish countryside, spreading terror and confusion. This invasion was the firsttest of Germany’s newest military strategy, the blitzkrieg, or lightning war.Blitzkrieg made use of advances in military technology--such as fast tanks andmore powerful aircraft--to take the enemy by surprise and then quickly crush allopposition with overwhelming force. On September 3, two days following the re>rot in Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany. ~The blitzkrieg tactics worked perfectly. Major fighting was over in threeweeks, long before France, Britain, and their allies could mount a defense. In thelast week of fighting, the Soviet Union attacked Poland from the east, grabbingsome of its territory. The portion Germany annexed in western Poland containedalmost two-thirds of Poland’s population. By the end of the month, Poland hadceased to exist--and World War II had begun.

For months therewas nothing muchto defend against,as the war turnedTHE PHONY WAR For the next several months after the fall of Poland,French and British troops on the Maginot Line, a system of fortificationsbuilt along France’s eastern border (see map on p. 744), satstaring into Germany, waiting for something to happen. On theSiegfried Line a few miles away German troops stared back. Theblitzkrieg had given way to what the Germans called the sitzkrieg("sitting war"), and what some newspapers referred to as thephony war.After occupying eastern Poland, Stalin began annexing theBaltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Late in 1939, Stalinsent his Soviet army into Finland. After three months of fighting,the outnumbered Finns surrendered.Suddenly, on April 9, 1940, Hitler launched a surprise invasionof Denmark and Norway in order "to protect [those countries’] freedomand independence." But in truth, Ititler planned to build bases along thecoasts to strike at Great Britain. Next, Hitler turned against the Netherlands,Belgium, and Luxembourg, which were overrun by the end of May. The phonywar had ended. ~AnalyzingMotives~ How did Hitlerrationalize theof Denmark andNorway?France’s Maginot Line proved to be ineffective; tire German army threatened tobypass the line during its invasion of Belgium. Hitler’s generals sent their tanksthrough the Ardennes, a region of wooded ravines in northeast France, therebyavoiding British and French troops who thought the Ardennes were impassible.The Germans continued to march toward Paris.THE FALL OF FRANCE The German offensive trapped almost 400,000 Britishand French soldiers as they fled to the beaches of Dunkirk on the French side ofthe English Gbannel. In less than a week, a makeshift fleet of fishing trawlers, tugboats,river barges, pleasure craft--more than 800 vessels in all--ferried about330,000 British, French, and Belgian troops to safetyacross the Channel.A few days later, Italy entered the war on the side ofGermany and invaded France from the south as theGermans closed in on Paris from the north. On June 22,1940, at Compi~gne, as William Shirer and the rest of theworld watched, Hitler handed French offrcers his terms ofsurrender. Germans would occupy the northern part ofFrance, and a Nazi-controlled puppet government, headedby Marshal Philippe P~taln, would be set up at Vichy,in southern France.After France fell, a French general named Charlesde Gaulle fled to England, where he set up a governmerit-in-exile.De Gaulle proclaimed defiantly, "Francehas lost a battle, but France has not lost the war."THE BATTLE OF BRITAIN In the summer of 1940, theGermans began to assemble an invasion fleet along theFrench coast. Because its naval power could not competewith that of Britain, Germany also launched an air war atthe same time. The Luftwaffe began making bombingBackgroundHitler demandedthat the surrendertake place in thesame railroad carwhere the Frenchhad dictated termsto the Germans inWorld War I.746 CHAvr~R 24

uns over Britain. Its goal was tO gain total contro! of theskies by destroying Britain’s l~.oyal Air Force (RAF). Hitlerhad 2,600 planes at his disposal. On a single day---August15--approximately 2,000 German planes ranged overBritain. Every night for two solid months, bombers poundedLondon.The Battle of Britain raged on through the summer andfall. Night after night, German planes pounded British targets.At first the Luftwaffe concentrated on airfields and aircraft.Next it targeted cities. Londoner Len Jones was iust 18years old when bombs fell on his East End neighborhood.WINSTON CHURCHILL1874-1965Churchill was possibly Britain’sCreatest weapon as that nationfaced the Nazis. A barn fi4hter,Churchill became pdme ministerin May 1940 and used his gift asa speaker to arouse Britons andunite them:"[W]e shall defend our island,whatever the cost may be, weshNt fi4ht on the beaches, weThe RAF fought back brilliantly. With the help of a newtechnological device called radar, British pilots accuratelyplotted the flighl) paths of German planes, ~ven in darkness.On September 15, 1940 the RAF shot down over 185 Germanplanes; at the same time, they lost only 26 aircraft. Sixweeks later, Hitler called off the invasion of Britain indefinitely."Never in the field of human conflict," saidChurchill in praise of the IL~.F pilots, "was so much owed byso many to so few."Still, German bombers continued to pound Brita!n’scities trying to disrupt production and break civilianmorale. Br!tish pilots also bombed German cities. Civilians in both countriesunrelentingly carried on.8rounds, we shall fight in thefields and in the streets, weshall fight in the hills; we shallnever surrender."1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.¯Neville Chamberlain .appeasement .blitzkrieg¯ Winston Churchill .nona~ression pact .Charles de Gaulle~AIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTESTrace the movement of Gercqanexpansion from 1937 to the end of$940 by supplying events to followthe dates shown on the time line.What event was the mostsignificant? Why?CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING MOTIVESTO what extent do you think ties anddeception played a role in Hitier’stactics? Support your answer withexamples, Think About:o William Shirer’s diary entryabout headlines in the Nazinewspaperso Soviet-German reIations¯ Hitler’s justifications for militaryaggression4. EVALUATING DECISIONSIf you had been a member of theBritish House of Commons in $938,would you have voted for or againstthe Munich Agreement? Supportyour decision.5. DRAWING CONCLUSIONSReview Germany’s aggressiveactions between $938 and $945.At what point do you think Hitlerconcluded that he could take anyterritory without being stopped?Why?World War" Looms 747

During the Holocaust, theNazis systematicallyexecuted 6 million Jews and5 million other "non-Aryans."After the atrocities of theHolocaust, agencies formed topublicize human rights. Theseagencies have remained a forcein today’s world.¯ Holocausto Kristallnacht°genocide°ghettoGerda Weissmann was a carefree girl of 15 when, in September]939, invading German troops shattered her world. Becausethe Weissmanns were Jews, they were forced to give up theirhome to a German family, in 1942, Gerda, her parents, andmost of Poland’s 3,000,000 Jews were sent to labor camps.Oerda recalls when members of IIitler’s elite Schutzs~zq~"el, or"security squadron" (SS), came to round up the Jews.~We had to form a line and an SS man stood there with a littlestick. I was holding hands with my mother and.., he looked atme and said, ’How old?’ And I said, ’eighteen,’ and he sort ofpushed me to one side and my mother to the other side .... Andshortly thereafter, some trucks arrived.., and we were loadedonto the trucks. I heard my mother’s voice from very far off ask,’Where to?’ and I shouted back, ’1 don’t know.’’ESCAPING THEFINAL SOLUTIONKllrt Kleinand GerdaWhen the American lieutenant Kurt Klein, who would laterbecome Gerda’s husband, liberated her from the Nazis in 1945--justone day before her 21st birthday--she weighed 68 pounds and her hairhad turned white. Even so, of all her family and friends, she alone had survivedthe Nazis’ campaign to exterminate Europe’s Jews.On April 7, 1933, shortly after Hitler took power in Germany, he ordered all "non-Aryans" to be removed from government jobs. This order was one of the firstmoves in a campaign for racial purity that eventually led to the Holocaust--thesystematic murder of 11 million people across Europe, more than half of whomwere Jews.CHAPTER 24

On November 17, :L938, twopassersby examine theshattered window of a Jewishownedstore in the aftermathJewish men holding a "star of David"are rounded up and marched throughtile streets on their way to aconcentration camp.JEWS TARGETED Although Jews were not the only victims of the Holocaust,they were the center of the Nazis’ targets. Anti4emitism, or hatred of the Jews,had a long history in many European countries. For decades many Germans lookingfor a scapegoat had blamed the Jews as the cause of their failures. Hitler foundthat a majority of Germans were willing to support his belief that Jews wereresponsible for Germany’s economic problems and defeat in World War !.As the Nazis tightened their hold on Germany, their persecution of the Jewsincreased. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws stripped Jews of their German citizenship,iobs, and property. 3"o make it easier for the Nazis to identify them, Jews hadto wear a bright yellow Star of David attached to their clothing. Worse was yetAnalyzingprobIems didfrom 1935 to1938?KRISTALLNACHT November 9-10, 1938, became known as l~ristall~acht(krYs’tN’n~icht’), or "Night of Broken Glass." Nazi storm troopers attacked Jewishhomes, businesses, and synagogues across Germany. An American who wimessedthe violence wrote, "Jewish shop windows by the hundreds were systematicallyand wantonly smashed .... The main streets of the city were a positive litter ofshattered plate glass." Around !00 Jews were killed, and hundreds more wereinjured. Some 30,000 Jews were arrested and hundreds of synagogues wereburned. Afterward, the Nazis blamed the Jews for the destruction, c~A FLOOD OF JEWISH REFUGEES Kristallnacht marked a step~up in the Nazipolicy of Jewish persecution. Nazis tried to speed Jewish emigration but encountereddifficulty. Jews fleeing Germany had trouble finding nations that wouldaccept them. France already had 40,000 Jewish refugees and did not want more.The British worried about fueling anti-Semitism and refused to admit more than80,000 Jewish refugees. They also controlled Palestine (later Israel) and allowed30,000 refugees to settle there. Late in 1938, Germany’s foreign minister, Joachimyon Ribbentrop, observed, "We all want to get rid of our )ews. The difficulty" isthat no country wishes to receive them,"Worm War" Looms 749

Although the averageJew had little chance ofreaching the United States,"persons of exceptionalmerit," including physicistAlbert Einstein, authorThomas Mann, architectWalter Gropius, and theologianPaul Tillich wereamong I00,000 refugees theUnited States accepted.Many Americans wantedthe door closed. Americanswere concerned that lettingin more refugees during theGreat Depression wouldImage not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theimage in the textbook.deny U.S. citizens jobs and threaten economic recovery. Among Americans, therewas widespread anti-Semitism and fear that "enemy agents" would be allowed toenter the country. President Roosevelt said that while he sympathized with theJews, he would not "do anything which would conceivably hurt the future of presentAmerican citizens." ~THE PLIGHT OF THE ST. LOUIS OfficiaI indifference to the plight of Germany’sJews was in evidence in the case of the ship St. Louis. This German ocean linerpassed Miami in 1939. Although 740 of the liner’s 943 passengers had U.S. immigrationpapers, the Coast Guard followed the ship to prevent anyone from disembarkingin America. The ship was forced to return to Europe. "The cruise of theSt. Louis," wrote the New York ’limes, "cries to high heaven of man’s inhumanityto man." Passenger Liane Reif-Lehrer recalls her childhood experiences.AnalyzingEffects~ How did theUnited Statesrespofid to Jewishrefugees?More than half of the passengers were later killed in the Holocaust.By 1939 only about a quarter million Jews remained in Germany. But othernations that Hitler occupied had millions more. Obsessed with a desire to ridEurope of its Jews, Hitler imposed what he called the "Final Solution"--a policyof genocide, the deliberate and systematic killing of an entire population.

BackgroundThe first person touse the term FinalSolution wasGeneral GeorgeCuster. He wasreferring to theexecution ofNative Americans.THE CONDEIV~NED Hitler’s Final Solution rested on timbelief that Aryans were a superior people and that thestrength and purity of this "master race" must be preserved.To accomplish this, the Nazis condemned to slavery anddeath not only the Jews but other groups that they viewedas inferior or unworthy or as "enemies of the state."After taking power in 1933, the Nazis had concentratedon silencing their political opponents--communists, socialists,liberals, and anyone else who spoke out against thegovernment. Once the Nazis had eliminated these enemies,they turned against other groups in Germany. In addition toJews, these groups included the following:o Gypsies--whom the Nazis believed to be an"inferior race"¯ Freemasons--whom the Nazis charged as supportersof the "Jewish conspiracy" to rule the worldo Jehovah’s Witnesses--who refused to join thearmy or salute HitlerDENMARK’S RESISTANOEKing Christian X became animportant symbol of Danishresistance in World War I1. in1942, he rejected the Nazis’demand to enforce theNuremberg Laws against theJews in occupied Denmark. inAugust 1943, the king spoke outagainst the German occupyingforces, an act that led to hisimprisonment for the remainderof the war.The Nazis also targeted other Germans whom they found unfit to be part ofthe "master race." Such victims included homosexuals, the mentally deficient,the mentally ill, the physicallydisabled, and. the incurably ill.Hitler began implementinghis Final Solution in Poland withspecia! Nazi death squads. Hitler’selite Nazi "security squadrons"(or SS), rounded up Jews--men,women, children, and babies--and shot them on the spot.FORCED Rr:LOCATION Jews alsowere ordered into dismal, overcrowdedghettos, segregatedJewish areas in certain Polishcities. The Nazis sealed off theghettos with barbed wire andstone walls.Life inside the ghetto wasmiserable. The bodies of victimspiled up in the streets faster thanthey conld be removed. Factorieswere built alongside ghettoswhere peopIe were forced to workfor German industry. In spite ofthe impossible living conditions,the Jews hung on. While someformed resistance movementsinside the ghettos, others resistedby other means. They publishedand distributed undergronndnewspapers. Secret schools wereset up to educate Jemish children.l,;ven theater and music groupscontinued to operate,TOTALS 9,067,800 4,869,860 5,894,716Source: Columbia Guide to Itle HolocaustWorld War Looms 75 ~1

~.945, inmatesat thecamp inliberated byCONCENTRATION CAiVIP$ Finally, Jews in communities not reached by thekilling squads were dragged from their homes and herded onto trains or trucks forshipment to concentration ca~aps~ or labor camps. Families were often sepa~rated, sometimes--like the Weissmanns---forever.Nazi concentration camps were originally set up to imprison political opponentsand protesters. The camps were later turned over to the SS, who expandedthe concentration camp and used it to warehouse other "undesirables." Life inthe camps was a cycle of hunger, humiliation, and work that almost alwaysended in death.The prisoners we]e crammed into crude wooden barracks that held up to athousand people each. They shared their crowded quarters, as well as their mea~get meals, with hordes of rats and fleas. Hunger was so intense, recalled one survivor,"that if a bit of soup spilled over, prisoners would converge on the spot, digtheir spoons into the mud and stuff the mess into their mouths."inmates in the camps worked from dawn to dusk, sevendays a week, until they collapsed. Those too weak to workwere killed. Some, like Rudolf Reder, endured. He was one ofonly two ~ews to survive the camp at Belzec, Poland.A~er stripping their victims of life and dignRy,the Nazis hoarded whatever articles of valuethe victims had possessed, such as weddingtings and gold fillings from teeth.CHAPTER 24

The Final Solution reached its final stagein early 1942~ At a meeting held inWannsee, a lakeside suburb near Berlin,Ilitler’s top officials agreed to begin a newphase of the mass murder of Jews. Tn massslaughter and starvation they would add athhd method of killing--murder by poisongas. ~MASS EXTER~INATIONS As deadly asoverwork, starvation, beatings, and bulletswere, they did not kill fast enougb to sat~isfy the Nazis. The Germans built six deathcamps in Poland. The first, Chelmno,began operating in 1941--before themeeting at Wannsee. Each camp had severalhuge gas chambers in which as manyas 12,000 people could be killed a day.When prisoners arrived at Auschwitz,the largest of the death camps, they had toparade by several SS doctors. With a waveof the hand, the doctors separated thosestrong enough to work from those whowould die that day. Both groups were toldto leave all their belongings behind, with apromise that they would be returned later.Those destined to die were then led into aroom outside the gas chamber and weretold to undress for a shower. To completethe deception, the prisoners were evenWorld War Looms 7[53

Cldldren takenfrom EasternEurope andimprisoned inA~lschwitzlook otlt frombehind thebarbed,wirefence in July1944,RIGHTEOUS PERSONS OFWORLD WAR IIn the midst of the world’s overallindifference to the plight otJewish refugees thousands ofqon-Jews risked and - manycases Iost--their own lives tosave Jews from the Naz=s, Irrecognition of such nero~cefforts, the Israe Parliament.given pieces of soap. Finally, they were ted into the chamberand poisoned with cyanide gas that spewed from ventsin the walls. This orderly mass extermination was sometimescarried out to the accompaniment of cheerful musicplayed l~y an ordrestra of camp inmates who had temporarilybeen spared execution.At first the bodies were buried in huge pits. At Belzec,P, udolf Reder was part of a 500-man death brigade lhatlabored all day, he said, "either at grave digging or emp/yingthe gas chambers/’ But the decaying corpses gave off astench that could be smelled for miles around. Worse yet,mass graves left evidence of the mass murder. LilliKopecky recalls her arrival at Auschwitz.ndividuals the title of RighteousGentiles (or Righteous PersonsAS of the year 2001 more man18.269 individuals were recogmorality,Aristides de Sousa Mendes. aFrance, defied his government sorders and issued some 10.O00visas [o JeWS seeking entry to hiscoun[ry. The Swedish d piomazRaoul Wallenberg ~ssued "protectivepassports" that allowed[nousanos of Hunganan Jews toescape the Nazi death campsEven citizens of Germany ~en~ ahand. And Sempo Sugihara.ne~eed over 6.000 Jews toAt some camps, to try to cover up the evidence oftheir slaughter, the Nazis installed huge crematoriums, orovens m which to burn the dead. At other camps, thebodies were simply thrown into a pit and set on fire.Gassing was not the only method of ex/etminationused in the camps. Prisoners were also shot, hanged, oriniected with poison.Still others died as a result of horrible medical experimentscarried out by camp doctors. Some of these victimswere injected with deadly germs in order /o study theeffect of disease on different groups of people. Many morewere used to test methods of sterilization, a subject ofgreat interest to some Nazi cloctors in their search for waysto ~mprove the "master race."754 CHAPTER 24

~ GO t0 Classzone;cem Table of Contents .....THE SURVIVORS An estimated six million Jews died in thedeath camps and in the Nazi massacres. But some miraculouslyescaped the worst of the Holocaust. Many I~ad help from ordinarypeople who were appalled by the Nazis’ treatment of Jews.Some Jews even survived lhe horrors of the concentration ca mps.In Gerda Weissmann Klein’s view, survival depended asmuch on one’s spirit as on getting enough to eat. "I do believe that if you wereblessed with imagination, you could work through it," she wrote. "If, unfortunately,you were a person that faced reality, i think you didn’t have much of achance." Those who did come out of the camps alive were forever changed bywhat they had witnessed. For survivor Elie WieseI, who entered Auschwitz in1944 at the age of 14, the sun had set forever.GERDA WEIS$1~ANN KLEIN~ Never shall I forget that night, the firstnight in the camp, which has turned my lifeinto one long night .... Never shall I forgetthe little faces of the children, whose bodiesI saw turned into wreaths of smokebeneath a silent blue sky. Never shall I forgetthose flames which consumed my faithforever. Never shall I forget that nocturnalsilence which deprived me~ for ~1 ! eternity,of the desire to live. Never shall I forgetthose moments which murdered my Godand my soul and turned my dreams to dust.Never shall I forget these things, even if Iam condemned to live as long as GodHimself. Never.~Night Elie Wiesel, 1986:l. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.¯Holocaust .genocide -concentration camp¯ Kristallnacht,ghettoMAiN IDEA2, TAKING NOTESList at least four events that led tothe NoIocaust.CauseEffectWrite a paragraph summarizing oneof the events that you listed.CRITICAL THINKINGEVALUATING DECISIONSDO you think that the United Stateswas justified in not allowing moreJewish refugees to emigrate? Whyor why not? Think About:o the views of isolationists in theUnited Statessome Americans’ prejudicesand fearsthe incident on tl~e Germanluxury liner St. Louis4. DEVELOPING HISTORICALPERSPECTIVEWhy do you think the Nazi system ofsystematic genocide was so brutallyeffective? Support your answer withdetails from the text,5. ANALYZING MOTIVESHOW might concentration campdoctors and guards have justified tothemselves the death and sufferingthey caused ether human beings?14Zorld War Looms 755

An~erkaIn response to the fightingin Europe, the United Statesprovided economic andmilitary aid to help theAllies achieve victory.The military capability of theU. S. became a deciding factorin World War II and in worldaffairs ever since.°Axis powersoLend-Lease Act°Atlantic CharteroAIlieso HidekiTojoTwo days after Hitler invaded Poland, President Rooseveltspoke reassuringly to Americans about the outbreak of war inEurope.~This nation viii remain a neutral nation, but I cannot askthat every American remain neutral in thought as well ....Even a neutral cannot be asked to close his mind or his conscience.... I have said not once, but many times, that 1have seen war and I hate war.... As long as it is my powerto prevent, there will be no blackout of peace in the U.S~ ~~radio speecl~, September 3, 1939Although Roosevelt knew that Americans were stilldeeply committed to staying out of war, he also believed thattbere could be no peace in a world controlled by dictators.Franklin D.RooseveltAs Gem~an tanks thundered across Poland, Roosevelt revised the Neutrality Act of!935. At the same time, he began to prepare the nation for tbe struggle he fearedlay just ahead.~OV[NG CAUTIOUSLY AWAY FRO~ NE~TRAMTY In September of 1939,RooseveR persuaded Congress to pass a "~sh-and-carry" provision that allowedwarring nations to buy U.S. arms as long as they paid cash and transported them intheir own ships. Providing the arms, Roosevelt argued, would help France andBritain defeat Hitler and keep the United States out of the war. Isolationists attackedRoosevelt for his actions. However, after six weeks of heated debate, Congresspassed the Neutrafity Act of !939, and a cash-and-carry policy went into effect.

CARVING IT UPThe three Axis nations~ermany, Italy, and Japan--were a threat to the entire world. They belleved theyware superior and more powerfuI than other nations,especially democracies. By signing a mutual defensepact, the Axis powers believed the United Stateswould never risk involvement in a two-ocea~ war. Thiscartoon shows the Axis powers’ obsession with globaldomination.SK~LLBUILDER Analyzing Political Cartoon,s:L What are the Axis leaders--Hitter, Mussolini, andTojo--greedily carving up?2. What do you think the artlst means by showingHitler doing the carving?;~ SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R24.AnalyzingEffects~,~ What impactdid the outbreakof war in Europehave on U.S.foreign anddefense policy?THE AXiS THREAT The United States cash-and-carry policy began to look liketoo littIe, too late. By summer 1940, France had fallen and Britain was undersiege. In September 1940, Americans were ioIted by the news that Germany, Italy,and Japan had signed a mutual defense treaty, t!~e Tripartite Pact. The threenations became known as the Axis powers.The Tripartite Pact was aimed at keeping the United States out of the war.Under the treaty, each Axis nation agreed to come to the defense of the others incase of attack. This meant that if the United States were to declare war on any oneof the Axis powers, it would face its worst military nightmare--a two-ocean war,with fighting in both the Atlantic and the Pacific.Hoping to avoid this situation, Roosevelt scrambled to provide the Britishwith "afl aid short of war." By" June 1940, he bad sent Britain 500,000 rifles and80,000 machine guns. In September, after the Tripartite Pact was signed, theUnited States traded 50 old destroyers for leases on British military bases in theCaribbean and Newfoundland. British prime minister Winston Churchfll wouldlater recall this move with affection as "a decidedly unneutral act."BUILDING U.S DEFENSES Meanwhile, Roosevelt asked Congress to increasespending for national defense. In spite of years of isolationism, Nazi victories in!940 changed U.S. thinking, and Congress boosted defense spending. Congressalso passed the nation’s first peacetime military draft--the Selective Training andService Act. Under this law 16 million men between the ages of 2! and 35 wereregistered. Of these, I million were to be drafted for one year but were only allowedto serve in the Western Hemisphere. Roosevelt himself drew the first draft numbersas he told a national radio audience, "This is a most solemn ceremony." ~ROOSEVELT RUNS FOR A THIRD TERM That same year, Roosevelt decided tobreak the tradition of a two-term presidency, begun by George Washington, andrun for reelection. To the great disappointment of isolationists, Roosevelt’sRepublican opponent, a public utilities executive named Wendell Wfllkie, supportedRoosevelt’s policy of aiding Britain. At the same time, both Willkie andRoosevelt promised to keep the nation out of war. Because there was so little differencebetween tiae candidates, tile majority of voters chose the one they knewbest. Roosevelt was reelected with nearly 55 percent of the votes cast.World War Looms ’757

~;~ GOto c aSszOne Tab e of ContentsSection PageNot long after the election, President Roosevelt told his radio audience during afireside chat that it would he impossible to negotiate a peace with HitteL "No mancan tame a tiger into a kitten by stroking it." He warned that if Britain fell, theAxis powers would be left unchallenged to conquer the world, at which point, hesaid, "all of us in all the Americas would be living at the point of a gun." To preventsuch a situation, the United States had to help defeat the Axis threat by turningitself into what Roosevelt called "the great arsena! of democracy."THE LEND-LEASE PLAN By late 1940, however, Britain had no more cash tospend in the arsenal of democracy. Roosevelt tried to help by suggesting a newplan that he called a lenddease policy. Under this plan, the president would lendor lease arms and other supplies to "any country whose defense was vital to theUnited States."Roosevelt compared his plan to lending a garden hose to a neighbor whosehouse was on fire. He asserted that this was the only sensible thing to do to preventthe fire from spreading to your own property. Isolationists argued bitterlyagainst the plan, but most Americans favored it, and Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941.Vocabulary"The United Statesshould not becomeinvolved in European Wars."Still recovering from World War I and struggling w~rn roeGr#Ct Depression, many AmericaHs believed their countryshould remain std~tly ne~t[al in the war in Europe.RePresentative James F. O’Connor voiced the country’sreservations when he asked= "Dare we setAmerica On and commit her as the financial and militaryblood bank of the rest of the world?" O’Connor maimrained that the United States could not "ngnr everydsked his Eeputation by stating his hope that "thefuture o~Amedca.., not be tied to tt]ese eternal warsin Europe." Lindb~rg~ as~#rted that "’~medcans[shoufd] fight anybody and everyboay WhO a~,temprs tointerfere Witl] our h~misbhere." However. he went on tosay, fOur safeb apes not ~ein fighting EuroBean wars.It I{es ~ our own inlernal strength, ia the character ofthe American people and American institutions.* Likemany iso ationists, Linooergh beheved that democrac,would n~t be saved ~’bythe forceful imposition"The United States must protectdemocracies throughout the world."AS the conflict in Europe deepenea, nterventionistsembraced President Franklin D, Rooseveit’s declarationemphasized the global character of 20th-centur) samcomesthrough [ne air, ever, shiB mat sails the sea.ever, battle that B fought does affect the Americanfuture.ro the na[ )n’s conscience, Secretary of State Cordelquit noted that the world was "face to face.., with ansteadi y expanding conquest," m the same veirUndersecretar, }f State Sumner Welles called Hitlersinister and o~tiless con~uero[ [who] has reduced moreman half of Europe to abject serfdom.After the war expanded rata the Atlantic Rooseveltuec~areo, t is time for all Americans... to StOD beinghobart that the Americascan go On living happilyand peacefully m a Nazi,dominated world." Heourselves whether theAmericas should begin [cdefend themselves aftertwentieth attack. The timefor active defense is now/’

l)rawbzgSUPPORTING STALIN Britain was not the only nation to receive lend-lease aid.tn June 1941, Hitler broke the agreement he had made in 1939 with Stalin not togo to war and invaded the Soviet Union. Acting on the principle that "the enemyof my enemy is my friend," Roosevelt began sending lend-lease supplies to theSoviet Union. Some Americans opposed providing aid to Stalin; Roosevelt, however,agreed with Winston Churchill, who had said "if Hitler invaded Hell," theBritish would be prepared to work with the devil himself..~GERNI/~N WOLF PACKS Providing lend-lease aid was one Ihing, but to ensurethe safe delivery of goods to Britain and to the Soviet Union, supply lines had tobe kept open across the Atlantic Ocean. To prevent delivery of lenddease shipments,Hitler deployed hundreds of German submarines--U-boats--to attack supplyships.From the spring through the fall of 1941, individual surface attacks by individualU-boats gave way to what became known as the wolf pack attack. At nightgroups of up to 40 submarines patrolled areas in the North Atlantic where convoyscould be expected. Wolf packs were successlkd in sinking as much as 350,000tons of shipments in a single month. In June 1941, President Roosevelt grantedthe navy permission for U.S. warships to attack German U-boats in self-defense.By late 1943, the submarine menace was contained by electronic detection techniques(especially radar), and by airborne antisubmarine patrols operating fromsmall escort aircraft carders.GERMAN WOLF PACKSOn October 17 1940. near Rockall. west of Ireland a BritistConvoy. SC~7 shown below, was attacked b, a German wolfDSOK. The convo~ was outhned clearly against a moom~t s~,~,rnaNing the merchant ships easy prey.IAt the start of the war. theBritish had too few warshipsto escort the coflvoys.could patrol 1,000 I"The Germans used radiosU-boats used hydrophonicequipment to pick up thesound of convoy propellersup to 100 miles away,World War Looms 759

Full Page View Se~ion Page Page SectionAlthough Roosevelt was popular, his foreign policy was under constant attack.American forces were seriously underarmed. Roosevelt’s August 194! proposal toextend the term of draftees passed in the House of Representatives by only onevote. With the army provided for, Roosevelt began planning for the war be wascertain would come.THE ATLANTIC CHARTER While Congress voted on the extension of the draft,Roosevelt and Churchill met secretly at a summit aboard tfie battleship USSAugusta. Although Churchill hoped for a military commitment, he settled for ajoint declaration of war aims, called the Atlalttlc Clmrter, Both countries pledgedthe following: collective security, disarmament, self-determination, economiccooperation, and freedom of the seas. Roosevelt disclosed to Cfiurcfiifi that hecouldn’t ask Congress for a declaration of war against Germany, but "he wouldwage war" and do "everything" to "force an incident."The Atlantic Charter became the basis of a new document called "A Declarationof the United Nations." The term United Nations was suggested by Roosevelt toexpress the common purpose Of the Allies, those nations that had fought theAxis powers. The declaration was signed by 26 nations, "four-fifths of the humanrace" observed Churchill. ~HIDEKI TO]O:$884-:$948U.S. newspapers describedHideki Tojo as "smart, hardboiled,resourc~ful, [and] contemptuousof theories, sentiments,and negotiations,"The Nazi press in Germanypraised Tojo as "a man chargedwith energy, thinking clearly andwith a single purpose." To a8dtisb paper, Tojo was "the sonof Satan" whose single purposewas "unleashing nil hell on theFar East." In Japan, however, Tojowas looked up to as a manwhose "decisive leadership was asignal for the nation to rise andadminister a great shock to tl~ea~ti-Axis powers."SHOOT ON SIGHT After a German submarine fired on theU.S. destroyer Greet in the Atlantic on September 4, 1941,Roosevelt ordered navy commanders to respond. "When yousee a rattlesnake poised to strike," the president explained,"you crush him." Roosevelt ordered tile navy to shoot theGerman submarines on sight.Two weeks later, the Pink Sl~6 an American merchantship, was sunk off Greenland. In mid-October, a U-boattorpedoed the U.S. destroyer Kearny, and 1I lives were lost.Summarizing~ Why was theAtlantic Charterimportant?Analyzi~tgCauses~ why did theon~teo Storese~ter unaeelarea~nto anshooting war withDays later, German U-boats sank the U.S. destroyerReuben James, killing more than 100 sailors. "America hasbeen attacked," Roosevelt announced grimly. "The shootinghas started. And history has recorded who fired the firstshot." As tfie death toll mounted, the Senate finallyrepealed the ban against arming merchant sfiips. A formal Germany in faildeclaration of a full-scale war seemed inevitable. ~.~ 1941?The United States was now involved in an undeclared navalwar with Hitler. However, the attack that brought theUnited States into the wa~ came from Japan.JAPAN’S A~81TIONS IN THE PACiFiC Germany’sEuropean victories created new opportunities for Japaneseexpansionists. Japan was already in control of Manchuria.In July 1937, NideRi Tojo (h~’&kfi t6~6’), chief of staff ofJapan’s Kwantung Army, launched the invasion into China.As French, Dutch, and British colonies lay unprotected inAsia, Japanese leaders leaped at the opportunity to uniteEast Asia under Japanese control by seizing the coloniallands. By 194!, the British were too busy fighting Ilitler toblock Japanese expansion. Only the U.S. and its Pacificislands remained in Japan’s way.CHAPTER 24

The Japanese began thei~ southward push in July 194! by taking over Frenchmilitary bases in lndochina (now Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos). The UnitedStates protested this new act of aggression by cutting off trade with .Japan. Theembargoed goods included one Japan could not live without--oil to fuel its warmachine. Japanese military leaders warned that without oil, Japan could bedefeated without its enemies ever striking a blow. The leaders declared that Japanmust either persuade the United States to end its oil embargo or seize the oil fieldsin the Dutch East Indies. This would mean war. ;~PEACE TALKS ARE QUESTIONED Shortly after becoming the prime ministerof Japan, Hideki Tojo met with emperor Hirohito. lbjo promised the emperor thatthe Japanese government would attempt to preserve peace with the Americans.But on November 5, 1941, Toio ordered the Japmmse navy to prepare for an attackon the United States.The U.S. military bad broken Japan’s secret communication codes and]earned that Japan was preparing for a strike. What it didn’t know was where theattack would come. Late in November, Roosevelt sent out a "war warning" to mihitary commanders in Hawaii, Guam, and the Philippines. If war could not beavoided, the warning said, "the United States desires that Japan commit the firstovert act." And the nation waited.The peace talks went on for a month. Then on December6, 1941, Roosevelt received a decoded message that instruct*ed Japan’s peace envoy to reject all American peace proposals."This means war," Roosevelt declared.THE ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR Early the next morning,a Japanese dive-bomber swooped tow over Pearl Harbor--the largest U.S. naval base in thePacific. The bomber was followed bymore than 180 Japanese warplaneslaunched from six aircraft carriers. Asthe first Japanese bombs found theirtargets, a radio operator flashed thismessage: "Air raid on Pearl IIarbor.This is not a drill."For an hour and a half, theJapanese planes were barely disturbedby U.S. antiaircraft guns andblasted target after target. By thetime the last plane soared off around9:30 A.M., the devastation wasappalling. John Garcia, a pipe fitter’sapprentice, was there.Newspaperthe surpriseJapaneseattack.~ It was a mess. I was working on the U.S.S. Shaw. It was on a floating dry dock.It was in flames. I started to go down into the pipe litter’s shop to get my toolboxwhen another wave of Japanese came in. I got under a set of concrete steps atthe dry dock where the battleship Pennsylvania was. An officer came by andasked me to go into the Pennsylvania and try to get the fires out. A bomb hadpenetrated the marine deck, and.., three decks below. Under that was the magazines:ammunition, powder, shells. I said "There ain’t no way I’m gonna go downthere." It could blow up any minute. ! was young and 16, not stupid. ~’~,quoted in The Good WarWorm War Loom~ 7S~.

Section Page Page SectionHong r,.ongGEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER3_. Region Which countries hadJapan invaded b, J.943.?2. Movement Notlce the c acemen[of the U.S. st os ’- Pearl Harbor--differently to m~nlm~ze damage

In less than two hours, the Japanese had killed 2,403Americans and wounded !,178 more. The surprise raid hadsunk or damaged 21 ships, including 8 battleships--nearlythe whole U.S. Pacific fleet. More than 300 aircraft wereseverely damaged or destroyed. These losses constitutedgreater damage than the U.S. Navy had suffered in all ofWorld War L By chance, three aircraft carriers at seaescaped the disaster. Their survival would prove crucial tothe war’s outcmne.REACTION TO PEARL HARBOR In Washington, themood ranged from outrage to panic. At the White House,Eleanor Roosevelt watched closely as her husband absorbedthe news from Hawaii, "each report more terrible than thelast." Beneath the president’s calm, Eleanor could see howworded he was. "I never wanted to have to fight this war ontwo fronts," Roosevelt told his wife. "We haven’t the Navyto fight in both the Atlantic and the Pacific... so we willhave to build up the Navy and the Air Force and that willmean that we will have to take a good many defeats beforewe can have a victory."The next day, President Roosevelt addressed Congress."Yesterday, December 7, I941, a date which will live ininfamy," he said, "[the Japanese launched] an unprovokedand dastardly attack." Congress quickly approved Roosevelt’srequest for a declaration of war against Japan. Three dayslater, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States.For al! the damage done at Pearl Harbor, perhaps thegreatest was to the cause of isolationism. Many who hadWAR AND THE DEPRESSIONThe approach of war did whatthe programs of the New Dealcould not do--eed the GreatDepression. As defense spendingskyrocketed in 1940, long-idlefactories came back to life. Amerry-go-round company beganproducing gun mounts; a stovefactory made lifeboats; a famousNew York toy maker made compasses;a pinball-machine companymade armor-piercing shells.With factories hiring again, thenation’s unemployment rollsbegan shrinking rapidly--by400,000 in August 1940 and byanother 500,000 in September.By the time the Japaneseattacked Pearl Harbor, Americawas heading back to work.(See Keynesian Economics onpage R42 in the EconomicsHandbook.)been former isolationists now supported an all-out American effort. After the surpriseattack, isolationist senator Burton Wheeler proclaimed, "The only thingnow to do is to lick the hell out of them."£. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance,*Axis powers ¯ Atlantic Charter ¯ Rideki TojooLend-Lease Act°AlliesMAiN IDEACRITICAL THINKING2, TAKING NOTESCreate a time line of key eventsleading to America’s entry intoWorld War IL Use the dates below3, EVALUATING DECISIONSDo you think that the United Statesshould have waited to be attackedbefore declaring waft? Think About:5. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCESARhough the U.S. Congress was stillunwilling to declare war early in1941, Churchill told his war cabinet,as a guide.¯the reputation of the UnitedMarch August States’We must have patience1941 1941 o the influence of isolationists and trust to the tide which¯ the events at Pearl HarboristoSeptember June December1940 !941 1941Which of the events that you listedwas most influential in bringing theUnited States into the war? Why?4. PREDICTING EFFECTSWhat problem wou~d the Japaneseattack on Pearl Harbor solve forRoosevelt? What new problemswould it create?What do you think Churchill meantby this remark? Support youranswer.World War Lool~lS 763

~2 GO to classzone.corr .~ Table of ContentsFor each term or name below, write a sentence explaining itssignificance in U.S. foreign affairs between 193& and 1941.1. fascism 6, Charles de Gaulle2. Adolf Hitler 7. Holocaust3. Nazism 8. genocide4. Winston Churchill 9. Axis powers5. appeasement 10. Allies~A~N IDEASUse your notes and the information in the chapter to answerthe following questions about the early years of World War ILDictators Threaten World Peace (pages 734-741)~, What were Stalin’s goals and what steps did he take toachieve them?2. How did Germany’s and ItaIy’s involvement affect the outcomeof the Spanish Civil War?War ~r~ Europe (pages 742-747)3. Why was the blitzkrieg effective?4. What terms of surrender did Hitler demand of the Frenchafter the fall of France in 19407 What was Generat Chadesde Gaulle’s reaction?The Holocaust (pages 748-755)5. What groups did Nazis deem unfit to belong to the Aryan"master race"?6. How did some Europeans show their resistance to Nazipersecution of the Jews?Anterica Moves Toward War (pages 756-763)What congressional measures paved the way for the U.S.entry into World War II?Why did the United States enter World War I!?CRiTiCAL TH~NKING1. USING YOUR NOTES In a chart like the one shown, identifyhe effects of each of these early events of World War II.Alfies stranded at DunkirkBritish radar detects German aircraft ~°-COMPARING Compare the ways in which Hitler, Churchill, andRoosevelt used their powers as gifted speakers to accomplishtheir political aims during World War II. Use details from thechapter text.3~ INTERPRETING MAPS Look at the map of German advanceson page 744. How might Poland’s location have influenced thesecret pact that Germany and the Soviet Union signed onAugust 23, 1939?!

Full Page View Section Page Page SectionUse the cartoon and your knowledge of U,S. historyto answer questions 1 and 2,2. President Wilson’s image rises above PresidentRoosevelt to wish him luck for --helping to pass the bill he is signing.keeping the United States out of a war.winning the next presidential election.gaining greater revenues from Europe.Use the quotatioa and your knowledge of U.S. historyto answer question 3.we look forward to a world founded upon fouressential human freedoms, The first is freedom ofspeech and expression. --everywhere in the world.The second is freedom of every person to worshipGod in his own way. --everywhere in the world. Thethird is freedom from want .... The fourth is freedomfrom fear. ~1. All of the following are true of RD.R.’s neutralitypolicy except --A Roosevelt found it hard to keep the UnitedStates neutral.B Roosevelt did not always enforce the NeutralityActs.C Roosevelt promoted the Neutrality Policy of theUnited States throughout the war.D Roosevelt spoke out against isolationism.3. The "four freedoms" speech helped gain widespreadsupport in the United States for --A increasing aid to the Allies.B decreasing immigration.C a military and arms buildup.D a presidential election,ADDITIONAL TI~ST PRACTICE, pages $1~$33,~~ CLASSZONE.COMALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENTRecall your discussion ofJestion on page 733:Why might the Utzited States tryto remain neutral?As a political cartoonist for a major newspaper,your work is seen by miltions of Americans, Drawa political cartoon that supports or opposes thepolicy of neutrality.~LEARNING FROM MEDI,A, View theAmerican Stories video, ’ Escaping theFinal Solution: Kurt Klein and Gerda WeissmannKlein Remember the Holocaust."o What conditions that Gerds faced would be mostdifficult for you to endure?Cooperative Learning Activity It has been said,"Those who cannot remember the past are condemnedto repeat it."As a group, collect quotations and historical dataabout the Holocaust, Then write a book introductionabout the Holocaust that incorporates quotationsand the importance of the first-person accounts ofsurvivors, such as the Kleins.

Following the attack on Pearl Military industries in the United ¯ George Marshall -Office of PriceHarbor, the United States States today are a major part °Women’s Auxiliary Administrationmobilized for war. of the American economy. Army Corp (WAAC) (OPA)~A. Philip Randolph °War Production¯ Manhattan Project Board (WPB)o rationingCharles Swanson looked all over his army base for a tape recorderon which to play the tape his wife had sent him for Christmas."In desperation," he later recalled, "I had it played over thepublic-address system. It was a little embarrassing to have thewhole company hear it, but it made everyone long for home."" Merry Christmas, honey. Surprised? I’m so glad I have achance to say hello to you this way on our first Christmasapart .... About our little girl .... She is just big enough tofill mY heart and strong enough to help Mommy bear this ache ofloneliness. :.. Her dearest treasure is her daddy’s picture. It’s allmarked with tiny handprints, and the glass is always cloudy fromso much loving and kissing. I’m hoping you’ll be listening to this onChristmas Eve, somewhere over there, your heart ~ull of hope, faith and courage,knowing each day wdl bnng that next Chr stmas together one day nearer.~uoted in We Pulled 7bgether , . . and Won]As the United States began to mobilize for war, the Swansons, like mostAmericans, had few illusions as to what lay ahead. It would be a time filled withhard work, hope, sacrifice, and sorrow.The Japanese had attacked Pearl Harbor with the expectation that once Americanshad experienced Japan’s power, they would shrink from further conflict. The dayafter the raid, the Japan Times boasted that the United States, now reduced to athird-rate power, was "trembling in her shoes." But if Americans were trembling,it was with rage, not fear. Uniting under the battle cry "Remember Pearl HarborV’they set out to prove Japan wrong.

SELECTIVE SERVICE AND THE G~After Pear! Harbor, eager youngAmericans jammed recruiting offices."I wanted to be a hero, let’s face it,"admitted Roger Tuttrup. "I was havin’trouble in school .... The war’d beengoin’ on for two years. I didn’t wannamiss it .... I was an American. I wasseventeen."Even the 5 million who volun*teered for military service, however,were not enough to face the challengeof an all-out war on two globalfronts--Europe and the Pacific. TheSelective Service System expanded thedraft and eventually provided another10 million soldiers to meet the armed forces’ needs.The volunteers and draftees reported to military bases around thecountry for eight weeks of basic training. In this short period, seasonedsergeants did their best to turn raw recruits into disciplined,battle-ready GIs.According to Sergeant Debs Myers, however, there was more tobasic training than teaching a recruit how to stand at attention,march !n step, handle a rifle, and follow orders.In March 1941, a group ofAfrlcan*Amerlcan men in NewYork City enlisted in the UnitedStates Army Air Corps. This wasthe first time the Army AirCorps opened its enlistment toAfrican Americans.+~ The civilian went before the Army doctors, took off hisclothes, feeling silly; ji~4~ed, stooped, squatted, wet into abottle; became a soldier. He learned how to sleep in themud, tie a knot, kill a man. He learned the ache of loneliness,the ache of exhaustion~ the kinship of misery. Relearned that men make the same queasy noises in themorning, feel the same Iongings at night; that every man isalike and that each man is different."--{tuoted in The GI War: t941-1945EXPANDING THE MILITARY The military’s work forceneeds were so great that Army Chief of Staff GeneralGeorge Marshall pushed for the formation of a Women’sAuxiliary Army orps (ggAA ). "There are innumerableduties now being performed by soldiers that can be donebetter by women," Marshall said in support of a bill toestablish the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps. tinder thisbill, women volunteers would serve in noncombat positions.Despite opposition from some members of Congresswho scorned the bill as "tire silliest piece of legislation" theyhad ever seen, the bill establishing the WAAC became lawon May 15, 1942. The law gave the WAACs an official statusand salary but few of the benefits granted to male soldiers.In July 1943, after thousands of women had enlisted, theU.S. Army dropped the "auxiliary" status, and grantedWAGs full U.S. Army benefits. WACs worked as nurses,ambulance drivers, radio operators, electricians, andpilots--nearly every duty not involving direct combat.WOMEN IN THE MILITARYA few weeks after the bill toestablish the Women’s AuxiliaryArmy Corps (WAAC) had becomelaw, Oveta Culp Hobby (shown, farright), a Texas newspaper executiveand the first director of theWAAC, put out a call for recruits.More than 13,000 womenapplied on the first day. Insome 350,000 women served inthis and other auxiliary branchesduring the war.The WAC remained a separateunit of the army until 1978 whenmale and female forces wereintegrated. In 2001, almost200,000 women served in theUnited States armed forces,The United States in World War" H 7B9

RECRUiTiNG AND DISCRIR~tNATION For many minority groups--especiallyAfrican Americans, Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and AsianAmericans--the war created new dilemmas. Restricted to racially segregatedneighborhoods and reservations and denied basic citizenship rights, some membersof these groups questioned whether this was their war to fight. "Why die fordemocracy for some foreign country when we don’t even have it here?" asked aneditorial in an African-American newspapm: On receiving his draft notice, anAfrican American responded unhappily, "Just carve on my tombstone, ’Here liesa black man killed fighting a yellow man for the protection of a white man.’"DRAr~IATIC CONTRIBUTIONS Despite discrimination in the military, morethan 300,000 Mexican Americans joined the armed forces. While MexicanAmericans in Los Angeles made up only a tenth of the city’s population, they suffereda fifth of the city’s warlime casualties.About one million African Americans also served in the military. African-American soldiers lived and worked in segregated units and were limited mostlyto noncombat roles. After much protest, African Americans did finally see combatin the last year of the war.Asian Americans took part in the struggle as well. More than 13,000 ChineseAmericans, or about one of every five adult males, joined the armed forces. Inaddition, 33,000 Japanese Americans put on uniforms. Of these, several thousandvolunteered to serve as spies and interpreters in the Pacific war. "During battles,"wrote an admiring officer, "they crawled up close enough to be able to hear[Japanese] officers’ commands and to make verbal translations to our soldiers."Some 25,000 Native Americans enlisted in the armed services, too, including800 women. Their willingness to serve led The Saturday Evening Post to commen t,"We would not need the Selective Service if all volunteered like Indians." ~Contrasti~tg~] HowddtheAmericanresponse to theJapanese raid onPearl Harbor differfrom Japaneseexpectations?Early in February 1942, American newspapers reported the end of automohileproduction for private use. The last car to roll off an automaker’s assembly linewas a gray sedan with "victory trim,’~that is, without chrome-plated parts. Thiswas just one more sign that the war would affect almost every aspect of life.TH~ INDUSTRIAL R~SDONS~ Within weeks of the shutdown in production, thenation’s automobile Nants had been mtooled to ~roduce tanks, Nanes, boats, andAircraft and Ship ProduciioR, 1940-45 U.S. Budget Expenditure, 1941-458o8odefenseg 40-SKILLBUILDER Interpreting Grapl~s1. Study the first graph, in what year did aircraf! and ship production reach their highestproduction levels?2. How does the second graph help explain how this production miracle was possible?770 CHAPTER 25

command cars. They were not alone. Across the nation, factories were quicklyconverted to war production. A maker of mechanical pencils turned out bombparts. A bedspread manufacturer made mosquito netting. A soft-drink companyconverted from filling bottles with liquid to filling shells with explosives.Meanwhile, shipyards and defense plants expanded with di~ying speed. Bythe end of !942, industrialist Henry J. Kaiser had built seven massive new shipyardsthat turned out Liberty ships (cargo carriers), tankers, troop transports, and"baby" aircraft carriers at an astonishing rate. Late that year, Kaiser invitedreporters to Way One in his Richmond, CaBfomia, shipyard to watch as his workersassembled Hull 440, a Liberty ship, in a record-breaking four days. Writer AlyceMano Kramer described the first day and night of construction.’~ At the stroke of 12, Way One exploded into life. Crews of workers, like a championFootball team, swarmed into their places in the line. Within 60 seconds, thekeel was swinging into position .... Hull 440 was going up. The speed of [production]was unbelievable. At midni~t, Saturday, an empty way--at midnight Sunday,a fulkgrown hull met the eyes of graveyard workers as they came on shi~. *~--quoted in Home Front,Before the fourth day was up, 25,000 amazed spectators watched as Hull 440slid into the water. How could such a ship be built so fast? Kaiser used prefabricated,or factory-made, part~ ~hat could be quickly assembled at his shipyards.Equally important were his workers, who worked at record speeds.LAI~OR’S CONTRIBUTION When the war began, defense contractors warnedthe Selective Service System that the nation did not have enough workers to meetboth its military and its industrial needs. They were wrong. By 1944, despite thedraft, nearly 18 milfion workers were laboring in war industries, three times asmany as in 1941.More than 6 million ofthese new workers were women.At first, war industries fearedthat most women lacked thenecessary stamina for factorywork and were reluctant to hirethem. But once women provedthey could operate weldingtorches or riveting guns as wellas men, employers could nothire enough of them--especiallysince women earned only about60 percent as much as mendoing the same jobs.Defense plants also hiredmore than 2 million minorityworkers during the war years.Like women, minorities facedstrong preiudice at first. Beforethe war, 75 percent of defense contractors simply refused tohire African Americans, while another 15 percent employedthem only in menial jobs. "Negroes will be considered only asjanitors," declared the general manager of North AmericanAviation. "it is the company policy not to employ them asmechanics and aircraft workers." ~Dudng the war, women took many jobspreviously held by men. In this 1943photo, a young woman is seen operatingThe United States in World War H 77~

To protest such discrimination both in the military and in industry,A. Philip I~.ando]Iph, president and founder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping CarPorters and the nation’s most respected African-American labor leader, organizeda march on Washington. Randolph called on African Americans everywhere tocome to the capital on July 1, !941, and to march under the banner "WeLoyal Colored Americans Demand the Right to Work and Fight forOur Country."Fearing that the march might provoke white resentment or violence,President Roosevelt called Randolph to the White House andasked him to back down. "I’m sorry Mr. President," the labor leadersaid, "the march cannot be called off." Roosevelt then asked, "Howmany people do you plan to bring?" Randolph replied, "One hundredthousand, Mr. President." Roosevelt was stunned. F, ven half that numberof African-American protesters would be far more thanWashington--still a very segregated city--could feed, house, andtranspm’t.in the end it was Roosevelt, not Randolph, who backed down. In returnfor Randolph’s promise to cancel the march, the president issued an executiveorder calling on employers and labor unions "toparticipation of all workers in defense industriesof race, creed, color, or national origin."rovide for the full and equitablewithout discrimination becausewartime ally, the SovietUnion. On the other hand,"hiss-and-boo" films stirredup hatred against the Nazis.In this way, movies energizedpeople to join the war effort.As the war dragged on.people grew tired of propagandaand war themes.Hollywood responded withmusicals, romances, andother escapist fare designedto take filmgoers away fromthe grim realities of war, ifonly for an hour or two.Hitler~ Beast of Berlin, produced in 1939, was one of themost popular hiss-and-boo films. Viewing audienceswatched in rage as the Nazis conducted one horrible actMoviemakers also turned out informational films. ~*he mostimportant of these films--the Why We Fight serles--weremade by the great director Frank Capra. Capra is shown(right) consulting with Colonel Hugh Stewart (commander ofthe British Army film unit) in a joint effort in the making ofTunisian Victory, the first official film record of thecampaign that expelled Germany from North Africa.SKILLBUILDE~R h~terpeting Visual Sources1. How does the image from Hitler, Beast of BerlR1portray the Nazis?2. How might audiences have responded topropaganda films?~SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R23,772 CHAPTER 25

!C~ Why didRoosevelt createthe OSRD, andwhat did it do?i~OB~LIZ~T~ON OF SCIENTISTS That same year, in 1941, Roosevelt created theOffice of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) to bring scientists into thewar effort. The OSRD spurred improvements in radar and sonar, new technologiesfor locating submarines underwater. It encouraged the use of pesticides like DDTto fight insects. As a result, U.S. soldiers were probably the first in history to be relativelyfl’ee from body lice. The OSRD also pushed the development of "miracledrugs," such as penicillin, that saved countless lives on and off the battlefield.The most significant achievement o~ the OSRD, however, was the secret developmentof a new weapmh the atomic bomb. Imerest in such a weapon began in1939, after German scientists succeeded in splitting uranium atoms, releasing anenormous amount of ener~. Tbis news prompted physicist and German re,geeAlbert Einstein to write a letter to President Roosevelt, warning that the Germanscould use their discovery to construct a weapon of enormous destructive power.Roosevelt responded by creating an Advisory Committee on Uranium to studythe new discovery. In 1941, the committee reported that it would take f~om threeto five years to build an atomic bomb. Hoping to shorten that time, the OSRD setup an intensive program in 1942 to develop a bomb as quickly as possible. Becausemuch of the early research was performed at Columbia University in Manhattan,the Man~atta~ Projec~ became the code name for research work that extendedacross the country. ~As war production increased, there were fewer consumer products available forpurchase. Much factory production was earmarked for the war. With demandincreasing and supplies dropping, prices seemed likely to shoot upwards.IECONOI~IC CONTROLS Roosevelt responded to this threat by creating theOfg{ee of Price A~altais~ratioy~ (OPA). The OPA fought inflation by freezingprices on most goods. Congress also raised income tax rates and extended the taxto millions of people who had never paid it before. The higher taxes reduced consumerdemand on scarce goods by leaving workers with less to spend. In addition,Office o! Price Administration (OPA)lational War Labor Board (NWLB)War Production Board {WPB))epattment of the Treasuryo Fought inflation by freezing wages, prices, and rents° Rationed foods, such as meat. butter, cheese, vegetables, sugar,and coffee* Limited wage increaseso Allowed negotiated benefits, such as paid vacation, pensions, andmedical insurance° Kept unions stable b~ forbidding workers to change unionso Rationed fuel and materials vital to the war effort, such asgasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, and plastics¯ Issued war bonds to raise money for the war effort and to fightinflationRevenue Act of 1942 * Raised the top personal-income tax rate to 88%* Added lower- and middle*income Americans to the income-tax rollsSmith-Connally Anti~trike Act(Z943}° Limited the right to strike in industries crucial to the war effort¯ Gave the president power to take over striking ~lantsThe United States in World War H 773

FUll page v~e wSection Page Page sectt0nthe government encouraged Americans to use theirextra cash to buy war bonds. As a result of these measures,inflation remained below 30 percent--abouthalf that of World War I--for the entire period ofWorld War II.Resides controlling inflation, the governmentneeded to ensure that the armed forces and warindustries received the resources they needed to winthe war, The War Production Board (WPB)assumed that responsibility. The WPB decided whichcompanies would convert from peacetime to wartimeproduction and allocated raw materials to key industries.The WPB also m’ganized nationwide drives tocollect scrap iron, tin cans, paper, rags, and cooking ..................,’, fat for recycling into war goods. Across America, chil- Nail IOF.A ~Boys using pots dren scoured attics, cellars, garages, vacant lots, and back alleys, looking for useandpans asIdentifyingful junk. D/iring one five-monthdong paper drive in Chicago, schoolchildren col*helmets andProblemslected 36 million pounds of old paper--about 65 pounds per child. ~ ,~ What basicNew Yorkers to RATIONING In addition, the OPA set up a system for rationing, or establishing 0pg and WPBdonate aluminum fixed allotments of goods deemed essential for the military. Under this system, created to solve?to the war effort households received ration books with coupons to be used for buying such scarcegoods as meat, shoes, sugar, coffee, and gasoline. Gas rationing was particularlyhard on those who lived in western regions, where driving was the only way toget around. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt sympathized with their complaints. "Totell the people in the West not to use their cars," she observed, "means that thesepeople may never see another soul for weeks and weeks nor have a way of gettinga sick person to a doctor."Most Americans accepted rationing as a personal contribution to the wareffort. Worke[s carpooled or rode bicycles. Families coped with shortages of everythingfrom tires to toys. Inevitably, some cheated by hoarding scarce goods or bypurchasing them through the "black market," where rationed items could bebought illegally without coupons at inflated prices.While people tightened their belts at home, millions of other Americans puttheir lives on the line in air, sea, and land battles on the other side of the world.1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance,,George Marshall ca. Philip Randolph ,War Production Board (WPB)°Women’s Auxiliary Army Corp ¯ Manhattan Project = rationing(WAAC)°Office of Price Administration (OPA)MAIN IDEA2, TAKING NOTESRe-create the web below on yourpaper, and fill in ways that Americaprepared for war.CRITICAL THINKING3. ANALYZING EVENTSHow did government regulationsimpact the lives of civilians?4. ANALYZING VISUAL SOURCESWhat is the message of the WorldWar II poster to the right? Why wasthis message important?774 CHAPTEr~ 25

EuropeAfricaAllied forces, led by the During World War II, the United ¯ Dwight D. o George PattonUnited States and Great States assumed s leading role Eisenhower o Battle of the BulgeBritain, battled Axis powers in world affairs that continues,D-DayoV-E Dayfor control of Europe and today,oOmar Bradley o Harry S. TrumanNorth Africa.It was 1951, and John Patrick McGrath was just finishing his secondyear in drama school. For an acting class, his final exam wasto be a performance of a death scene. McGrath knew his linesperfectly. But as he began the final farewell, he broke out in asweat and bolted off the stage. Suddenly he had a flashback to afrozen meadow in Belgium during the Battle of the Bulge in1945. Three German tanks were spraying his platoon withmachine-gun fire..... A Cue for Passion Private John P. McGrath carried"Now that we are, as you say, ’in the same boat,’" British Prime Ministe~ WinstonChurchill wired President Roosevelt two days after the Pearl Harbor attack,"would it not be wise for us to have another conference .... and the sooner thebetter." Roosevelt responded with an invitation for Churchill to come at once. Sobegan a remarkable alliance between the two nations.The United States in World War II 775

Full page View Section Page Page SectionA convoy ofWAR PLANS Prime Minister Churchill arrived at the White }louse on December22, 1941, and spent the next three weeks working out war plans with PresidentRoosevelt and his advisors. Believing that Germany and Italy posed a greaterthreat than Japan, Churchill convinced Roosevelt to strike first against Hitler.Once the Allies had gained an upper hand in Europe, they could pour moreresources into the Pacific War.By the end of their meeting, Roosevelt and Churchill had formed, inChurchill’s words, % very strong affection, which grew with our years of comradeship/’When Churchill reached London, he found a message from the presidentwaiting for him. "it is fun," Roosevelt wrote in the message, "to be in thesame decade with you."THE I~ATTLE OF THE ATLANTIC After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Hitlerordered submarine raids against ships along America’s east coast. The Germanaim in the Battle of the Atlantic was to prevent food and war materials fromreaching Great Britain and the Soviet Union. Britain depended on supplies fromthe sea. The 3,000-milelongshipping lanes fromNorth America were herlifeline. Hitler knew thatif he cut that lifeline,Britain would be starvedinto submission.For a long time, itlooked as though Hitlermight succeed in his mission.Unprotected Americanships proved to beeasy targets for the Germans.In the first fourmonths of 1942, theGermans sank 87 shipsoff the Atlantic shore.Seven months into theyear, German wolf packshad destroyed a total of681 Allied ships in theAtlantic. Something hadto be done or the war atsea would be Iost.The Allies responded hy organizing their cargo ships into convoys. Convoyswere groups of ships traveling together for mutual protection, as they had donein the First World War. The convoys were escorted across the Atlantic by destroyersequipped with sonar for detecting submarines underwater. They were alsoaccompanied by airplanes that used radar to spot U-boats on the ocean’s surface.With this improved tracking, the Allies were able to find and destroy German U-boats faster than the Germans could build them. In late spring of 1943, AdmiralKarl Doenitz, the commander of the German U-boat offensive, reported that hislosses had "reached an unbearable height."At lhe same time, the United States launched a crash shipbuilding program. AnalyzingBy early 1943, 140 Liberty ships were produced each month. Launchings of Alliedships began to outnumber sinkings.By mid-1943, the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic had turned. A happy Churchillreported to the House of Commons that June "was the best month [at sea] from Atlantic byevery point of view we have ever known in the whole 46 months of the war." ~

By the winter of 1943, the Allies began to see victories on land as well as sea.The first great turning point came in the Battle of Stalingrad.THE BATTLE OF STAMNGRAD The Germans had been fighting in the SovietUnion since June 1941. In November 1941, the bitter cold bad stopped them intheir tracks outside the Soviet cities of Moscow and Leningrad. When springcame, the German tanks were ready to rollIn the summer of 1942, the Germans took the offensive in the southernSoviet Union. Hitler hoped to capture Soviet oil fields in the Caucasus Mountains.He also wanted to wipe out Stalingrad, a major industrial center on the VolgaRiver. (See map, page 778.)The German army confidently approached Stalingrad in August 1942. "Toreach the Volga and take Stalingrad is not so difficult for us," one German soldierwrote home. "Victory is not far away." The Luftwaffe--the German air force--preparedthe way with nightly bombing raids over the city. Nearly every woodenbuilding in Stalingrad was set ablaze. The situation looked so desperate that Sovietofficers in Stalingrad recommended blowing up the city’s factories and abandoningthe city. A furious Stalin ordered them to defend his namesake city no matterwhat the cost.For weeks the Germans pressed in on Stalingrad, conquering it house byhouse in brutal hand-to-hand combat. By the end of September, they controllednine-tenths of the city--or what was left of it. Then another winter set in. ’]’heSoviets saw the cold as an opportunity to roll fresh tanks across the frozen land*scape and begin a massive counterattack. The Soviet army closed aroundStalingrad, trapping the Germans in and around the city and cutting off their supplies.The Germans’ situation was hopeless, but Hitler’s orders came: "Stay andfigh!! I won’t go back from the Volga."The fighting continued as winter turned Stalingrad into a frozen wasteland."We just lay in our holes and froze, knowing that 24 hours later and 48 hours laterwe should be shivering precisely as we were now," wrote a German soldier, BennoZieseL "But there was now no hope whatsoever of relief, and that was the worstthing of all." The German commander surrendered on January 31, 1943. Twodays later, his starving troops also surrendered.In defending Stalingrad, the Soviets lost a total of 1,100,000 soldiers--morethan all American deaths during the entire war. Despite the staggering death toll,the Soviet victory marked a turning point in the wa~; From that point on, theSoviet army began to move westward toward Germany. ~B~freezing, theseGerman soldiersafter months ofstru~le. But theyMore than 230,000of their comradesdied in the Battleof Stalingrad.

ournallst Erniein 3~944~ wasof World War ILTHE NORTH AFRICAN FROf’~T While the Battle of Stalingrad raged, Stalin pressuredBritain and America to open a "second front" in Western Europe. He arguedthat an invasion across the English Channel would force I~itler to divert troopsfrom the Soviet front. Churchill and l~.oosevelt didn’t think the Allies had enoughtroops to attempt an invasion on European soil. Instead, they launchedOpe~’ation Torch, an invasion of Axis-controlled North Africa, commanded byAmerican General Dwight: D. E~sen~owe~’.in November 1942, some 107,000 Allied troops, the great majority of themAmericans, landed in Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers in North Africa. I~’rom therethey sped eastward, chasing the Afrika Korps led by General Erwin RommeI, thelegendary Desert Fox. After months of heavy fighting, the last of the Afrika Korpssurrendered in May 1943. British general Harold Alexandersent a message to Chm~hi]l, reporting that "All enemyresistance has ceased. We are masters of the North Africanshores." American war correspondent Ernie Pyle caughtthe mood of the victorious troops. ~North Africancampaign?American morale here than anythin~ that could possiblyhave happened, Winnin~ in battle is like winnin~ at pokeror catchin~ lots of fish .... As a result, the hundreds ofthousands of Americans in North Africa now are happy--Ernie’s War: The Best of Ernie Pyle’s World War II Dispatches

Section Page Page SectionAnalyzingEffectssD~ What were theresuRs of theitalian campaign?THE iT&L[AN O&~v~F~[GN Even before the battle in North Africa was won,Roosevelt, Churchill, and their commanders met in Casablanca. At this meeting,the two leaders agreed to accept only the unconditional surrender of the Axis pow~ers. That is, enenry nations would have to accept whatever terms of peace the A!liesdictated. The two leaders also discussed where to strike next. The Americans arguedthat the best approach to victory was to assemble a massive invasion fleet in Britainand to launch it across the English Channel, through France, and into the heart ofGermany. Churchill, however, thought it would be safer to first attack Italy.The Italian campaign got off to a good start with the capture of Sicily in thesummer of 1943. Stunned by their army’s collapse in Sicily, the Italian governmentforced dictator Benito Mussolini to resign. On July 2S, 1943, King Victor EmmanuelIII summoned/I Duce (Italian for "the leader’) to his palace, stripped him of power,and had him arrested. "At this moment/’ the king told Mussolini, "you are the mosthated man in Italy." Italians began celebrating the end of the war.Thek cheers were premature. Hitler was determined to stop the Allies in Italyrather than fight on German soil. One of the hardest battles the Allies encounteredin Europe was fought less than 40 miles from Rome. This battle, "BloodyAnzio/’ lasted fore" months--until the end of May 1944--and left about 25,000Allied and 30,000 Axis casualties. During the year after Anzio, German armiescontinued to put up strong resistance. The effort to free Italy did not succeed until]9~5, when Germany itself was close to collapse. ~o~HEROES IN CO~il~AT Among the brave men who fought in Italy were pilots ofthe all-black 99th Pursuit Squadron--the Tuskegee Airmen. In Sicily, the squadronregistered its first victory against an enemy aircraft and went on to more impressivestrategic strikes against the German forces throughout Italy. The 3~skegee Airmenwon two Distinguished Unit Citations(the military’s highest commendation)for their outstanding aerial combatagainst the German Luftwaffe.Another African-American unit todistinguish itself was the famous 92ndInfantry Division, nicknamed theBuffaloes. In just six months offighting in Europe, the Buffaloeswon 7 Legion of Merit awards, 65Silver Stars, and !62 Bronze Stars forcourage under fire.Like African Americans, mostMexican Americans served in segregatedunits. Seventeen Mexican-American soldiers were awarded theCongressional Medal of Honor. Anall-Chicano unit--Company E ofthe 141st Regiment, 36th Divisionbecame one of the most decorated ofthe wanJapanese Americans also served in Italy and North Africa.At the urging of General Delos Emmons, the army created the100th Battalion, which consisted of 1,300 Hawaiian Nisei.(The word Nisei refers to American citizens whose parents hademigrated from Japan.) The 100th saw brutal combat andbecame known as the Purple IIeart Battalion. Later the 100thwas merged into the all-Nisei 442nd Regimental CombatTeam. It became the most decorated unit in U.S. bistory.On May 31, 1943,the 99th PursuitSquadron, the firstgroup of African-American pilotstrained at theUnited States in World War H 779

Fall page View Section Pa~e Page SectionEven as the Allies were battIing for Italy in 1993, they had begun work on a dramaticplan to invade Fiance and free Western Europe from the Nazis. The task ofcommanding Operation Overlord, as it was called, fell to American GeneralDwight D. ("lke") E’isenhower.D-DAY Under Eisenhower’s direction in England, the Allies gathered a force ofnearly 3 million British, American, and Canadian troops, together with mountainsof military equipment and suppfies. Eisenhower planned to attackNormandy in northern France. To keep their plans secret, the Allies set up a hugephantom army with its own headquarters and equipment. In radio messages theyknew the Germans could read, Allied commanders sent orders to this makebelievearmy to attack the French port of Calais--150 miles away--where theEnglish Channel is narrowest. As a result, Hitler ordered his generals to keep alarge army at Calais.The Allied invasion, code-named Operation Overlord,was originally set for June 5, but bad weather forced adelay. Banking on a forecast for clearing skies, Eisenhowergave the go-ahead for D-Day--June 6, 1944, the first dayof the invasion. Shortly after midnight, three divisionsparachuted down behind German lines. They were followedin the early morning hours by thousands uponthousands of seaborne soldiers--the largest land-sea-airoperation in army history.Despite the massive air and sea bombardment by theAllies, German retaliation was brutal, particularly atOmaha Beach. "People were yelling, screaming, dying,running on the beach, equipment was flying everywhere,men were bleeding to death, crawling, lying everywhere,DWIGHT D. "IKE"EISENHOWER1890-1969When Army Chief of Staff GeneralGeorge Marshall chose modestLieutenant General Dwight DavidEisenhower to become theSupreme Commander of U.S.forces i n Europe, he knew whathe was doing. Ike was a superbplanner and possessed a keenmind for military tactics,More important, Eisenhowerhad an uncommon ability to workwith all kinds of people, evencompetitive and temperamentalallies. After V-E Day, a gratefulMarshal! wrote to Ikel saying,"You have been selfless in youractions, always sound and tolerantin your judgments and altogetheradmirable in the courageand wisdom of your military decisions.You have made history,great history for the good ofmankind." In 1953, Dwight D.Eisenhower became president ofthe United States.firing coming h’om all directions," soldier Felix Branhamwrote of the scene there. "We dropped down behind anythingthat was the size of a golf bail."THE ALLIES GAIN GROUND Despite hea~y casualties,the Allies held the beachheads. After seven days offighting, the Allies held an 80-mile strip of Erance. Withina month, they had landed a million troops, 567,000 tonsof supplies, and 170,000 vehicles in France. On July 25,General Omar Bradley unleashed massive air and landbombardment against the enemy at St. L6, providing agap in the German line of defense through which GeneralGeorge Patto~l and his Third Army could advance. OnAugust 23, Patton and the Third Army reached the SeineRiver south of Paris. Two days later, French resistanceforces and American troops liberated the French capitalfrom four years of German occupation. Parisians weredelirious with ioy. Patton announced this joyous event tohis commander in a message that read, "Dear Ike: Today Ispat in the Seine."By September !944, the Allies had h’eed France,Belgium, and LuxemboulN. This good news--and theAmerican people’s desire not to "change horses in midstream"--helpedelect Franklin Roosevelt to an unptecedentedtk)urth term in November, along with his runningmate, Senator Harry S. Truman. ~Evaluating~E~ Was the Alliedinvasion of Europesuccessful? Explain

BEACHJUNOGEOGRAPHY S~{ILLBUILDER1~ Place How does the inset map at the top of the page helpexplain why Hitler was expecting the invasion to cross fromDover to Calais over the Strait of Dover?

AUDIE MURPHYNear the end of the SecondWorld War, Audie Murphy becamefamous as the most decoratedAmerican soldier of the war, Hereceived 24 medals from theUnited States--including theCongressional Medal of Honor.He was also awarded threemedals by France and one moreby Belgium.Born in Kingston, Texas, Murphyenlisted in the army in 1942. Heserved in North Africa andEurope, and in 1944 he rose tothe rank of second lieutenant.His most impressive act of braveryoccurred in January 1945near Colmar, France, when in themidst of a furious German attack,he jumped onto a burning tankdestroyer and killed about 50Axis troops with his machine gun¯Although wounded in the leg, herallied his troops to retake theground the Germans had gainedearlier in the day.THE BATTLE OF THE BULGE In October t944,Americans captured their first German town, Aachen.Hitler responded with a desperate last-gasp offensive. Heordered his troops to break through the Allied lines and torecapture the Belgian port of Antwerp. This bold move,the Ffihrer hoped, would disrupt the enemy’s supply linesand demoralize the Allies.On December 16, under cover of dense fog, eightGerman tank divisions broke through weak Americandefenses along an 80-mile front. Hitler hoped that a victorywould split American and British forces and break up Alliedsupply lines. Tanks drove 60 miles into AIlied territory,creating a bulge in the lines that gave this desperate lastditchoffensive its name, the Battle of the Bulge. As theGermans swept westward, they captured 120 AmericanGIs near Malm~dy. Elite German troops--the SS troopers--herdedthe prisoners into a large field and mowedthem down with machine guns and pistols.The battle raged for a month. When it was over, theGermans had been pushed back, and little seemed to havechanged. But, in fact, events had taken a decisive turn.The Germans had lost I20,000 troops, 600 tanks andassault guns, and 1,600 planes in the Battle of the Bulge--soldiers and weapons they could not replace. From thatpoint on, the Nazis could do little but retreat. F~elite; a small andprivileged groupEffectsBattle of the BulgeLIBERATION OFTHE DEATH CAMPS Meanwhile, Alliedimportant?troops pressed eastward into the German heartland, andthe Soviet army pushed westward across PoIand towardBerlin¯ Soviet troops were the first to come upon one ofthe Nazi death camps, in July 1944. As the Soviets drewnear a camp called Majdanek in Poland, SS guards workedfeverishly to bury and burn al! evidence of their hideouscrimes. But they ran out of time¯ When the Soviets enteredMaidanek, they found a thousand starving prisoners barelyalive, the world’s largest crematorium, and a storehousecontaining 800,000 shoes¯ "’This is not a co~centrationcamp," reported a stunned Soviet war correspondent, "it isa gigantic murder plant." The Americans who later liberatedNazi death camps in Germany were equally horrified.We started smelling a terrible odor and suddenly we were at the concentrationcamp at Landsberg, Forced the ~ate and faced hundreds of starvin~ prisonersWe saw emaciated men whose thighs were smaller than wrists, many had bonesstickin~ out thru their skin .... Also we saw hundreds of burned and nakedbodies .... That evenin~ I wrote my wife that ’For the first time I truly realized theevi! of Hitler and why this war had to be wa~ed,’ ’~uoted in Voices: LeCtern from Wodd War llUNCONDITIONAL SURRENDER By April 2S, 1945, the Soviet army had stormedBerlin. As Soviet sheIIs burst overhead, the city panicked. "Hordes of soldiersstationed in Berlin deserted and were shot on the spot or hanged from the nearesttree," wrote Claus Fuhrmann, a Berlin clerk. "On their chests they had placardsreading, ’We betrayed the FOhrer."

In his underground headquartersin Berlin, Hitler preparedfor the end. On April29, he married Eva Braun, hislongtime companion. Thesame day, he wrote out his lastaddress to the German people,In it he blamed the Jews forstarting the war and his gener-Image not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theals for losing it. "l die with aimage in the textbook.happy heart aware of theimmeasurable deeds of oursoldiers at the front¯ I myselfand my wife choose to die inorder to escape the disgrace of¯.. capitulation," tie said. Thenext day Hitler shot himselfwhile his new wife swallowedpoison. In accordance withHitler’s orders, the two bodieswere carried outside, soakedwith gasoline, and burned.A week later, General Eisenhower accepted the uncoBditional surrender ofthe Third Reich. On May 8, 19,t5, the Allies celebrated ¥-E Day--Victory inEurope Day. The war irl Europe was finally over.New Yorkerscelebrate V-E Daywith a massive partyROOSEVELT’S DEATH President Roosevelt did riot live to see V-E Day. Onthat began in TimesApril 12, 1945, while posing for a portrait in Warm Springs, Georgia, the presidenthad a stroke and died. That night, Vice President Harry $. Truman for days at sitesSquare and went onthrougl~out the city,became the nation’s 33rd president¯1, TERNS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.¯Dwight D. Eisenhower ¯ Omar Bradley ¯ Battle of the Bulge ¯ Harry S. Truman¯ B-Day °George Patton ,V-E DayMAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTESCreate a time line of the majorevents influencing the fighting inEurope and North Africa.Write a paragraph indicating how anytwo of these events are related.CRITICAL THINKING3. EVALUATING DECISIONSDO you agree with the decisionmade by Roosevelt and Churchill torequire unconditional surrender bythe Axis powers? Why or why not?Think About:the advantages of defeating afoe decisivelythe advantages of ending a warquicklyhow other conflicts, such as theCivil War and World War I, ended4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCESWhen President Roosevelt’sbody was brought by train toWashington, Betty Conrad wasamong the servicewomen whoescorted his casket.f~The body in the casket wasnot only our leader but the bodiesof all the men and womenwhe had given their lives forfreedom. They must not and willnot have died in vain, ~What did Roosevett’s bodysymbolize to Betty Conrad?The United States in World War H 783

in PacificIn order to defeat Japan andend the war in the Pacific,the United States unleasheda terrible new weapon, theatomic bomb.Countries of the modern worldstruggle to find ways to preventthe use of nuclear weapons.¯ DouglasoJ. RobertNlacArthur Oppenheimer°Chester Nimitz . Hiroshima¯ Battle of Midway °Nagasaki¯ kamikaze o Nuremberg trialsThe writer William Manchester left college after PearlHarbor to join the marines. Manchestei: says that, asa child, his "horror of violence had been so deepseatedthat I had been unable to trade punches withother boys." On a Pacific isIand, he would have toconfront that horror the first time he killed a man inface-to-face combat. Manchester’s target was aJapanese sniper firing on Manchester’s buddies froma fisherman’s shack.~ My mouth was dry, my legs quaking, and my eyesout of focus. Then my vision cleared, i... kickedthe door with my right foot, and leapt insideI . . . saw him as a blur to my right .... My first shot missed him, embedding on Ley[e in theitself in the straw wall, but the second caught him dead-on .... A wave of bloodgushed from the wound .... He dipped a hand in it and listlessly smeared hischeek red .... Almost immediately a fly landed on his [ef~ eyeball .... A feeling ofdisgust and self-hatred clotted darkly in my throat, gagging me.--from Goodbye Darkness: A Memoir of Ihe Pacific WarThe Pacific War was a savage conflict fought with raw courage. Few who tookpart in that fearsome struggle would return home unchanged.While tire Allies agreed that the defeat of the Nazis was their first priority, theUnited States did not wait until V-E Day to move against Japan. Fortunately, theJapanese attack on Pearl Harbor in !941 had missed the Pac flc Feet’s submarines.Even more importantly, the attack had missed the fleet’s aircraft carriers, whichwere out at sea at the time.

BackgroundAllied forces heldout against200,000 invadingJapanese troopsfor four months onthe 8ataanPeninsul& Hunger,disease, andbombardmentskilled 14,000Allied troops andwounded 48,000.Coraparing~,A~ In what wayswere the Americanvictory at Midwayand the Japanesetriumph at PeadHarbor alike?JAPANESE ADVANCES In the first six months after PearlHarbor, the Japanese conquered an empire that dwarfedHitler’s Third Reich. On the Asian mainland, Japanesetroops overran Hong Kong, French Indochina, Malaya,Burma, Thailand, and much of China. They also sweptsouth and east across the Pacific, conquering the Dutch BastIndies, Guam, Wake Island, the Solomon Islands, andcountless other outposts in the ocean, including twoislands in the Aleutian chain, which were part of Alaska.In the Philippines, 80,000 American and Filipinotroops battled the Japanese for control. At the time of theJapanese invasion in December 1941, General DouglasMacArthur was in cmnmand of Allied forces on theislands. When American and Filipino forces found themselveswith their backs to the wall on Bataan, PresidentRoosevelt ordered MacArthur to leave. On March 11, 1942,MacArthur left the Philippines with his wife, his son, andhis staff. As he left, he pledged to the many thousands ofmen who did not make it out, "I shall return/’NAVAJO CODE TALKERSOn each of the Pacific islandsthat American troops stormed inWorld War II, the Japanese hearda "strange language gurgling" intheir radio headsets. The codeseemed to have Asian overtones,but it baffled everyone who heardit. In fact, the language wasNavajo, which was spoken only inthe American Southwest and traditionallyhad no alphabet or otherwritten symbols. Its "hiddenness"made it a perfect candidate for acode language.Though the Navajo had nowords for combat terms, theydeveloped terms such as chickenhawk for divebomber and warchief for commanding general.Throughou t the Pacific campaign--fromMidway to Iwo3iron--the code talkers wereconsidered indispensable to thewar effort, They finally receivednational recognition in 1969.DOOLITTLE’S RAID In the spring of 1942, the Allies beganto turn the tide against the Japanese. The push began onApril 18 with a daring raid on Tokyo and other Japanesecities. Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle led 16 bombers inthe attack. The next day, Americans awoke to headlines thatread "Tokyo Bombed! Doolittle Do’od It." Pulling off a PearlHarbor-style air raid over Japan lifted America’s sunkenspirits. At the same time, it dampened spirits in Japan.RATTLE OF THE CORAL SEA The main Alliedforces in the Pacific were Americans and Australians.In May 1942 they succeeded in stopping the Japanesedrive toward Australia in the five-day Battle of theCoral Sea. During this battle, the fighting was doneby airplanes that took off from enormous aircraft cartiers.Not a single shot was fired by surface ships, Forthe first time since Pearl Harbor, a Japanese invasionhad been stopped and turned back,THE [IATTLE OF NIIDWAY Japan’s next thrust wastoward Midway, a strategic island which lies northwestof Hawaii. Here again the Allies succeeded instopping the Japanese. Americans had broken theJapanese code and knew that Midway was to be theirnext target.Admiral Chester Nimitz, the commander ofAmerican naval forces in the Pacific, moved to defendthe island. On June 3, 1942, his scout planes found the Japanese fleet. TheAmericans sent torpedo planes and dive bombers to the attack. The Japanese werecaught with their planes still on the decks of their carriers. The results were devastating.By the end of the Battle of Midway, the Japanese had lost four aircraftcarriers, a cruiser, and 250 planes. In the words of a Japanese official, at Midwaythe Americans had "avenged Pearl Harbor." !&The Battle of Midway was a turning point in the Pacific War. Soon theAllies began "island hopping." Island by island they won territory back from theJapanese. With each island, Allied forces moved closer to Japan.Four hundredrecruited into theMarine Corps ascode talkers.Their primary dutywas transmittingtelephone andradio messages.The United Stat~s in World WaF H 785

Full Page View Sect!on Page Fage SectionSUROPE H t er orders i Allies land in ~ German. i Axisa~ack on ~ North A~rica, i troops sup ! forcesStalingrad,i t’ender at i surrender&Stalingrad. i in North786 CI~IAPTER 25

The first Allied offensive began in August 1942 when 19,000 troops stormedGuadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. By the time the Japanese abandonedGuadalcanal six months later, they called it the Island of Death. To war correspondentRalph Martin and the troops who fought there, it was simply "hell."DrawingConclusiollsi,B~ Wl~y was theBattle of LeyteGulf so crucial tothe Allies?iHell was red furry spiders as big as your fist, giant lizards as long as your leg,leeches falling from trees to suck blood, armies of white ants with a bite of fire,scurrying scorpions inflaming any flesh they touched, enormous rats and batse~erywbere, and rivers with waiting crocodiles. Hell was the sour, foul smell M thesquishy jungle, humidity that rotted a body w~hin hours,.., stinking wet heat ofdripping rain fores~ that sapped the strength of any man. ~~The GI WarGuadalcanal marked Japan’s first defeat on land, but not its last. TheAmericans continued leapfrogging across the Pacific toward Japan, and in October1944, some 178,000 AlIied troops and 738 ships converged on Leyte island in thePhilippines. General MacArthur, who had left the Philippines two years earlier,waded ashore and announced, "People of the Philippines: I have returned."$NE ~APANESE DEFENSE The Japanese threw their entire fleet into the Battleof Leyte Gulf. They also tested a new tactic, the ~¢amlkaze (k~i’mYk~i’z~), orsuicide-plane, attack in which Japanese pilots crashed their bomb-laden planesinto Allied ships. (Kamikaze means "divine wind" and refers to a legendarytyphoon that saved Japan in 1281 by destroyinga Mongol invasion.) In the Philippines, 424kamikaze pilots embarked on suicide missions,sinking 16 ships and damaging another 80.Americans watched these terrifying attackswith "a strange mixture of respect and pity"according to Vice Admiral Charles Brown. "Youhave to admire the devotion to country demonstratedby those pilots," recalled Seaman GeorgeMarse. "Yet, when they were shot down, rescuedand brought aboard our ship, we were surprisedto find the pilots looked like ordinary, scaredyoung men, not the wide~eyed fanatical ’devils’we imagined them to be."Despite the damage done by the kamikazes, the Battle of Leyte Gulf was a disasterfor Japan. In three days of battle, it lost 3 battleships, 4 aircraft carriers, 13cruisers, and almost 500 planes. From then on, the Imperial Navy played only aminor roIe in the defense of Japan. ;~kamikaze pilotsreceive a briefingon the missionthat would beThe United States in World War II 787

RAISING THE FLAG ON IWO ,qMAOn February 19, 1945, the war in Europe was nearing its end, butin the Pacific one of the fiercest battles of World War II was aboutto erupt. On that day, 70,000 marines converged on the tiny,Japanese-controlled island of Iwo Jima. Four days later, they hadcaptured Mount Suribachi, the island’s highest point, but the battlefor Iwo Jima would rage on for four more weeks.Photographer Lou Lowery documented the men ¯of "Easy Company" hoisting an American flag ona makeshift pole atop Mount Suribachi. But theoriginal flag was soon taken down to be kept assaw the second flag raising, grabbed his camera, andclicked off a frame without even looking through hison the front pages of American newspapers. In the mindsof Americans, it immediately replaced the gloomy, blurredimages of Pearl Harbor going =~p in flames.SKILLBUILDER lnterpeting Vis~al Sot]rces~.. One of the Mount Suribachi images became one of the mostrecognized, most reproduced images of world War il. Study thedetails and point of view in each photo. Explain why you thinkRosenthaVs image, rather than Lowery’s, became important.2. What human qualities or events do you think Rosenthal’sphotograph symbolizes?SEE SKILl-BUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R23,

~ GO to asszolle Corn Table of Contents~ ~Full Page ViewSection Page Page 5oct!onDrawingConclusions,~ Why wasOkinawa asignificant islandin the war in thePacific?Iwo J~MA After retaking much of the Philippines and liberatingthe American prisoners of war there, MacArthur andthe Allies turned to iwo lima, an island that writer WilliamManchester later described as "an ugly, smelly glob of coldlava squatting in a surly ocean." Iwo lima (which means"sulfur island" in Japanese) was critical to the United Statesas a base from which heavily loaded bombers might reachJapan. It was also perhaps the most heavily defended spoton earth, with 20,700 Japanese troops entrenched in tunnelsand caves. More than 6,000 marines died taking thisdesolate island, the greatest number in any battle in thePacific to that point. Only 200 Japanese survived. Just oneobstacle now stood between the Allies and a final assault onJapan--the island of Okinawa.THE BATTLE FOR OKINAWA In April 1945, U.S. Marinesinvaded Okinawa. The Japanese unleashed more than !,900kamikaze attacks on the Allies during the Okinawa campaign,sinking 30 ships, damaging more than 300 more,and kiIling almost 5,000 seamen.Once ashore, the Allies faced even fiercer oppositionthan on Iwo Jima. By the time the fighting ended onJune 21, 1945, more than 7,600 Americans had died. Butthe Japanese paid an even ghastlier price--110,000 lives--in defending Okinawa. This total included two generalswho chose ritual suicide over the shame of surrender. A witnessto this ceremony described their end: "A simultaneDusshout and a flash of the sword.., and both generals hadnobly accomplished their last duty to tbeir Emperor."The Battle for Okinawa was a chilling foretaste of whatthe Allies imagined the invasion of Japan’s home islandswould be. Churchill predicted the cost would be a millionAmerican lives and half that number of British lives. ~DOUGLAS MACARTHUR1880-1964Douglas MacA~thur was too arrogantand prickly to be considereda "regular guy" by his troops. Buthe was arguably the most brilliantAllied strategist of World War thFor every American soldier killedin his campaigns, the Japaneselost ten.He was considered a real heroof the war, both by the militaryand by the prisoners on thePhilippines, whom he freed."MacArthur took more territorywith less loss of life," observedjournalist John Gunther, "thanany military commander sinceDarius the Great [king of Persia,522-486 B.C.]."The taking of Iwo .lima and Okinawa opened the way for an invasion of Japan.However, Allied leaders knew that such an invasion would become a desperatestruggle. Japan still had a huge army that would defend every inch of homeland.President Truman saw Only one way to avoid an invasion of Japan. He decided touse a powerful new weapon that had been developed by scientists working on theManhattan Project~the atomic bomb.THE ~ANHATTAN PROJECT Led by General Leslie Groves with research directedby American scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the development of theatomic bomb was not only the most ambitious scientific enterprise in history, itwas also the best-kept secret of the wac At its peak, more than 600,000 Americanswere ~nvolved in tbe project, althougb few knew its ultimate purpose. EvenTruman did not learn about it unfll he became president.The first test of the new bomb took place on the morning of July 16, 1945, inan empty expanse of desert near Alamogordo, New Mexico. A blinding flash,which was visible 180 miles away, was followed by a deafening roar as a tremendousshock wave rolled across the trembling desert. Otto Frisch, a scientist on theproject, described the huge mushroom cloud that rose over the desert as % redhotelephant standing balanced on its trunk." The bomb worked[The United States in World War II 7B9

President "lkuman now faced a difficult decision. Should the Allies use thebomb to bring an end to tbe war? Truman did not hesitate. On July 25, !945, heordered the military to make final plans for dropping two atomic bombs onJapanese targets. A day later, the United States warned Japan that it faced "promptand utter destruction" unless it surrendered at once. Japanrefused. Truman later wrote, "The final decision of whereand when to use the atomic bomb was up to me. Let therebe no mistake about it. I regarded the bomb as a militaryweapon and never had any doubt that it should be used."HIROSHlfVlA AND NAGASAKI On August 6, a B-29bomber named Enola Gay released an atomic bomb, codenamedLittle Boy, over Ri]rost~in~a, an importantJapanese military center. Forty-three seconds later, almostevery building in the city collapsed into dust from theforce of the blast. Hiroshima had ceased to exist. Still,Japan’s leaders hesitated to surrender. Three days later, asecond bomb, code-named Fat Man, was dropped onNagasaki, leveling half the city. By the endof the year, an estimated 200,000 peoplehad died as a result of iniuries and radiationpoisoning caused by the atomic blasts.Yamaoka Michiko was 15 years old and livingnear the center of Hiroshima when thefirst bomb hit.Emperor Hirohito was horrified by the destruction wrought bythe bomb. "I cannot bear to see my innocent people suffer anylonger," he told Japan’s leaders tearfully. Then he ordered them todraw up papers "to end thewalt" On September 2, formalsurrender ceremonies tookplace on the U.S. battleshipMissouri in Tokyo Bay. "Todaythe guns are silent," said 27i fGeneral MacArthur in a speechmarking this historic moment."The skies no longer raindeath--the seas bear onlycommerce--men everywherewalk upright in the sunlight.The entire world is quietly atpeace."

of War Henry Stimson, had this point of view. They feltStimson said. "The face of war is the face of death.sreaay victory?" they petitioned. "No] If we can savebomb. Some people feared that if the oomo were notdropped, the project might be viewed as a gigantic-he second consideration involved the SovietAllies and the SovietsSome ~merican OfficialsSoviets in shaping teeEvaluating Decisions Do youthink the United States was ustlfied in using tee Dom~"$apan’s staggering losses were enough to forceMan~ of the scientists who had worked on the bomb,as well as mfl~tar, caners ano ciwliar policymakers,had doubts aoout usH~g it. Dr. Leo Szilard, a Hungarian-Born 3nysicist who nao ne~oed President Rooseveltauncn xne project and who had a major ro~e in developngrne oorno, was a key figure opposing its use.A oetibon drawn uD b, Szilard and signed by 70other scientists argued that it would De immoral to dropan momic bomb on Jaaan wl[nou[ fair warning. Manysupportea staging a demonstration of the bomb forJaoanese leaders, perhaps by exploding one on adeserted island near Jaoan. io convince the JapaneseSuoreme Allied Commander General Dwight D,Eisenhower agreed. He maintained that "dropping thebomb was completely unnecessar t" to save Americanlives and that Japan was a~ready defeated, Ike toldSecretary of War HenryStimsom "1 was against it[the bomb] on two counts.First the Japanese werereaoy [o surrenoer ane itwasn’t necessary to hitthem with that awful thing.Second. I hated to see ourcoun[r~ De me first to usesuch a weapon."AnalyzingMotives;~ Why wasRoosevelt anxiousto makeStalin concerningthe fate ofpostwar Germany?With Japali’s surrender, tl~e Aiiies turned to the cisa]ienge of rebuildilig war-torlinations, l~veli befo[e the last guns fell siielit, they began thinking about principlesthat would govexn the postwar world.THE YALT& ~ONFEREN~E Ill February 194S, as the Allies pushed toward victoryin Europe, an ailing P, oosevelt had met with Churchill and Stalin at the Black Searesort city of Yalta in the Soviet Union. StaIili graciously welcomed the presidentand the prime minister, and the Big Three, as they were called, toasted the defeatof Germany that now seemed certaili.For eight grueling days, the three leaders discussed tl~e fate of Germany and thepostwar world. Stalin, his coulit/y devastated by German forces, favored a harshapproach. He warlted to keep Ge~maliy divided into occupatioli zones--areascontroBed by Allied military forces--so that Germany would never again threatenthe Soviet Union.When Churchill strongly disagreed, Roosevelt acted as a mediator. He wasprepared to make concessions to Stalin for two reasolis. First, he hoped that theSoviet Union would stalid by its commitments to join the war agailist Japan thatwas still waging in the Pacific. (The first test of the atom bomb was still fivemmrths away.) Second, P, oosevelt wanted Stalin’s support for a new world peace~kaepilig o~ganizatiolL to be named the United Nations. :~The United States in World War" II 79~.

The historic meeting at Yalta produced a series of compromises. To pacifyStalin, Roosevelt convinced Churchill to agree loa temporary division ofGermany into four zones, one each for the Americans, the British, the Soviets,and the French. CburchilI and Roosevelt assumed that, in time, all the zoneswould be brought together in a reunited Germany. For his part, Stalin promised"free and unfettered elections" in Poland and other Soviet-occupied EasternEuropean countries.Stalin also agreed to join in the war against Japan. That struggle was expectedto continue for another year or more. in addition, he agreed to participate in aninternational conference to take place in April in San Francisco. There, Roosevelt’sdream Of a United Nations (UN) would become a reality. ~THE NUREFfiBERG WAR TRIALS Besides geographic division, Germany hadanother price to pay for its part in the war. The discovery of Hitler’s death campsled the Allies to put 24 surviving Nazi leaders on trial for crimes against humanity,crimes against the peace, and war crimes. The trials were held in the southernGerman town of Nuremberg.At the ~remberg tri~ls, the defendants included Hitler’s most trustedpar W officials, government ministers, militazy leaders, and powerful industriaIists.As the trial began, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Robert Jackson explained thesignificance of the event.~ The wrongs which We s~ek ~6 b6ndemn and pufiish have been so calculated, somalignant and so devastating, that civilization cannot tolerate their being ignoredbecause it cannot survive their being repeated .... It is hard now to perceive inthese miserable men.., the power by which as Nazi leaders they once dominatedmuch of the world and terrified most of it. Merely as individuals, their fate is oflittle consequence to the world. What makes this inquest significant is thatthese prisoners represent siniste~ influences that will lurk in the world long aftertheir bodies have returned to dust. They are living symbols of racial hatreds, ofterrorism and violence, and of the arrogance and cruelty of power.... Civilizationcan afford no compromise with the social forces which would gain renewedstrength if we deal ambiguously or indecisively with the men in whom thoseforces now precariously survive. ~Each defendant at the Nuremberg trials wasaccused of one or more of the followingcrimes:°Crimes Against the Peace--planning andwaging an aggressive war°War Crimes--acts against the customs ofwarfare, such as the killing of hostages andprisoners, the plundering of private property,and the destruction of towns and citieso~/imes Against Humanity--the murder,extermination, deportation, or enslavementof civilians792 CHAPTER 25

Ful! page View Section Page Page SectionIn the end, 12 of the 24 defendants were sentenced to death, and most of theremaining were sent to prison, tn later trials of lesser leaders, nearly 200 moreNazis were found guilty of war crimes. Still, many people have argued that the trialsdid not go far enough in seeking out and punishing war criminals. Many Naziswho took part in the Holocaust did indeed go free.Yet no matter how imperfect the trials might have been, they did . ~,:. - ~establish an important principle--the idea that individuals areresponsibl~ for their own actions, even in times of war. Nazi executionerscould not escape punishment by claiming that they weremerely "following orders." The principle of individual responsibility UEFENNNTSATmEwas now firmly entrenched in international law.NUREMBERG TRIALST~E OCCUPATION OF JAPAN Japan was occupied by U.S, forces under the com~mand of General Douglas MacArthur. In the early years of the occupation, morethan 1,100 Japanese, from fo[tner Prime Minister Hideki Toio to lowly prisonguards, were arrested and put on trial. Seven, including Tojo, were sentenced todeath. In the Philippines, in China, and in other Asian battlegrounds, additionalJapanese officials were tried for atrocities against civilians or prisoners of war.During the seven-year American occupation, MacArthur reshaped Japan’seconomy by introducing free-market practices that led to a remarkable economicrecovely. MacArthur also worked to transform Japan’s government. He called fora new constitution that would provide for woman suffrage and guarantee basicfreedoms. In the Tjnited States, Americans followed these changes with interest.The New York Times reported that "General MacArthur... has swept away anautocratic regime by a warrior god and installed in its place a democratic governmentpresided over by a very hnman emperor and based on the will of thepeople as expressed in free elections." The Japanese apparently agreed. To thisday, their constitution is known as the MacArthur Constitntion.1. TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.~ Douglas MacArthtlr ,Battle of Midway oL Robert Oppenheimer -Nagasaki°Chester Nimitz °kamikaze , Hiroshima o Nuremberg trialsNAN IDEA2, TAKING NOTESUsing a chart sucl~ as the onebelow, describe the significance ofkey military actions in the Pacificduring World War I1.CRITICAL TH~NKING3. DEVELOPING HISTORICALPERSPECTIVEAt the trials, many Nazis defendedthemselves by saying they were onlyfollowing orders. What does thisrationale tell you about the Germanmilitary? Why was it important tonegate this justification?DRAWING CONCLUSIONSExplain how the United States wasable to defeat the Japanese in thePacific.EVALUATING DECISIONSIs it legitimate to hold peopleaccountable for crimes committedduring wartime? Why or why not?Think About:o the laws that govern society= the likelihood of conducting afair trial¯ the behavior of soldiers, politicians,and civiIians during warWhich rnilitary action was a turningpoint for the Allies?The United States in World War II 793

Science and Technolog~Radar, guided missiles, nuclear submarines, reconnaissance satellites, atomicbombs--the inventions of the 20th century seem intended mainly for war, with theusual dreaded results. But these technological developments have aIso had farreachingapplications in peacetime. Because the innovations were originally intendedfor the battlefield, they were developed quickly and with a narrow purpose.However, their applications during peacetime have led to life-enhancing benefitsthat will extend far into the 21st century.Airplanes were first used togather military informationbut were soon put to workas fighters and bombers.The Sopwith Camel (shownat right), was one of themost successful Britishfighter planes, bringingdown almost 1,300 enemyaircraft during World War I. The development of flighttechnology eventually led to sophisticated supersonicaircraft. Today, non-military aircraft are primarily usedfor travel and cargo transport. Jumbo jets carry hundredsof passengers with each takeoff.

Faced with alarming rumors of work on a German atomic bomb, Americamobilized some of the finest scientific minds in the world to create its ownatomic bomb. The energy released by its nuclear reaction was enough tokill hundreds of thousands of people, as evidenced by the destruction ofHiroshima and Nagasaki. But the resulting ability to harness the atom’senergy also led to new technologies for diagnosing and treating humandiseases. Techniques such as positron emission tomography (PET) nowreveal the inner workings of the human brain itself.Software programs, video gamesSynthetic materials Parachutes, weapons Telephones, automobile fenders,parts, tirespacemakers~r[acki0g a~d SUb/~ill~ficeWe#~ber trecki0g air trafficImage not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theimage in the textbook,CONNECT TO HISTORY1. Hypothesizing Do you think that peacetime technologieswould have been developed without time stimulusprovided by war? Support your answer.~ SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK PAGE R13CONNECT TO TODAY2, Evaluating Technological Impact What inventionor technological breakthrough do you think has badthe greatest impact on American society? Write aparagraph to explain your answer. Stage a debatewith your classmates in which you defend your choice.The United States in World War"

Full Page view Section Pa~e Page SectionAfter World War II, Americansadjusted to new economicopportunities and harshsocial tensions,E~conomic opportunities oGI Bill of Rights ,internmentafforded by World War II led to °James Farmer °Japanesea more diverse middle class in °Congress ot Americanthe United States. Racial Equality Citizens League(CORE)(JACL)The writer and poet Maya Angelou was a teenager living inSan Francisco when the United States go’~ involved inWorld War II. The first change she noticed was the disappearanceof the city’s Japanese population. The secondchange was an influx of workers, including many AfricanAmericans, from the South. San Franciscans, she noted,maintained that there was no racism in their city by thebay. But Angelou knew differently.Image not availablefor use on CD-ROM.Please refer to theimage in the textbook.At the end of the war, returning veterans--even those who weren’t disabled--hadto begin dealing with the very real issues of reentry and adjustment to a societythat offered many opportunities bat still had many unsolved problems.In contrast to the Great Depression, Wol:ld War 1I was a time of opportunityfor millions of Americans. Jobs abounded, and despite rationing and shortages,people had money to spend. At the end of World War iI, the nation emerged asthe world’s dominant economic and military power.796 CHAVFER 25

¥ocablllarymigration: the actof moving fromone country orregion to anotherAnalyzing~ How did WorldU.S. populationto shift?ECONOmiC GAINS The war years were good ones forworking people. As defense industries boomed, unemploymentfell to a low of 1.2 percent in 1944. Even with priceand wage controls, average weekly paychecks rose 35 percentduring the war. And although workers still protestedlong hours, overtime, and night shifts, they were able tosave money for the future. Some workers invested up tohalf their paychecks in war bonds.Farmers also prospered during the war. Unlike thedepression years, when farmers had battled dust stormsand floods, the early I940s had good weather for growingcrops. Farmers benefited from improvements in farmmachinery and fertilizers and reaped the profits fromrising crop prices. As a result, crop production increasedby 50 percent, and farm income tripled. Before the warended, many farmers could pay off their mortgages.Women also enjoyed employment gains during thewar, although many lost their jobs when the war ended.Over 6 million women had entered the work force forthe ilrst time, boosting the percentage of women in thetotal work force to 35 percent. A third of those iobswere in defense plants, which offered women morechallenging work and better pay than jobs traditionally associated withwomen, such as as waitmssing, clerking, and domestic service. Withmen away at war, many women also took advantage of openings injournalism and other professions. "The war really created opportunitiesfor women," said Winona Espinosa, a wife and mother who became ariveter and bus driver during the war. "It was the first time we got achance to show that we could do a !of of things that only men haddone before."POPULATION SHIFTSIn addition to revampingthe economy, the wartriggered one of thegreatest nrass migrationsin Anrerican history.Americans whose familieshad lived for decadesin one place suddenlyuprooted themselves toseek work elsewhere.More than a millionnewcomers poured intoCaIifornia between 1941and 1944. Towns withdefense industries sawtheir populations doubleand even triple, sometimesalmost overnight.As shown in the mapto the right, AfricanAmericans left the Southfor cities ill the North inrecord numbers. ~GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER1. Movement To which geographic region did the greatest numberof African Americans migrate?mass migration?The United States in ~vVorld War II 797

Section Page Page SectionAttendingPennsylvania$28 a month forthe trailer homehim working.SOCIAL ADJUSTMENTS Families adjusted to the changes brought on by war asbest they could. With millions of fathers in the armed forces, mothers struggledto rear their children alone. Many young children got used to being left withneighbors or relatives or in child-care centers as more and more mothers went towork. "l~enagers left at home without parents sometimes drifted into juveniledelinquency. And when fathers finally did come borne, there was often a painfulperiod of readiustment as family members got to know one another again.The war helped create new families, too. Longtime sweethearts---as well ascouples who barely knew each otbe~,--rusbed to marry before the soldier or sailorwas shipped overseas. In booming towns like Seattle, the number of marriagelicenses issued went up by as much as 300 percent early in the waz: A New Yorkerobserved in 1943, "On Fridays and Saturdays, the City Halt area is blurred withrunning soldiers, sailors, and girls hunting the license bureau, floral shops, ministers,bloo&testing laboratories, and the Legal Aid Society."In 1944, to help ease the transition of returning servicemen to civilian life,Congress passed the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, better known as the GI B~lJof R~gl~ts. This bill provided education and training for veterans, paid for by thefederal government. Just over half the returning soldiers, or about 7.8 million veterans,attended colleges and technical schools under the GI BilI. The act also provialedfederal loan guarantees to veterans buying homes or farms or starting newbusinesses. ~Effects~ How did thewar affect familieslives?798 CHAPTER 25Despite the opportunities that opened up for women and minorities during thewa]9 old prejudices and policies persisted, both in the military and at home.C|VIL RIGHTS PROTESTS African Americans made stone progress on the t~omefront. During the war, thousands of African Americans left the South. The majoritymoved to the Midwest, where better jobs could be found. Between 1940 and1944, the percentage of African Americans working in skilled or semiskilled jobsrose from 16 to 30 percent.

AnalyzingC~, What caosedthe race riots inthe 1940s?Wherever African Americans moved, however, discrimination presentedtough hurdles. In 1942, civil rights leader James tl?armer founded an intenacialorganization called the Congress of Racla~ E~luallity (CORE) to confronturban segregation in the North. That same year, CORE staged its first sitdn at asegregated Chicago restaurant.As African-American migrants moved into already overcrowded cities, tensionsrose. In 1943, a tidal wave of racial violence swept across the country. Theworst conflict erupted in Detroit on a hot Sunday afternoon in June. What startedas a tussle between blacks and whites at a beach on the Detroit River mushroomedinto a riot when white sailors stationed nearby joined the fray. The fightingraged for three days, fueled by false rumors that whites had murdered a blackwoman and her child and that black rioters had killed 17 whites. By the timePresident Roosevelt sent federal troops to restore order, 9 whites and 25 blacks laydead or dying.The violence of 1943 revealed to many Americans black and white alike--just how serious racia! tensions had become in the United States. By 1945, morethan 400 committees had been established by American communities to hnproverace relations. Progress was slow, but African Americans were determined not togive up the gains they had made. ;~TEN$ION [N LOS ANGELES Mexican Americans also experienced prejudiceduringthe war years. In the violent summer of 1943, Los Angeles explodedin anti-Mexican "zoot4uit"riots. The zoot suit was astyle nf dress adopted byMexican-American youths asa symbol of their rebellionagainst tradition. It consistedof a long jacket and pleatedpants. Broad-brimmed hatswere often worn with thesuits.The riots began when 11sailors in Los Angelesreported that they had beenattacked by zoot-suit-wearingMexican Americans.This charge triggered violenceinvolving thousandsof servicemen and civilians.Mobs poured into Mexicanneighborhoods and grabbedany zoot-suiters they could find. The attackers ripped off their victims’ clothesand beat them senseless. The riots lasted ahnost a week and resulted in the beatingof hundreds of Mexican-American youth and other minorities.Despite such unhappy experiences with racism, many Mexican Americansbelieved that their sacrifices during wartime would lead to a better future.here leaving jail=~ This war,., is doing what we in our Mexican-American movement had plannedto do in one generation .... It has shown those ’across the tracks’ that we allshare the same problems. It has shown them what the Mexican American will do,what responsibility he will take and what leadership qualities he will demonstrate,After this struggle, the status of the Mexican Americans will be different. ’--quoted in A Dirferet~t M~rror: A History of Multicultural AmericaThe United States in World War H 799

On March 3, 1942, aGEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER~1. Location How I~ any Japanese internmentcamps existed in 1942?2. ]’lace Why do you think the majority of thesemother carries hertheirSleeplngrelocatlondaughterto andUringinternment camp.While Mexican Americans and African Americans struggled with racial tension,the war produced tragic results for Japanese Americans. When the war began,t20,000 Japanese Americans lived in the United States. Most of them were citizensfiving on the West Coast.The surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii had stunned thenation. After the bombing, panic-stricken citizens feared that the Japanese wouldsoon attack the United States. Frightened people believed false rumors thatJapanese Americans were committing sabotage by mimng coastal harbors andpoisoning vegetables.This sense of fear and uncertainty caused a wave of prejudice against JapaneseAmericans. Early in 1942, the War Department called for the mass evacuation ofall Japanese Americans from Hawaii. General Delos Emmons, the military governorof Hawaii, resisted the order because 37 percent of the people in Hawaii wereJapanese Americans. Tn remove them would have destroyed the islands’ economyand hindered U.S. military operations there. However, he was eventually forcedto order the internment, or confinement, of 1,444 Japanese Americans, ] percentof Hawaii’s Japanese-American population.On the West Coast, however, panic and prejudice ruled the day. in California,only 1 percent of the people were Japanese, but they constituted a minority largeenough to stimulate the prejudice of many whites, without being large enough toeffectively resist internment. Newspapers whipped up anti-Japanese sentiment byrunning ugly stories attacking Japanese Americans.On February 19, ]942, President Roosevelt signed an order requiring theremoval of people of Japanese ancestry from California and parts of Washington,Oregon, and Arizona. Based on strong recommendations from the milita[3~, hejustified this step as necessary for national securi W. In the following weeks, thearmy rounded up some II0,000 Japanese Americans and shipped them to tenhastily constructed remote "relocation centers," euphemisms for prison camps.

AnalyzingMotives~D.~ Why didPresidentRoosevelt orderthe internment ofJapaneseAmericans?About two-thirds were Nisei, or Japanese people born in this country of parentswho emigrated from Japan. Thousands of Nisei had already joined tfie armedforces, and to Ted Nakashima, an architectural draftsman from Seattle, the evacuationseemed utterly senseless. ~’~No specific charges were ever filed against Japanese Americans, and no evidenceof subversion was ever found. Faced with expulsion, terrified families wereforced to sell their homes, businesses, and all their belongings for less than theirtrue value.Japanese Americans fought for justice, both in the courts and in Congress.The initial results were discouraging. In 1944, the Supreme Court decided, inKorematsu v. United glat~,s, that tfie government’s policy of evacuating JapaneseAmericans to camps was justified on ~he basis of "military necessity." (See pages802-803.) After the war, however, the Japanese American Citizens LeagueOACL) pushed the government to compensate those sent to the camps for theirlost property. In !965, Congress authorized the spending of $38 million for thatpurpose--less than a tenth of Japanese Americans’ actual losses.The JACL did not give up its quest for justice, in 1978, it called for the paymeritof reparations, or restitution, to each individnal that suffered internment. Adecade later, Congress passed, and President Ronald Reagan signed, a bill thatpromised $20,000 to every Japanese American sent to a relocation camp. Whenthe checks were sent in 1990, a letter from President George Bush accompaniedthem, in which he stated, "We can never fully right the wrongs of the past. Butwe can take a clear stand for justice and recognize that serious injustices weredone to Japanese Americans during World War II."TERMS & NAMES For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.Bill of Rights °Congress of Racial -internment~James FarmbrEquality (CORE)=Japanese AmericanCitizens League (JACL)MAIN IDEA2. TAKING NOTESList the advances and problems inthe economy and in civil rightsduring World War II,I Advances ProblemsEconomyCivil Rights iIWhich of these advances andproblems do you think had the mostfar-reaching effect? Explain youranswerCRITICAL THINKING3. COMPARINGHow were the experiences of AfricanAmericans, Mexican Americans, andJapanese Americans similar duringWorld War I1? How were theydifferent?4. DEVELOPING HISTORICALPERSPECTIVEDo you think that the government’spolicy of evacuating JapaneseAmericans to camps was justified onthe basis of "military necessity"?Explain your answer.5. ANALYZING EFFECTSWhat effect did World War il have onAmerican families? Think About:¯ the role of women in familiesand the economy~ the relationship between theraces¯ the impact of the federal governmenton societyThe United States in World War H 80~.

ORIGINS OF THE CASE Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 71941 U.S. military officials argued that Japanese Americans posed a threat to the nation’ssecurity¯ Based on recommendations from the military, President Franklin Rooseveltissued Executive Order 9066, which gave mi!itarv officials the power to limit the civilrights of Japanese Americans. Military authorities began by setting a curfew for JapaneseAmericans¯ Later. they forced Japanese Americans from their homes and moved them intodetention camps. Fred Korematsu was convicted of defying the military order to leave hishome. At the urging of the American Civil Liberties Union ACLU), Korematsu appealedthat conviction.THE RULING The Court upheld Korematsu’s conviction and argued that military necessitymade internment constitutional.LI:GAL REASONINGExecutive Order 9066 was clearly aimed at one group ofpeople--Japanese Americans. Korematsu a~Nued thatthis order was unconstitutional because it was based onrace. Writing for the Court majority, Justice Hugo Blackagreed "that all legal restrictions which curtail the civilrights of a singIe racial group are immediately suspect¯"HoweveB in this case, he said, the restrictions werebased on "a military imperative" and not "group punishmentbased on antagonism to those of Japanese origin."As such, Justice Black stated that the restrictionswere constitutional¯"Compulsory exclusion of large groups,.., exceptunder circumstances of direct emergency and peril, isinconsistent with our basic governmental institutions.But when under conditions of modern warfare ourshores are threatened by hostile forces, the power toprotect must be commensurate with the threatenedJustice Frank Murphy, however, dissented--heopposed the majority¯ He believed that military necessitywas merely an excuse that could not conceal the racismat the heart of the restrictions."This exclusion.., ought not to be approved. Suchexclusion goes over ’the very brink of constitutionalpower’ and falls into the ugly abyss of racism."Two other justices also dissented, but Korematsu’sconviction stood.U.S. CONSTITUTION, FIFTH ANIENDI~iENT (1793.)"No person shall . . . be deprived of life, liberty, orproperty, without due process of law."EXECUTIVE ORDER 9066 {1942)"1 hereby autbodze and direct tbe Secretary of War,to prescribe military areas in such places and of suchextent as he.. ¯ may determine, from which any orpersons may be excluded."HIRABAYASHI v. UNITED STATES(JUNE 1943)The Court upheld the conviction of a Japanese-American man for breaking curfew. The Court arguedthat the curfew was within congressional and presidentialauthority.EX PARTE ENDO(DECEMBER 1944)The Court ruled that e Japanese-American girl, whoseIoyaR~ had been clearly established, could not be heldin an internment camp.802 CHAPTER

Full Page View Section Page Page SectionWHY iT MATTEREDAbout 1.10,000 Japanese Americans were forced intointernment camps, as shown above, during World WarII. Many had to sell their businesses and homes at greatloss. Thousands were forced to give up their possessions.in the internment camps, Japanese Americans lived ina prison-like setting under constant guard.The Court ruled that these government actions didnot violate people’s rights because the restrictions werebased on military necessity rather than on race. But thegovernment treated German Americans and italianAmericans much differently, in those instances, the governmentidentified potentially disloyal people but didnot harass the people it believed to be loyal. By contrast,the government refused to make distinctions betweenloya! and potentially disloyal Japanese Americans.HiSTORiCAL I WIPACTIn the end, the internment of Japanese AmericaBsbecame a national embarrassment. In 1976, PresidentGerald R. Ford repealed Executive Order 9066.President Clinton presents Fred Korematsu with aPresidential Medal of Freedom during a ceremonyat the White House on January 15, 1998.Similarly, the Court’s decision in Korematsu becamean embarrassing example of court-sanctioned racismoften compared to the decisions on Dred Scott (1857)and Plessyv. Ferguson (I896). In the early 1980s, a scholarconducting research obtained copies of governmentdocuments related to the Hirabayashi and Korematsucases. The documents showed that the army had lied tothe Court in the !940s. Japanese Americans had notposed aBy security threat. Korematsu’s conviction wasoverturned in 1984. Hirabayashi’s conviction was overturnedin 1986. In !988, Congress passed a law orderingreparations payments to surviving JapaneseAmericans who had been detained in the camps.CONNECT TO HISTORY1. Hypothesizing The internment of Japanese Americansduring World War II disrupted lives and ripped apartfamilies. What do you think can be done today toaddress this terrible mistake? How can the governmentmake amends?SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R13.CONNECT TO TODAYVisit the links for Historic Decisions of the Supreme Courtto locate the three dissenting opinions in Korematsu writtenby Justices Frank Murphy, Robert Jackson, and OwenRoberts, Read one of these opinions, and then write asummary that states its main idea. What constitutionalprinciple, if any, does the opinion use?The United States in World War H 803

TER[v’~S &For each term or name below, write a sentence explaining itsconnection to World War I1.1. A. Philip Randolph2. Manhattan Project3. rationing4. Dwight D. Eisenhower5. D~Day6. V-E Day7. Douglas MacArthur8. Hiroshima9. GI Bill of Rights£0. Congress of RacialEquality (CORE)P~A~N IDEASUse your notes and the information in the chapter to answerthe following questions.~Ob~z~ {O~" Yi~efesse (pages 768-774)~.. How did the U.S. mititary reflect the diversity of Americansociety during World War ll?2. How did the federal government’s actions influence civilianlife during World War I1?3. What role did the media play in helping the country mobilize?~ German invasi0n of PolandHarboro Defeat of Axis powerso Destruction and immense loss of life¯ Recognition of Holocausto Founding of United NationsRise of United States and Soviet Unionas superpowersCold WarSoviet control of Eastern EuropeDivided GermanyDevelopment of nuclear capabilityThe War for Europe and North Africa (pages 775-783)4. How did the Allies win control of the Atlantic Ocean between1941 and 1943?5, What was the significance of the Battle of Stalingrad?6. How did the Battle of the Bulge signal the beginning of theend of World War II in Europe?The War in the Pacific (pages 784-793)7. Briefly describe the island war in the Pacific.8. Why did President Truman decide to use atomic weapons?The Ho~e L~r~nt (pages 796-801)9. How did the U.S. economy change during World War ll?10. What events show the persistence of racial tensions?CRITICAL THINKINGUSING YOUR NOTES In a chart like the one shown, providecauses for the listed effects of World War I1.CausesEffectsThe U.S. enters the war.Congress creates the Officeof Price Administration.Japanese Americans aresent to relocation centers.Top Nazi officials are puton trial at Nuremberg.ANALYZING ISSUES Would you support the use of nuclearweapons today, and if so, under what circumstances?3. INTERPRETING MAPS Judging from the map on page 778,why was a victory in North Africa essential to an invasion ofsouthern Europe?

~ Go ~o classzone.corn ~;ult Page View Section Page Page Section, ~Use the map and your knowledge of U.S. history toanswer question t.CHINAgOkinawaPACIFICOCEANt2ooE 0 500 1000milesPHILIPPINES0 500 +000 kilometers2. How did World War It lead to one of the largestpopulation shifts in U.S. history?F Service men and women were forced to leavetheir homes for Europe,6 The toss of loved ones led people to move inwith their families.H People moved to states with military bases andfactories for better jobs.J People moved to the middle of the country toescape wars on both coasts.3. How did natural geography contribute to Germany’sdefeat in World War II?A Large bodies of water stood between Germanyand its enemies.B Germany had to fight a war on three fronts:North Africa, Western Europe, and EasternEurope aod the Soviet Union,e There were too few rivers to be used forGerman supplies.D Switzerland pledged to remain neutral throughoutthe war,1, Why was it critical for the Allies to take theJapanese-held islands of lwo Jima and Okinawa?A The istands were highly populated areas withlittle military protection.B The islands were critical as bases from whichAllied bombers could reach Japan.C The islands were centers for Japanese developmentof a nuclear bomb.D The Allies intended to drop atomic bombs onthe islands.ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENTI,How can the United States use itsresources to achieve victory?Write a newspaper article in which you describethe ways in which the United States used itsresources during World War II. Include informationabout rationing and about the various offices thatthe federal government established to monitor inflationand convert a peacetime economy intoa wartime economy.Visit the links for Chapter Assessment to find outmore about A, Philip Randolph, Write a brief biographyof Randolph in which you describe his lifelongcontributions as a labor leader. Here are somequestions to consider:What did he do during his youth that preparedhim for his life’s work?What role did he play in ending discrimination inthe armed services?What union did he organize?What role did he play in the march onWashington in 1963?