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Community mediation in multicultural India 419—— (1966b) Nation-building. New York: Atherton Press.Evans, Peter (1979) Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State, andLocal Capital in Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Giddens, Anthony (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Cambridge: Polity Press.Habermas, Jürgen (1996) Between Facts and Norms, trans. William Rehg. Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.Haggard, Stephan (1995) Developing Nations and the Politics of Global Integration.Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.Hall, Stuart (1980) “Encoding and Decoding,” in Stuart Hall, Dorothy Hobson, AndrewLowe, and Paul Willis (eds), Culture, Media, Language. London: Hutchinson.—— (1997) “The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicities,” in Anthony D.King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System. Minneapolis, MN:University of Minnesota Press.Herman, Edward S. and McChesney, Robert W. (1997) The Global Media: The NewMissionaries of Global Capitalism. London: Cassell.Jeffrey, Robin (1976) The Decline of Nayar Dominance. New York: Holmes and Meier.—— (1997a) “Malayalam: Day-to-day Social Life of the People,” Economic andPolitical Weekly 32 (1/2) (January 4–11).—— (1997b) “Punjabi Press: Subliminal Change,” Economic and Political Weekly 32(9/10) (March 1–7/8–14).—— (1997c) “Telugu Press: Ingredients of Success and Failure,” Economic and PoliticalWeekly 32 (5) (February 1–7).Kohli, Atul (1989) “Politics of Economic Liberalization in India,” World Development 17(3).McQuail, Dennis, de Mateo, Rosario, and Tapper, Helena (1991) “A Framework forAnalysis of Media Change in Europe in the 1990s,” in Karen Siune and WolfgangTreutschler (eds), Dynamics of Media Politics: Broadcast and Electronic Media inWestern Europe. London: Sage.Mitra, Ananda (1993) Television and Popular Culture in India. New Delhi: Sage.Morley, David (1980) The Nationwide Audience, Structure and Decoding. London:British Film Institute.Norris, Pippa (2000) Virtuous Circle: Political Communications in PostindustrialSocieties. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press.Page, David and Crawley, William (2001) Satellites over South Asia. New Delhi: Sage.Pandian, M. S. S. (1992) The Image Trap. New Delhi: Sage.Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul (1999) Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema. NewDelhi: Oxford University Press.Rajagopal, Arvind (2001) Politics after Television: Hindu Nationalism and the Reshapingof the Public in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Rajan, Sujeet and O’Brien, Irene (2003) “Reworking Gandhi,” Indian Express, NorthAmerican Edition (February): 17.Sachs, Jeffrey, Varshney, Ashutosh, and Bajpai, Nirupam (1999) India in the Era ofEconomic Reforms. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Schiller, Herbert I. (1979) “Transnational Media and National Development,” in KarleNordernstreng and Herbert I. Schiller (eds), National Sovereignty and InternationalCommunication, pp. 21–33. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Sussman, Gerald and Lent, John (1991) Transnational Communications: Wiring theThird World. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Thompson, John (1999) “The Media and Modernity,” in Hugh Mackay and TimO’Sullivan (eds), The Media Reader: Continuity and Transformation. London, Sage.

19. The hacker ethic as the culture of theinformation agePekka HimanenTHE CULTURE OF THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMYIn his famous essay, “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,” MaxWeber described how the “Protestant ethic” formed the culture of capitalism.His analysis extended from the beginnings of modern capitalism in the seventeenthcentury to the industrial economy of his own time in the early twentiethcentury. Three elements constitute the core of Weber’s concept of theculture of capitalism in this period. First, the Protestant ethic and the spirit ofcapitalism include the notion of work as a duty:this peculiar idea, so familiar to us today, but in reality so little a matter of course,of one’s duty in a calling, is what is most characteristic of the social ethic of capitalisticculture, and is in a sense the fundamental basis of it. It is an obligation whichthe individual is supposed to feel and does feel towards the content of his professionalactivity, no matter in what it consists, in particular no matter whether itappears on the surface as a utilization of his personal powers, or only of his materialpossessions (as capital). (Weber, 1904–5: 54)A second element of the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism is temporaldiscipline. Weber cites Benjamin Franklin’s “remember that time ismoney.” Time must also be subjected to a temporally regularized lifestyle. Inthis culture, “irregular work, which the ordinary laborer is often forced toaccept, is often unavoidable, but always an unwelcome state of transition. Aman without a calling thus lacks the systematic, methodical character which is. . . demanded by worldly asceticism” (Weber, 1904–5: 161). The thirdelement in Weber’s definition of the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalismis the earning of money as an end in itself: “the summum bonum of thisethic,” Weber writes, is “the earning of more and more money” (Weber,1904–5: 53). Maximizing money becomes an imperative.Weber’s analysis of the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism has beenquestioned in many ways (for some of the main ways, see, for example,420

Community mediation in multicultural India 419—— (1966b) Nation-building. New York: Atherton Press.Evans, Peter (1979) Dependent Development: The Alliance of Multinational, State, andLocal Capital in Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Giddens, Anthony (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Cambrid<strong>ge</strong>: Polity Press.Habermas, Jür<strong>ge</strong>n (1996) Between Facts and Norms, trans. William Rehg. Cambrid<strong>ge</strong>,MA: MIT Press.Haggard, Stephan (1995) Developing Nations and the Politics of Global Integration.Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.Hall, Stuart (1980) “Encoding and Decoding,” in Stuart Hall, Dorothy Hobson, AndrewLowe, and Paul Willis (eds), Culture, Media, Langua<strong>ge</strong>. London: Hutchinson.—— (1997) “The Local and the Global: Globalization and Ethnicities,” in Anthony D.King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System. Minneapolis, MN:University of Minnesota Press.Herman, Edward S. and McChesney, Robert W. (1997) The Global Media: The NewMissionaries of Global Capitalism. London: Cassell.Jeffrey, Robin (1976) The Decline of Nayar Dominance. New York: Holmes and Meier.—— (1997a) “Malayalam: Day-to-day Social Life of the People,” Economic andPolitical Weekly 32 (1/2) (January 4–11).—— (1997b) “Punjabi Press: Subliminal Chan<strong>ge</strong>,” Economic and Political Weekly 32(9/10) (March 1–7/8–14).—— (1997c) “Telugu Press: Ingredients of Success and Failure,” Economic and PoliticalWeekly 32 (5) (February 1–7).Kohli, Atul (1989) “Politics of Economic Liberalization in India,” World Development 17(3).McQuail, Dennis, de Mateo, Rosario, and Tapper, Helena (1991) “A Framework forAnalysis of Media Chan<strong>ge</strong> in Europe in the 1990s,” in Karen Siune and WolfgangTreutschler (eds), Dynamics of Media Politics: Broadcast and Electronic Media inWestern Europe. London: Sa<strong>ge</strong>.Mitra, Ananda (1993) Television and Popular Culture in India. New Delhi: Sa<strong>ge</strong>.Morley, David (1980) The Nationwide Audience, Structure and Decoding. London:British Film Institute.Norris, Pippa (2000) Virtuous Circle: Political Communications in PostindustrialSocieties. Cambrid<strong>ge</strong>; Cambrid<strong>ge</strong> University Press.Pa<strong>ge</strong>, David and Crawley, William (2001) Satellites over South Asia. New Delhi: Sa<strong>ge</strong>.Pandian, M. S. S. (1992) The Ima<strong>ge</strong> Trap. New Delhi: Sa<strong>ge</strong>.Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul (1999) Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema. NewDelhi: Oxford University Press.Rajagopal, Arvind (2001) Politics after Television: Hindu Nationalism and the Reshapingof the Public in India. Cambrid<strong>ge</strong>: Cambrid<strong>ge</strong> University Press.Rajan, Sujeet and O’Brien, Irene (2003) “Reworking Gandhi,” Indian Express, NorthAmerican Edition (February): 17.Sachs, Jeffrey, Varshney, Ashutosh, and Bajpai, Nirupam (1999) India in the Era ofEconomic Reforms. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Schiller, Herbert I. (1979) “Transnational Media and National Development,” in KarleNordernstreng and Herbert I. Schiller (eds), National Sovereignty and InternationalCommunication, pp. 21–33. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Sussman, Gerald and Lent, John (1991) Transnational Communications: Wiring theThird World. Newbury Park, CA: Sa<strong>ge</strong>.Thompson, John (1999) “The Media and Modernity,” in Hugh Mackay and TimO’Sullivan (eds), The Media Reader: Continuity and Transformation. London, Sa<strong>ge</strong>.

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