CARMINA BURANA

CARL ORFF’S 

CARMINA 

BURANA 

An Analysis of the Work’s Performance 

Practice on Commercial Recordings 

Jonathan Babcock 

Jonathan Babcock is the associate director of 

choral activities at Texas State University-San 

Marcos. He holds a DMA in choral conducting 

from the Hartt School, University of Hartford 

and an MM and BM in music education from 

the Crane School of Music, SUNY Potsdam. 

Jonathan.babcock@txstate.edu 

48 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 51 Number 4

Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana is 

one of the most frequently performed 

and recorded twentieth 

- century works in the choral 

repertoire. Nearly every major 

orchestral conductor has recorded 

the work at least once: Seiji 

Ozawa has fi ve different recordings 

to his credit. The recording 

technology has created a great 

resource for musicians: it has 

documented performance practice 

and performance tradition 

dating back to the early 1900s. 

In his book, Early Recordings 

and Musical Style, Robert 

Philip states that “[R]ecordings 

shed light on the limitations of 

documentary evidence in any 

period.” 1 Although the time span 

of Carmina Burana recordings is 

not extensive, there is still a great 

deal of interpretive information 

to be gained in an analysis of 

these sound documents. Sixteen 

separate recordings were chosen 

for this study. 2

CARL ORFF'S CARMINA BURANA 

The conductors represented are considered 

to be among the most esteemed of 

their time. In addition, three of the recordings 

in the study were prepared with Carl 

Orff present at rehearsals and at the actual 

recording session. 3 These recordings are 

quite informative of what may have been 

Orff’s original intentions. This analysis hopes 

to guide artistic decisions for future performances 

of the work. 

The sixteen recordings were selected 

according to issue date and nationality of 

conductor and performers. The recordings 

were analyzed based upon three principal 

categories: 

Outstanding Performance 

Opportunities Designed for 

Undergraduates 

Yearly fully-staged undergraduate 

opera and opera scenes 

Recital series and master classes 

Choral tours and major works for 

choir and orchestra 

Vocal Faculty includes: 

Robert Barefield 

Edward Bolkovac 

Cherie Caluda 

Kevin Jones 

Doris Lang Kosloff 

Michael Kutner 

Joanna Levy 

Michele McBride 

Marjorie Melnick 

Korby Myrick 

Wayne Rivera 

Kyle Swann 

Stuart Younse 

Audition Dates 

for Fall 2011 

Entrance 

December 11 

(early notification), 

January 28 & 30, 

February 18 & 19 

50 CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 51 Number 4 

• Tempo (tempos of the recordings were 

compared to Orff’s tempo indications); 

• Text (pronunciation, and articulation); 

• Musical interpretation (rubato, stringendo, 

portamento, phrasing, articulation, and 

elision). 

Tempo 

Each movement of every recording in 

the study was timed with a Tempowatch, 

both at the beginning of the movement, and 

at various tempo changes indicated in the 

score. These timings were then compared to 

www.hartford.edu/hartt 

The Hartt School | University of Hartford | 200 Bloomfield Avenue | West Hartford, CT 06117 | 860.768.4465 | harttadm@hartford.edu 

Orff’s metronome markings in the published 

score. In total, fi fty-one timings were taken 

from each recording. The studied recordings 

were also compared and contrasted with 

each other. 

Of all sixteen recordings, the Deutschen 

Oper Berlin recording, with Eugen Jochum 

conducting, was the closest to Orff’s indicated 

tempo markings. Twenty-three of the 

fi fty-one-timed sections were within plus or 

minus fi ve clicks of the metronome markings 

given in the score. Of these twentythree, 

ten of the timed sections on the 

Jochum recording were exactly the tempos 

indicated in Orff’s score. Second closest to 

Orff’s tempo indications was the Hartford 

Symphony performance, conducted by Fritz 

Mahler. Twenty-two of the fi fty-one timings 

taken were within fi ve metronome markings 

of Orff’s. Of these twenty-two, nine 

were exactly the tempos indicated in Orff’s 

score. Orff was in attendance at both these 

recording sessions. The Jochum recording is 

marked as “authorized by Orff.” The fact that 

Orff was in attendance at the two recordings 

most resembling his tempo markings creates 

a compelling argument that Orff’s markings 

were to be taken literally and followed as 

closely as possible. 

The recording that deviated most 

radically from Orff’s markings was the Berlin 

Philharmonic recording, with Seiji Ozawa 

conducting. Only fi ve of Ozawa’s tempos 

fell within fi ve clicks of Orff’s metronome 

markings. The one section in which most 

recordings came closest to Orff’s markings 

was the fi rst four bars of the opening 

movement. Of the sixteen recordings, twelve 

were within fi ve clicks of Orff’s marking. The 

movements in which all conductors were 

furthest from Orff’s markings were the 

scatenato section at the end of movement 

14 (In Taberna); the opening of movement 

15 (Amor volat undique); movement 17 (Stetit 

puella); the ancora piu mosso in movement 

18 (Circa mea pectora); and movement 24 

(Ave formosissima). None of the conductors 

was within fi ve clicks of Orff’s metronome 

markings in these movements or sections. 

The recording with the overall fastest 

tempos was the Michael Tilson Thomas 

recording with the Cleveland Orchestra. 

Twelve of the selected timed sections were

Orff 

Tilson Thomas 

De Burgos 

Ozawa 

Jochum 

Mahler 

Sawallisch 

Slatkin 

Thiellemann 

Movement 

1 

O fortuna 

mm 1-4 

𝅝 = 60 

𝅝 = 57 

𝅝 = 52 

𝅝 = 72 

𝅝 = 60 

𝅝 = 60 

𝅝 = 61 

𝅝 = 57 

𝅝 = 53 

faster than any other recording. In contrast, 

the recording with the overall slowest 

tempos was the Rafael Frübeck de Burgos 

recording, with the New Philharmonia 

Orchestra. Eighteen of the selected timed 

sections were slower than any other recording 

(see table 1 for specifi c tempo timings). 

When the recordings were compared 

by their dates of performance, no noticeable 

trend or tendency was found. Neither 

was there anything of signifi cance found 

when the gathered data were compared by 

nationality of the conductor. 

Text Pronunciation 

One of the greatest concerns in Orff’s 

Carmina Burana should be how to approach 

the obscure text. Should the Latin be pro- 

Movement 

11 

Estuans 

Interius 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 152 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 157 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 158 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 162 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 170 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 154 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 154 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 162 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 156 

Table 1 - Tempo Study 

Movement 

14 

In Taberna 

scatenato 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 160 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 136 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 190 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 144 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 190 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 180 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 180 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 144 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 168 

Movement 

15 

Amor Volat 

undique 

m. 1 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 96 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 64 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 72 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 74 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 80 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 74 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 74 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 64 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 70 

nounced with standard ecclesiastical diction 

or should German-Latin pronunciation be 

used? Should standard German and French 

pronunciation be used, or is there a particular 

pronunciation appropriate for the time 

period in which it was written? 

In analyzing the pronunciation of the 

Carmina Burana text the author observed 

three principal trends whether the: 

• Latin text was performed with a Germanic 

pronunciation, an Ecclesiastical/ 

Italianate pronunciation, or some sort 

of hybrid pronunciation; 

• German text was performed with modern 

German pronunciation or Middle High 

German pronunciation, representing 

the time period of the texts’ inception; 

and 

Movement 

17 

Stetit Puella 

m. 1 

𝅝 = 84 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 61 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 56 

𝅝 = 70 

𝅝 = 61 

𝅝 = 58 

𝅝 = 58 

𝅝 = 70 

𝅘𝅥𝅮 = 55 

Movement 

18 

Circa mea 

pectora 

anocora 

piu mosso 

na 

𝅝 = 106 

𝅝 = 92 

𝅝 = 94 

𝅝 = 78 

𝅝 = 90 

𝅝 = 90 

𝅝 = 170 

𝅝 = 84 

Movement 

24 

Ave 

formosissima 

𝅝 = 72 

𝅝 = 50 

𝅝 = 62 

𝅝 = 62 

𝅝 = 66 

𝅝 = 60 

𝅝 = 60 

𝅝 = 51 

𝅝 = 51 

• French diction in movement 16 (Dies, nox 

et omnia) was performed with modern 

French pronunciation, Old French, or 

some sort of hybrid pronunciation. 

Two sources were used in the analysis of 

diction for this study: Harold Copeman’s 

Singing in Latin, and the collection of essays 

titled Singing Early Music—The pronunciation 

of European languages in the Late Middle Ages 

and Renaissance, edited by Timothy J. McGee, 

A.G. Rigg and David N. Klausner. 

Latin Text 

Of the sixteen recordings in this study, 

only four used Ecclesiastical/Italianate Latin 

pronunciation (Muti, Ormandy, Shaw, and 

Stokowskis). The other twelve followed 

Germanic diction rules. 

CHORAL JOURNAL Volume 51 Number 4 51


Specifi c to the Carmina Burana text, 

there are four principal differences in pronunciation 

between Ecclesiastical Latin and 

Germanic pronunciation: 

• The treatment of the internal consonant 

combination “sc,” (for example crescis). 

In ecclesiastical pronunciation, crescis is 

pronounced [crESis]. In other words, 

the “sc” sounds like the English “sh,” 

and the fi nal syllable “i” is pronounced 

closed, as in the English word “quiche.” 

In Germanic pronunciation, crescis 

is pronounced [crEtsIs]. The “sc” 

becomes a “ts” sound and the fi nal 

syllable “i” is pronounced open, as in 

the English word “it.” 

• The treatment of the consonant “g,” for 

example “egestatem.” 


The ecclesiastical pronunciation of 

egestatem uses a soft “g” sound 

[EdZEstAtEm]. The “g” sounds like an 

English “j” as in “judge.” The surrounding 

“e” vowels are both open as in 

“bed.” 

The Germanic pronunciation of egestatem 

uses the hard “g” sound [EgEst 

AtEm]. The “g” sounds like the beginning 

of the word “get.” The surrounding 

“e”s sound like the “a” in “ate.” 

• The treatment of “c” surrounded by two 

vowels (for example glaciem). 

In Ecclesiastical pronunciation, glaciem 

is pronounced [glAtSiEm]. The “c” like 

“ch” in the work “cheese.” 

In Germanic pronunciation, glaciem 

is pronounced [glAtsiEm]. The “c” is 

pronounced like the “t” and the “s” in 

the word “pots.” 

• The treatment of the “ch” in michi. 

In Ecclesiastical pronunciation, michi is 

pronounced [miki]. 

In German pronunciation, michi is 

pronounced [miCi]. Here the “ch” 

is similar to the sound of “h” in the 

English word “hue.” 4 

There were several inconsistencies in those 

recordings using Germanic Latin pronunciation. 

1. In movement 19 (Si puer cum puellula), the 

word Felix (fortunate) in most recordings 

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Conductor: Gaetano Delogu 

Orchestra: Prague Symphony Orchestra 

Chorus: Kühn Mixed Choir, Pavel Kühn, Choir Master 

Bambini Di Praga, Bohumil Kulinsky, Choir Master 

Soloists: Zdena Kloubova – soprano, Vladimir Dolezal – 

tenor, and Ivan Kusnjer – baritone 

Recording Date: December 12 and 13, 1995 

Recording Place: Dvoräk Hall of Rudolfi num, Prague 

Label: Supraphon Records. Copyright 1996 

Conductor: Antal Dorati 

Orchestra: Royal Philharmonic Orchestra 

Chorus: Brighton Festival Chorus, Laszlo Heltay, 

Chorus Master; Southend Boys, Choir, 

Michael Crabbe, Chorus Master 

Soloists: Norma Burrowes – soprano, Louis Devos – tenor, 

and John Shirley-Quirk – baritone 

Recording Date: February, 1976 

Recording Place: Kingsway Hall, London 

Label: Decca Record Co. Copyright 1976 

Conductor: Rafael Frübeck de Burgos 

Orchestra: New Philharmonia Orchestra 

Chorus: New Philharmonia Chorus Wilhelm Pitz, Chorus 

Master; Wandsworth School Boys’ Choir Russell 

Burgess, Chorus Master 

Soloists: Lucia Popp – soprano, Gerhard Unger – tenor, 

Raymond Wolansky – baritone, and John 

Noble - baritone 

Recording Date: Not available 

Recording Place: Not available 

Label: EMI Records Ltd. Copyright 1966, 1987, 1997 

Conductor: Stephen Gunzenhauser 

Orchestra: CSR Symphony Orchestra (Bratislava) 

Chorus: Slovak Philharmonic Chorus 

Pavol Prochazka, Choir Master 

Soloists: Eva Jenisova – soprano, Vladimir Dolezal – tenor, 

and Ivan Ksunjer – baritone 

Recording Date: October 28 – November 2, 1988 

Recording Place: The Studio of the Czechoslovak Radio 

(Bratislava) 

Label: HNH International Ltd. Copyright 1989 

The Studied Recordings 

Conductor: Eugen Jochum (Orff present) 

Orchestra: Orchester der Deutschen Oper Berlin 

Chorus: Chor der Deutschen Oper Berlin, 

Walter Hagen-Groll, Choir Master 

Schöneberger Sängerknaben, 

Gerhard Hellwig, Choir Master 

Soloists: Gundula Hanowitz – soprano 

Gerhard Stolze – tenor 

Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau-baritone 

Recording Date: October, 1967 

Recording Place: Ufa-Studio, Berlin 

(Recording authorized by the composer) 

Label: Polydor International. Copyright 1968, 1995 

Conductor: Fritz Mahler (Orff present) 

Orchestra: Hartford Symphony Orchestra 

Chorus: Harford Chorale 

Soloists: Sylvia Stahlman – soprano 

John Ferrante – tenor 

Morley Meredith – baritone 

Recording Date: 1957 

Recording Place: Hartford, Connecticut 

Label: Omega Record Group, copyright 1957, 1999 

Conductor: Riccardo Muti 

Orchestra: Philharmonia Orchestra 

Chorus: Philharmonia Chorus 

Southend Boys’ Choir 

Soloists: Arleen Auger – soprano 

John van Kesteren – tenor 

Johnathan Summer – baritone 

Recording Date: Unavailable 

Recording Place: Unavailable 

Label: EMI Records, Ltd. Copyright 1980, 1997, 1999 

Conductor: Eugene Ormandy 

Orchestra: The Philadelphia Orchestra 

Chorus: The Rutgers University Choir, 

F. Austin Walker, Director 

Soloists: Janice Harsanyi – soprano 

Rudolf Petrak – tenor 

Harve Presnell – baritone 

Recording Date: April 24, 1960 

Recording Place: Broadwood Hotel, Philadelphia, PA 

Label: Sony Music, Copyright 1960, 1991 



Conductor: Seiji Ozawa 

Orchestra: Berliner Philharmoniker 

Chorus: Shinyukai Choir, Shin Sekiya, Chorus Master 

Knabenchor Des Staats Und Domchores 

Berline, Christian Grube, Chorus Master 

Soloists: Edita Gruberova – soprano, John Aler – Tenor, 

and Thomas Hampson – baritone 

Recording Date: June, 1988 

Recording Place: Berlin 

Label: Philips Classics Prod. Copyright 1989 

Conductor: Krzystof Penderecki 

Orchestra: State Krakow Philharmony Orchestra 

Chorus: State Cracow Choirs, Piotr Krawczynski, 

Bronislawa Wietrzny, Choir masters 

Soloists: Venceslava Hruba-Freiberger – soprano, 

Piotr Kusiewicz - tenor, and Rolf Havenstein – baritone 

Recording Date: January 27, 28, 1989 

Recording Place: Cracow, Poland (live) 

Label: Arts Music GMBH, Copyright 1995 

Conductor: Wolfgang Sawallisch (Orff present) 

Orchestra: Kölner Rundfunk-Sinfonie-Orchester 

Chorus: Chor des Westdeutschen Rundfunks und Ein 

Kinderchor, Bernhard Zimmermann, 

Chorus Master 

Soloists: Agnes Giebel – soprano 

Paul Kuen – tenor 

Marcel Cordes – baritone 

Recording Date: June 15 – 20 1956 

Recording Place: Sartorysaal, Köln 

Performance authorized by Orff 

Label: EMI Electrola GMBH. Copyright 1956, 1992 

Conductor: Robert Shaw 

Orchestra: Atlanta Symphony Orchestra 

Chorus: Atlanta Symphony Chorus, Atlanta Boy Choir 

Soloists: Judith Blegen – soprano, William Brown – tenor, 

and Haken Hagegard 

Recording Date: November 16 – 18, 1980 

Recording Place: Symphony Hall, 

Atlanta memorial Arts Center, GA 

Label: Telarc International Corp. Copyright 1981 


Conductor: Leonard Slatkin 

Orchestra: : Saint Louis Symphony Orchestra 

Chorus: Saint Louis Symphony Chorus 

Soloists: Sylvia McNair – soprano 

John Aler – tenor 

Hakan Hagegard – baritone 

Recording Date: October 9 – 11, 1992 

Recording Place: Powell Symphony Hall, St. Louis, Missouri 

Label: BMG Music, Copyright 1994 

Conductor: Leopold Stokowski 

Orchestra: Houston Symphony Orchestra 

Leopold Stokowski Symphony Orchestra 

Chorus: The Houston Chorale, Alfred Urbach, Director 

Houston Youth Symphony Boys’ Choir, 

Howard Webb, Director 

Soloists: Virginia Babikian – soprano, Clyde Hager – tenor, 

and Guy Gardner – baritone 

Recording Date: April 9, 11–13, 1958 

December 18, 20, 1957 

Recording Place: Jesse Jones Auditorium, Houston, Texas 

(1958) Stage Seven of the Samuel Gold 

wyn Studios, Hollywood, California 

(1957) 

Label: Angel Records. Copyright 1959, 2001 

Conductor: Christian Thielemann 

Orchestra: Orchester Der Deutschen oper 

Chorus: Chor Der Deutschen oper, Helmut Sonne, 

Chorus Master; Knabenchor Berlin, 

Karl-Ludwig Hecht, Chorus Master 

Soloists: Christiane Oelze – soprano, David Kuebler – tenor, 

and Simon Keenlyside – baritone 

Recording Date: October, 1998 

Recording Place: Jesus-Christus-Kirche, Berlin 

Label: Deutsche Grammophon GMBH. Copyright 1999 

Conductor: Michael Tilson Thomas 

Orchestra: Cleveland Orchestra 

Chorus: Cleveland Orchestra Chorus and Boys’ Choir, 

Robert Page, Director 

Soloists: Judith Blegen – soprano, Kenneth Riegel – tenor, 

and Peter Binder – baritone 

Recording Date: 1974 

Recording Place: Masonic Auditorium, Cleveland, Ohio 

30 th Street Studio, New York, NY

was pronounced [fEliks] 

with an open “e” sound 

as in “bed” in the fi rst syllable. 

Christian Thielemann, 

Wolfgang Sawallisch and 

Eugen Jochum pronounced 

the word [filiks] with a 

closed “e,” as in “beet.” 

Harold Copeman best describes 

this discrepancy as 

follows: 

Latin vowels … all had 

more than one sound, 

sometimes three or four. 

The vowels can all indicate 

different moods. In rejoicing 

“e” can have a bright sound 

(Eu, Euge, Euoe, Euare); in 

sorrow it can have a more 

open sound (He, Hei, Heu, 

Heiulare). 5 

However, Copeman goes 

on to describe the pronunciation 

of the word Felix: “Felix, 

found on coins as FEELIX, the 

mouth is fi rst half closed, then 

open, with lips moderately 

forward, with more vigorous 

breath, letting the tongue 

touch the front teeth, (a rather 

open [e:]).” 6 

2. Another inconsistency between 

recordings lies in the 

pronunciation of the word Ecce (behold) 

in those recordings using the Germanic 

pronunciation of Latin. According to 

Copeman, “cc” before “e” should be 

pronounced [kts] according to the rules 

of Middle High German. 7 None of the 

chosen recordings observed this rule. 

Instead, Ecce was either pronounced 

[EtSe] or [Eke]. 

According to Copeman, “cc” before 

front vowels did not become generally 

[ts] until the seventh century, but 

in (northern Europe), the Irish Latin [k] 

of Columbanus and St. Gall was kept 

for centuries. 8 This explanation justifi es 

the pronunciation as [Eke]. The pronun- 

Taken from Burana Codex Depicting the Fortuna Wheel. 

ciation [EtSe] follows the Ecclesiastical 

Latin rules; therefore, is incorrect in a 

Germanic Latin performance. 

3. In Movement 7 (Floret silva), all of the 

recordings using Germanic Latin diction 

pronounced fl oret (he/she/it fl ourishes) 

[flçrEt] or [florEt], except for the Eugene 

Ormandy recording with the 

Philadelphia Orchestra. In this recording, 

fl oret was pronounced [flore]. According 

to Copeman, the proper pronunciation 

of fl oret is [florEt]. No justifi cation 

was found for the pronunciation [flore]. 

Latin held a unique position 

in Western civilization 

in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, 

perhaps similar to 

that of present day English in 

Africa and India. Although it 

was the principal offi cial and 

literary language in Western 

Europe, it was no one’s fi rst 

tongue. 9 No one spoke 

Latin at home. It was taught 

in school to a very small 

class of society and it did not 

come naturally to anyone. 10 

The constant use of Latin by 

speakers of vernacular languages 

caused it to adapt its 

grammar and pronunciation 

to vernacular patterns. 11 As 

vernacular speakers spoke 

Latin according to their own 

idiom, the pronunciation of 

Latin divided according to national 

and regional languages 

and dialects. 12 There were 

as many pronunciations of 

Latin across Europe as there 

were languages. The Goliardic 

poets of the Carmina Burana 

and the monks who compiled 

the Burana Codex 13 were 

located primarily in the region 

known as Bavaria, or Southern 

Germany. 14 Therefore, 

their pronunciation of Latin 

would refl ect the German 

vernacular of the day. Bearing 

this in mind, it is most appropriate for 

the Latin texts to be pronounced using 

Germanic diction rather than ecclesiastical. 

Moreover, an ecclesiastical pronunciation 

lends itself to a more “prayerful” hearing 

of the text, rather than the secular, profane 

intentions of the poets. 

German Text 

Movements 7 – 10 contain German texts. 

In the sixteen chosen recordings, two basic 

diction philosophies were followed: 

• Modern German diction rules were applied 

to the texts; or 



• A modifi ed form of Middle High German 

pronunciation was applied. 15 

The most obvious differences between 

the two styles came in the pronunciation of 

“v” and “w.” Those recordings that followed 

the Modern German diction pronounced 

“v” as [f ] and “w” as [v]. Those following 

the modifi ed Middle High German diction 

pronounced “v” as [v] and “w” as [w]. 

The recordings that used Modern 

German pronunciation were conducted 

by Ormandy, Muti, Jochum, Tilson Thomas, 

Shaw, Ozawa, Thielemann, Stokowski, Gunzenhauser 

and Mahler. The recordings using 

a modifi ed version of Middle High German 

were by Delogu, Dorati, Sawallisch, Penderecki, 

Slatkin, and Frübeck de Burgos. 


There were no signifi cant differences in 

pronunciation among those recordings that 

used modern German diction. Among those 

using modifi ed Middle High German, the following 

discrepancies were noticed: 

• The pronunciation of “e” at the end of a 

word following a consonant, for example 

umbe, had two different variations. 

Several recordings pronounced 

this as [umb´] while others used a 

more open sounding ending [umbE] 

or [umbe]. According to Peter Frenzel, 

“e” is pronounced [e], as in stay, when 

unstressed in open syllable, but lax 

and tending to a more open sound. 

It was noted that [´] is also a possible 

ending. 16 

• In movement 10 (Were diu werlt alle min), 

measure 13 contains the words ih and 

mih. The “h”s in these words were 

interpreted in two different ways. 

Some kept the consonant silent [i] 

and [mi]. Others interpreted the “h” 

as the allophone [C]. According to 

Frenzel, medial “h” had probably become 

silent or lightly aspirated by the 

fi fteenth century in many European 

dialects. However, the digraph “ch,” 

pronounced generally [x] in Middle 

High German, at some point in the 

early modern period split into the allophones 

[C] (after “e” and “I”). 17 He 

further explains that German spelling 

varied by region prior to the 15th 

century. Letters were often excluded.

For example, ih and mih meant the 

same and were pronounced the same 

as ich and mich. 18 Following Frenzel’s 

logic, the correct pronunciation of ih 

is [iC] and mih [miC]. This would hold 

true for conductors following modern 

German pronunciation as well. 

Because the geographical inception of 

the texts has been traced to the German 

state of Bavaria, the correct German dialect 

to associate with the text is that of Middle 

Upper German. 19 It is in this dialect group 

that most of the songs and stories seem to 

have been sung and told during the height 

of courtly entertainment, between 1175 

and 1250. 20 

French Text 

The French text found in movement 

16 (Dies, nox et omnia) contained the 

most discrepancies among all the studied 

recordings. Several recordings seemed to 

completely ignore the 

change in text and applied 

Latin pronunciation to the 

entire movement. The 

most notable examples of 

this were the Stokowski, 

Ormandy, and Penderecki 

recordings. It may also 

be possible, due to the 

archaic French spelling, 

that the conductors and 

soloists were unaware 

that the text was indeed 

French, rather than Latin. 

Others seemed to mix 

diction rules for Latin 

and French, using French 

consonant sounds, but 

Latin vowel sounds. This 

is heard most strikingly in 

the Ozawa recording. 

Robert Taylor states 

there is no standard 

phonology of Medieval 

French, and there were 

only the beginnings of 

scientific accuracy of 

phonetic description by 

the sixteenth century. 21 

Sawallisch, Slatkin, Muti, 

Mahler, Jochum, Delogu, Shaw, and Tilson 

Thomas conducted the recordings that 

observed a clear distinction between 

French and Latin. In the Frübeck de Burgos 

recording, modern French diction seems to 

be observed. Although all nine of these recordings 

obviously recognized the macaronic 

text, there were many discrepancies among 

all of the interpretations, too numerous to 

list here. It would seem that the importance 

lies in the recognition of the French text and 

an obvious performance of that recognition. 

Musical Interpretation 

In analyzing the musical decisions of these 

sixteen conductors, the author took into 

consideration three principal matters: 

• The treatment of the Luftpause (’) Orff 

used throughout his score; 

• The treatment of movements marked 

Attacca versus those that are not; and 

• Individual conductors’ musical decisions 

that are not specifi cally notated in 

the score. 

Luftpause 

The Luftpause is indicated by a comma, 

written above the staff. Orff uses this marking 

several times in virtually every movement 

of Carmina Burana. The dilemma is that the 

marking is a rather vague indication with no 

quantifi able temporal value. An example of 

this conundrum comes in the fi rst four bars 

of the piece (Figure 1). 

In the surveyed recordings, the particular 

markings in the example above were interpreted 

in one of the following ways: 

• A complete break in rhythmical time; 

• A quarter rest on the last beat of the measure, 

while still maintaining a tempo; 

• A fermata on the last half note of each 



measure and then continuing directly 

into the next measure; 

• An eighth rest on the last beat of the measure 

while still maintaining a tempo; 


• The marking was not recognized at all. 

The problem lies in the fact that it is unclear 

which of the fi ve circumstances Orff is suggesting. 

Another challenging example comes 

in movement 14 (In taberna) at measure 74 

(Figure 2). 

In this example, the four bars before the 

Luftpause are a repetition of the same twobar 

musical phrases. New musical material 

follows the Luftpause. 

The conductor could 

interpret this marking 

in all fi ve of the above 

possible scenarios. Of 

the surveyed recordings, 

not one conductor 

chose to observe this 

marking at all. Unfortunately, 

it is impossible 

to offer a definitive 

interpretation of Orff’s 

intentions from the 

results of this study. 

Several additional issues 

concerning interpretation 

of the Luftpause are 

discussed later. 

Attacca Markings 

Orff worked within 

a concept he titled Theatrum 

Mundi, in which 

music, movement, and 

speech were inseparable. 

22 There is an 

extreme element of 

drama inherent in all 

of Orff’s later works. 

With this in mind, Orff 

divided the twenty-fi ve 

separate movements 

of Carmina Burana into 

five scenes. To keep 

these scenes intact, each 

movement within a 

scene was marked attacca 

to the subsequent 

movement. 

Of the surveyed 

recordings, Mahler, Muti, 

Sawallisch, Shaw and 

Slatkin offered a strong 

sense of scenic structure 

and integrity. It 

is worth noting that 

Shaw is the only con-

ductor who formatted the recording with 

only four tracks (1. Introduction - Fortuna 

Imperatrix Mundi; 2. Part 1, Primo vere and 

Uf dem Anger; 3. Part II - In taberna; 4. Part 

III - Cour d’amours, Blanzifl or et Helena and 

the return of Fortuna Imperatrix Mundi). It is 

also important to consider that it might have 

been the decision of a recording engineer 

or other technical factors that prevented a 

scenic continuity, rather than the conductor’s 

musical decisions. 

Within the surveyed recordings, the 

greatest discrepancy in attacca recognition 

came between movements 5 (Ecce gratum) 

and 6 (Tanz). These two movements 

occur in the middle of the scene labeled 

Primo vere. Movement 6 is the beginning of 

Primo vere’s “internal scene” Uf dem anger. 

There is no attacca marking between the 

two movements. Several conductors did 

perform what appears to be an attacca 

between these two movements (Jochum, 

Penderecki, and Thielemann). Perhaps this 

was done in order to maintain the structure 

of the overall Primo vere scene. 

Musical Decisions Other Than 

Those Marked in the Score 

In any piece of music, whether it be by 

Mozart or Bartok, conductors will take 

liberties outside of what the composer 

has indicated in the score. Such liberties 

include ritardandi, accelerandi, grand pauses, 

or fermati, to name only a few. However, 

taking into account how specifi c Orff was 

in marking his score, such liberties are even 

more evident than usual. 

The conductor who went farthest from 

Orff’s indications was Leopold Stokowski 

in his 1957 recording with the Houston 

Symphony Orchestra. In this age of studied 

performance practice, Leopold Stokowski 

is now infamous for his romanticizing of 

Bach and other tremendous liberties taken 

with established repertoire. In Stokowski’s 

rendition of Orff’s work, he actually cuts 

the fi rst twelve bars as well as measures 

53 and 54 marked feroce from Movement 

14. There is no indication in Orff’s score 

that these cuts are acceptable. In some 

cases, conductors will cut portions of the 

text to accommodate the performance 

abilities of the ensemble. However, bearing 

in mind that these cuts are small and, in the 

case of movement 14, the material that was 

cut is repeated later, it is questionable as to 

whether this was Stokowski’s motive. The 

cuts may also have been made due to time 

limitations on the recording medium available. 

Another decision made by Stokowski 

comes in the baritone solo, movement 

16 (Dies, nox et omnies). In this recording, 

a baritone and tenor are used. The tenor 

sings the sections usually performed by the 

baritone in falsetto. Although this decision 

may have been made due to vocal limitations 

of the baritone soloist, artistically it pays no 

attention to the text or Orff’s conception 

of characters playing a role. Throughout this 

performance, Stokowski takes numerous 

liberties with tempo and articulation that are 

not indicated in the score and are not heard 

in any other recording. 

One other conductor who took extreme 

liberties with the score was Penderecki in his 

1994 recording of the “Karol Szymanowski” 

State Cracow Philharmony Orchestra 

and Choirs. For example, in the fi rst four 

measures of the piece, Penderecki makes 

extremely large pauses at each Luftpause, 

interpreting the marking as a fermata over a 

rest, rather than a slight pause. This luftpause 

interpretation is also taken at measure 31 

(Figure 3) and each subsequent strophe 

throughout movement 5. 

There also seems to be very little, if any, 

recognition of scenic unity on the Penderecki 

recording. Attacca markings are sporadically 

recognized, creating no cohesion between 

each scene. 

The single movement in which most 

conductors took some sort of artistic license 

was in movement 14 (In taberna). Orff’s 

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Luftpause is particularly 

problematic in this movement. 

For example, in 

the fi rst 12 bars of the 

movement there are four 

Luftpause. No conductor 

in this survey made any 

observation of these four 

markings (Figure 4). 

However, in measure 

24 a Luftpause is marked 

after the last beat of 

the measure (Figure 5). 

Fritz Mahler and Rafael 

Frühbeck de Burgos interpreted 

this marking 

as a grand pause before 

the new section of music. 

Sawallisch interpreted this 

marking as a one beat rest 

before the new tempo. 

De Burgos also places 

a grand pause in measure 

36, where there is 

no indication for such 

an interpretation (Figure 

6). One other recorded 

discrepancy comes in 

measure 70 of Movement 

14 (Figure 7). 

Here, we see no indication 

for a break in sound 

or tempo before the 

subito molto stentato section. 

However, Frühbeck 

de Burgos, Mahler, Sawallisch, 

and Tilson Thomas 

all placed either a break or 

grand pause before this new section. When 

these two bars are analyzed harmonically, 

we see a series of fi rst inversion chords 

(perhaps mimicking fauxbourdon) in the 

choral part all over an E pedal. The downbeat 

of measure 71 is an F-major chord in fi rst 

inversion in both the choral and wind parts 

with a “D” pedal in the strings. The indicated 

E pedal of the strings and woodwinds is 

harmonically leading to the F-major 6-3 

chord at the tempo change. In addition, the 

chord progression of measure 70 ends with 

an E-major 6-3 chord, which also leads the 

listener to F major. To place a break after this 

progression seems to destroy the harmonic

tension, making this decision questionable. In 

addition, Stentato means “with diffi culty.” It is 

an expression mark often used by Verdi in 

vocal lines at moments of extreme anguish. 

In 1703, Sébastien de Brossard wrote it 

meant one should sing as though one were 

suffering. 23 Orff not only indicates Stentato 

but also molto and subito. Something must 

be done, and immediately! Placing a grand 

pause prior to this indication does not seem 

to suit Orff’s marking. 

Summary 

Many conductors use commercial recordings 

as a resource at some point in their score 

preparation. Most of them agree that the 

most effective way of listening is to select a 

number of divergent recordings to gain different 

insights on interpretation. Although 

this study found the Eugen Jochum recording 

to be closest to Orff’s markings, many 

of the recordings in the study are valuable 

resources in gaining knowledge of Orff’s 

desired interpretation. 

The 1980 recording of Robert Shaw 

conducting the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra 

and Chorus is a strong performance of the 

work. The chorus is truly presented as the 

centerpiece of the work, as Orff intended. 

Håkan Hågagard delivers 

a convincing performance 

of the baritone solos, particularly 

in the Circa mea 

pectoras. Judith Blegen gives 

the strongest solo performance, 

and, perhaps, is the 

finest soprano soloist in 

all the studied recordings. 

Shaw also demonstrates his 

understanding of the scenic 

structure by not only clearly 

observing attacca markings, 

but also inserting tracks on 

the CD by scene rather than 

movement. In the slower 

movements Shaw creates 

a beautiful, graceful sound 

in the chorus. However, 

the carnal power and drive 

expected in movements 

such as Were diu welt alle 

min and In taberna quando 

sumus seems absent. Shaw’s 

interpretation also falls short 

in this study: he uses liturgical 

Latin and modern German 

diction rather than the more 

appropriate medieval forms. 

Even though Seiji Ozawa’s 1988 recording 

with the Berliner Philharmoniker and the 

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Shinyukai Choir is one of the farthest from 

Orff’s intentions according to the tempo 

study, it is still a thrilling recording. The tempos 

are very fast, yet do not seem rushed 

as they do in the Michael Tilson Thomas 


recording with the Cleveland Orchestra. 

Ozawa also employs a Germanic pronunciation 

of the Latin text, which comes across 

quite clearly. The three soloists (Edita Gruberova, 

John Aler, and Thomas Hampson) 

give striking performances. 

John Aler, in particular, also 

heard on the Leonard Slatkin 

recording, gives a magnifi 

cent performance of the 

“roasting swan.” 

Leonard Slatkin’s 1994 

recording with the Saint 

Louis Symphony Orchestra 

and Chorus is an excellent 

source for pronunciation. 

Slatkin employs both the 

Germanic-Latin and medieval 

Middle High German 

pronunciations. In this recording, 

the soloists seem 

to be placed at the fore. The 

recording quality is superb. 

Unlike many recordings of 

Carmina Burana, the sound 

levels remain consistent. 

The 1995 Gaetano 

Delogu live recording with 

the Prague Symphony Orchestra 

and the Kühn Mixed 

Choir exemplifi es much of 

the diction suggested by 

Copeman and Riggs. However, 

the chorus lacks the 

stunning rhythmic alacrity 

and unstinting energy that 

make others in the study so 

exciting and memorable. It 

is also interesting to note 

that the CD cover has a 

picture of a performance 

with various actors and actresses 

in medieval costume 

in front of a chorus dressed 

in monk habits. This picture 

may inspire some scenic 

interpretation. 

Although the recording 

technology used in Fritz 

Mahler’s 1957 recording 

with the Hartford Symphony 

Orchestra and Chorus 

seems archaic compared to 

today’s standards, it is worth listening to for 

Mahler’s tempos and interpretations. This is 

the fi rst commercial recording of Carmina 

Burana and Carl Orff was present at the 

rehearsals and performances.

Concluding Remarks 

Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana has established 

itself as a cornerstone of the 

twentieth-century choral repertoire. Its 

combination of medieval and modern elements, 

along with Orff’s distinctive compositional 

style, creates a thrilling experience 

for both the audience and the performer. 

Although the elements of strong adherence 

to score markings and principles of diction 

seem highly restrictive in this study, the freedom 

of scenic conception allows every new 

performance to be as innovative and fresh 

as the very fi rst. 

Many critics of Carmina Burana fi nd it 

vulgar, devoid of the “standard techniques 

and elaborations” that made music an art 

and a spiritual force. 24 However, the reason 

for this opinion may be that too many 

performers indulge in its excesses rather 

than adhere to its strong sense of form and 

symmetry. When performed with all Orff’s 

intentions accounted for, Carmina Burana 

becomes a pulsing, visceral, and cathartic 

musical experience. 

NOTES 

1 

Philip, Robert. Early Recordings and Musical Style. 

(Cambridge University Press: Cambridge 

1992) 1. 

2 

See appendix for complete list and information 

on each recording. 

3 

These recordings are indicated as “Orff present” 

in the list of recordings. 

4 

Wall, Joan. International Phonetic Alphabet for 

Singers. A Manual for English and Foreign 

Language Diction. (PST…Inc: Dallas, Texas 

1989). 218. 

5 

Copeman, Harold. Singing in Latin. (Published at 

Oxford by the Author, 1996). 97. 

6 

Ibid., 98. 

7 

Copeman, Harold and Vera U.G. Scherr. “German 

Latin.” Singing Early Music. Ed. T. McGee, A.G. 

Rigg, D.N. Klausner. Bloomington: Indiana 

University Press, 1996. 261ff. 

8 

Copeman. 170. 

9 

Copeman. 6. 

10 

Rigg, A. G. Singing Early Music – The pronunciation 

of European Languages in the Late Middle Ages 

and Renaissance. (Indiana University Press. 

Bloomington) 1996. P. 5 

11 

Ibid. 

12 

Copeman, p. 8. 

13 

Carmina Burana literally means “songs from the 

monastery of Benediktbeuern.” The source 

of these texts is known as the Burana Codex. 

This collection of Medieval Latin and Middle 

High German and French lyrics, the most 

important of its kind, was collected in Austria 

between 1220 and 1250. 

14 

Parlett, David. Selections from the Carmina 

Burana—A Verse Translation. (Viking Penguin 

Inc. New York) p. 19ff. 

15 

The word “modifi ed” is used here, because no 

recording completely followed the rules of 

Middle High German, as summarized in Rigg’s 

Singing Early Music. 

16 

Frenzel, Peter. Late Medieval German and Early 

New High German, Singing Early Music. Ed. 

McGee, T, Rigg, A.G. Klausner, D. (Indiana 

university Press: Bloomington 1996) 228. 

17 

Ibid. 

18 

Frenzel, Peter. Germany and the Low Countries. 

Singing Early Music. Ed. McGee, T. Rigg, A.G., 

Klausner. D. (Bloomington: Indiana University 

Press: 1996). 244. 

19 

Frenzel, p. 220 

20 

Ibid. 

21 

Taylor, Robert. “Old French” Singing Early Music 

The Pronunciation of European Languages in 

the Late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Ed. T.J. 

VOICE / OPERA 

UNDERGRADUATE DEGREES 

GRADUATE DEGREES 

PERFORMANCE DIPLOMA 

Dr. Karl Paulnack, director, music division 

Patty Thom, chair, voice and opera 

Dr. William Cutter, director, choral studies 

Kirsten Z. Cairns, director, opera studies 

FACULTY: 

Michelle Alexander, Marilyn Bulli, Kirsten Z. Cairns, 

William Cotten, William Cutter, Kerry Deal, 

Rebecca Folsom, Sara Goldstein, Thomas Gregg, 

Robert Honeysucker, Victor Jannett, James Javore, 

Michael McGaghie, Monique Phinney, Mary Saunders, 

Merrill Shea, Lisa Sheldon, Melinda Sullivan, 

Patty Thom, Craig Wich, Kevin Wilson, Kathryn Wright 

McGee; A. G. Rigg; D. N. Klausner (Indiana 

University Press: Bloomington 1996) 65. 

22 For more information see Babcock, Jonathan. 

“Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana: A Fresh 

Approach to the Work’s Performance 

Practice.” Choral Journal 45, no. 11 (May 2006): 

26– 40. 

23 David Fallows. “Stentato.” In Grove Music 

Online. Oxford Music Online, http://www. 

oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/ 

grove/music/26681 (accessed July 22, 2010). 

24 Lang, Paul Henry. “Carl Orff” Bungled Fire-works 

… or Skillful Effects?” High Fidelity (January 

1982): 52. 

For complete tempo timings see: Babcock, Jonathan, 

“Carl Orff’s Carmina Burana: An Analysis 

of the work’s performance practice on 

commercial recordings.” (D.M.A. dissertation, 

University of Hartford 2003) Appendix C. 

pp. 99–113. 

application deadline: 

DECEMBER 1 

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CARMINA BURANA

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