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Finally, and probably most importantly, we need a greater appreciation ofhow power relations shape career outcomes, not simply within the context ofthe relationship between workers and their employer, but over time and space(Herod, 2001). As Osterman (1999) describes, employers have gained significantpower over the past thirty years in the labor market, while workers havebecome increasingly vulnerable. Much of this loss of power is rooted in thegrowth of labor flexibility, and, in most cases, intermediaries seem to be alsoassociated with a weakening of workers’ power in the labor market, as theycontribute to the “individualization” of employment relations that has helpedto isolate individual workers, discourage collective organization, and increaseworkers’ vulnerability to labor market risk (Benner, 2002). This situationcreates opportunities for employers to use exploitative employment relationssimply because they can, not because they are driven to by any competitivedynamics. Yet historical reflections of power relationships have been primarilyrooted in the workplace and in the context of a clearly identified employer.Instead, we now need a greater appreciation of how capital–labor relationshipsplay out in place and space, and why particular social actors engage in certaintypes of political praxis in particular places and times (Herod, 1998). Clearly,understanding how workers could wield greater power in a way that couldsimultaneously support flexible work practices and transform exploitativeemployment relationships would go a long way in helping to reconstruct flexiblelabor markets in ways that could simultaneously promote economic prosperityand minimize social insecurity.NOTESLabor in the network society 1931. Venture capitalist John Doerr, quoted in Perkins and Nunez (2001).2. I use the term “skill” in a comprehensive way to refer to the explicit and tacit skills, information,and knowledge workers require to perform their work activities.3. See http://www.bls.gov/news.release/tenure.t01.htm4. http://www.dice.com/recruiters/companies/regions/ncalif-ab.shtml accessed in May, 2000.5. For a more detailed analysis of inequality and insecurity in the regional labor market, seeBenner (2002).REFERENCESAbraham, Katherine (1990) “Restructuring the Employment Relationship: The Growthof Market-mediated Work Arrangements,” in Katherine Abraham and RobertMcKersie (eds), New Developments in the Labor Market: Towards a NewInstitutional Paradigm. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Arthur, Michael and Rousseau, Denise (eds) (1996) The Boundaryless Career: A NewEmployment Principle for a New Organizational Era. Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.——, Hall, Douglas, and Lawrence, Barbara (eds) (1989) The Handbook of CareerTheory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

194 Chris BennerAsaravala, Amit (2003) “Protestors Mourn Tech Job Drain,” Wired.com,September 17.Barker, Kathleen and Christensen, Kathleen (eds) (1998) Contingent Work: AmericanEmployment Relations in Transition. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.Baumol, William and Wolff, Edward (1998) “Side Effects of Progress: HowTechnological Change Increases the Duration of Unemployment,” Annandale-on-Hudson: Jerome Levy Economics Institute.Benner, Chris (2002) Work in the New Economy: Flexible Labor Markets in SiliconValley. Oxford: Blackwell.—— (2003a) “ ‘Computers in the Wild’: Guilds and Next Generation Unionism in theInformation Revolution,” International Review of Social History 48 (S11).—— (2003b) “Labour Flexibility and Regional Development: The Role of LabourMarket Intermediaries,” Regional Studies 37 (6/7): 621–33.—— (2003c) “Learning Communities in a Learning Region: The Soft Infrastructure ofCross-firm Learning Networks in Silicon Valley,” Environment and Planning A35(10): 1809–30.—— (2003d) “Shock Absorbers in the Flexible Economy,” in Herbert Schaffner andCarl Van Horn (eds), A Nation at Work: The Heldrich Guide to the AmericanWorkforce, pp. 221–6. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.——, Brownstein, Bob, Dresser, Laura, and Leete, Laura (2001) “Staircases andTreadmills: The Role of Labor Market Intermediaries in Placing Workers andFostering Upward Mobility,” in Paula Voos (ed.), Proceedings of the 53rd AnnualMeeting of the Industrial Relations Research Association, January 5–7, 2001, NewOrleans. Champaign, IL: Industrial Relations Research Association.Bernhardt, Annette, Pastor, Manuel, Hatton, Erin, and Zimmerman, Sarah (2001)“Moving the Demand Side: Intermediaries in a Changing Labor Market,” in PaulaVoos (ed.), Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Industrial RelationsResearch Association, January 5–7, 2001, New Orleans. Champaign, IL: IndustrialRelations Research Association.Braverman, Harry (1975) Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work inthe Twentieth Century. New York: Monthly Review Press.Brown, John Sealy and Duguid, Paul (2000) The Social Life of Information. Boston,MA: Harvard Business School Press.Cappelli, Peter (1999) The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-driven Workforce.Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.—— (2000) “Is There a Shortage of Information Technology Workers?,” Philadelphia:Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania.Carré, Françoise, Ferber, Marianne, Golden, Lonnie, and Herzenberg, Stephen (2000)Nonstandard Work: The Nature and Challenges of Changing EmploymentArrangements. Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association.Castells, Manuel (1998) End of Millennium. Malden, MA: Blackwell.—— and Hall, Peter (1994) Technopoles of the World: The Making of Twenty-firstcenturyIndustrial Complexes. London: Routledge.Chun, Jennifer (2001) “Flexible Despotism: The Intensification of Uncertainty andInsecurity in the Lives of High-tech Assembly Workers,” in Rick Baldoz, CharlesKoeber, and Philip Kraft (eds), The Critical Study of Work: Labor, Technology andGlobal Production. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Davis, Aaron (2003) “Software Developers Calling Shots,” San Jose Mercury News,November 9, 2003.Derber, Charles, Schwartz, William, and Magrass, Yale (1990) Power in the Highest

194 Chris BennerAsaravala, Amit (2003) “Protestors Mourn Tech Job Drain,” Wired.com,September 17.Barker, Kathleen and Christensen, Kathleen (eds) (1998) Contin<strong>ge</strong>nt Work: AmericanEmployment Relations in Transition. Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.Baumol, William and Wolff, Edward (1998) “Side Effects of Progress: HowTechnological Chan<strong>ge</strong> Increases the Duration of Unemployment,” Annandale-on-Hudson: Jerome Levy Economics Institute.Benner, Chris (2002) Work in the New Economy: Flexible Labor Markets in SiliconValley. Oxford: Blackwell.—— (2003a) “ ‘Computers in the Wild’: Guilds and Next Generation Unionism in theInformation Revolution,” International Review of Social History 48 (S11).—— (2003b) “Labour Flexibility and Regional Development: The Role of LabourMarket Intermediaries,” Regional Studies 37 (6/7): 621–33.—— (2003c) “Learning Communities in a Learning Region: The Soft Infrastructure ofCross-firm Learning Networks in Silicon Valley,” Environment and Planning A35(10): 1809–30.—— (2003d) “Shock Absorbers in the Flexible Economy,” in Herbert Schaffner andCarl Van Horn (eds), A Nation at Work: The Heldrich Guide to the AmericanWorkforce, pp. 221–6. New Brunswick, NJ: Rut<strong>ge</strong>rs University Press.——, Brownstein, Bob, Dresser, Laura, and Leete, Laura (2001) “Staircases andTreadmills: The Role of Labor Market Intermediaries in Placing Workers andFostering Upward Mobility,” in Paula Voos (ed.), Proceedings of the 53rd AnnualMeeting of the Industrial Relations Research Association, January 5–7, 2001, NewOrleans. Champaign, IL: Industrial Relations Research Association.Bernhardt, Annette, Pastor, Manuel, Hatton, Erin, and Zimmerman, Sarah (2001)“Moving the Demand Side: Intermediaries in a Changing Labor Market,” in PaulaVoos (ed.), Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Industrial RelationsResearch Association, January 5–7, 2001, New Orleans. Champaign, IL: IndustrialRelations Research Association.Braverman, Harry (1975) Labor and Monopoly Capital: The Degradation of Work inthe Twentieth Century. New York: Monthly Review Press.Brown, John Sealy and Duguid, Paul (2000) The Social Life of Information. Boston,MA: Harvard Business School Press.Cappelli, Peter (1999) The New Deal at Work: Managing the Market-driven Workforce.Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.—— (2000) “Is There a Shorta<strong>ge</strong> of Information Technology Workers?,” Philadelphia:Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania.Carré, Françoise, Ferber, Marianne, Golden, Lonnie, and Herzenberg, Stephen (2000)Nonstandard Work: The Nature and Challen<strong>ge</strong>s of Changing EmploymentArran<strong>ge</strong>ments. Madison, WI: Industrial Relations Research Association.Castells, Manuel (1998) End of Millennium. Malden, MA: Blackwell.—— and Hall, Peter (1994) Technopoles of the World: The Making of Twenty-firstcenturyIndustrial Complexes. London: Routled<strong>ge</strong>.Chun, Jennifer (2001) “Flexible Despotism: The Intensification of Uncertainty andInsecurity in the Lives of High-tech Assembly Workers,” in Rick Baldoz, CharlesKoeber, and Philip Kraft (eds), The Critical Study of Work: Labor, Technology andGlobal Production. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Davis, Aaron (2003) “Software Developers Calling Shots,” San Jose Mercury News,November 9, 2003.Derber, Charles, Schwartz, William, and Magrass, Yale (1990) Power in the Highest

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