Moorish remains in Spain - The Search For Mecca

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CORDOVA.THE AOSQUE.Vertical Section of the Dome and Cupola of the Mihrab.

^MOORISHREMAINSIN SPAINBEING A BRIEF RECORD OFTHE ARABIAN CONQUEST OF THEPENINSULA WITH A PARTICULARACCOUNT OF THE MOHAMMEDANARCHITECTURE AND DECORATIONIN CORDOVA, SEVILLE & TOLEDOBY ALBERT F. CALVERT^

C3J5'-.SE|V'-E. Goodman and Son, Phoenix Printing Works, Taunton.

DEDICATIONTO HISMAJESTY KING ALFONSO XIII.Sire,The great interest Your Majesty has evinced in the MoorishMonuments which adorn Your Majesty's loyaland noble country,and the gracious appreciation with which You were pleased toregard my work on The Alhambra, inspired me with the presumptionto solicitthe honour of Your Majesty's August Patronage for thisvolume, which is humbly dedicated to Your Majesty agreeably toYour Majesty's gracious permission,byYour Majesty's humble Servant,Albert F. Calvert.

THEPREFACEinception of my work on The Alhambra, to which thisbook is designed to be the companion and complementaryvolume, was due to the disappointing discovery that nosuch thing as an even moderately adequate souvenir of the•" Red Palace of Granada, "that glorious sanctuary of Spain," was inexistence.It was written at a time when I shared the very commondelusion that the Alhambra was the only word ina vocabulary ofrelics which includes such Arabian superlatives as the Mos que atCordova, the Gates and the Cristo de la Luz of Toledo, and theAlcazar at Seville .I had then to learn that while the Alhambra hasrightly been accepted as the last word on Moorish Art in Spain, itmust not be regarded as the solitary monument of the splendourand beauty with which the Arabs stamped their virile and artisticpersonality upon Andalus.In the course of frequent and protracted visits to Spain I cameto realise that the Moors were^npt^a onej^city nation,; they did notexhaust themselves in a single, isolated effort to achieve thesublimelybeautiful. Before the Alhambra was conceived in themind of Mohammed the First of Granada, Toledo had been adornedand lost ;Cordova, which for centuries had commanded the admirationof Europe, had paled and waned beside the increasing splendourof Andalusia" itself had been wrestedof Seville; and the "gemfrom the Moor by the victorious Ferdinand III. But each in turnhad been redeemed from Gothic tyranny by the art-adoring influenceof the Moslem. Their dominion, their politics, and their influenceis a tale of a day that is dead, but it survives in the monuments ofand the wonder of thetheir Art, which exist to the glory of Spainworld. The Arabian sense of the beautiful sealed itself upon Cordova,

Vlll.PREFACEand made the city its own ; it blended with the joyous spirit ofSeville ;it forced its impress upon the frowning forehead of Toledo.To see the Alhambra is not to understand the wonders of theAlcazar ;the study of Moorish wizardry in Toledo does not reveal,does not even prepare one, for the bewildering cunning of theMosque inCordova.In Cordova— this gay, vivacious overgrown village, whichgleams serene in a setting of vineyards and orange groves— thespirit of the Moors still breathes. Rome wrested the city fromCarthage; the Goths humbled it to the dust. But, under theMoors, Cordova became the centre of European civilisation, therival of Baghdad and Damascus as a seat of learning, the Athensof the West, and second only in sanctity to the Kaaba of Mecca.Its Cathedral first came into being as a temple of Janus ; it hasbeen both a basilica and a mosque. But the magic art of theMohammedan, which effaced the imprint of the Roman spear, hassurvived the torch of the Holy Inquisition, and to-day Cordovais the most exquisitely beautiful Moorish monument in Spain.^ In Seville, on the spot where Roman, Visigoth, and Moslemhave each in turn practised their faith, the Cathedral bells nowhang above the Arabian tower of the mosque, and the spire of thetemple of the faithful has become the world-famous Giralda, whichdominates the city. Moorish fountains and patios are found atMalaga, and Granada, and Toledo, but one comes to "La Tierrade Maria Santisima" to see them at their loveliest, while theAlcazar isperhaps the best preserved and most superbly-decoratedspecimen of the Moorish citadel-palace that Europe has to show.Menacing, majestic, and magnificent in its strength andsplendid isolation, Toledo, guarded by its Moorish masonry, a rockbuilt upon a rock, has been described by Padilla as" the crown ofSpain, the light of the world, free from the time of the mightyGoths." The light of the world has dwindled in the socket ofmodern progress, the Moor has left his scars upon the freedom of

PREFACEix.the Goth ;but Toledo, which was old when Christianity was born,presents an epitome of the principal arts, religions, and races whichhave dominated the world for the last two thousand years.In the three cities of Cordova, Seville, and Toledo, in whichthe hand of the Moor touched nothing that it did not beautify, Ihave found the supplementdescribe in my book upon the Alhambra ;to the art wonders that Iattempted toand, encouraged by thecordiality of the welcome extended to that volume in Spain andAmerica, as well as in this country, Ihave followed the course whichI therein adopted, of making the letterpress subservient to theillustrations. While immersed in authorities, and tempted often bythe beauties of thescenes to indulge the desire to emotionalise inwords, I have never permitted myself to forget that my purpose hasbeen to present a picture rather than to chronicle the romance ofSpanish-Morisco art.For the historical data, and some of the descriptions containedin this book, I have levied tribute on a large number of authors.Don Pascual de Gayangos, the renowned translator of Al-Makkari;the Handbook and the Gatherings of Richard Ford; William Stirling-Maxwell's Don John of A ustria ;The History of the Conquest of Spain,by Henry Coppe6; Washington IrVing's Conquest of Granada ; MissCharlotte Yonge's Christians and Moors in Spain; Stanley Lane-Poole's The Moors in Spain; the writings of Dr. R. Dozy, ofLeipsic; Muhammed Hayat Khan's Rise and Fall of the MuslimEmpire in Spain; Hannah Lynch's Toledo; Walter M. Gallichan'sSeville; The Latin- Byzantine Monuments of Cordova; Monumentos—Arquitectonicos de Espana; Pedro de Madrazo's Sevilla these, andmany less important writers on Spain, have been consulted.But with this wealth of literary material to hand, I haveremembered that it is my collection of illustrations, rather than onthe written word, that I must depend. From the nature of Arabianart, and the characteristic minuteness of the details of whichMorisco decoration iscomposed, lengthy descriptions of architec-

eproduced, and this I have endeavoured to do. A. F. C.X. PREFACEture, unaccompanied by illustrations, become not only tediouspositively confusing to the reader, while, on the other hand, asufficiency of illustrations renders exhaustive descriptions superfluous.I have striven to do justice to the subject in this direction,not without hope of achieving my purpose, but with a vast consciousnessof the fact that, neither by camera, nor brush, nor by thepen, can one reflect, with any fidelity, the effects obtained by theMoorish masters of the Middle Ages. In their art we find a sense ofthe mysterious that appeals to one like the glint of moonlight onrunning water ;an intangible spirit of joyousness that one catchesfrom the dancing shadows of leaves upon a sun-swept lawn ; andan elusive key to its beauty, which is lost in the bewildering maze oftraceries and the inextricable network of designs. The form, butnot the fantasy, of these fairy-like, fascinating decorations may bebut"RoYSTON," Hampstead, N.W.1905.

LISTOF ILLUSTRATIONSCORDOVAThe Mosque—Principal Nave of the MihrabThe Mosque — Entrance to the Mihrab .Gates of Pardon ........View of the City and Bridge South of the Guadalquivir.General View of the Interior of the MosqueFacade and Gate of the Almanzor .....View of Interior of the Mosque 961-967 ....The Mosque— Plan........in the Time of the Arabs 786-796, 961-967, 988-1001,1523-1593The Mosque—Plan in its Present State, 786-796, 961-967, 988-1001, 15231593Ancient Arab Tower, now the Church of St. Nicholas de la VillaOrange Court in the Mosque, Moorish Style, Built 957, by Said BenAyout ....Exterior of the MosqueThe Mosque— Section of the MihrabThe Mosque—Portal on the North Side, Moorish Style, Built UnderHakam IM., 988-1001Exterior View of the MosqueExterior Ang^e of the MosqueThe Exterior of the MosqueThe BridgeView of the Mosque and the BridgeSection of the Mosque of Cordova on the Line of the Plan l.Section of the Mosque of Cordova on the Line of the Plan n. oThe Gates of Pardon ...A ViKW IN THE Garden Belonging to the MosquemPage910II1212131415162526272845474951555759596165

Xll.The Mosqub— Lateral GateLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSInterior of the Mosque, or Cathedral .The Mosque .....The Mosque — Interior ViewInterior of the Mosque, Moorish Style, BuiltInterior View of the MosqueThe Mosque—General View of the InteriorThe Central Nave of the Mosque— 961-967The Mosque— Chief EntranceInterior View of the Cathedral .Interior of the Mosque— Lateral NaveInterior of the Mosque— East SideThe Mosque— Detail of the GateThe Mosque— Facade of the Almanzor .961-967, Under Hakam IIView in the Mosque— 961-967The Mosque— A Gate on one of the Lateral Sides . .The Mosque—Side of the Captive's Column ....Mosque, North Side—Exterior........of the Chapel of St. PedroGeneral View of the Interior of the Chapel of the Masura and StFerdinandDetail of the Chapel of Masura .....The Mosque — Elevation of the Gate of the Sanctuary of the KoranThe Mosque—Gate of the Sanctuary of the Koran .The Mosque— Mosaic Decoration of the Sanctuary, 965-1001The Mosque—Right-hand Side Gate Within the Precincts of theMaksurrahThe Mosque— Section of the Cupola of the Mihrab .The Mosque— Dome of the Sanctuary .....The Mosque— Roof of the Chapel of the Masura and St. FerdinandViLLAViciosA Chapel ........The Mosque — Detail of the Hall of ChocolateEntrance to the Vestibule of the Mihrab Mihrab or Sanctuary of the Mosque .....Page67697175777981858789919195959799Id105107109III"5"7119121125127129131135137

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSxiii.PageThe Mosque— Arch and Front of the Abd-er-Rahman and Mihrab Chapels 139Entrance to the Chapel of the Mihrab141View of the Interior of the Mihrab Chapel .The Mosque — Details of the Interior of the Chapel of the MihrabThe Mosque—Marble Socle in the MihrabBasement Panel of the Facade of the MihrabThe Mosque— Front of the Trastamara ChapelGeneral View of the Chapel of Villaviciosa .North Angle of the Chapel of VillaviciosaVillaviciosa Chapel .....145147149151155157159161The Mosque—Chapel of VillaviciosaArab Tribune, To-day the Chapel of Villaviciosa,Left SideAncient Inscription of the Time of Khalifate, Found in an ExcavationThe Mosque — Chapel of Trastamara, South Side171The Mosque— Detail of the Trastamara Chapel171The Mosque— Interior of the Mihrab .....175The Mosque —Arab Arcade Above the First Mihrab .173The Mosque—Details, Arches of the Mihrab ....177The Mosque— Detail of the Mihrab .....177The Mosque — Exterior of the Chapel of the Mihrab179The Mosque—Gate of the Sultan .....179Principal Entrance to the Mosque .....181The Mosque— Detail Near the Mihrab .........••181185Thb Bishop's Gate185The Mosque— Pilasters and Arabian Baths ....187Inscriptions and Arabian Chapters .....191The Mosque—a Cufic......•••Inscription in the Place Appropriated to thePerformance of Ablutions193Arabic Inscriptionsi95The Gates of Pardon .......165167169

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSXIV....,..•PageA CuFic Inscription on the Additions Made to the Mosque, by Order ofTHE KhALIF AL-HaKAM197The Bridge Across the Guadalquivir, with a View of the Cathedral(Mezquita). The Scene as it Appeared in 1780. From AntigiiedadesArabes de Espaiia. Madrid, 1780, fol.View of Cordova Cathedral (Mezquita), as it Appeared in 1780Antigiiedades Arabes de Espaha. Madrid, 1780, folWall of the MosqueFa9ade of the MihrabThe Mosque — Arch of one of the GatesThe Mosque— LatticeThe Mosque— Ornamental Arched WindowThe Mosque — Capitals of the Entrance ArchDetails of the FriezePlan ....Keystone of Ornamental ArchDetails of the CorniceCapital of ArchSide View of the CorniceBases ....East Facade, Without the PorticoSEVILLEFacade of the Alcazar ....Alcazar—Gates of the Principal EntranceFaqade of the Alcazar ....Chief Entrance to the Alcazar, Moorish Style,Pedro I. the Cruel, i 369-1 379Alcazar— Principal Facade ....Interior Court of the AlcazarAlcazar— Arcade in the Principal CourtAlcazar—View of the InteriorAlcazar— Court of the DollsAlcazar—Court of the Dolls, Moorish Style, Built 1369-1379From203205207211213217219221221221223227227227229

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSPageAlcazar—The Court of the Dolls . ..271.......Alcazar—Right Angle of the Court of the Dolls .273Alcazar—Court of the Dolls 277Alcazar— Upper Part of the Court of the Dolls .... 279Alcazar— Upper Portions of the Court....... .......of the Dolls .283Alcazar—Court of the Dolls 285Alcazar—The Little Court 289Alcazar— View in the Little Court 291Alcazar— View of the Hall of Ambassadors.......from the Little Court 295Alcazar— Hall of Ambassadors 297Alcazar— Interior of the Hall of Ambassadors 301Alcazar— The Hall of Ambassadors ...... .......303Alcazar— Throne of Justice.......307Alcazar— Hall of Ambassadors 307Alcazar—Fa9ade of the Court of the Virgins .... 309Alcazar— Interior of the Court of the Virgins, Moorish Style, Built1369-1379 313Alcazar—General View of the Court of the Hundred Virgins . .315Alcazar—Court of the Hundred Virgins ..... 319Alcazar—Court of the Virgins 321Alcazar—Gallery in the Court of the Hundred Virgins 325Alcazar— The Sultana's Apartment and Court of the Virgins .327Alcazar— Entrance to the Sleeping Saloon of the Moorish Kings .331Alcazar—Dormitory of the Kings ...... ........333Alcazar—The Dormitory 337Alcazar— Front^ OF the Sleeping Saloon of the Moorish Kings .339Alcazar—Sleeping Saloon of the Moorish Kings ...........339Alcazar— Room of the Infanta 343Alcazar—Columns where Don Fadriqus was Murdered .345Alcazar—Gate of the Hall of San Fernando .-349Alcazar—Gallery of Hall of San Fernando .XV..349Alcazar—Hall in which King San Fernando Died 35^Alcazar—Room of the Prince -355

XVI.LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONSAlcazar— View of the Gallery from the Second FloorTower of the Giralda .....Details of the Giralda Tower ....Court of the House of Pilatos ....Court of the House of Pilatos ....House of Pilatos— View in the Court by the Door of the ChapelHouse of Pilatos—Chapel .....Gallery of the House of PilatosGallery of the Court of the House of PilatosCourt of the Palace of Medina-CceliPage357361363367369373375376381385TOLEDOSanta Maria la Blanca— Interior, 1100-1150The Gate of Blood ....Interior of Santa Maria la BlancaGate of the Sun ....Door of the Hall of MesaExterior of the Chapel of Christo de la VegaAncient Gate of VisagraCastle of St. ServandoMoorish Sword ....Arab Fragment at TarragonaAncient Arabian Baths at Palma, Majorca395399405409413413419419423429435MOORISH DESIGNS.......AND ORNAMENTSDesigns and Ornaments 447—494Description of the Plates—Hexagonal Family . . .495—5^6

LISTOF COLOURED PLATESPlate.Description.Frontispiece— Vertical Section of the Dome and Cupola of theMiHRAB Cordova.I. Shell-like Ornaments in the Cupola of the Mihrab. Cordova.II. Shell-like Ornaments in the Cupola of the Mihrab. Cordova.III. Shell-like Ornaments in the Cupola of the Mihrab, Cordova.IV. Part of the Ornamentation and Keystone of one of the LowerArches, which gives Light to the Dome. Cordova.IV.Ring of the Cupola.v. curvilineal triangles, resulting from the intersection of theArches sustaining the Dome. Cordova.V. Setting of the Arches sustaining the Dome. Cordova.V. Setting of the Arches sustaining the Dome. Cordova.VI. Ornament running below the Cupola. Cordova.VI. Ornament running below the Cupola. Cordova.VI. Setting 'OF one of the Lower Arches, which gives Light to theDome. Cordova.VII. Curvilineal Triangles, resulting from the Intersection of theArches sustaining the Dome.VII. Architrave of one of the Arches sustaining the Dome. Cordova.VIII. Detajls of the Gate of the Maksurrah. Cordova.IX. Arches of the Portal of the Mihrab. Cordova.X. Detail of the Framing of the Side Gate. Cordova.X. Detail of the Window placed over the Side Door. Cordova.X. Detail of the Framing of the Arch of the Mihrab.XI. Windows in aw Alcove.XII.XIII.Arab Vase of Metallic Lustre.Details of tub Arches.

XVlll.LIST OF COLOURED PLATESPlate.Description.XIV. Centre Painting on a Ceiling.XV. Divan.XVI. Detail of an Arch.XVII. Gate of the Mdrada.XVIII. Details of the Mihrab.XVIII. Detail of one of the Arches of the Cupola.XVIII. Mosaic Keystones of the Great Arch of the Mihrab.XIX. Details, Villaviciosa Chapel and Mihrab.XX. Details of the Interior of the Mosque.XXI. Details of the Interior of the Mosque.XXII. Details of Moorish Work.XXIII. Details, Villaviciosa Chapel and Mihrab.XXIV. Details of Moorish Work.XXV. Frieze in the Hall of Ambassadors. Seville.XXV. Stucco Work in the Hall of Ambassadors. Seville.XXV. Mosaic in the Large Court. Seville.XXV. Mosaic in the Large Court. Seville.XXVI. Hall of Ambassadors—Details. Seville.XXVII. Hall of Ambassadors—Details. Seville.XXVIII. Hall of Ambassadors—Details. Seville.XXIX. Blank Window.XXX. Soffit of Arch.XXXI. Cornice at Springing of Arch of Doorway at one of the Entrances.XXXII. Borders of Arches.XXXIII. Borders of Arches.XXXIV. Border of Arches.XXXV. Ornament in Panels on the Wall.XXXVI. Bands, Side of Arches.XXXVII. Bands, Side of Arches.XXXVIII. Ornaments on Panels.XXXIX. Ornaments on Panels.XL. Ornaments on Panels.

LIST OF COLOURED PLATESxix.Plate.XLI.Description.Ornaments on PanelsXLII. Frieze in the Upper Chamber, House of Sanchez.XLIII. Cornice at Springing of Arches in a Window.XLIV.XLV.XLVI.XLVII.Panels on Walls.Spandrils of Arches.Spandrils of Arches.Spandrils of Arches.XLVIII. Plaster Ornaments, used as Upright and Horizontal Bandsenclosing Panels on the Walls.XLIX.Blank Window.L. Rafters of a Roof over a Doorway, now destroyed, beneath theTocador de la Reyna.LI.LII.Lin.LIV.Band at Springing of Arch at the Entrance to one of the Halls.Panelling of a Recess.Blank Window.Ornaments on the Walls, House of Sanchez.LV. Ornament in Panels on the Walls.LVI. Ornaments in Spandrils of Arches.LVII. Mosaic Dado in a Window, &c.LVIII.LIX.LX.LXI.LXII.LXIII.LXIV.Mosaic Dados on Pillars.Mosaic Dados on Pillars.Mosaics.Mosaic Dado round the Internal Walls of the Mosque.Painted Tiles.Mosaics.Mosaics.LXV. Ornaments in Panels.LXVI.LXVII.Ornament over Arches at one of the Entrances.Ornament on the Walls.LXVIII Ornament in Panels on the Walls.LXIX.Small Panel in Jamb of a Window.LXX. Small Panel in Jamb of a Window.

XX.LIST OF COLOURED PLATESPlate.Description.LXXI. Panel in the Upper Chamber of the House of Sanchez.LXXII. Spandril from Niche of Doorway at one of the Entrances.LXXIII. Lintel of a Doorway.LXXIV. Capital of Columns.LXXV. Capital of Columns.LXXVI. Capital of Columns.LXXVII. Socle of the Entrance Arch to the Ante-chapel.LXXVIII. Socle of the Entrance Arch to the Chapel.LXXIX. Detail of the Tiles of the Altar.LXXX. Socle in the Interior of the Chapel.LXXXI. Socle in the Interior of the Chapel.LXXXII. Mosaics from various Halls.LXXXIII. Mosaics from various Halls.LXXXIV. Part of Ceiling of a Portico.

MOORISH REMAINS INSPAIN

INTRODUCTORYTHE conquest of Spain by the Moors, and the storycomprised in the eight centuries during which theywielded sovereignty as a European power, forms aromance that is without parallel in the history ofthe world. Under Mohammedan rule Spain enjoyed thefirst and most protracted period of comparative peace andmaterial prosperity she had ever known. She had beenplundered by Carthage and Phoenicia, ground beneath theiron heel of Rome, devastated and enslaved by those Christianisedbut corrupt barbarians, the Visigoths. All the evilsand demoralisation arising from successive waves of bloodyconquest and decadent voluptuousness had been sown inthe breast of Spain. The squandered might of Carthagehad left the country a prey to the vigorous Roman the;degenerate Roman had been banished by the rugged,victorious Goth, who, after two centuries of security andsensual ease, was to be made subject to the warlike and enlightenedMoor. Once more the land was to be overrunand the face of the country was to be scarred with fire andthe sword ;once more the people were to learn to serve newmasters and conform to new laws. Of a truth the last statemust have seemed worse than the first to the RomanisedSpaniards. Carthage had brought chains, but it had alsointroduced artificers and a form of Government; the Romaneagles had been accompanied by Roman engineers androad-builders ;the Goths erected upon the broken altars ofGod. But it now seemedmythology temples to the livingthat the whips of ancient foes were to be replaced by the

2 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINscorpions of their new taskmasters ;the Christianity whichthe East had sent them was to be uprooted by the Easterninfidels.Such must have been the prospect before Spain, andeven before the rest of Europe, when Tarik returned in 710to Ceuta, from a marauding expedition upon the coast ofAndalusia, and reported to Musa, the son of Noseyr, theArab Governor of North Africa, that the country was ripefor conquest and well worth the hazard of the cast. Twentyyears later the Moslems had overrun Spain, capturedBordeaux by assault and advanced to the conquest of Gaul.It is passing strange to reflect that these far-reaching, epoch-events had not been undertaken as the result of amakingdeep-laid scheme of national expansion or religious enterprise.According to tradition the foundation of the Moslemsupremacy in Spain was instigated by the hatred of a singletraitor. Count Julian, the Governor of Ceuta, and his—treachery was inspired by the dishonour of one young girlJulian's daughter, Florinda.At the beginning of the eighth century, when the Moorshad extended their possessions up to the walls of Ceuta,which was held for Roderick, King of Spain, by CountJulian, the Count, in accordance with the custom amongthe Gothic nobility, had sent his daughter to the Court ofRoderick, at Toledo, to be educated among the Queen'sgentlewomen in a manner befitting her rank and lineage.The rest is the old story of a beautiful, unprotected girl, alascivious guardian, and a father thirsting for vengeance. Sofar Count Julian had defended Ceuta against the Moorswith unbroken success, now he came to Toledo to relievethe king of the custody of his daughter, and repay the breachof trust which Roderick had committed by making a compactwith the king's enemies. On the eve of his departure from

INTRODUCTORY'3the capital, the king requested the Count to send him somehawks of a special variety that he desired for hunting purposes,and the vengeful noble pledged himself to supply hismaster with hawks, the like of which he had never seen.But Count Julian found the Saracenic hawks less keenfor the hunting he had in view than he expected. That oldbird of prey, Musa, listened to the alluring tales of the richnessand beauty of Spain, but doubted the good faith of hislong-time enemy, who proposed that the Moors should invadethis promised land in Spanish ships, lent to them for thepurpose. But the love of conquest and the lust of loot,which had inspired and sustained the Arab arms in all theirterritorial campaigns, overcame the natural hesitancy of theMoorish Governor, and in 710 Musa despatched Tarik witha small expedition to spy out the state of the Spanishcoast. So successful was the mission, and so rich the plunderthey brought back, that in the following year he adventuredan army of 7,000 men under Tarik for the spoliation ofAndalusia. Tarik, who landed at the rock of Gibraltar—Gebal Tarik, which stillbears his name— captured Carteya,and encountered the army of Roderick, who had hurried fromthe North of hjs dominions to repel the invaders, on thebanks of the Guadalete.Washington Irving, in the Conquest of Spain, has related,in his brilliantly picturesque style, the old legend of theprophecy of Roderick's overthrow and the mystery surroundinghis death. The king was proof against the solemnwarnings Hercules,— of the old warders of the tower of thetower of "jasper and marble, inlaid in subtle devices, whichshone in the rays of the sun,"— wherein lay the secret ofSpain's future, sealed by a magic spell,and guarded by amassive iron gate, and secured by the locks affixed to itbyevery successive Spanish king since the days of Hercules.

4 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINRoderick came not to set a new lock upon the gate, butto burst the bolts of the centuries and reveal the mysterythat his predecessors had gone down into their graves withoutsolving.All day long his courtiers urged him vainly againstthe rustyhis own undoing, and the custodians laboured atlocks, and at evening he entered the mighty, outer hall,rushed past the bronze warder, penetrated the innerchamber, and read the inscription attached to the casket,which Hercules had deposited in the gem-encrusted tower.*'In this coffer is the mystery of the Tower. The hand ofnone but a King can open it but let him; beware, for wonderfulthings will be disclosed to him, which must happenbefore his death." In a moment the lid is prized open, theparchment, folded between plates of copper, is brought intothe light of day, and the king has read the motto inscribedupon the border: ** Behold, rash man, those who shall hurlthee from thy throne and subdue thy Kingdom."Beneath the motto is drawn a panorama of horsemen,fierce of countenance, armed with bows and scimitars. Asthe king gazes wonderingly upon the picture, the sound ofwarfare rushes on his ear, the chamber is filled with a cloud,and in the cloud the horsemen bend forward in their saddlesand raise their arms to strike. Amazed and terrorised,Roderick and his courtiers drew back and ''beheld beforethem a great field of battle, where Christians and Moorswere engaged in deadly conflict. They heard the rush andtramp of steeds, the blast of trump and clarion, the clash ofcymbal, and the stormy din of a thousand drums. Therewas the flash of swords and maces and battle axes, with thewhistling of arrows and hurling of darts and lances. TheChristian quailed before the foe. The infidels pressed uponthem, and put them to utter rout ;the standard of the Crosswas cast down, the banner of Spain was trodden under foot,

INTRODUCTORY5the air resounded with shouts of triumph, with yells of fury,and the groans of dying men. Amidst the flying squadrons*King Roderick beheld a crowned warrior, whose back wasturned towards him, but whose armour and device were hisown, and who was mounted on a white steed that resembledhis own war horse, Orelia. In the confusion of the fight, thewarrior was dismounted and was no longer to be seen, andOrelia galloped wildly through the field of battle without arider."The vision he had witnessed in the Tower of Herculesmust have recurred to Roderick when he saw the Moorisharmy encamped against him by the waters of the Guadalete,but he must have noted its numbers with surprise, andcontemplated his own host with complacency. For Tarik,even with his Berber reinforcements, only counted 12,000men, and nearly four score thousand slept beneath thestandard of Spain. If ever prophecy was calculated to befound at fault it must have seemed to be so that day, andTarik published his estimate of the enormity of the odds thatwere against him when he cried to his army of fatalists,"Men, before you is the enemy, and the sea is at your backs.By Allah, there is no escape for you, save in valour and resolution."But valour and resolution belonged to the Spaniardsas well as to the Moors ; and, but for the action of thekinsmen of the dethroned King Witiza, who deserted to theside of the Saracens in the midst of the seven day battle,the Moorish conquest would have been delayed,if not evenentirely abandoned. But Witiza*s adherents turned the tideof battle against Roderick, the Spaniards broke and fled, andOrelia galloped riderless through the field. Tarik, in a singleencounter, had won allSpainfor the infidels.Without hesitation, and in defiance of the commandsof Musa, who coveted the glory that his lieutenant had so

6 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINunexpectedly won, Tarik proceeded to make good hismastery of the entire Peninsula. He despatched a force ofseven hundred horsemen to capture Cordova ;Archidonaand Malaga capitulated without striking a blow ;and Elvirawas taken by storm. City after city surrendered to thevictorious invaders, and the principles of true chivalry, whichthe Moors invariably observed, reconciled the vanquishedSpaniards to their new conquerors. The common peoplewelcomed the promise of a new era, while the nobles fledbefore the advancing armies, and abandoned the country tothe enemy. With the surrender of Toledo, Tarik had addeda new dominion to the crown of Damascus. Musa leftCeuta in 712 with 18,000 men to join Tarik at Toledo,taking Seville, Carmona, and Merida en route. The meetingof the Governor and his General at the capital revealed thefirst flash of that fire of personal jealousy and internecineconflict which kept Spain ina blaze throughout the eightcenturies of the Moorish occupation.To the intrepid warriors, who were bred to war andtrained to the business of conquest, the Pyrenees represented,not a bar to further progress, but a bulwark from which theywere to advance to the subjugation of Europe. The totaldefeat of the Saracens under the walls of Toulouse by theDuke of Aquitana in 721 turned their course westwards and;after occupying Carcasonne and Narbonne, raiding Burgundyand carrying Bordeaux by assault, they suffered a decisivedefeat at the hands of the Franks, under Charles Martel, atthe Battle of Tours in 733. The tide of Arabian aggressionwas arrested and rolled back; and although the Moorsrepulsed the Prankish invasion of Spain under Charlemagne,a bound had been put upon their empire-building ambitions,and they set themselves resolutely to accomplish thepacification of the kingdom they had already won. It is

INTRODUCTORY7the boast of the Northern Spaniards, the hardy mountaineersof Galicia and Leon, of Castile and the Biscayan provinces,that they were never subject to Moslem rule. There isgood warrant for their claim, and in truth the independenceof the North was maintained, but the fact remains thatthe Moors had no desire for those bleak and unfruitfuldistricts ;and so long as the savage Basques did not disturbthe security of Arabian tenure in the fertile South, theywere left in the enjoyment of their dreary, frozen fastnesses,and their wind-swept, arid wastes.The Moors had made themselves secure in the smilingcountry that, roughly speaking, lies South of the Sierra deGuadarrama and; here, with a genius and success that wasunprecedented, they organised the Kingdom of Cordova." It must not be supposed," writes Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole,*'that the Moors, like the barbarian hordes who precededthem, brought desolation and tyranny in their wake. Onthe contrary, never was Andalusia so mildly, justly, andwisely governed as by the Arab conquerors. Where theygot their talent for administration it is hard to say, for theycame almost direct from their Arabian deserts, and theirrapid tide of victories had left them little leisure to acquirethe art of managing foreign nations. Some of their Counsellorswere Greeks and Spaniards, but this does not explainthe problem for these same Counsellors were unable to;producesimilar results elsewhere ;all the administrative talentof Spain had not sufficed to make the Gothic dominationtolerable to its subjects. Under the Moors, on the other—hand, the people were on the whole contented as contentedas any people can be whose rulers are of a separate race andcreed— and far better pleased than they had been when theirsovereigns belonged to the same religion as that which theynominally professed. Religion was, indeed, the smallest

8 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINdifficulty which the Moors had to contend with at the outset,though it had become troublesome afterwards. The Spaniardswere as much pagan as Christian ;the new creed promulgatedby Constantine had made little impression among the generalmass of the population, who were stillpredominantly Roman.What they wanted was— not a creed, but the power to livetheir lives in peace and prosperity. This their Moorishmasters gave them."The people were allowed to retain their own religionand their own laws and judges; and with the exception ofthe poll tax, which was levied only upon Christians andJews, their imposts were no heavier than those paid by theMoors. The slaves were treated with a mildness whichthey had never known under the Romans or the Goths,and, moreover, they had only to make a declaration ofMohammedanism— to repeat the formula of belief," Thereis no God but God, and Mohammed is His Prophet"— togain their freedom. By the same simple process, men ofposition and wealth secured equal rights with their conquerers.But while the Moors thus practised the science ofpacification, they were unable to conquer their own racialinstincts, which found their vent in jealous blood feuds andceaseless internal conflicts. In the field the Arabs were aunited people under stress of warfare their rivalries were;forgotten ; but the racial spirit of the conquerors reasserteditself when the stress of conquest gave place to ''dimplingpeace," and government by murder created constant changesin the administration. The Arabs and the Berbers, thoughthey may be regarded as one race in their domination ofSpain, were two entirely distinct and fiercely hostile tribes.The Berbers of Tarik had accomplished the conquest ofSpain, but the Arabs arrived in time to seize the lion's shareof the spoils of victory; and when the Berber insurrection in

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INTRODUCTORY 77North Africa triumphed, their Berber brethren, who hadbeen relegated to the least congenial districts of Estremadura,roused themselves to measures of retaliation, andcarried their standards to the gates of Toledo and Cordova.In alarm, the Arab Governor of Andalusia sent for hiscompatriots of Ceuta to aid him, and he expiated his follywith his life. The African contingent routed the Berbers,murdered the Arab Governor, and set up their own chiefin his place, until Abd-er-Rahman arrived from Damascusto unite all factions, for a while, under the standard of theSultan of Cordova.Abd-er-Rahman, which signifies "Servant of the MercifulGod," was a member of the deposed family of the Omeyyads,which had given fourteen khalifs to the throne of Damascus.*'The usurping khalif, Es-Deffah, The Butcher," whofounded the dynasty of the Abbasides, practically exterminatedthe Omeyyad family, but Abd-er-Rahman eludedhis vigilance, and, after abandoning a project to make himselfthe Governor of North Africa, he determined to carry hisprincely pretensions to the newly-founded Spanish dominions.was hailed withIn Andalusia, the advent of the Omeyyadsenthusiasm. The army of the Governor deserted to thestandard of the young pretender; Archidona and Sevillewere induced to throw open their gates to him by a piece ofquestionable strategy he defeated the troops that opposed;his march upon Cordova, and before the end of the year756, or some fifteen months after setting foot in the country,all the Arab part of Spain had acknowledged the dynasty ofthe Omeyyads, which for three centuries was to endure inCordova.Brave, unscrupulous, and instant in action, Abd-er-Rahman had recourse to every wile of diplomacy, of severity,and of valour to maintain his supremacy in Spain. Hedefeated and utterly annihilated an invading army sent

i8 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINagainst him by the Abbaside khalif, Mansur, and sent asackful of the heads of his generals as a present to theirmaster ;he won over the people of Toledo by false promises,and crucified their leaders ;he had the Yemenite chiefassassinated while receiving him as an honoured guest ;hecrushed a revolt of the Berbers in the North, and of theYemenites in the South ;he saw the forces of Charlemagnewaste away in the bloody fastnesses of the Pyrenees. Bytreachery and the sword, by false oaths and murder, hetriumphed over every rival and enemy until all insurrectionhad been crushed by his relentless might, and the KhalifMansur was fain to exclaim :between that man and me."" Thank God, there is a seaIn an eloquent tribute to his"daring, wisdom, and prudence," his old-time enemy thusextolled the genius of the conqueror :"To enter the pathsof destruction, throw himself into a distant land, hard toapproach and well defended, there to profit by the jealousiesof the rival parties to make them turn their arms againstone another instead of against himself, to win the homageand obedience of his subjects, and having overcome everydifficulty, to rule supreme lord of all ! Of a truth, no man"before him has done this !But the tyrant of Spain was to pay a greatand terribleprice for his triumphs. He had established himself in akingdom in which he was to stand alone. Long before hisdeath he found himself forsaken by his kinsmen, deserted byhis friends, abhorred by his enemies on all sides detested;and avoided, he immured himself in the fastnesses of hispalace, or went abroad surrounded by a strong guard of hiredmercenaries. His son and successor, Hisham, practisedduring the eight years of his reign an exemplary piety, andso encouraged and cherished the theological students andpreceptors of Cordova, that they rebelled against the light-

INTRODUCTORY 19hearted, pleasure-loving Hakam, who succeeded him, andincited the people to open rebellion.But while the insurrectionists besieged the palace, theSultan's soldiers set fire to a suburb of the city and when; the people retired terror stricken to the rescue of their homesand families, they found themselves between the palacegarrison and the loyal incendiaries. The revolt ended in amassacre, but the dynasty was saved, and the palace waspreserved to become the nucleus of the gorgeous city whichHakam's son, Abd-er-Rahman II., was to fashion after thestyle of Harun-er-Rashid at Baghdad. Under this aestheticmonarch, Cordova became one of the most beautiful citiesin the world. Its palaces and gardens, its mosques andbridges were the wonder of Europeits courtiers made a;profession of culture ;its arbiter of fashion again assertedhimself as the first man in the empire.In such a city, and at such an epoch,it was natural,even inevitable, that Christianity should assert itself as aprotest against the fashion of the age.But so tolerant wasthe Mohammedan rule in religious matters, that the tooexalted spirit of the Cordovan Christians was hard put to itto find some excuse for its manifestation of discontent.While the sultan and his nobles found their pleasure inmusic, poetry,and other aesthetic if less commendableindulgences, the prejudices of the devout were alwaysrespected. Prosecution for religious convictions was unheardof, and the only way that the Christians could achievemartyrdom for their faith was by blaspheming the creed oftheir Moslem rulers. These early fanatics, whose religiousrites and beliefs had been treated with respect by theMohammedans, and who knew that by Moslem law he whoblasphemes the Prophet Mohammed or his religion mustdie, voluntarily transgressed the law for the purpose of

20 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINachieving their object. In spite of warnings, of protests,and of earnest counsel, these suicidal devotees cursed thename of the Prophet, and expiatedtheir wilful fanaticismwith death. With the exception of this period of religiousmania, which was bewailed by the general body of Christians,and regarded with unfeigned sorrow by the Mohammedanjudges, the tolerance of the Moors to the Christians was asunvarying as it was remarkable.After the execution, in the year 859, of Eulogius, afanatical priest,and the leader of these misguided martyrs,who was fruitlessly entreated by his judges to retract hismaledictions against the Prophet and be restored to freedom,the mad movement flickered and died out. But the devotiondisplayed bythe Cordovan Christians had made its effectsand a series offelt in widespread rebellion in the provinces,incapable sovereigns had reduced the throne to the state ofan island surrounded by a rivulet of foreign soldiers, in acountry bristling with faction jealousies and discontent.Spain had fallen a prey to anarchy, and the end ofMohammedan rule appeared imminent. Petty kings andgovernors had thrown off their allegiance ;Berbers, Arabs,Mohammedan Spaniards and Christians had each assertedand the sultan at Cordova wastheir absolute independence;"suffering all the ills of beleaguerment." The last vestigewhen Abd-er-of the power of the Omeyyads was falling awayRahman III. came to the throne to reconquer Spain, andbring the rebel nobles to their knees. The new sultan wasa lad of twenty-one, but he knew his countrymen, and herealised that after a century of lawlessness and wastingstrife, the people were ripe for a strong and effectual government.The Cordovans were won by his handsome presenceand gallant bearing. The boldness of his programmebrought him adherents, and the weariness of internecine

INTRODUCTORY 21warfare, which had devastated the country, prepared therebellious provinces for his coming. Seville opened hergates to receive him, the Prince of Algarve rendered tribute,the resistance of the Christians of Regio was overcome,and Murcia volunteered its allegiance. Toledo alone, thatimplacable revolutionist, rejected all Abd-er-Rahman's overtures,and confidently awaited the issue of the siege. Butthe haughty Toledans had not reckoned upon the metal ofwhich the new despot was made. Abd-er-Rahman had nostomach for the suicidal tactics of scaling impregnableprecipices, but he was possessed of infinite patience. Hecalmly set himself to build a town on the mountain overagainst Toledo, and to wait until famine should compel theinhabitants to capitulate. With the fall of Toledo, thewhole of Mohammedan Spain was once more restored tothe sultans of Cordova. The power, once regained, wasnever relaxed in the lifetime of Abd-er-Rahman. TheChristians of Galicia might push southward as far as thegreat Sierra, Ordono II. of Leon might bring his maraudinghosts to within a few leagues of Cordova, and cause Abd-er-Rahman to exert all his personal and militaryinfluence tobeat back the obstinate Northerners, but the stability of thethrone was never again imperilled. During his fifty years ofstrenuous sovereignty, the great Abd-er-Rahman saved Spainfrom African invasion and Christian aggression he establishedan absolute power in Cordova that brought ambassa-;dors from every European monarch to his court; and hemade the prosperity of Andalusia the envy of the civilisedworld. This wonderful transformation was effected by a manwhom the Moorish historians describe as ** the mildest andmost enlightened sovereign that ever ruled a country. Hismeekness, his generosity, and his love of justice becameproverbial. None of his ancestors ever surpassed him in

22 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINcourage in the field, and zeal for religion ;he was fond ofscience, and the patron of the learned, with whom he lovedto converse."In 961, Abd-er-Rahman III., the last great OmeyyadSultan of Cordova, died. His son Hakam II.employed thepeace which he inherited from his illustrious father in thestudy of books and the formation of a library, which consistedof no fewer than four hundred thousand works. But in hisreign, the note of absolute despotism which had re-establishedthe Empire of Cordova, was less evident ;and when at hisdeath, his twelve-year-old son, Hisham II., ascended thethrone, the government was ripe for the delegation of kinglypower to favourites and ministers. The Sultana Aurora,the Queen Mother, had already abrogated that power, andwas wielding an influence that Abd-er-Rahman III. wouldnot have tolerated for an instant, and her favourite— an undistinguishedstudent of Cordova, named Ibn-Aby-Amir—was waiting to turn her influence and favour to his ownadvantage. This youth, who is known to history asAlmanzor, or " Victorious by the grace of God — " a titleconceded to him by virtue of his many victories over theChristians— was possessed of pluck, genius, and ambition inalmost equal proportions and; by the opportunity for theirindulgence which the harem influence afforded, he madehimself virtual master of Andalusia.In his capacity of professional letter-writer to the courtservants, Almanzor won the patronage of the GrandChamberlain, and his appointment to a minor office broughthim — into personal contact with Aurora who fell in love with— the engaging young courtier and with the princesses, whosegood graces he assiduously cultivated. His charm of mannerand unfailing courtesy gained for him the countenance ofmany persons of rank, and his kindness and lavish generosity

INTRODUCTORY 23secured him the allegiance of his inferiors. By degrees heacquired a plurality of important and lucrative posts ;heearned the gratitude of the Queen Mother by arranging theassassination of a rival claimant who opposed the accessionof her son Hisham to the throne ;and he volunteered tolead the sultan's army against his insurrectionary subjectsof Leon. Almanzor was without military training or experience,but he had no misgivings upon the score of his ownability, and his faith in himself was justified. His victoriesover the Leonese made him the idol of the army and on the;strength of his increased popularity he appointed himselfPrefect of Cordova, and speedily rendered the city a modelof orderliness and good government. By a politic impeachmentof the Grand Chamberlain for financial irregularities,he presently succeeded his own patron in the first office inthe State, and became supreme ruler of the kingdom.Almanzor had allowed no scruple or fear to thwart himin his struggle for the proud position he had attained, andhe now permitted nothing to menace the power he had sohardly won. He met intrigue with intrigue, and discouragedtreachery by timely assassination. He placated hectoring,orthodox Moslems; he curtailed the influence of his formidablerival, Ghalib, the adored head of the army; heconciliated the Cordovans by making splendid additions tothe mosque he terrorised the now jealous Aurora and the;palace party into quiesence and he;kept the khalif himselfin subjection by the magnetism of his own masterful personality.His African campaigns extended the dominion ofSpain along the Barbary coast, and his periodical invasionsof Leon and Castile kept the Northern provinces in subjection,and his army contented and rich with the spoils of war.The Christians had terrible reason to hate this invincibleupstart, and it is not surprising to read in the Monkish

24 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINannals, the record of his death transcribed in the followingterms :" In 1002 died Almanzor, and was buried in hell."But if his death meant hell to Almanzor, as the Christiansdoubtless believed, it meant the recurrence of the hell ofanarchy for the Kingdom of Spain.Within half a dozen years of the great Chamberlain'sdeath, the country which had been held together by themight of one man, was torn to pieces by jealous andtyrannical chiefs and rebellious tribal warriors. Hisham II.was dragged from his harem seclusion, and the reins ofGovernment were thrust into his incompetent hands. Hefailed, and was compelled to abdicate, and another khalifwas set up in his place. For the next twenty years khalifswere enthroned and replaced in monotonous succession.Assassination followed coronation, and coronation assassination,until the princes of every party looked askance at theblood-stained throne, where monarchs and murderers playedtheir several intimate parts. Outside the capital, anarchyand devastation was ravaging the country. Berbers andSlavs were carrying desolationinto the South and East ofthe country, and in the North the Christians were uniting tothrow off their dependence. Alfonso VI. was selling his aidto the rival chieftains in their battles amongst themselves,and storing up his subsidies against the day when he wouldundertake the re-conquest of Spain. The Cid had establishedhis Castilian soldiers in Valencia, and the voluptuous,degenerate Mohammedan princes were panic-stricken by thegrowing disaffection and the instant danger which they werepowerless to overcome.In their extremity they sent for assistance to Africa,where Yusuf, the king of a powerful set of fanatics whomthe Spaniards named Almoravides, had made himself masterof the country from Algiers to Senegal. Yusuf came with

25CORDOVAANCIENT ARAB TOWER, NOW THE CHURCH OF ST. NICHOLAS DE LA VILLA.

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INTRODUCTORY 29his Berber hosts in 1086, defeated the Christians, underAlfonso, near Badajoz, and leaving three thousand of his mento stiffen the ranks of the Andalusians in maintaining thestruggle, he returned to Africa. Four years later the SpanishMohammedans again besought Yusuf to bring his legionsagainst their Christian despoilers, offering him liberal termsfor his assistance, and stipulating only that he should retireto his own dominions as soon as the work was completed.The Almoravide king subscribed the more readily to thiscondition, since his priestly counsellors absolved him from hisoath, and had little difficulty in convincing him that hisduty lay in the pacification of the unhappy Kingdom ofAndalusia. Yusuf organised a force capable of contendingwith both the Christians of Castile and his Moorish allies.The capitulation of Granada provided him with the meansof distributing vast treasure among his avaricious followers,and promises of even greater booty inspired them to furtherfaithful service. Tarifa, Seville, and the rest of the importantcities of Andalusia, fell before the treasure-huntingBerbers ;and with the surrender of Valencia, on the death ofthe Cid, the re-conquest of Mohammedan Spain was practicallycompleted.Order was temporarily restored,lives andproperty were once more respected, and a new era of peaceand prosperity appeared to have begun. But the degeneratinginfluence of wealth and luxurious ease, which in the courseof generations had sapped the manhood of Spain's successiveconquerors, played swift havoc with the untutored Berbers.At the end of a score of years, the Castilians, led by Alfonso**the Battler," had resumed the offensive, sacking and burningthe smaller towns, and carrying their swords and torchesto the gates of Seville and Cordova. The Almoravides werepowerless to resist their vigorous forays. The people ofAndalus, recognising the powerlessness of their protectors,

30 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINdeclared their independence, and rallied to the ranks of thescore of petty chiefs who raised their standards in every cityand castle in Andalusia, and who fought with, or bribed theirChristian adversaries for the maintenance of their vauntedpower.At this crisis in the history of Spain, when the dominionof the enfeebled and dissolute Arab and Berber leaders wasweakening before the resolute onslaughts of the rude, hardliving,and hard-fighting Christians of the North, a new forcewas created to turn the scale of Empire and prolong therule of the Moslem in Europe. Before the Almoravides hadbeen overthrown in Andalus, the Almoravides in Africa hadbeen vanquished and dispersed by the mighty Almohades,who now regarded the annexation of Mohammedan Spain asthe natural and necessary climax to the work of conquest.Andalusia had been a dependence of the AlmoravideEmpire; it was now to be a dependence of the Almoravides'ssuccessors. Between 1145 and 11 50 the transfer wascompleted; but although the Almohades had wrested thekingdom from the Almoravides, they had not subdued theThe new rulers, under-estimating theChristian provinces.potentiality — of this danger, left the country to be governedby viceroys an error in statecraft, which ultimately lostSpain to the Mohammedan cause. In 1195 they sent fromMorocco a huge force to check the Christian aggressivemovement, and the Northern host was routed at Alarcos, nearBadajoz. That success was the last notable victory thatwas to arrest the slow, but certain, recovery of all Spain toCatholic rule. In 12 12, the Almohade army suffered adisastrous defeat at the battle of Las Navas in ; 1235 theywere driven out of the Peninsula; three years later, on thedeath of Ibn-Hud, the Moslem dominion in Spain was restrictedto the Kingdom of Granada; and, although this

INTRODUCTORY 31Moorish stronghold was destined to endure for another twoand a-half centuries, it existed only as a tributary to thethrone of the Christian kings of Spain.For the purposes of this book, the history of Moorishof the Mohammedans fromSpain closes with the expulsionCordova, Toledo, and Seville. That more modern, and, insome ways more wonderful, Moorish monument— the RedPalace of Granada— Ibook on "Thehave dealt with in myAlhambra," to which this work is intended to be thecompanion and complement.

CORDOVA

fCORDOVAfour great cities of the Mohammedan domi-theOFnation in Spain, Cordova, as the seat of theKhalifate established by Abd-er-Rahman I., isrightly regarded as chief. The sun of the Moslemera shone with dazzling brilliance on Seville, and piercedthe shadows of grim Toledo ere it set upon the decayinggrandeur of Granada; but it had risen first on Cordova,and from "that abode of magnificence, superiority, andelegance" its glory had been reflected to the furthestcorner of the civilised world. For Cordova, by reason of itsclimate, its situation, and its surroundings has, since thebeginning of time, been one of the garden jsppts of Europe.The Carthaginians had aptly styledit "the Gem of the ^South," and the Romans had founded a city there in 152B.C., which they called Corduba. But Corduba had sidedwith Pompey against Caesar in the struggle for the mastershipof the Roman Empire, and the mighty Julius visitedthis act of hostility with the destruction of more than halfthe city, and the massacre of 28,000 of its inhabitants.When the Goths made themselves rulers of Spain in thesixth century, they selected Toledo to be their capital, andCordova sank into political insignificance. In 711, whenTarik had defeated Roderick near the banks of the Guadalete,he despatched Mughith with 700 horse to seize Cordova.Taking advantage of a fortuitous storm of hail, whichdeadened the clatter of the horses' hoofs, and assisted by

36 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthe treachery of a Christian shepherd,the followers of theProphet obtained an unopposed entry, and the city fellwithout a blow being struck. Forty-four years later Abd-er-Rahman I. established the dynasty of the Omeyyads ofCordova, and for three centuries the capital of MohammedanSpain was to be, in the language of the old chronicler,Ash-Shakand, " the repository of science, the minaret ofpiety and devotion, unrivalled even by the splendours ofor Damascus."BaghdadScience has long since deserted Cordova ; pietyis notobtrusive there ;its material magnificence has passed away.To-day the once famous city is a sleepy, smiling, overgrownvillage ; a congregation of empty squares, and silent,winding, uneven streets, which have a more thoroughlyAfrican appearance than those of any other town in Spain.Theophile Gautier has described its '' interminable whitewashedwalls, their scanty windows guarded by heavy ironbars," and itspebbly, straw-littered pavement, and thesensitive spirit of De Amicis was caught by a vague melancholyin the midst of its white-washed, rose-scented streets.Here, he writes, there is '* a marvellous variety of design,tints, light, and perfume here the odour of;roses, there oforanges, further on of pinks ; and with this perfume a whiffof fresh air, and with the air a subdued sound of women'svoices, the rustling of leaves, and the singing of birds.isa sweet and varied harmony that, without disturbing thesilence of the streets, soothes the ear like the echo of distantmusic." It has, as I have observed elsewhere, a charm thatfills the heart with a sad pleasure; there is a mysterious spellidle for hours inin its air that one cannot resist. One maythe sunshine that floods the deserted squares, and try to reconstitutein one's mind, that Cordova, which was described as**the military camp of Andalus, the common rendezvous ofIt

PLATE I.CORDOVA.Shell-like Ornaments In the Cupola of the Mihrab.

PLATE II.CORDOVA.Shell-like Ornaments Inthe Cupola of the Mihrab.

PLATE IIICORDOVA.Shell-like Ornaments In the Cupola of the Mlhrab.

PLATE IV.CORDOVA.Part of the ornamentation and keystone of one of the lowerarches which gives lightto the dome.Ring of the Cupola.

CORDOVA 37those splendid armies which, with the help of Allah, defeatedat every encounter the worshippers of the Crucified." Thisindolent, loliis^fed, ligtless^ Cordova was once, says El-Makkari, '* the meeting place of the learned from allcountries, and, owing to the power and splendour of thedynasty that ruled over it, it contained more excellenciesthan any other city on the face of the earth." AnotherMohammedan author, Al-hijari, Abu Mohammed, writing ofthe city in the twelfth century, said " : Cordova was, duringthe reign of the Beni-Merwan, the cupola of Islam, theconvocation of scholars, the court of the sultans of theand the residence of the most illustriousfamily of Omeyyah,tribes of Yemen and Ma'd. Students from all parts of theworld flocked thither at all times to learn the sciences ofwhich Cordova was the most noble repository, and to deriveknowledge from the mouths of the doctors and ulema whoswarmed in it. Cordova is to Andalus what the head is tothe body. Its river is one of the finest in the world, nowgliding slowly through level lawns, or winding softly acrossemerald fields, sprinkled with flowers, and servingit forrobes ;now flowing through thickly-planted groves, wherethe song of birds resounds perpetually in the air, and nowwidening into a majestic stream to impartits waters to thenumerous wheels constructed on its banks, communicatingfresh vigour to the land."[The extent of ancient Cordova has been differentlystated, owing, ilo doubt, to the rapid increase of its populationand the expansion of the buildings under the sultans ofthe dynasty of Merwan on the one hand, and, on the other,to the calamities and disasters by which it was afflicted underthe last sovereigns of that house. Cordova is, moreover,described by Mohammedan writers as a city which neverceased augmenting in size, and increasing in importance,

.38 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINfrom the time of its subjugation bythe Moors until a.d.1009-10, when, civil war breaking out within it, the capitalfell from its ancient splendour, gradually decaying, and losingits former magnificence, until its final destruction in a.d.1236, when itpassed into the hands of the Christians.From 711 until 755, when Abd-er- Rahman arrived inSpain to seize the new Moorish possession, which had fallento the military skill and courage of Tarik's Berbers, theconquerors had been too fully employed in capturing citiesto devote much leisure to beautifying their prizes ; now, withthe foundation of the Omeyyad power, Cordova was to reapthe first fruits of comparative peace. But the repulsion ofthe Abbaside invasion, the subjugation of Toledo, and thesuppression of the Berber revolt in the Northern provinces,long delayed the commencement of the great mosquewhich the sultan projected as ''a splendid seal upon theworks pleasing to the Almighty, which he had accomplished."By the building of the mosque, Abd-er- Rahmanwould secure a place for himself in Paradise, and wouldleave to his own honoured memory a M ecca ofjthe-West towhich the followers of the Prophet could go in pilgrimage.The treasury of Abd-er-Rahman was at this time in"aflourishing condition, despite the large sums spent in addingsplendour to the growing khalifate, and there appeared tobe no difficulty in carrying out his project. But Umeya IbnYezid, the favourite secretary of the sultan, who, in hiscapacity of Katib, was instructed to make overtures forthe purchase of the church on whose site the khalifintended to build the new mosque, soon found that thenegotiations were beset by serious difficulties. The Christiansheld firm to the conditions of capitulation granted them bythe Saracen conquerors of Cordova, and were not at allinclined to sell to Abd-er-Rahman the temple upon which

CORDOVA 39he had set his heart. This buildingis described by Pedrode Madrazo as a spacious basilica, which they shared withthe followers of the Prophet, since the Mohammedans,according to the practice established amongst them by theadvice of the Khalif Omar, shared the churches of the conqueredcities with the Christians, and, after taking Cordova,had divided one of the principal basilicas in two parts, oneof which they conceded to the Cordovans, reserving the other,which they at once turned into a mosque, for themselves.The Christians had religiously paid the tribute exacted fromthem that they might keep their churches, bishops, andpriests, but this had not protected them from unjust exactionsand plunderings at the hands of the governors andrepresentatives of the Eastern khalifs.Knowing this, Abd-the desired site withouter-Rahman was anxious to acquireviolence, and, with his natural sagacity, he perceived thatthe religious zeal of the native Christians was much lessfervent 4:han that of his own people. Captivity and afflictionhad damped the old ardour of the natives of Cordova,which, in his day, was no longer the heroic colony, so anxiousfor martyrdom, and so prodigal of its blood, as it was at thetime when the flock of Christ was guided by the greatOsius under the persecutions of Diocletian and Maximilian.Neither was it the Cordova which had endured wars, hunger,and plague sooner than be contaminated with Arianism, andthe khalif knew,, too, thatin spite of the education given tothe Christian youth in the schools and colleges of themonasteries, where many young priests and secular scholarspromised to be a future danger to the Mohammedans, theChurch at Cordova was suffering grievous wounds from thenew doctrines of Migencio and Elipando. He was, therefore,the more surprised to receive a stubborn refusalto hisoffer, but the estimation in which he held the vanquished

40 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINpeople and their leaders, led him to believe that he couldovercome their obstinacy by quiet persistence, and by trustingto time to undermine their scruples. His policy was justifiedbyits eventual success.How did Abd-er-Rahman succeed in persuading theChristians to make so great a sacrifice ? How came they tobe induced to abandon their principal church to the infidels ?Had not these walls been witnesses of the vows they hadsworn at the most solemn epochs of their lives ?Perhaps itwas already a matter of indifference to them to see theground, sanctified by the blood of their martyrs, defiled!" God Almighty alone knows " must be our only commentupon this unaccountable transaction, and we leave it thusin accordance with the practice adopted by the Arabhistorians, when they were at a loss for an explanation.It is certain that under the reign of Abd-er-Rahmanthe Christians were_jio_longei^ persecuted on account oftheifu;eligion. They paid tribute, it is true, as a conqueredpeople, but their faith was respected they had their churches;and monasteries, where they worshipped publicly and it is;not recorded that any of their priests were molested by thefirst Moorish king of the West. On the other hand, whenthey compared their present lot with that of the past, theymust have considered themselves greatly fortunate, as theyescaped the tyranny under which their fathers had sufferedduring the years from the cruel Alahor to the time of thecovetous Toaba. It is certain that a new empire was risingin Cordova, which was very threatening to the law of Christ ;but at first its menace was not revealed, and for this reasonit was more to be feared. Its intentions were not published,but they were vaguelyfelt. Those who were wisest and mostfar-seeing could perceive, though still far off, the dark cloudof a bloody persecution drawing around the Church of

CORDOVA 41Andalusia; but for the generality of the Christians thereseemed to be no reason why the present toleration was notto continue, and it is certain that fear was not the motivethat made them yield to the wishes of the khalif.History is very reticent concerning this event in; fact,as Pedro de Madrazo admits, nothing definite has, up to thepresent, been discovered with regard to The it.probabilitiesare that the Bishop of Cordova, upon receiving the messageof the Moorish king, called a council, and, after due discussion,resolved to part amicably with that which, despitethe king's moderation, would without any doubt be takenfrom them by force, should they persist in their refusal. Inparting with their church, and transferring their place ofworship, they hoped, too, to be released from the odious proximityof the infidels, whose presence under the roof of theirbasilica must always have been looked upon as a desecrationof the sacred building. And, finally, the advantages to begained by removing their holy relics to a mere suitablethe khalifssanctuary may have decided them to acceptshould be allowed tooffer, under the condition that theyre-build the basilica of the martyrs St. Faustus, St. Januaris,and St. Marcellus, which had been destroyed in recent years ;and this being conceded to them by the khalif, the bishopauthorised the transfer. The Arab ordered that the priceagreed upon should be sent at once to the Christians, whowere in turn to surrender their church forthwith, becauseAbd-er-Rahman, already advanced in years, was anxiousthat the edifice he was going to raise should be commencedwithout delay, ^o sooner had the Christians departed thanAbd-er-Rahman left his villa in Razafa and took up hisresidence at the alcazar of the city, inorder to superintendthe projected work. The destruction of the old buildingwas immediately proceeded with. Devoured with the desire

42 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINV to see the work completed, the indefatigable old man spentmany hours each day on the scene, carefully examining theportions of the demolished buildings, which were to beutilised for the new mosque, and classifying them with rareskill. The whole city was filled with movement and commotion.There was not a trade amongst the people which didnot receive fresh impetus from the new building. Whilst allwere busy in the factories and workshop, in the woods, onthe mountains, and on the roads from the hills to the city ;whilst the furnaces and brick ovens were glowing whilst the;Syrian architect meditated on his plans and on those tracedby the king's own hands, and the Katib wrote to Asia andAfrica inviting the co-operation of famous artists; the people,lazy and curious, swarmed around the spacious foundations,and the whole city presented a scene of animation andexcitement not easy to describe.Abd-er- Rahman, who had a presentiment that he wouldnotjiyejo .see -the-mosque finished, pushed on the work withall speed, that he might at least have the satisfaction ofcovering the arcades which formed its naves, and of inauguratingthe cult of Islam with one of those eloquentharangues, which he was in the habit of addressing to hispeople on the days of '' Juma," or Rest. Barely two yearsafter the foundations were laid the square fortress of Islamrose above the groves by the river, surpassing in height thesevere Alcazar of Rodrigo. A few more moons, and theinterior walls, the superb colonnades of bold and unusualform,— the mosque of Cordova is probably the first edificein which superposed arches were introduced— the gracefulrows of double arches, the ample porticos, the handsomefa9ade of eleven entrances, the rich side doors, flanked byfretted windows, and finally the incomparable roof of incorruptiblewood, carved and painted, would be finished. Still

CORDOVA 43a few more moons, and the '* hotba," or harangue, for thehealth of Abd-er-Rahman was to be read to the people fromthe most beautiful " nimbar," or pulpit in the West, andrepeated by two thousand believers as with one voice, drowningin the vibrating surge of an immense and thunderingcontempt the shamed hymns of the vanquished Nazarenes.Not only was the mosque to^be ready for the celebrationof the public ceremonies on the firstday of ''Alchuma," butalready the sanctuary loomed at the extremity of the principalnave towards the South, covered with rich and dazzlingByzantine ornamentation, the venerated copy of the holyhouse of Mecca. The great aljama was not yet complete,itis true, but the diligent architects would find a way to satisfythe impatience of the sultan by covering the walls with richhangings from Persia and Syria. A profusion of Corinthiancolumns in the principal naves, and of bold marble pillarsfrom the Roman monuments, sent from the provinces aspresents to the monarch from his walies, would be in theirplace. The columns taken from the old basilica of theVisigoths, would be found in the secondary naves, withothers, as yet unchiselled. The floor was to be covered withflowers and fragrant herbs, and the sacred precincts would beinundated with light and perfume, diffused by hundreds ofcandelabra and thuribles. The fortunate Abd-er-Rahmanwould be able at least once before he died to direct the ritesof the religion, for the propagationmany sacrifices, ifi his capacity of *' Iman" of the law.But it was not to be. That day the news spread throughthe city that the angel of death was seated by the bedside ofthe khalif ;and soon after, the body of Abd-er-Rahman, theof which he had made sowise, the virtuous, and the victorious, lay in one of thechambers of his alcazar, wrapped in the white garments,distinctive of his great lineage. The sad event was an-

44 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINnounced to the people by Abd-er-Rahman Ibn Tarif, thesuperior of the Aljama of Cordova, from the very pulpitfrom which the dead monarch was to have addressed hissubjects, and the crowds departed from the mosque exclaimingMay the Amir rest in the sleep of peace, Allah:''will smile upon him on the day of reckoning."

PLATE VCORDOVA.Curvelinear trianglesresulting from the intersection of the arches sustaining the dome.Settingof thearchessustainingthedome.Settingof thearchessustainingthedome.

PLATE VICORDOVA.Ornament runningbelow the Cupola.Ornament runningbelow the Cupola.^..- >-i -Settingof one of the lowerarches which gives light to thedome.

PLATE VII.CORDOVA.Curvelinear triangles resulting from the intersection of the arches sustaining the dome.Architrave of one of the Arches sustaining the Dome.

•">' ^-wcs0)..-^- .«;;>;>4) T3cdin ftJa ^o^< >ooGCo ooT3cO0.r-V'"^.0)(dI

45CORDOVA1THE MOSgUE.I'OKTAr. ON THE NORTH SIDE, MOORISH STYLE, BUILT UNDER HAKAM IH., 988— lOOI

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PLATE X.CORDOVA.

PLATE XI.f. ryssmsms^^msm,^ -#^^^^^ ^-^^Windows in an Alcove.

3§!f t!jt) mJd bii' JJ byjcJ b^Jdmu biiijj hm biiJj wjj mjj mtjm, \PLATE XII.aiiaiS5iigi1^ft.In.ight of Vase 4 5ft.in.Diameter 2 113grtyjjub)jjuk)jjti2)ijyujj(iwjjii2)ijui2jjjuwjjtw)juij)jjuajj*Arab Vase of Metallic Lustre.

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CORDOVA 53its ma gnificent bridg e, creating useful public institutions, andfinally completing the grand mosque, which his father hadcommenced, founding and endowing in connection with itschools ..and colleges. Moreover, he did all this with theresources of the treasury, and with his lawful part of thespoils of conquest, wi^thout levying any extraordinary taxes.Tradition relates that there formerly was a tiridge_oyerth^Guadel^uiyir, erected on the site of the present structure,about 200 years before the arrival of the Moors inSpain but, this edifice being : greatly decayed,it was rebuiltby the Arabs during the Viceroyship of Assamh, a.d.720 or 721. This noble structure is four hundred paces^ orone thousand feet, in length, and its breadth istwenty-twofeet eight inches within the parapets. The passage over thebridge is a straight line from one end to the other; thearclies—are-_sixteen_ in number, and the buttresses of thepiers are much stronger and better adapted for similar purposesthan the modern tri-lateral cut-waters. Nearly elevencenturies have these buttresses withstood the rapid floods ofthe Guadelquivir, without sustaining any material injury.Although Hisham practically rebuilt the bridge, the labourdid not contribute to his personal convenience. His greatlove of hunting caused the malcontents among his subjectsto whisper that he had repaired the bridge to facilitate theoutgoings and incomings of his hunting parties. Therumour reached the king, who vowed that he would nevercross the bridge again— a vow he faithfully observed.The great Aljama was completed in the year a.d. 793.The Emir Hisham took as great a personal interest in itsprogress as did his father, the walies of the provinces contributedto its decoration with the spoils from ancientmonuments, the artificers with their genius, victors withtheir booty, the city with its workmen, the mountains ofD

54 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINCordova and Cabra by yielding the treasures of theirquarries, Africa with the trunks of its imperishable larchpines,and Asia by inoculating the growing Arabic-Spanishart with its genius of ornament, its aspirations and its poetry.The superb mosque was finished, the workmen restedfrom their labours, and Hisham was confident that he hadsecured a place in the garden of everlasting joys. Let uslook at this new house of prayer, majestically situated at thesouthern boundary of the great city, close to the green banksof the wide river of Andalus, occupying an area of 460 feetfrom north to south, and 280 from east to west, surroundedby high, thick battlemented walls, flanked by stout buttressesof watch towers, and surmounted by a lofty minaret. It isentered by the faithful by nine rich and spacious outer gates,and by eleven interior doors, four in the east and west sides,and a principal one to the north ;the eleven in the innerfa9ade communicating with an equal number of naves inthe temple. The interior arrangement of this wonderfulmonument is most beautiful. There is a great courtyard, oratrium, with wide gates in the north, west, and east sides,having fountains for the ablutions and the purifications,and orange and palm groves. Then comes the immensebody of the house of prayer, divided into eleven principalnaves, running from north to south, and crossed at rightangles by twenty-one smaller naves, which run from east towest. The elegant combination of the arcades, in whichthe pilasters are superposed on the columns, and the archeson other arches, leaving a passage for the light between theupper and lower columniation, is quite ideal. Finally, themysterious hidden sanctuary, within which the Koran iskept, in whose precincts Oriental art has exhausted all theriches of its fascinating resources.The eleven great doors leading from the courtyard to the

55OQC

THE^y^^RSITY

ou59

6iCORDOVATHE GATES OF I'AKDON.

CORDOVA 63mosque are superb double arches all in a row, sustained bybeautiful marble columns, which, four by four, encircle thefires,same doors, appears to be a glimpse of the longed-for Gardenof Delights. The Mohammedan poet, Mohammed IbnMohammed Al-baluni, sings as follows of the holy House ofPrayer, which surpasses in richness of colour, beauty ofdesign, and boldness of ornamentation the most famousmosques of Arabia, Syria, and Africa :"Abd-er- Rahman, for the love of God, and in honour ofhis religion, spent eighty thousand dinars of silver andgold.""He laid them out in constructing a temple for the useof his pious nation, and for the better observance ofthe religion of Mahomet."" Here the gold lavished on the panelled ceilings shineswith the same brilliancy as the lightning, which piercestheclouds."The design, as completed bythe Sultan Hisham I.in the years 794-95, received cor\siderable-JUiiprQvements atthe hands of his successors. Indeed, it can be safely saidthat none of the sultans of the illustrious family of Omeyyadwho reigned in Cordova failed to make some estimableaddition, or contributed in some way to the decoration ofHakam^s son, Abd-er-Rahman II.,the sumptuous building.stout supporting pillars of stone in which they are consolidated.From the courtyard_thejnteriprof the mosqueis seen through these eleyen__daors glittering with goldenand from the temple the courtyard, seen through theseA.D. 822-852, ordered much "Gilt-work"— Zak-hrafah— toMoham-be made, but died before the work was completed.med, his son and successor— — a.d. 852-886 continued thework undertaken by his father, and broughtit to a close.Mohammed's son, Abdallah— a.d. 886-888 — is also recordedas having made improvements in the building.

^e^^-64 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINIn the time of the Great Khalif, Abd-er-Rahman III.,called An-nasir in order to distinguish him from the othermonarchs of that name, the old minaret was pulled downby the advice of a wise architect, and a new one built onits site, whose vastness surpassedall other minarets in theworld. Forty-three days were spent in sinkingits foundations,which penetrated into the tillground water wasstruck, and three months sufficed for its construction. Thesuperb tower is built of freestone and mortar in such acontains two staircases in itscurious manner that, thoughitinterior, each flight containing 107 steps, people can ascendto the top and go down again without seeing one another.This elaborate tower measures fifty-four cubits from itsfoundations to the upper part of the open dome, to whichthe priest, who calls to prayers, turns his back, as he perambulatesthe projecting balcony, whose elegant balustradesurrounds the four walls like a graceful ring. From thisbalcony up to the top the tower rises eighty-three cubitsmore, being crowned with three beautiful apples, two of goldand one of silver, each three palms and a half in diameter,from which spring two lilies of six petals, supporting apomegranate of purest gold. It has fourteen windows inits four faces. In two of these faces there are three intervals,and in the other two, two intervals, formed betweencolumns of white and red jasper, and over the windowsthere is a crowning of solid arches sustained by smallcolumns of the same jasper.These windows break upthe mass of the walls in an admirable manner. Theminaret is covered, both inside and out, with beautifultracery in relief.Abd-er-Rahman also rebuilt the wall which enclosed themezquita to the north, looking towards the Orange Court,and he had the entire floor of the mosque levelled.

65OQOu

67CORDOVATHE MOSQUE— LATKRAI. CiATK,

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71CORDOVAINTKRIOK OF THE MOSyLE. MOORISH STVI.E, BUILT 961-967, UNDER IIAKAM M.

CORDOVA73In 961 A.D.,Abd-er-Rahman III., the last great Ome3^adSultan of Cordova died, and among his papers was discovereda diary, in his own handwriting, in which he hadcarefully noted down the days which he had spent inhappiness and without any cause of sorrow. They numberedexactly fourteen. " O, man of understanding !" says the''Arabian philosopher, wonder and observe the small portionof real happiness the world affords even in the most enviableposition !The Khalif An-nasir, whose prosperity in mundaneaffairs, and whose widely-spread empire became proverbial,had only fourteen days of undisturbed enjoyment during areign of fifty years, seven months, and three days. Praisebe given to Him, the Lord of eternal glory and everlastingempire."The Sultan Hakam, as soon as he succeeded to theKhalifate, determined to enlarge the mosque, which was toosmall to accommodate thejjumbers of those who went thereto perform the " azalas."£He called together the architectsand geometricians, who decided that the addition shouldextend from the "kiblah"— the point looking towards Mecca— of the mosque to the extreme end of the atrium, thusrunning the entire length of the eleven naves. The additionmeasured ninety-five cubits from north to south, and asmuch from east to west as the width of the whole mosque.The passage to the alcazar, used by the khalif when hecame to the **azalas," was intersected near the "nimbar," orpulpit, inside the "maksurrah." In the year 354 of theHegirah the cupola, which crowned the "mihrab," or sanctuary,containing the Koran, in the addition to the mosquemade by Hakam, was completed. In the same year the**sofeysafa," or enamelled mosaic work, was commenced inthe mosque, and, by the order of Hakam, the four incomparablecolumns, which formerly had served as jambsfor the

74 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINdoors of the old " mihrab," were set up again in the newone. It is related that while the addition was being made, alively dispute arose as to the exact spot of the " kiblah,"and it was finally decided to erect the sanctuary at the limitof the prolongation of the eleven naves, in the centre,looking directly to the south. Between the interior southernwall and the exterior, which was strengthened with roundtowers, a space of some fifteen feet remained. This wasdivided into eleven compartments, corresponding with theeleven naves of the mosque, that in the centre beingdestined for the sanctuary, and the others being reservedfor the priests and other purposes. In this manner the*'mihrab " was placed in the exact centre of the south side,with a wing on each side, of precise resemblance. In the westwing there was a secret passage leading from the mosque tothe alcazar, which extended very near the west wall of themezquita. The doors of this passage were arranged in amost intricate fashion, doubtless for the greater security ofthe palace, and they gave entrance to the interior of the" maksurrah," a sumptuous reserved space, communicatingon the north, east, and west with the great naves, and onthe south forming part of the interior wall of the mosque.This " maksurrah " was a privileged spot, enclosed by asort of wooden grating, elegantly worked on both faces, andsurmounted by turrets, the object of which was to cut offall communication with the sultan. This screen, measuringtwenty-two cubits to its summit, gives its name to that partof the edifice which it occupies. Its ornamentation, as wellas that of the new part of the central nave, extending fromthe old to the new " mihrab," is magnificent in the highestdegree. The plan of the " maksurrah," properly speaking,was a large rectangle, divided into three parts, almost square,from which rose three Byzantine domes of rare beauty.

CORDOVA 83That in the centre served as a vestibule to the sanctuary,and was the most remarkable for its proportions, its outlines,and its decorations. This part of the mosque has been preservedin its principal features to the present day. Theedifice has lasted nine centuries, and there is no indicationthat it will not endure for nine centuries more.Over the festooned arches, which intersect each other,rise seven light and graceful horse-shoe arches, which disappearinto the south wall, thus closing the picture andterminating the lower body of the sumptuous vestibule.Above these double arches runs an impost, beautifullyworked and very graceful, embracing and crowning the fourfa9ades, and dividing the cupola into two zones — an upperand a lower. On this impost rest beautiful columns in pairs,oversetting great bold semi-circular arches, arranged withsuch art that they seem to imitate the curves of the interlacedgarlands of a choir of beautiful odalisques, as thearches do not go from each column to the corresponding oneof the next couple, but leave the intervening pair open. Inthis way, as there are two pairs of columns supporting theimpost in each fa9ade, eight principal arches are formed inthe space in two great quadrilaterals placed opposite eachother, their springing stones crossing and forming eightpoints of a star. There is an octagonal ring in the centrewith eight graceful pendants, as an embellishment to thecapitals of the eight pairs of columns. A horseshoe archfrom point to point, to which a tablet of alabaster is fitted,leaves an uncertain prospect of the vault of heaven, whichshines upon the cupola and the profusion of rich mosaicwork with which it is adorned.Between the elegant arches, which appear rather tohang from the cupola than to support it, the marvellousfa9ade of the "mihrab" appears in the background, which

I84 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINglistens in the rays of the setting sun like a piece of brocadeloaded with jewels, and which must have been dazzling as afairy palace when, in the month of Ramadhan, the fourteenhundred and fifty-four lights of the great lamp shone underthis enamelled " half-orange." This fa9ade, in spite of itsmarvellous richness, does not show the smallest confusion inits ornamentation, each line is traced with the idea of givinggreater beauty to the arch which forms the entrance to thesanctuary. It iscomposed of the arch with its spaciousarchitrave and its smooth jambs with small columns, togetherwith its *'arraba" surrounded by Grecian frets, and a lightseries of arches without vacuums, upon which rest the impostswhich divide the upper and lower bodies of the dome.But such is the profusion and splendour of the ornamentationof each of these parts that it is impossible to describe them.The keystones, the architrave, the circle drawn in squares, thepanels, the trefoil arches and the tympana are incomparable,and the combination of Grecian frets with Persian andByzantine ornaments and isgeometrical figures as beautifulas it is bewildering. These last, moreover, do not preponderateas was the case later in the degenerate Mussulmanornamentation proper. Here the Grecian frets are the mostimportant, being combined in a thousand different ways, thestems and leaves tracing the most graceful curves, and alluniting to form an elegant border, of the most capricioustracery. The whole of this ornamentation is of marble,delicately carved, now smooth and white, now covered withminute mosaic of various colours, and loaded with crystaland gold. The inscriptions seen here are also in gold, ona ground of crimson, or ultra-marine, alternating with theshining ''sofeysafa."" "Sofeysafais an obscure word, which Don Pascualde Gayangos believes to be a transposition of the Arabic

85CORDOVATHE CENTRAL NAVE OF THE MOSgUE— 961-967.

8;CORDOVATHE MOSgUB—CHIEF ENTRANCE.

OF THE TK^ERS/TYOF -i

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91CORDOVAINTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE—LATERAL NAVE.INTERIOR OF THE MOSQUE—ftASTSIDE,

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Detail of one of the nichesof the Cupola.PLATEXVICORDOVA.Mosaic keystones of the great arch of the Mihrab.Details of the Mihrab.

^-THE ^y...ZRSiTY

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CORDOVA 93word Foseyfasa,* signifying enamel work of exceptionalbrilliancy, laid down by Greek workmen whom Abd-er-Rahman had brought to Cordova for the task.Two columns are built into the jamb of the entrance— arch to the sanctuary one of black marble, the other ofjasper, with lavishly carved capitals. If his blind enthusiasmdid not deceive El-Makkari, the four columns were of greenjasper and lapis-lazuli, two of each. An impost rests uponthem as a cornice, and from this the arch springs ;andon the impost an inscription in golden characters upon acrimson ground is written, which has the following meaning:''In the name of God, clement and merciful, let us givepraise to Him, who directed us to this, for we could not havedirected ourselves if we had not been directed by God, forwhich purpose the deputies of our Lord came with the truth.The priest Al-mostaner Billah Abdallah Al-Hakam, Princeof the Faithful— may God be faithfulto him— ordered thepresident and prefect of his court, Giafar ben Abd-er-Rahman— may God be pleased with him— to add these twocolumns, since he laid the foundations in the holy fear ofGod, and with His good pleasure. This work was concludedin the month of Dhilhagia of the year 354 of the Hegirah."From this inscriptionit would seem that two of thecolumns supporting the arch of *'sofeysafa" were placedthere by order of Hakam II., and that the others belongedto the old" mihrab," which had been demolished in orderto lengthen the mosque ;but no one iscapable of sayingto-day whether the black marble columns, or the jasper,•Posty/asa. Gayangos tells us that the word is not in the Dictionaries, but that,according to an old Arabian writer, it is a substance of glass and small pebbles, crushedand baked together, uniting, with great variety of colour, great brilliancy, and beauty;One of the conditions of peace granted toit is sometimes mixed with silver and gold.thm Emperor of Constantinople by the Khalif, Al-waldd, was that the Emperor shoulda certain quantity of fosey/asa, or enamelled work, for the great mosque atB'ovide amascus. Idrisi, in his description of the mosque of Cordova, says that the enamelwhich covered the walls of the " mihrab," came from Constantiuople.E

94 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN4Iwere those added by the order of the magnificent khalif;and whether the inestimable giftwhich was deemed worthyof being commemorated in letters of gold was of " lapis-"God alone knows !lazuli or not.The sanctuary is a small heptagonal space, with apavement of white marble, a socle formed by seven greatslabs of the same, and a dome, also of marble, shaped like ashell and made of a single piece, edged with an elegantmoulding. The seven sides of the heptagon are decoratedwith exquisite trefoiled arches, supported by marble columns,with gilt capitals of delicate workmanship the columns;resting on a cornice, below whose modules runs a fascia, orfillet, of gilded characters carved in the marble of the slabs,which form the socle, or sub-basement.-^ Within this sanctuary was kept the famous " nimbar "Hakam II., which was a sort of pulpit, according to theofArab historian, unequalled in the world, either for itsmaterials or itsworkmanship.It was of ivory and preciouswoods— ebony, red and yellow sandal, Indian aloe, &c.— andthe cost of it was 35,705 dineros and three adirmames. Ithad ten steps, and was said to consist of 37,000 pieces ofwood joined by gold and silver nails, and incrusted withprecious stones. It took nine years to build, eight artificersworking at it each day. This pulpit, which must have beenof mosaic of wood^ewels and metals of price, was reservedfor the khalif, andjmit was deposited also the chief objectof veneration of all the Mohammedans of Andalusia, a copyof the Koran, supposed to have been written by Othman,and still stained with his blood. This copy was kept in abox of golden tissue studded with pearls and rubies, andcovered with a case of richest crimson silk, and was placedon a desk or lectern, of aloe wood with golden nails. Itsweight was so extraordinary, that two men could scarcely

95CORDOVATHE MOSyfEDETAIL OF THE (iATE.THE MOSyUE— l-AVAUE UiIHK ALMANZOK.

THE-^KERSfTY

97CORDOVAVIEW IN THE MOSQUE -961 -967.

99CORDOVATHE MOSQUE— A GATE ON ONE OK THE LATERAL SH^ES.

lOJCORDOVATHE MOSQOE— SIDE OF THE CAPTIVE'S COLUMN.

carry it.It was placed in the pulpitCORDOVA 103in order that the Imammight read in it during the "azala;" and when the ceremonywas concluded, it was carried to another place, whereand silverit remained, carefully guarded,^ith the goldvases destined for the great celebration of Ramadhan.-^The chronicler, Ambrosio de Morales, says that the" nimbar " was a sort of chariot on four wheels, and that ithad but seven steps. It was to be seen in the cathedral ofCordova as late as the middle of the sixteenth century, whenit was dismembered, and its materials employed in the constructionof a Christian altar.The place, which from the slight indications of Edrisi,'"^appears to have Nserved as treasure-room, was a sort ofchapel, which is situated to-day not far from the site of theancient *'mihrab," to the north of the present ''maksurrah.'*In this way it can easily be supposed that the noblestapartment of the mosque was completely closed to thepeople on the north and south sides; and, being occupied bythe principal personages of the court, it would have beendifficult for any irreverence to have been shown to the Imamor to the venerated "Mushaf"— Koran. The two **maksurrahs" remained, the one facing the other, both occupyingexactly the same space that; is, at least, from east to west,supposing that they cut the three centre naves of the elevenwhich are in the mosque. Both these ** maksurrahs," orscreens, have disappeared; and at the present time wecannot form the slightest idea as to their design. Almostthe only thing which has remained intact of that time isthe sumptuous space of the three chapels occupied by the" maksurrah" of Hakam and of the ; spaces occupied bythe old —**maksurrahs," only two disfigured chapels existthat of the chief nave, and that of the next nave to the east.The latter is divided into two parts by a platform some

I04 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINfeet above the floor of the mosque. In the upper portionthe *'Alicama" or preliminary for the prayer was made;and in the lower part, which still has the form of an undergroundchapel, the treasure was kept. The centre chapel,the present Chapel of Villaviciosa, was reserved for thekhalif when he did not act as Imam; and in the west chapel,which exists no longer, was the seat of the Cadi of theAljama. No trace of the original interior decoration ofthese chapels remains at the present day, and externally, onlythe arches facing the " mihrab," and which are similar tothose^f the fa9ade of the vestibule, are left..^ fWhen everything had been completed internally tothe satisfaction of Hakam, it occurred to him that thefojjntain s in the Court of Ablutions did not harmonise withthe grandeur of the mosque he therefore commanded that;they should be replaced by four splendid founts, or troughs,each cut out of a single piece of marble— two for the womenin the eastern part, and two for the men in the wesf!\It washis wish that these basins should be of magnificenfproportions,and made from the same quarry.The work took muchtime, engaged many people, and necessitated the expenditureof a great deal of money ; but it was happily executed,and the troughs were brought to their destination by asloping way, specially constructed for the purpose, on greatcarts, each drawn by seventy stout oxen. The water, whichwas brought by the aqueducts of Abd-er-Rahman II., andwas stored in a great reservoir covered with marble, flowednight and day and after ;supplying the wants of the mosque,was carried ofl"by three conduits to feed as many fountainsfor public use in the north, east, and west of the city.-,,The great Vizier, Almanzor, considerably enlarged themosque; many Christians, loaded with chains, being employedamongst the workmen.The eastern wall was thrown

i'I05CORDOVAIfa:~.^^ ,.^jMMmmm.: ':

I07CORDOVA.1 M ! \l. \ II W ')! I MI-: I NTKRIOR OF THE CHAPEL OF THE MASURA AND ST FERniNANI).

logCORDOVADETAIL OF THE CHAFEL OF MASURA.

IllCORDOVA'.Li^^^^-JiiL.::^^^-.!.mBmm':P--/^t,fIHK :.i. '.-,.„'!-K -hLEVATlON OF THE GATE OF THE .SA.NCILAK^ uh IHh K.

CORDOVA 113down, and the foundations of a new wall were laid onehundred and eighty feet from the old one, throughout theentire length from north to south. In the covered partof the building eight great naves were added, all of equalsize, and having the same number of arches as those alreadyexisting; so that the thirty-three minor naves, which cutthe principal naves at right angles, were lengthened onehundred and eighty feet, running from east to west. Thenew part formed thirty-five transverse naves, where there hadformerly been only thirty-three, because the wing, with theresidences which fell to the east of the " mihrab" which wasnot lengthened, occupied the space of the two extra naves.The prolongation of the minor naves was not carried outwith the slavish and monotonous uniformity of modern days.The Arab architects did not understand symmetry as we doto-day, and they satisfied themselves with producing unityby means of variety, without seeking a forced correspondenceof similar parts. In the part added by Almanzor it wasconsidered useless to give the same dimensions to thebuttresses of the north wall as the primitive wall possessed,and consequently a space of six feet in length was gainedfrom the principal- naves at the north side. But as this extrawidth could not be given to the first of the lesser naves, asthe height of the columns would not allow of it, the architectdoubtless thought that instead of dividing up this smallexcess equally among the thirty-three arches in the lengthfrom north to south, it would be preferable and more effectiveto preserve the first three or four naves in line, adding anave in the space gained by the diminution in the bulkof the buttresses, and by enlarging the succeeding naveswherever it seemed most convenient. As a result of this,the first transverse nave of the lengthened part, on accountof the great narrowness of its intercolumniation, was not

114 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINable to preserve the full span of its arches. It was necessary,therefore, to bring the latter nearer together and to breaktheir curve, in order to keep the desired height, and thusprobably for the first time, Pedro de Madrazo considers,was seen in the edifices of Arab Spain, the pointed archwhich was destined to totally change the physiognomy ofmonumental art in the Middle Ages. >The arch, broken in this manner at the culminatingpoint of its curve, presently adopted in this small nave allthe varieties of decoration to which it was susceptible. Herein effect, in this small space of barely seven feet wide andone hundred and eighty-five long, architecture exhausted atone time, and at the first attempt, all the shapes of arches4which were to be employed in the four following centuries ;a circumstance which was quite fortuitous. It was not theintention to dissimulate the enlargement of which we arespeaking on the contrary,it was decided to ; signaliseit inan unmistakable manner, for which purpose a row of stoutpillars was raised, where the old east wall stood, and whereat present is the dividing line between the eleventh andtwelfth greater naves, the pillars of which were suitablyunited to each other by great arches, springing from beautifulcolumns in pairs, built into the pillars. The old classicalart would never have confided such wide spaces to supportsso delicate as are these columns, which in couples send thebold festooned arches, which serve as an opening to theedifice of Almanzor, across to the opposite pair. But the architectsof the time of Abd-er- Rahman I. and of Hakam II.had already successfully attempted a similar feat in the grandarcade of the inner fa9ade, which looks on the Court, and mthe strengthening arcade which divides the primitive mosquefrom its prolongation to the south, so there was no reasonto fear its repetition. To-day we pass, with a certain respect,

115CORDOVAKhUii'^

117CORDOVATHE MOSQDE -MOSAIC DECORATION OF THE SANCTUARY, 965— lOOl

119CORDOVAitnil. Ml IX. I I. Ill ii\ .1 lAKSlRKAH.

CORDOVAnwoBimLuTHE MOSQUESECTION OF THE CUPOLA OF THE MIHRAH.

CORDOVA123under these bold arches of eight metres elevation, and six,seven, and even eight metres in width, when we consider thatthey rest on columns of some three metres high, includingtheir capitals; and only the stoutness of the pillars intowhich these graceful pairs are built assures us that they willnot fall to the ground, wearied with such a supernatural effort.For the greater solidity of the wide edifice, added byAlmanzor, a line of great pillars and arches, which markedthe southern limit of the original mosque, was lengthened asfar as the eastern wall, crossing at right angles the strengtheningarcade already mentioned stretching from north to south ;so that the actual_Aljama was divided into four unequ alparts, separated from each other, probably, by woodenscreens and partitions. The part added by Hakam II., atwhose extremities rose the old and the new ** maksurrah,"was called ** The Noble Apartment," and was reserved forthe nobility and the personages of the Court, the portionclose to the **mihrab'* bemg occupied by the ulema,alkatibes, almocries, and other ministers of the temple, andthe Imam. The three remaining parts were for the people,and most likely the sexes were divided, for it is certain, fromthe assurances of an historian cited by Ahmed El-Makkari,that there were two doors inside the naves leading to thejwomen's part.The art of the decorations of Almanzor's prolongationis not particularly attractive, the arches seem to be copiedfrom those of the old door, and the only circumstanceworthy of mention is that all the capitals of the columnsare equal, and of the same form, in contrast with the greatvariety and richness of the capitals in the primitive mosque,and in the additions of Hakam II. The delicate anduniform construction of the mighty "hagib" may be mentionedas a purely archaeological item, and also that the

124 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINnames of the artificers who made them are frequently to beseen in the foundations and shafts of the columns: e.g,^Mondair, Mostauz, Motobarack, Fayr, Masud, Tasvir,Nassar, Kabir, Amin, Jalem-al-Amery, Hachchi, Tsamil,Bekr, Casim.With the part added by Almanzor, the mosque is saidto have formed a great rectangular quadrilateral 742 feet_long^from n^jrth to south, and 472 feet wide from east towest, enclosed by four great battlemented walts7lortifiedwith square watch-towers, varying in height. The southwall, which reached a formidable height on account of thedeclivity of the ground, was adorned with nineteen towers,including those flanking it at both angles, which were moreand common to the two walls of east and west.spaciousThe western wall had fourteen-Jjowers, and thenorth five,including the majestic roinaret over the principal door; and,finally, the eastern wall was fortified by 4en towers, allcorresponding to the part which had to bear the pressure ofthe naves, and the wall of the Court at that side had notowers at all. The greater number of these towers remain,and the wide old walls also exist.There were twelve, outer gate^ to the mosque, tenleading into the edifice, and twenty-one interior doors,without counting those of the dependencies to the templeand that of the khalifs private passage, nineteen in thefa9ade of the courtyard, and two which led to the women'spart of the building. All the outer doors were for the mostpart rectangular, formed by arched lintels set into ornamentedhorseshoe arches, their keystones were either white,or of alternate colours, the white being richly decoratedwith stucco ornaments in relief, and the coloured withbeautiful mosaic of red and yellow brick, cut into tinypieces. The horseshoe arch is set in a beautiful frame,

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125CORDOVATHK MOSyUK— POME OK THE SANCTl'ARY

127CORDOVAVTHE MOSQDE.ROOF OF THE CHAPEL OF THE MASURA AND ST. FERDINAND.

29CORDOVAVILLAVICIOSA CHAPEL.

131CORDOVATHK MOSQUE- IlKTAIL OF THK HAM. OF CHOCOLATK

CORDOVA 133richly ornamented as are the tympana between the archand the lintel, the facias and the little windows of perforatedalabaster, which, now enclosed in arches resting onlittle marble pillars and grouped in graceful pairs, flank thedoor. Some of these have projecting cornices forming aparapet with small dentalated towers, which give the sacredbuilding the appearance of a fortress, and recall the warlike >-origin of the Mohammedan religion. All the outer gateshave inscriptions, with invocations and verses taken fromthe Koran.Hakam II. had an apartmentionstructedJjiJhe westernpart of the temple, which was to serve Jqr the distributioij/^'ol_alms, and here any poor wanderer, who happened tobe in the city without protection or means of subsistence,could obtain the wherewithal to continue his journey. Forthis purpose the khalif endowed the establishment in asplendid manner. It was not exactly a hostel, as its spacewas too limited ; and, besides, Hakam had already establishedother places of lodging for poortravellers outsidethe mosque, one of these being quite near this ** Dar-asasdaca,"or '' Alms Chamber." Poor students, too, werelooked after, and received a daily meal, and even smallsums of money. The wise men received annual pensionsfrom the treasury, according to their merit and personalcircumstances.The Aln^s^iT.hamhfr was, properly speaking, onlymtended for the distribution of alms to the poor. Itsbeautiful door, to-day blocked up, can still be seen, bothinside and out, in the wall of the mosque, and, according toEl-Makkari,It is no longer possible toit was the most beautiful of the western side.form an exact idea of the aspectof the chamber as it was when Hakam II. completed itsdecoration. He covered it with gilded and painted stucco

134 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN!work, which turned its walls into beautiful filigree, and to-daythis apartment is half forgotten, after having served as avestibule to the first Christian cathedral of Cordova. Noone would think that this place, beyond St. Michael'spostern, and separated from the body of the building by awretched partition and a door of pine-wood,is the ancient" Dar-as-asdaca." For many years it was used as a ChapterHall, and the archives of the extinct music-school, with itschoir books, were kept here.The actual dimensions of the mosque varied atdifferent periods, and are difficult to establish. Oneauthority says, that in length from north to south themosque measured six hundred and forty-two feet, in widthfour hundred and sixty-two feet. Mr. Waring, in his Notesof an Architect in Spain^ describes the mosque as an oblongof three hundred and ninety-four feet ,by three hundredand sixty feet. The famous Orange Court is in length twohundred and twenty feet, and, being within the boundarywalls of the mosque, it is probably included in the formermeasurement.It isalso impossible to fix, with any degree of certainty,the number of columns contained in the mosque during thetime of Mohammedan supremacy. Ambrosio de Morales,and the Infante Don Juan Manuel, both of whom describedthe mosque before the columns were reduced in number bythe alterations to which the building has been subjected,estimate the figures at one thousand and twelve, but it isonly too certain that when the mosque was converted into aChristian church very many were removed to make roomfor altars and chapels.No less than one hundred columns were comprisedwithin the '* maksurrah," which was further provided withthree doors of exquisite workmanship, one of which was

137CORDOVAMIHRAB OR SANCTUARY OF THE MOSQDE.

139CORDOVAiTMi; MOSyUE ARCH AND FRONT OF THE ABD-ER-RAHMAN AND MIHRAH CHAPELS

^^-'OF THE '"''>' ^UNIVERSITY

141

CORDOVA 143covered with plates of pure gold, as were the walls of the" mihrab." The floor of the " maksurrah," it is said, waspaved with silver, and the pavements adjacent to it werecovered with **sofeysafa."The ceiHng of thecovered withmosque was formerlynvaJ__ cartouches T bearing appropriate monitory inscriptionsand pious sentences— such as, "Be not one of the negligent,"''Felicity," ''Blessing," ''There is no God but God, towhom — all beings address themselves in their need " thusinciting the minds of the faithful to contemplation andprayer. Some few of the cartouches are stillremaining but;the inscriptions were, for the most part, carefully effacedwhen the mosque was transformed into a Christian temple.Those in the " mihrab," and in the angles near the tower,may yet be seen.The number of brazen chandeliers of different sizes inthe mosque is computed at upwards of twoJlundred, andthe number of cups attached, and containing oil, at upwardsof seven thousand. Some of the oil-reservoirs for the greatlamps were Christian bells, deprived of their clappers ;inverted, and suspended from the roof. It is known that inthe many expeditions against the Christian, bells were frequentlyremoved from the churches and broughtto Cordova.Sometimes the metal of the bells was recast into formsmore in accordance with the Moorish style of ornament, y^y^The following rites had to be observed in the service om^the mosque: The ornaments were. to consist only of brass,silver or glass lamps, which were lighted at night when thedoors were opened for prayer. Some striking design waspainted on the west wall, in order that the faithful shouldlook in that direction. There was only c^e pulpit which,was on whee ls, as the sermon was preached from any spotthe Talvi wisHed.

1144 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINThe CQUEts-of the mosque were paved with _jiQCcelaintiles, over ^ which pure water could flow. Those who didnot wash themselves at home were obliged to do so in theCourt of Ablutions before entering the sacred precincts.All shoes had to be leftat_ thedoor of the mosque,and nobuildings, such as inns and~~hosteTnes, and disreputablehouses, were allowed in the neighbourhood. No Jew§. wereallowed to pass before it. Women were not permitted toenter some mosques, because they were not circumcised,the sultana alone having an oratory, where she prayed forall women.At midnight a mezzin mounted the minaret, and criedout " : God is great, to pray is better than to sleep "; at twoo'clock in the morning he said the same at four o'clock he;placed a lantern at the end of a rod and said, *' Day isbreaking, let us praise God " at the fourth ;prayer he hoisteda white flag,which was lowered at one o'clock, saying," God is great." Friday was their feast day, and a bluebanner was hoisted at dawn, and left floating till half-pastten. The fifth prayer was at four o'clock in the afternoon,in winter at three ;when the evening star appeared, the^ sixth prayer was called out ;and at nine o'clock the last'prayer of the day was said. Sand glasses were employedto mark the passage of the hours.The state of Cordova died, vnth A Imanzor ;and theraces, who alternatelyToolTipossession of the throne, did notleave the least trace in the mosque. Finally, St. Ferdinand,King of Castile and Toledo, completely routed the Moors,and the mezquita was purified and dedicated to Our Ladyof the Assumption. The followingis an extract from thearchives of the cathedral " : Let it be known that I,Ferdinand, by the grace of God, King of Castile, with theconsent and approval of Dona Berenguele, my Mother, and

145CORDOVAVIEW OK THK INTKKIOK OF THK MIHKAH CHAHEL.

147CORDOVATHE MOSyLE— DETAILS OF THE INTERIOR OF THE CHAPEL OF THE MIHRAB

iI1

149CORDOVATHE MOSQUE- MAKBLE SOCLE IN THE MIHKAB.

151CORDOVA^i^iif#eliit^^'/i'K''BASEMENT PANEL OF THE FA

CORDOVA153of Dona Juana, the Queen my wife, and of my children,Alfonso, Frederico, and Ferdinand, make a deed of gift toGod of the Cathedral Church of Santa Maria of Cordova,and to you. Master Lope, my beloved chosen Bishop of thesame, from now on, and to your successors, and the Chapterof Canons, &c. November 12th, 1238." This pious monarchfounded a chapel dedicated to St. Clement, which waserected against the south wall, embracing the space occupiedby three naves from east to west, and by four transversenaves from north to south. This space was shut in withwalls, leaving the two Arab arches inside intact, the altardedicated to the saint being placed against the east wall.Many nobles followed the king's example, and foundedchapels, amongst them being that of St. Inez, erected byPiedro Diaz de Haro, in 1250, in the tenth principal nave,counting from the west wall, also against the south wall,and only occupying two transverse naves. St. Ferdinandendowed the cathedral so richly that on his death itsbenefices were very considerable. He was succeeded by hisson, Alfonso X., who showed the same religious spirit as hisfather, giving large grants to the funds of the cathedral ;and, in the year 1258, erecting the grand chapel, concedingmany privileges to the work and the fabric. The donationsmade by other Christians up to this time had been ofa very modest nature ; and, as the Jews of Cordova wereexpending great sums on the erection of a synagogue,itseems as though the Christians were shamed into greaterfor at the same time the famousgenerosity to the cathedral,commander, Domingo Munoz, erected the chapel of St.Bartholomew, and the chapter and the king decided toturn the mosque into a real Christian cathedral in developingWestern architecture. The commander made his chapelin the angle formed by the inner south wall and the west

154 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINside of the vestibule, or *'maksurrah," of Hakam II., takingthe area of two principal and two transverse naves.As thischapel could not be lighted from outside on account of thewest wing of the "mihrab," and the khalif's secret passagebeing behind, it was illuminated with light from the temple,a pointed door and four windows being made in the northwall.The chapter set about their work with more splendour.They selected the three first transverse naves of the nobleapartment, beginning at the re-inforcing wall, which marksnave thatthe prolongation of Hakam, giving to the singlethey opened a length of one hundred feet from the innerdoor of the Alms Chamber to the central apartment of thethree enclosed in the old *' maksurrah." They made theAlms Chamber into a vestibule, leaving the re-inforcing wallas it was without touching the bold ultra-semi-circulararches resting on pairs of columns; they pulled down thecadi's apartment in order to make way for the transept, andalso the three transverse naves it had occupied. The threecolumns in front of the Arab pillars, which stood in thelength from east to west, were pulled down too, and threehandsomer pillars were erected in their place, fortified atright angles by walls in the manner of buttresses, whichintercepted the entire width of one transverse nave. Greatpointed arches sprang from pillar to pillar, correspondingwith the horse-shoe arches in front ;a light and gracefuldome stretched from one side to the other, divided into fourcompartments by three great arches, of which that nearestto the sanctuary rested on high columns, and the other twoon well-carved brackets, with open-work borders suspendedat a regular height above the spaces. Finally, they took thecentral apartment of the ancient *' maksurrah," where wepresume the khalif sat, and erected there the Grand Chapel.

155CORDOVATHE MOSgUK — FKO.NT oF THE TKASTAMAKA CHAPKI.

157CORDOVAGENERAL VIEW OK THE CHAPEL OF VILLAVICIOSA

159CORDOVANORTH ANOLH OF THE CHAI'EL OK VILLAVICIOSA

i6i3

CORDOVA 163This chapel was built at the king's expense, for which thegrateful chapter resolved to celebrate the anniversary of hisdeath, a practice which has been faithfully observed to thepresent day.The arrangement of this space was perfectly adapted forthe purpose of a Grand Chapel ;the other room adjoiningto the east being converted into a sacristy. It was doubtlessthe architects ofin the same condition as when finished byHakam II. At the north side it had a horse-shoe archcorresponding with the re-inforcing wall of the same khalif,and on the east side it had a great arched window and twolittle doors at the sides, which communicated with thetribune of the ''Alicama," at the south side, giving asplendid example of the rich Byzantine style of the time ofHakam, and forming a combination of segment arches crossingin space and forming crosses of undulating ribbons inthe intercolumniations, the whole being similar to the decorationdisplayed in front of the vestibule of the ** mihrab."We do not know how the west side was decorated, wherethis space was united with the apartment of the cadi, whichhad been pulled down. In order to convert this into a GrandChapel it was not necessary to disfigure it completelyit was;sufficient to fillup the great northern arch, which in the timeof the khalifs was closed by the first **maksurrah," and alsoto block up the great window at the east, communicatingwith the tribune of the **AHcama;" to leave the two littleside doors open for communication with the sacristy, and toenlarge the sanctuary as much as necessary, to shut it in atthe south side with glass windows, and to place the customarychancel at its opening. Perhaps no more than this wasdone ;but who iscapable to-day of saying how muchrespect the king's architects had for Arab-Byzantine work ?In the year 1260 Don Gonzalo Yanez, first gentleman

i64 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN ^1of Aguilar, founded the Chapel of St. John the Baptist.Five years later the Bishop Fernando de Mesa built theChapel of Santiago, in the south-east corner, near theChapel of St. Clement. This chapel was wide and commodious,and the Arab arches in its area were not disturbed.In 1263 King Alfonso X. had the ancient aqueducts repaired,and in 1275 Prince Ferdinand gave an order for fourMoors, who should be free from taxation, to be kept at workin the building operations of the cathedral. Two of these iwere to be carpenters, and two masons. This privilege wasconfirmed several times in succeeding years, and a charterexists, dated Cordova, 25th October, 1282, which orders thatall the Moors living in the city, whether they were artificersor not, shall work for two days of the year in the cathedral.It was thought that these workmen would understand therepairing of Moorish work better than Christians, but thetask was also meant as a humiliation. As time went on,these workmen, more or less, lost the traditions of their faithand their architecture, so that they were really of littleservice in preserving the original character of the edifice.In 1278 the first statu£_of-St^jia£lmeLthe- Archangelwas placed on the tQ^^rthejninaret. At that time Cordovawas visited by the plague, which worked terrible destructionamongst the inhabitants. It is related that St. Raphaelappeared to Friar Simon de Sousa, of the Convent of OurLady of Mercy, and told him that God was moved withcompassion, and that He would take away the visitation ifa statue of St. Raphael himself were placed on the towerof the Cathedral, and if his Feast were celebrated properlyevery year. This was done, and the plague immediatelyceased. A new chapel to St. Bartholomew was erected in1280 by Martin Munoz, nephew of the famous commanderDomingo Munoz ;and after this, the Chapel of St. Paul,

i65

167CORDOVAARAH TKIHfNK. TO-DAY THK CHAPKI. OK VM.I.A VinoSA. TKKT SIDK.

i6gCORDOVA^ .^.-«...a:'';.[W>l3

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171•y»•.

CORDOVA173which belonged to the family of the Godois. Thenfollowedthe foundation of the Chapel of St. Nicholas, by a piousArchdeacon ;and of the Chapels of St. Benedict, St.Vincent, and St. Giles, and that of Our Lady of the Snow.efforts toIt was not thought wise to make any greatintroduce the art of the West into a city which could not asyet be considered sure of not falling again into the hands ofthe infidels. In the year 1369 Don Enrique, the Fraticide,came to the throne of Castile. He desired to carry out thewishes of hisfather, and to give him a place of sepulchreworthy of his high renown. For this purpose he ordered aRoyal Chapel to be erected in the cathedral at the back ofthe Grand Chapel in the Arab Tribune, which served as asacristy. He decided to bury here his grandfather, DonFernando X., whose body had been laid under the grandchapel by order of his Queen, Constanza. This fabric musthave taken some considerable time, for the stucco, woodand tile work are really wonderful. Mohammedan art hadundergone a complete transformation the; grandiose Arab-Byzantine style had been succeeded by the effeminateMoorish school, first practised by the Almoravides, andafter by the Almohades and the Moorish architects and;decorators of Cordova could not remain uninfluenced bythe taste which had become general through the artificerswho had renovated the Alcazar at Seville, and who hadembellished the Alhambra at Granada. Nothing was moreunlike the architecture of the days of Hakam II. than thatemployed now in the construction of the Royal Chapel. Twoparts— are noticed an upper and a lower. The Moorisharchitect who directed the work had windows with ornamentedarches in the new style openedin the east and westsides, which were longer than the others.He ordered, too,that Saracen art, emancipated from the Byzantine tradi-G

174 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINtions, should be stamped on the ornamentation of the fourwalls, and on the cupola that crowned them. These archeswere given festoons with lobules, which boldly, thoughcorruptly, hid the true object of the curves. They werealso set in square compartments, forming many edgesbeautifully worked with hammer and chisel. - The framingswere crowned with beautiful little cornices of small interlacedand open-worked arches, and above them ran roundall the four sides a wide facia of little pine-shaped domes,which imitated stalactites of crystallised gold, having amost surprising effect, and of a sort until then unknownin the most famous mosque of the West.In the east and west walls, which were the longest ofthe rectangle, the arches with lobules, which could not beopened, were in relief; and resting on the light cornice weretwo tablets with lions. There were four of these lions— twoon the western and two on the eastern facia, equi-distantfrom one another ;and from each lion to that which facedhim sprang a great arch, whose facing projected some feetover the lower zone, and from each lion to that by his sidesprang another great arch, which did not project beyond thefacing of the lower wall. These four upper arches, each onewith twenty-one trefoil lobules, formed a perfect square,their four supports being at an equal distance, thanks to theingenious method of cutting the longer sides, putting thelions perpendicularly over the great lower arches. Once thisdifficulty was overcome it was doubtless an easy matter toraise the cupola, which was to crown the fabric. The ancientdome must have been similar to that which has been discoveredin the Chapel of Villaviciosa, but it must haveseemed poor in the eyes of King Henry II., so accustomedto seeing the Moorish cupolas with stalactites ; so theyplaced a cornice on the arches described above, and on this

175^^SJX, OOo

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CORDOVA 183rested the segments of the circle, which form the elegantand strange African cupola.The following distribution is seen in the lower portion:Towards the middle of the east side there is an arch formedof little domes with stalactites, slightly pointed, sufficientlydeep, enclosed in a sort of framing of gilded stucco, formingbeautifully interlaced branches. The square compartmentfinishes at the lower end in a wide facia, which runs on bothsides on a high socle of minute and beautiful tiling,andbetween^ the complicated ornaments in relief circles areformed, enclosing the arms of Castile and Leon. To theright side, on this same facia, is an ornamental arch ofeleven lobules enclosed in another framing, entirely coveredwith tracery in relief, sustained by two very slight columns,built into the wall. Joined to this is another arch, muchlower, with seven lobules, also ornamented, and sustained bycolumns of the same style as those just described, bearinga shield with the same arms. The left side has the sameornamentation, with the difference that both the archeshave seven lobules, because the wall has more frontage onthis side : and another difference was that in the north-eastcorner it had an ornamentation of minute open-work insteadof a shield. The wall opposite had the same distributionwith a deep central arch and small arches at the side, withlittle columns in the Gothic style, which show already thatthe style is no longer purely Moorish, but a sort of basemixture of the decorative art of the East and the West.consider this the true concession of theMoorish artificers to the art preferred by the Court, and astheir final abandonment of the pure style,which had beentraditional with them.In 152 1 the Bishop Don Alonso Manrique obtainedPerhaps we maypermission from the EmperorCharles V. to erect the

i84 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINGothic cathedral, which is in existence to-day. Three yearslater, when he visited the buildings, the Emperor repentedhaving given his permission. Indeed the Christian work .ajjj)ears j^old_and^pallid by the side of that__of the Arabs,As Amados de los Rios, a great Spanish antiquary andOrientalist, sings in his mournful requiem over the departedglories of the mosque: ''Neither the sumptuous Christianfabric that to-day rises in the midst of those countlesscolumns, nor all the treasures of art lavished upon it by thecelebrated artists of the sixteenth century who erected it,nor that interminable series of chapels of every epochwhich, resting against the walls of the mosque disfigureit ;nor the clumsy angels that seem to suspend their flightto shed glory over the Divine service, nor the words of theEvangelist sounding from the seat of the Holy Spirit, candispel or banish, in the slightest degree, the majesty of thosewandering shades that in vain seek in the sanctuary thesacred volume whose leaves, according to tradition, wereenamelled with the blood of the Khalif Othman, martyr tothe faith. A world of souvenirs here enthrals the mind ofthe traveller as he gazes with a feeling of sorrow upon these— profanations works dedicated by the intolerant, yet sincere,faith of our ancestors ; impelled by the desire of banishingfor ever from that spot, consecrated to the law of Jesus, theof his slaves that hauntspirit of Mohammed and the ghostsit, and will for ever haunt it while it exists. For, in spite of the/ mutilations it has endured, and of the itchanges has under-/gone, there is impressed upon it, by a superior ineradicable/law, the seal of the art that inspired it, and the character of^^— tk^ people by whom it was planned and erected."Don Amados is not alone in his eloquent, ifunavailing,protest. When Charles V. observed St. Peter's Chapel risingout of the very centre of the mosque, he rebuked the Bishop,

1 8s-•»*i

iSyCORDOVATIIK MosyLE -PILASTERS AND ARAIUAN IJATMS.

^: - OF THE ^Ut^iVERSlTYVjlifor:^r

CORDOVA 189Alonso Manriquez, who had erected the incongruous edifice,**in no measured terms. You have built here," said theking, ''what you or anyone might have built elsewhere but;you have spoilt what was unique in the world." Alas ! themonarch had forgotten, or did not choose to remember, thatthe reprimand came with a very bad grace from one who,for his never-completed palace at Granada, had torn downwhole courts and halls of the Alhambra.The mQsque of Cordova is stillto-day, by universalconsent, the most beautiful Mussulman tempje, and one ofthe mosJLjwonderful architectural monuments in the worldsThe susceptible Italian author, Edmondo de Amici? has,given us a vividly picturesque description of his first impressionof the interior of the building.*'Igi agine ajoiest^" hesays, ''fancy yourself in the thickest portion of it, and thatyou can see nothing but the trunks of trees. So, in thismosque, on whatever side you look, the eye loses itself amongthej:olumns It is a fo . jrest of m arble, whose confines onecannot discover. You follow with your eye, one by one, thevery long rows of columns that interlace at every step withnumberless other rows, and you reach a semi-obscure background,in which other columns seem to be gleaming.There are nineteenjaisles^ which extend from north to south,traversed by thirty-threeolhers, supported (among them all)by more than nine hundred columns^ of porphyry, jasper, '.breccia, and marble^jof, .eyery colour. Each column upholdsa small pilaster, and between them runs an arch, and asecond one extends from pilaster to pilaster, the latter placedabove the former, and both of them in the form of a horseshoe;so that in imagining the columns to be the trunks ofso many trees, the arches represent the branches, and thesimilitude of the mosque to a forest is complete. Themiddle aisle, much broader than the others, ends in front

Igo MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINof the " malcsurralV^ ps^rt of thetemple, where the KoisiLJffias-HfQiship^ed. Here, from thewindows in the ceiling, falls a pale ray of light that illuminatesa row of columns ;there is a dark spot ;farther onfalls a second ray, which lights another aisle. It isimpossibleto express the feeling of mysterious surprise which thatspectacle arouses in your soul. It is like the sudden revelationof an unknown religion, nature, and life, which bearsaway your imagination to the delight of that paradise, fullof love and voluptuousness, where the blessed, seated underthe shade of leafy palm trees and thornless rose bushes,drink from crystal vases the wine, sparkling like pearls,mixed by immortal children, and take their repose in thearms of charming black-eyed virgins All the pictures of!eternal pleasure, which the Koran promises to the faithful,present themselves to your bright mind, gleaming and vivid,at the first sight of the mosque, and cause you a sweetmomentary intoxication, which leaves in your heart anindescribable sort of melancholy A brief tumult of the!mind, and a sparkx)f~6j:iS rushes through your bram— suchis the first sensation one experiences upon entering thecathedral of Cordova."Listen again to the musings of this same impressionablewriter, as he gazes at the ceiling and walls of theprincipal chapel, the only part of the mosque that is quiteintact.** It is," he says, '*a dazzling gleam of crystals-ofajhousandjcoloyrs, a network_of_arabesques, which puzzlesthe mind, and a complication of bas-reliefs, gildings, ornaments,minutiae of design and colouring, of a delicacy, graceand perfection sufficient to drive the most patient painterdistracted. It is impossible to retain any of the pretentiouswork in the mind. You might turn a hundred times to lookat it, and it would only seem to you, in thinking it over^ a

191Ifri

193CORDOVAd^H^ldl^lcaiUl aJoiykLUlU-cA j.JLU.JledJLxuilL cimolBb3l^ldLl.c^^la.n^=^^S^Bls\-iii^\-3i^(a.r Qf q ii AnhNiv ^f L,\A Q ^LinW q >/-^nStn^\tL9t.olad .1^314=. JoL9Mit9lilkL.»-..lV/-.L.9o-^JiaL.Z9.ali ^JaUllLcS^^\uo.ua l^llll ^.^WfoKllCgUoVl.oJ)l9^A->9i^^.iJU=i)9t>'.U'(i(uMt9oca9[L>i»1LjlUL9A9yiJltbA9kjiJl(LiJLl]Jk4Utl5J^JtylL]JSL!alUiiU^yiilJkdoaittbyilllcS JUu:jiliJl^!))Ly!&l JJ»> 9

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CORDOVAiggminding of_blue,j^d^_green, gilded, an djum inous poin ts, ora ver>^ ii^tri_cate__embroidery, changing continually, with thegreatest rapidity, both design and colouring. Only fromthe fieryand indefatigable imagination jofLthe.Arabs. couldsuch a perfect miracle of art emanate."But if the mere shell of this majestic edifice, this voicelesstestimony to the glory of a world-power that has gonethe way of all temporal empires is still eloquent in decay,and still a force to stir the imagination, what must it havebeen when the spirit of Moslemism filled its courts, andthe temple resounded with praise and devotion ? We canget some idea of the impressiveness of a Mohammedanservice in the pages of Frederick Schack's Poetry and Art ofthe Arabs in Spain and Sicily. The following vivid passageis a description of the mosque of Cordova on a solemnfete day **0n both sides of the pulpit wave two standards:to signify that Islam has triumphed over Judaism andChristianity, and that the Koran has conquered the Old andNew Testaments. The *Almnedian' climb upon the galleryof the high minaret and intone the * salam ' or salutation tothe Prophet. Then the nave of the mosquefills withbelievers, who, clothed in white and wearing a festive aspect,gather for the oration. In a few moments, throughout theedifice nothing is to be seen but kneeling people. By thesecret way which joins the temple to the alcazar, comes thekhalif, who seats himself in his elevated place. A readerof the Koran reads a Sura on the reading-desk of theTribune. The vcuce_oflllie_I^p£zziii sounds again, invitingpeople to the noon-day prayers. All the faithfuj_rise and.muiTOurjheiLprayers, making obeisances. A servant of themosque opens the doors of the pulpit and seizes a sword,with which, turning towards Mecca, he admonishes all topraise Mohammed, while the Prophet's name isbeing cele-

200 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINbrated from the Tribune by the singing of the * mubaliges.*After this the preacher ascends the pulpit, taking from thehand of the servant the sword, which recalls and symbolisesthe subjection of Spain to the power of Islam. It is the dayon which 'Djihad,' or the holy war, is to be proclaimed, thecall for all able-bodied men to descend into the battle-fieldagainst the Christians. The multitude listen with silentdevotion to the discourse (woven from the head of the Koran)which begins like this :** *Praised be God, who has increased the glory of Islam,thanks to the sword of the champion of the Faith, and who,in his Holy Book, has promised aid and victory to thebeliever.** *Allah scatters his benefits over the world.'*'If he did not impel men to dash armed against eachother, the earth would be lost.** *Allah has ordered that the people be fought againstknow there is but one God.until they**'The flame of war will not be extinguished until theIend of the world.***The Divine benediction will falluponthe war-horse until the Day of Judgment.the mane of^' *Be you armed from head to foot, or only lightlyarmed, rise, and take your departure.** *O, believers ! what will become of you if, when you fliare called to battle, you remain with your face turned toward Tthe ground ?" *Do you prefer the life of this world to that of thefuture ?*' *Believe me : the gates of paradise stand in theshadow of the sword.** ^He who dies in battle for the cause of God, washeswith the blood he sheds all the stains of his sins.

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CORDOVA209'' His 'body will not be washed like the other bodies,because in the Day of Judgment his wounds will send out afragrance like musk." 'When the warriors shall present themselves at theGates of Paradise, a voice from within will ask: ** Whathave you done during your life ?"****'And they will reply: We have brandished thesword in the struggle for the cause of God."** *Then the eternal Gates will open, and the warriorswill enter forty years before the others."*Up, then, O believers!Abandon women, children,brothers, and worldly possessions, and go forth to the holywar!***And thou, O God, Lord of the present and futureworld, nght for the armies of those who recognise thy Unity !Destroy the incredulous, idolaters, and enemies of thy holyfaith ! Overthrow their standards, and give them, with allthey possess, as booty to the Mussulmans !* "The preacher, when he has finished his discourse,exclaims, turning towards the **congregation Ask of God !":and prays in silence. All the faithful, touching the groundwith their foreheads, fojlow his example. The " mubaliges"sing: "Amen! Amen, O Lord of all beings!" Like theintense heat which precedes the tempest, the enthusiasm ofthe multitude (restrained, up to this time,in a marvelloussilence) breaks out in loud murmurs, which, rising like thewaves of the sea, and inundating the temple, finally makethe echo of a thousand united voices resound through the**naves, chapels, and vaults in one single shout : There is noGod but Allah!"^^Abd-er-Rahman L __ffias old when he commenced thebuilding of the Mosque, and experienced in every descriptionof architecture. His passion for building was as eager aspv

2IO MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthat of his predecessors of the house of O meyyad, who hadmade Damascus the envy of the world; ancl,^uring thefrequent periods of peace, he had turned all his thoughts tothe adornment of his capital by works which he had himselfsuperintended. One of his first undertakings was to supplyCordQvaJ«?itlrwa.ter by means of an aqueduct, which camefrom the distant hills, and the vestiges of which are visibleto this day. The water thus brought from the mountainswas conveyed to the palace, and thence carried to everyquarter of the city by means of conduits, from which itflowed into basins, as well as into lakes, enormous tanks,reservoirs and fountains. The sultan then planted a mostdelightful garden, to which he gave the name of Munyat-Arrissafah,in remembrance of a country seat near Damascus,which his grandfather, the Khalif Hisham, had built, andwhere he himself had spent the earliest years of his life.Finding the spot a very charming one, he erected in themiddle of it a magnificent palace ; and, moreover, madeit his residence in preference to the old palace, inhabitedby the former governors of Andalus. Having an ardentlove of horticulture, he commissioned a botanist to procurefor him in the East fruits and plants that could be easilynaturalised in Andalus ; and, in this manner, it is said,Abd-er-Rahman introduced the peach, and the particularkind of pQinegranate, called ** Safari," into Spain. It isbelieved that this best species of pomegranate obtainedits name from having been sent to Abd-er-Rahman by hissister, then residing in the East, and was called ''Safari," or''the Traveller," from this circumstance. Other derivationsof the name are given, all plausible enough. One thingiscertain, the fruit is called to this day in Spain, '* GranadaZafari," and is considered the best of^its kind in pomt offlavour, smallness of seed, and abundance of juice.

211CORDOVATHE MOS^UB—ARCH OF ONE OF THE GATES

213CORDOVAzJTHE MOSyUE - LATTICE

CORDOVA 215Abd-er-Rahman II. carried on the work of beautifyingCordova with gardens, p alace s, and _bridges, but it was thethird sovereign of his name, the Great Khalif, Abd-er-Rahman III., who restored the Moslem supremacy in Spain,and won for himself the title of En-Nasir li-dini-llah ("TheDefender of the Faith of God "), who placed the crown onCordova's beauty and splendour.Byzantium, perhaps, comparedwith it in the loveliness of her buildings, and theluxury and refinement of her life, but no other city ofEurope could approach the '' Bride of Andalus ia." '*Toher," sang the old Arab writer, "belong all the beauty andthe ornament that delight the eye and dazzle the sight.Her long line of Sultans form her crown of glory her neck-;lace isstrung with the pearls which her poets have gatheredfrom the ocean of language her dress is of the canvas of;learning well knit together by her men of science and the;masters of every art and industry are the hem of hergarments.""The injiabitants of Cordova," says Ahmed-El-Makkari,the great Arab historian," are famous for their courteousandpolished manners, their superior intelligence, theirexquisite taste and magnificence in their meals, dress, andhorses. There thou wouldsF see doctors, shining with allsorts of learning ; lords, distinguished by their virtue andgenerosity warriors, renowned for their expeditions into the;cpuntry of the infidels and; officers, experienced in all kindsof warfare. To Cordova came from all parts of the worldstudents eager to cultivate poetry, to study the sciences, ortobe instructed in divinity or law ;so that it became themeeting-place of the eminent in all matters, the abode ofthe learned, and the place of resort for the studious; itsinterior was alwaysfilled with the eminent and the noble ofall countries, its literary men and soldiers were continually

^\w2i6 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINvying with each other to gain renown, and its precinctsnever ceased to be the arena of the distinguished, theretreat of scholars, the halting place of the noble, and therepository of the true and virtuous. Cordova was toAndalus what the head is to the body, or what the breast isto the lion."To-day there isnothing left in Cordova but the mosque,the bridge, and the uiins of the alcazar to mark the spotwhere, in the time of Abd-er-Rahman III., a city,Jten milesiiniengtli, lined the banks of the Guadelquivir with mosques-^and gardens and marble palaces. The royal palaces of theGreat Khalif included the Palace of Lovers, the Palace ofFlowers, the Palace of Contentment, the Palace of theDiadem, and the palace which the Sultan named Damascus,of which the Moorish poet sang, '* All palaces in the worldare nothing compared to Damascus, for not only has itgardens with the most delicious fruits and sweet-smellingflowers, beautiful prospects, and limpid running waters,clouds pregnant with aromatic dew, and lofty buildings ;butits night is always perfumed, for morning pours on it hergray amber, and night her black musk." The city containedover fiftyjthousand palaces of the nobles, and twice thatnumber of houses of the common people, while sevenhundred- jno&ques and nine hundred public baths had closecompanionship among a community who made xieanlinessca^ordinaJte3dtli-gpdliness.But perhaps the greatest monument of Moorishthe most won-architecture that was ever created in Spain,derful city and palace that has ever been constructed, isto-day a name and a memoryof which not a trace is inexistence. That marvejlous^subur b of Cor dova^ calledEz-Zahra, " the. Fairest ," which was built at the suggestionof the favourite mistress of Abd-er-Rahman III., and was

217

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221CORDOVAB H.ii|^1»|19|«

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CORDOVA 225forty years in the making, has been entirely obliterated. Atthe foot of the '* Hill of the Bridge," at a distance of threemiles from Cordova, the foundation of the city was laid inA.D. 936. A third of the royal income was expended everyyear in the prosecution of the work. Ten thousandlabourers and three thousand beasts of burden were employedcontinually, and six thousand blocks of stone werecut and polished each day for building purposes.Many ofits four thousand columns came from Rome, Constantinople,and Carthage ;its fifteen thousand doors were coated withiron and polished brass ;the walls and roof in the Hall ofthe Khalif were constructed of marble and gold. A marblestatue of Ez-Zahra, ''the Fairest," was erected over theprincipal gateway.Arabian chroniclers have exhausted their eloquence inattempting to do justice to the wonders of Medinat-Ez-Zahra, and the result is so monotonous a surfeit of superlativesthat even the beauty that inspired them can scarcelyreconcile us to the repetition. But the historians occasionallydrop into prose in recounting the marvels of the palace, andthen we learn that ** the number of male servants employedby the khalif has been estimated at thirteen thousand sevenhundred and fifty, to whom the daily allowance of flesh meat,exclusive of fowls and fish, was thirteen thousand pounds ;the number of women of various kinds and classes, comprisingthe harem of the sultan or waiting upon them, issaid to have amounted to six thousand three hundred andfourteen. The Slav pages and eunuchs were three thousandthree hundred and fifty,to whom thirteen thousand poundsof flesh meat were distributed daily, some receiving tenpounds each, and some less, according to their rank andstation, exclusive of fowls, partridges, and birds of othersorts, game, and fish. The dailyallowance of bread for

226 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthe fish in the pond of Ez-Zahra was twelve thousandloaves, besides six measures of black pulse, which wereevery day macerated in the waters." It is small wonder ^that travellers from distant lands, men of all ranks andprofessions in life, following religions— various princes,ambassadors, merchants, pilgrims, theologians, and poets—all agreed that they had never seen in the course of theirtravels anything that could be compared to it.**"Indeed," writes one Moorish chronicler, had thispalacA possessed nothing more than the terrace of polishedmarble overhanging the matchless gardens, with the goldenhall and the circular pavilion, and the works of art of everysort and description— had itnothing else to boast of but themasterly wocfemanship of the structure, the boldness of thedesign, the beauty_of the proportions, the ejegance of theornaments, hangings, and decorations, whether of shiningmarble or glittering gold, the columns that seemed fromtheir symmetry and smoothness as ifthey had been turnedby lathes, the paintings that resembled the choicest landscapes,the artificial_Jake so solidly constructed, the cisternperpetually filled with clear and limpid water, and theaniazin^ fountains, with figures of living beings— no imagination,however fertile, could have formed an idea of it." Soat least it struck the Moorish author, and the sight inspiredhim to ejaculate: "Praise be to God Most High for allowingHis humble creatures to design and build such enchantingpalaces as this, and who permitted them to inhabit them asa sort of recompense in this world and in order that the;faithful might be encouraged to follow the path of virtue, bythe reflection that, delightful as were these pleasures, theywere still far below those reserved for the true believer in thecelestial Paradise !"The effect of all this massed splendour upon the mind,

227CORDOVArnssy^r-niastfiP3t.7:s5«i.- Jfti< \fc* ^-'ajCAPITAL OF ARCH. SIUE VIKW OF THE CORNICEr TT TT T-TTW T- T- T' rI". K r 'n'rlr. f^'r 'r-r,

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CORDOVA 231even of those whose position and duties made familiar withthe treasures of Abd-er-Rahman's palaces, is illustrated byone of the ambassadors of the Greek Emperor. The khalifreceived Constantine's emissaries in the great hall of thepalace of Ez-Zahra ,which was specially arranged for theoccasion. The richest carpets and rugs, and the mostgorgeous silk a\vnings, covered the floor, and veiled the doorsand arches, and m the midst of the apartment was set upthe royal throne, overlaid with gold, and glittering withprecious stones. On the right and left of the throne stoodthe khalif's sons, beside them were the viziers, and behindthem, in the order of their rank, were ranged the chamberlains,the nobles, and officers of the household. Theambassadors were awed and amazed by the magnificenceof the scene, and the orator, charged with the office ofdelivering the speech of welcome, was literally struck dumbby the splendour of the spectacle. With wide, staring eyesand speechless lipshe stood spellbound, caughtin a maze ofwonder. This man, who had grown accustomed to superbbe auty, who had seen splendour piled upon splendour underthe directing hand of his master, was paralysed by the effectitproduced. His brain' reeled, and, without uttering a word,he fell senseless to the ground. A second orator took theembossed scroll, and faced the august assemblage, but thewitchery of the scene hypnotised his senses, and he, too,hesitated, faltered, and broke down.The mere outward and visible aspect of this " brightestsplendour of the world," as the nun Hroswitha described it,fired the imagination of man, and deprived the practisedorators of speech. But the mind of Cordova at this periodof itshistory was as beautiful as its frame. It was thefountain-head of. learning, the well-spring of^artj the scientificcentre of Europe. Literature, became the study of every

232 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINclass, p)oetrxwas the common language of the people.Thepotters, the silk weavers, the glass blowers, the jewellers,swordmakers, and brass — workers of Cordova were renownedthroughout Europe in all that appertained to_art she wasacknowledged to stand pr^i^emment. The greatest doctors,the most skilled surgeoQs, had their homes in Cordova ;and astronomers, geographers, chemists, philosophers, andscientists of every kind resorted thither to study and prosecutetheir researches.Under Hakam II., the Royal library at Cordova becamethe largest and most celebrated collection of books in theworld ;and under Almanzor, the powerful minister who ruled ^hJSpain for the Khalif Hisham, the beauty of the Imperial ^Plcity was jealously maintained. But the end of theOmeyyad dynasty was even then in sight, the sun ofCordova's glory was already commencing to set. After thedeath of Almanzor" Sultan after Sultan with his pompAbode his destin'd hour and went his way,"the puppet khalifs were enthroned and deposed at the willof successive prevailing factions.Anarchy had broken outagain, the mob was Sultan, and the work of pillage andplunder was begun. The overthrow of the Almanzor orderwas followed by the wrecking of the Alma_n^QiL palace, whichwas ransacked and burned to the ground. For four daysthe work of riot, robbery, and massacre went on unchecked.Palace after palace was reduced to ruins, gardens weredevastated, the public squares ran with blood. The brutal,saYa£e_B^erbers--captiired -the. beautiful city of Ez-Zahra(a.d. igig) by treachery, and put its garrisons to the sword,while the flying inhabitants were chased into the sacredprecincts of the mosque and butchered without mercy.

CORDOVA 233Ez-Zahra, ** the city of the fairest,*' was pillaged its;palaces and mosques were thrown down, and the walls weregiven to the flames. To-day its site alone remains, and itsglories exist only in name.

SEVILLE

SEVILLETHE beginning of the history of Seville is buried, withthe date of its foundation, in oblivion. It has itsplace in mythology as the creation of Hercules;its origin being more reasonably credited to thePhoenicians, who colonised the mineral-yielding region ofAndalusia, which is watered by the Guadalquivir, and calledit Tartessii. Strabo states that they built the town ofTartessus ;and some authorities favour the conclusion thatSeville stands on the site of that Phoenician stronghold. In237 B.C. Hamilcar Barca conqu ered Anda jusia. and his sonin-lawfounded Carthagena, which was seized by PubliusCornelius Scipio, or Scipio Africanus, during the secondPunic War. Scipio founded Italica, which was to serve asa sanatorium for his invalided soldiers, and for awhile itsimportance eclipsed that of the neighbouring city of Seville.Honoured by the gifts of three Roman emperors born withinits walls, and adorned'with the splendid edifices raised byTrajan, Adrian, and Theodosius, Italica was advanced tothe ficst_rank_among the Ronaan cities of the Peninsula.Julius Caesar restored the balance of power to Seville in45 B.C., when he made it his capital,and changedits nameto Julia Romula. The city was fortified and protected bywalls, which have been variously described as from five toten miles in length. To-day the remains of the greataqueduct, the two high granite columns in the Alameda deHercules, and the beautiful fragments of capitals andstatyes in the Museo Arqaelogico, are the only existingrelics of the Rornan-swajLUL^fiwll^ while on the opposite

238 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINbank of the Guadalquivir a ruined, grass-grown am phithea treis all that is left of the once mighty town of Italica. In 584ILeovigild repaired the walls of Italica when he was beseigingiSeville, and less than two centuries later those walls were^greatly injured by the Moors, who further fortified and enlargedSeville with the stones brought from Italica.In 711 Tarik captured Cordova, and in the following'year Musa, the Governor of Africa, appeared before Seville^with an army of 18,000 warriors. In a few weeks the citylhad fallen, and for 536 years the ^* Pearj^^ jViadgjusia ^jremained in the possession of the Moors. The conquerors!abandoned Italica to its fate, or, rather, they used theiremains of the city as a quarry, while some of the sculptureofthe deserted capital, which appealed to the Arabs by itsjsurpassing beauty, was removed to Seville. Despite the^injunctions contained in the Koran, the sculptures were noddestroyed, and a statuejiLYeniis was long preserved in oneiof the public baths of the city. El-Makkari, writing in;the sixteenth century, and quoting from an early Moorishmanuscript, records that "there was once found a marblestatue of a woman with a boy, so admirably executed that;both looked as if they were alive ;such perfection humaneyes never beheld. Indeed, some Sevillians were so much,struck with itsbeauty as to become deeply enamoured oiit."An anonymous poet, a native of Seville, made a set ofverses about it, which have been translated by Don Pascualde Gayangos as follows :" Look at that marble statue, beautiful in its proportions,surpassing everything in transparency and smoothness." She has with her a son, it is true, but who her husbandwas I cannot tell, neither was she ever in labour." Thou knowest her to be but a stone, but yet thou canstnot look at her, for there is in her eyes something thatfascinates and confounds the beholder."

SEVILLE239It has been said that the Sevillians pretend to regardHercules as the builder of the city, and the Puerta de laCame is inscribed with the following distich :^^Condidit Alcides— renovavit jfulius urbem,Restituit Christo Fernandus tertius heros.**This has been paraphrased inan inscription over thePuerta de Xerex :**Hercules me edificoJulioCesar me cercoDe muros y torres altas;Un Rey godo me perdio,El Rey Santo me gano,Con Garci Perez de Vargas."Hercules built me; Julius Caesar encircled me with wallsand lofty towers ;a Gothic king (Roderick) lost me a saintlikeking (St. Ferdinand), assisted by Garci Perez de;Vargas, regained me.The inscription might well have included the name ofthe brother of Garci Perez, Diego de Vargas, surnamed **E1Machuca," or" the Pounder," who performed prodigies ofvalour at the breaking of the Moorish bridge of boats acrossthe Guadalquivir, when- the destruction of that gallantlydefendedmeans of access to the city led to the capture ofSeville by the Christians in I248._ These two brothers arethe heroes of Spanish ballads, and were greatly distinguishedby St. Ferdinand ;the grateful monarch freely acknowledgingtheir prowess by the bestowal of houses and lands wrestedfrom the Moors.A curious " Repartimiento," or DomesdayBook of Seville, is still extant, and many families can tracetheir actual possessions back to this original partition.Musa appointed his son, Abdelasis, a brave soldier anda humane ruler, to be governor of Seville. That he was asoccessful general, that he married Egilona, the widow of

240 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthe unfortunate King Roderick, and was murdered by theorder of Suleyman, brother and heir of the KhaHf ofDamascus, is all that history records of him. A malignantrumour, that he was scheming to make himself sole ruler ofthe Berber dominion in Spain, reached Damascus. Suleymanimmediately sent emissaries to Seville with secretinstructions that Abdelasis should be put to death, addingas an incentive to swift compliance with his order, thatwhoever among them executed the deed, should be appointedhis successor as Amir of Seville. The delegateswere armed with friendly letters to Abdelasis, who receivedthem cordially, and entertained them in accordance with hisexalted position as an amir under the khalif. It appears,according to the tradition, that the scheme was revealedto 'Abdullah Ibn,**who was the most eminent and mostconspicuous officer in the army." 'Abdullah, however,would have no hand in the projected assassination, but, onthe contrary, endeavoured to dissuade the conspirators fromtheir purpose, saying to them: *'You know the hand ofMusa has conferred benefits on every one of :youif theCommander of the Faithful has been informed as youhe has been told a lie.represent,Abdelasis has never raisedhis hand in disobedience to his master, nor dreamt ofrevolting against him." Suleyman's emissaries, however,disregarded his words, and decided on the murder. Onemorn they stood among the rest at the gates of the palace,waiting till the governor should go to the mosque, and, whenhe appeared, followed him to prayer. Scarcely had heentered the ** kiblah," and begun to read the Koran, thanone of the conspirators rushed upon the governor andstabbed him. Abdelasis, leaving the ** kiblah," took refugein the body of the mosque, whither he was followed andslain. When the news spread through the city, the inhab-

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SEVILLE 245itants were roused to fury. The assassins produced theletters and commands of the khalif, but to no purpose the;people refused to abide by the sultan's behests, and chose'Abdullah to be his successor. 'Abdullah was, however,quickly displaced by Ayub, Suleyman's nominee, and theconspirators then departed to make their report at Damascus,carrying with them the head of the unfortunateAbdelasis.The author of the tradition, Mohammed Ibn, says thatwhen these emissaries arrived at Damascus and producedthe head of Abdelasis before Suleyman, he sent immediatelyfor Musa. Upon his appearance, Suleyman, pointing to thehead, said": Dost thou know whose head that is ?" "Yes,"answered Musa, '* it is the head of my son Commander ofthe Faithful, the head of Abdelasis (may Allah show himmercy) is before thee, but by the life of Allah there wasnever a Moslem who less deserved such unjust treatment ;for he passed his days in fasting, and his nights in prayer ;no man ever performed greater deeds to serve the cause ofthe Almighty, -or His messenger Mohammed ;no man wasmore firm in his obedience to thee. None of thy predecessorswould have served him thus. Thou even wouldestnever have done what thou hast to him, had there beenjustice in thee." Suleyman retorted, ** Thou liest, O Musa,thy son was not as thou hast represented him he was;impious and forgetful of our religion, he was the persecutorof the Moslems, and the sworn enemy of his sovereign, theCommander of the Faithful. Such was thy son, O doting,"*'foolish, fond old man ! Musa replied, By Allah ! I amno dotard, nor would I deviate from truth, wert thou toanswer my words with the blows of death. I speak as thehonest slave should speak to his master, but Iplace myconfidence in God, whose helpIimplore. Grant me his

246 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINhead, O Commander of the Faithful, that Imay close hiseyes."And Suleyman said: ** Thou mayest take it." AsMusa was leaving the Hall of Audience one who was presentwished to interfere with him, but Suleyman said: "Let" and added :Musa alone, he has been sorely punished ;** The old man's spirit is still unbroken." But the old man,whose name had once stood for the symbol of conquest,whose initiative had won Spain for the Moor, had receivedhis death sentence. Grief, which could not bend his spirit,seized upon his frame. The old man fell sick of grief andshame, and in a little while he was dead.Suleyman's treachery had its first result in the removalof the seat of Moorish rule in Spain to Cordova. Ayub,the successor of Abdelasis, recognising the insecurity of histenure in Seville, forsook ''the Pearl of Andalusia " with allspeed, and when in 777 Abd-er-Rahman,proclaimed himselfsole ruler of Spain,it was from his palace at Cordova thatthe fiat was sent forth to the world. Seville, the first andthe natural capital of the South, dropped into secondjplaceamong the cities of the Peninsula, and it was no^_untiLjLQ28that it re-established its claim-^a^^the^ Moorish_jnfitropolis.For three hundred and fifty years the Moslems were faithfulto the sovereignty of Cordova; and although Seville came,Iby reason of its beautiful palaces, gardens, and batbs, to beregarded as one of the fairest cities of earth ; the alca^rand the lordly mosque, which now bear evidence of itsAnd Sevilleformer grandeur, are^ofajatejrj^grew in beauty under, and in spite of, the destructiveinfluence of strife and conflict. While Abd-er-Rahman wascultivating the graces of Cordova, Seville was being desolatedby many assaults. Yusuf, and, after his death, histhree sons, made attacks upon Seville, and Hixem ben AdriFehri, who had stirred the Toledans to insurrection, was

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249SEVILLEl1 'U ^li^rtUik-aJNU HULmCHIKK KNTRASCE TO THE AIXAZAK. MOORISH STVLE, lUlI T fNIlHRDON PEDRO I. THE CRUEL, I369—1379

SEVILLE251subsequently defeated at the gates of Sevilleby the Governor,Abdelmelic. At a later date, Cassim, the son ofAbdelmelic, fled with his army before the advance of theWali of Mequinez, and was stabbed to death by his fatherfor cowardice. Abdelmelic, who threw himself upon theinvaders, was overcome and wounded in a night battle onthe banks of the Guadalquivir; but, despite his hurt and hisdefeat, he rallied his soldiers, and drove the hitherto victoriousWali through the streets of Seville, and out againinto the open country, where he was captured and killed.Under the shifty and opportunist rule of Abdallah, whohad caused his brother Mundhir to be murdered to make hisway to the throne of Cordova in 888, Andalusia was split upinto a number of independent principalities. The turbulentIbn-Hafsun had made himself virtual King of Granada, thegovernors of Lorca and Zaragoza rendered but nominalhomage to the khalif, the walls of Toledo rattled with thecrash of contending revolutionary factions, and in SevilleIbrahim Ibn-Hajjaj treated with the King of Cordova onequal terms.. In the time of Ibn-Hajjaj Seville was themost orderly and best-governed city in the Peninsula. Thepoets of Cordova, the singers of Baghdad, and the lawyersof Medina were attracted to the court of Ibn-Hajjaj, of**whom it was sung, In all the West I find no right nobleman save Ibrahim, but he is nobility itself. When one hasknown the delight of living with him, to dwell in any otherland would be a misery.'* Yet in 912-13, Ibrahim Ibn-Hajjaj, who kept his state like an Emperor, opened the gatesof Seville to the masterful and gallant Abd-er-Rahman III.,and the city became once more subject to the self-proclaimedKhalif of Cordova. It was Abd-er-Rahman who 4planted Seville with palm trees, beautified her gardens,\increased the number of her palaces, and made the Guadal-»

252 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINquivir navigable by narrowing; the river's channel. Ibrahim"the Magnificent" received the Great Khalif with thehomage which a feudal lord offers to his king, and the independenceof Seville was at an end.But Seville at this period was the rivgil^of Cordova inintellectual eminence, and much of the Moorish thought andresearch which was destined to influence Spain in futureages was pondered, and practised, and published from theformer city. Abu Omar Ahmed Ben Abdallah, called " ElBegi," " the Sage," and unquestionably one of the mostlearned men of his time, was a native of Seville, and here hewrote his encyclopaedia of the sciences. It was said thatthere was no man who could surpass him in knowledge ofarts and sciences, and '* even in his earliest youth," saysConde, **the cadi very frequently consulted him in affairs ofthe highest importance." Chemists, philosophers, astronomers,and men famous in every branch of science, resortedto "the Pearl of Andalusia ;" while art was fostered ir^silkand leather manufactures, and the joy of life found expressionin music, poetry, and the dance.The victorious expeditions of Alfonso JVI. found theMoors demoralised from the massacres of Cordova and Ez-Zahra, and the whole of Andalusia in a state_pf ferment,anarchy, and military unpreparedness. In every town ofimportance in the South a new independent dynasty spranginto existence, and the Abbadites exercised kingly sway overthe so-called republic of Seville. Some of these usurpersand pretenders, as Mr. Lane-Poole has pointed out, weregood rulers; most of them were sanguinary tyrants, but(curiously) not the less polished gentlemen, who delighted todo honour to learning and letters, and made their courts thehomes of poets and musicians. Mo'temid of Seville, forinstance, was a patron of the arts, and a prince of many

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SEVILLE257attainments, yet he kept a garden of heads cut off hisenemies' shoulders, which he regarded with great pride anddehght. Yet Seville was secure and peaceful under thesebarbarous rulers until the menace of Alfonso's inroads madeMo'temid silence the fears of his court with the reflection,**Better be a camel-driver in African deserts than a swineherdin Castile." So they fled from the danger of theCastilians to the succour that Africa was waiting to sendthem. A conference of Moorish rulers was held in Seville,and a message imploring assistance was despatched toYusuf, the Almoravide king. Yusuf defeated the armyof Alfonso near Badajoz in 1086. Four years later theKing of Seville again besought the help of Yusuf againstthe Christians of the North. This time he came with aforce of twenty thousand men at his back, and before theend of 109 1 the leader of the Almoravides had .capturedSeville and establisEed^ dynasty which was to last until itsoveithrQW-byLthe-AlmQhades_in.iL47 .The Almoravide rule, which was distinguished in thebeginning by, piety and a love of honest warfare, ended intyranny and corruption, and the Almoravides gave place toa race more pious and fanatical than the demoralisedfollowers of Yusuf had ever been. For a hundred andone years the Almohades remained masters of Seville. ' Themonuments of their devotion and artistic genius are extantin the mosque and the alcazar, and we know that underAbu Yakub Yusuf a new era of commercial prosperity setin for Seville, and a new light arose to illumine the fastdeepening shadows which fell over the vanishing glory ofCordova. The thunder of the blows which had reduced**the City of the Fairest " to a heap of ruins still echoed inthe air, and mixed with the noise of the builders and artificerswho were re-moulding Seville **nearer to the heart's desire."

258 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINThe remains of Moorish architecture which we findCordova, in Seville, and in Granada, enable us to realisethat the civijisation and^rt^f the Spanish Moslems were_priQgressive, and that itseachstage~developed varied and" The monuments of Seville," sayssingular characteristics.**Contreras in his Monuments A rabes^ produce quite a peculiareffect on the mind, a sublime reminiscence of ancient andprofound social transformations, which only the inartistic— aspect of bad restorations can dissipate a vandalism inspiredby the desire to see the building shining with colourand gold, and which impelled people to restore it withoutpaying the smallest heed to the most elementary principles ofarchaeology. The alcazar of Seville is not a classic work we;do not find in it the stamp of originality, and the ineffaceablecharacter that one admires in ancient works like the Parthenon,and in more modern ones like the Escurial ;the first onaccount of their splendid simplicity, and the latter for theirgreat size and taciturn grandeur. In the alcazar of YakubYusuf, the prestige of a heroic generation has disappeared,and the existence of C hristian kings, who have lived thereand enriched it with a thousand pages of our glorioushistory, is perfectly represented there. The Ahnohadeswho left the purest African souvenirs there, and Jalubi whofollowed Almehdi to the conquest of Africa, left on the wallsRoman remains, taken from the vanquished people. St.Ferdinand, who conquered it; Don Pedro I., who re-builtit; Don Juan II., who restored the most beautiful halls;the Catholic monarchs, who built chapels and oratorieswithin its precincts ;with the moderated style of this epochCharles V., who added more than half,inof sublime renaissance;Philip III., and Philip V., who further increased itby erecting edifices in the surrounding gardens ; all these,and many other princes and great lords, who inhabited it

259SEVILLEALCAZAR -ARCADB IN THB PRINCIPAL COURT.

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SEVILLE 263for six centuries, changed its original construction insuch adegree that it noJongeL-Xesembles, to-day, the originalOriental monument, although we have covered it witharabesJoesTaSd embellished it with m osaics and gilding."All that succeeding generations have constructed in thealcazar has contributed to depriveit of its Mohammedancharacter. Transformed into a lordly mansion of moremodern epochs, one no longer sees there the voluptuoussaloons of the harem, nor the silent spacesreserved forprayer, nor the baths, nor the fountains, nor the strongramparts, supporting the galleries, which, by circular paths,communicated with the rich sleeping apartments, situated inthe square towers. It is not that Arab art is in a differentform here to that seen in other parts of Spain but while the;Moors always built palaces in close proximity to fortifiedplaces, they here combined the two, and for that reason theysacrificed the exterior decoration to the works of fortificationand defence. On approaching the palace, one finds marksof grandeur, but one must not look for them in the structure,but rather in t4ie numerous reparations and additions whichhave been made there, and also in the solid walls, dominatingthe ruins of those castles, which seem to protesteternally against the cold indifference with which so manygenerations have passed over them. And if, on the onehand, there is no doubt that this is the old wall or theancient tower, on the other hand, the traveller, greedy forimpressions left by a past world, finds nothing but squareenclosures, gardens and rectangular saloons of the mansionsof the i6th century. ^Here there is nothing ^majestic asthe Giralda ; nothing so essentially Oriental as the mosqueof Cordova ; nothing so fantastic and so picturesque^sthcaloazar of Granada. One only sees here the chronicle ofan aftTcarried^Qut by_^ thousand artists, obeying different

264 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINbeliefs, and which presents rather the appearance of a gamewhere the mostplayed by children who had invaded the spotvalued works of their ancestors were preserved, rather thanthe passionate conception of the terrible descendants ofHagar, who in fifty years invaded half the globe. But onestill catches something of the spirit of an art that wasalmost a religion, as one lingers in the quiet gardens of thealcazar the ; deep impress of the Moor will never be entirelyobliterated from the courts and saloons of this palace of''dreams. As Mr. W. M. Gallichan writes : The nightingalesstill sing among the odorous orange bloom, andin the tangle of roses, birds build their nests. Fountainstinkle beneath gently waving palms ;the savour of Orientalismclings to the spot. Here wise men discussed irl thecool of summer nights, when the moon stood high over theGiralda, and white beams fellthrough the spreading boughsof lemon trees, and shivered upon the tiled pavements. Inthis garden the musicians played, and the tawny dancerswrithed and curved their lissom bodies in dramatic Easterndances."Ichabod ! The moody potentate, bowed down with thecares of high office, no longer treads the dim corridor, orlingers in the shade of the palm trees. No sound of gaietyreverberates in the deserted courts, no voice of orator isheard in the Hall of Justice. The green lizards bask on thedeserted benches of the gardens. Rose petals strew thepaved paths. One's footsteps echo in the gorgeous patios,whose walls have witnessed many a scene of pomp, tragedy,and pathos. The spell^f^the past holds one ; and, beforethe imagination, troops a long processioiT of illustrioussovereigns, courtiers, counsellors, and warriors.This wonderful monument, which has moved generationsof artists and poets to rhapsody and praise, and inspired

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SEVILLE 269that picturesque Italian author, De Amicis, to people thegardensof the alcazar with Mo'temid and his beautifulfavourite, Itamad, who had been dead nearly a century beforethe alcazar was erected, failed to create any impressionin the mind of Mr. John Lomas, whose strictures upon theplace in his Sketches of Spain must ever be a standing reproofto those who dare to see Oriental beauty in this Sevillian"castle. Greater far," says Mr. Lomas, " is the alcazar inreputation than in intrinsic worth. Like the Mother Church,it forms a sort of sightseers' goal, and it shares equally inthe good fortune of so entirely satisfying the requirements ofsuperficial observers, that it is esteemed a kind of heresy totake exception to its noble rank as a typical piece of Moorishwork. Yet it is just a great house, of southern and somewhatancient construction— — say the fifteenth century witha number of square rooms and courts, arranged and decoratedafter Arab models as far as was possible in the case ofa building designed to fulfil the requirements of Westerncivilisation. Nothing else. Of course, if the courts andtowers of the Alhambra have not been seen— or are not tobe compassed — there will be found here an infinity of freshloveliness in design and colouring, together with a vastamount of detail which will repay study. But even then itmust all be looked upon as an exceedingly clever reproductionof beautiful and artful forms, not as their best possible—setting forth, or type. There are dark winding passages—evidently dictated by the exigencies of the work but theyyield none of the delicate surprises which form so great acharm of the old Moorish monuments. There isany amountof rich decoration and Moresque detail but never the;notion of the luxury and voluptuousness of Eastern life, ora suggestion of its thousand-and-one adjuncts. There are,here and there, indubitable traces of the original EleventhL

27© MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINCentury alcazar of Yakub Yusuf " was not built until the(it latter part of the twglft h centu ry) "but there is nothingeither distinctive or precious about them, and the rest is arecord rather of Christian than Arab ways."Mr. Lomas is perfectly correct in suggesting that thealcazar of Seville is, in great measure, a reproduction ofthe delights ol^the Alhambra, a reproduction due, withoutany doubt, to that school of architecture which embellishedthe sumptuous palace of Granada for the kings of the secondNazarite dynasty. In it we see the record of the ingeniousalmizates, of itsgates and ceilings,of those stalactiteddornes, which dazzle and confuse, of those wall-facingsencrusted with rich ornamentation, of those graceful Byzantineand Moorish geometrical^designs, which even to-day arethe despair of perspective painters, of those enchantingsaloons where the genius of harmony seems to rest, and ofthose balniy^gardens which invite repose, meditation, andmelancholy.While it is generally accepted that the cityof Sevillepossessed no alcazar of striking importance until the decliningpower of the khalifate of Cordova made Seville the capitalof an independent kingdom, there is substantial reason forbelieving that in the foundations of the present superbedifice there are unmistakable relics of an earlier work oftruly Arab architecture. The Almohades so thoroughlyeffaced and distorted the magnificence of their predecessors'work that it would be impossible to point with certainty toany of the original remains of this many-times-restoredpalace. The ultra-semi-circular arches which are seen inthe Hall of the Ambassadors, those graceful arches whichcarry the mind from Seville to the graceful arcades of themosque of Cordova, incline one to regard this apartmenta asrelic of Abbadite antiquity, while the rich columns with

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SEVILLE275their gilded capitals of the Corinthian style appears tocontain authentic proof of their Arabic- Byzantine origin.^Senor Pedro de Madrazo, whilst admitting the difficulty ofdetermining the period to which the various parts of thealcazar belong, disregards the conclusions of Senores Jos6Amador de los Rios and his son Rodrigo, who resolutelydenied the antiquity of these ultra-semi-circular arches, anddeclares the Hall of Ambassadors to be an example ofAbbadite architecture. He further attributes to the sameepoch, the showy ascending arcade of the narrow staircasewhich leads from the entrance court to the upper gallery,and rises near the balcony or choir of the chapel, and thethree beautiful arches, sustained by exquisite capitals, whichremain as the sole relic of the decoration of the abandonedapartment situated close to the" Princes* Saloon."In his work on " Sevilla," the same authority distinguishesbetween the art of the Mudejare, or transitionartificers, and that of the Almohado Moors." The latter"art," he observes, is less simple, less select in its ornamentation,discloses less rational regularity, and is, generallyspeaking, more affected." These differences may be seenin a comparison between the Moorish Giralda of Seville andthe beautiful creation of artists of the Arab-Andalusianperiod which are to be studied in the ornamental parts ofthe Alhambra. The Almohade architecture displays a basetaste, which imitates rather than feels, and creates forms byexaggerations which are unsuitable to the design, and thusdiffers in aesthetic principles from the Mudejaren-Moorishwork of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, which reveals aninstinctive feeling for the beautiful in ornamentation, whichnever loses sight of the elegant, the graceful, and the bold,and consequently never falls into aberration. The Almohadeperiod, in short, discloses at once the force of the barbarous

276 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINspiritcivilised by conquest, while the latter offers theenduring character of cultured taste and wisdpm in all theepochs of prosperous or adverse fortune ;•4)oth are thefaithful expression of people of different ages, origins, andaptitudes.*' It is certain," declares Senor de Madrazo, "thatthe innovations which characterise Mussulman architecturein Spain in the nth and 12th centuries, cannot be explainedas a natural mutation from the Arab art of the khalifate, oras a preparation or transition to the art of Granada, becausethere isvery little similarity between the style calledsecondary or Moorish and the Arab- Byzantine and Andalusian,while on the other hand it is evident that the Saracenmonuments of Fez and Morocco, of the reigns of Yusuf benTexpin, Abdel-ben-Ali, Elmansur and Nasser, bear thecharacter of the ornamentation which the Almo-principalhades made general in Spain."Itmust always be remembered when approaching theforbidding exterior of the alcazar, that it was erected toSQrv^Jii e^ purpose of a fo rtxessL_as_wdl__as_a palace. Yusufissupposed to have used a Roman praetorium as thefoundation of his castle, and there are parts of the wallwhich date back to Roman times. But the principal gatewaywhich gives entrance to the palaceis of Arab origin,and it is evident that all the upper part, from the frieze withthe Gothic inscription, is purely Mohammedan, accordingto the Persic style, very much used in the entrances tomosques of the first period, in Asia. The two pilasters, intheir entire height, as well as the sculptured framing of thelower part, are of the Arab style ;but the balconies witharches, arid Byzantine columns, the Roman capitals, thelintels of the doors and windows with Gothic springs, areindications, which prove the reconstruction of the time ofDon Pedro. The later restorations have not completely

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SEVILLE 281changed the primitive form, but have only modified it.entering the palace one finds other works less Arab thanthese, the ornaments do not form an integral part of thedecoration, and one can observe that in order to placethem it was necessary to remove inscriptions and Mohammedanshields which filled the little spaces.But in passing this square entrance, whose form recallsEgypt, and which began to be used when the horseshoearch was no longer in vogue, we find ourselves in the chiefco urtyar d of the alcazar, which makes a slight detour inorder not to be overlooked from the street, and which offersan extravagant assemblage of lines without departing fromexactness. The actual lines of this superb edifice, mentioningprincipally the two types of architecture whichprevail, are the Moorish of the works erected from 1353 to1364, and the Renaissance, in the works carried out underthe monarchs of the house of Austria.OnIt is curious that while the Alhambra was allowed tofall into decay, and suffered periods of neglect that could bereckoned by scores of years at a stretch, the alcazar hasseldom been free from the hands of the restorers. The factaccounts, of course, for the splendid state of preservationin which it is to be found to-day, but it also owes to it theweird incongruity of style and decoration which lovers ofpure Moorish art deplore.After gedro had almost^ntirelyreconstructed the p alace — and to him the alcazar owes manyof its best portions— it came under the restoring influence ofJuan II., that weak but artistic monarch, whose handiworkis seen in some of the chief apartments. The arch-vandal,Charles V., whose palace in the Alhambra would be a workof art anywhere save on the spot on which he chose to erectit, could not be expected to spare the alcazar. Under histhe greater portion of the Renaissance additionsdirection

282 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINwere made, and the portraits of Spanish kings hung in theHall of Ambassadors were introduced by his successor. Inthe 17th century this favourite residence of the kings ofSpain attained to the zenith of its magnificence and then;for a whole century the palace was allowed, for the first andonly time, to fall into a state of disrepair. Spain waspassing through troublous times, and its rulers had weightiermatters to absorb their attention.The alcazar, stricken byneglect, shrank to something like its original proportions,and its beauties fell into decay. In the middle of the 19thcentury Queen Isabella II. rescued the ancient structurefrom the ravages of time, and the present order and distinctionwhich it now enjoysislargely due to her timelyefforts.After the restorations made by Don Pedro werefinished, the alcazar had various entrances, but the principalwere the two opened in the old Arab wall, which lead tothe courts called the *' Banderas y de la Monteria." Thedelicate pointed arches which composed them were almosthidden between the massive towers of the neighbouringminaret; nothing externally reveals the dazzling beautywhich is to be seen behind these walls.In the courtyard one sees very fine ornaments placedhap-hazard, which had been left over from the last restorationsof the palace of Granada, and which were sent herewithout any consideration for period or style. That thissystem prevailed can be proved by reference to the archivesof the royal patrimony, where there is a document requesting,on the part of the keeper of the alcazar, that some of the"best" arabesques, which were being used for the restorationsat Granada, should be sent to Seville. These ornaments, ofdifferent epochs and styles, can be seen on the walls of thealcazar, face to face with others correspondingto the

283i^..^i«^

285J>(fi

SEVILLE 287infancy of the art. The Alhambra does not suffer fromthese inc ongruities, because it has not suffered a greattransformation similar to that which the alcazar underwentat the hands of Don Pedro. It has not been altered to suitthe requirements of a Christian court, and it has never beenoccupied by great personages, with large revenues at theirdisposal, to reconstruct itaccording to their caprice.The ornaments of the ceiling^s of the alcazar aremagnificent, because, as Contreras points out, the Moorishworkmen were beginning to understand all the majesty andgrandeur that Christian art stamped upon the complicatedand minute assemblage of Mussulman edifices ;they beganto make rich coverings, with bolts or stays with apertures,and with hollows in the form of an arch, and keystonesimitatin g rhombu s, stars, and bow ornaments. The famousGothic roofs and ceilings of the Bretonne buildings of theninth century have never been able to equal this one,because here one finds more beautiful specimens than inthe other edifices, when the vaults with little stalactites hadnot yet acquired their complete development. The perfectlyworkedand carved designs of the doors give a great reliefto the palace. One remarks here that the ceilings are lessmagnificent or luxurious, when the ornamentation is lessclassic, and, as at Fez, the walls were covered with hangingsinstead of reliefs in plaster ; and then they used more goldin the cornices, in the friezes, in the domes, in the lintels,and in the crownings, whilst the walls remained bare, as inthe Moz-Arabian constructions. There was here such amixture of styles, such a confusion of ideas, and such anumber of littlequadrangular windows, which interrupt thegeneral line of the ornamentation, as one does not see anywhereelse. One sees, too, walls covered with arabesques,stretching like pieces of tapestry or coverings of bright

288 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINcolours, and which produce a — rich effect, beautiful and—varied, thought-out and elegant but not at all simplewhich is the chief condition of art in the epochs of greatculture.In going through this alcazar one sees nothing butsquare-saloons, one following the other, of the same shapeand dimensions, occasionally varied by the composition ofthe arabes^es traced there. Symmetry has been sacrificedto convenience, and the central arches to the alignment ofthe doors.In the time of the Arabs the alcazar constituteda series of constructions, flanked by the walls and the towers,which surrounded the town, which had not the symmetricalform of the rectangular plan of the buildings of the Renaissance.Neither does it resemble the palaces of Egypt or ofThese quays, placed side by side, give this edifice theS)nia.appearance of a Christian house of the fifteenth century;and one can only confidently give the name "Arab " to theCourt of the-X)amsels, the Hall of Ambassadors, and theapartments immediately adjoining it.The Courtx^he-Banners, and of the Hunters ,lead tothe Court of the Principal Fa9ade, where one sees the firstspecimen of Mussulman decoration ! In all these divisionsthe monument is only revealed by the vestiges of battlementsof the towers and of the walls, in which the originaldoors were opened, and where the sultans had the chambers— for judging the quarrels of their subjects, a custom perpetratedby the Christian monarchs. In the Court of theHunters one can still see the apartment named the Hall ofJustice, where all writers suppose that the audiences wereheld. Here Don Pedro held his tribunal ;and the traveller,Don Antonio Ponz, asserts that he saw one of the columnsof the memorable seat occupied by the monarch when heheld those famous audiences, which were an imitation of the

289

2giSEVILLEALCAZAR—VIEW IN THE LITTLE COURT.

Cornice at SfM-ingiiiK

'THE ^y:RSfTY

SEVILLE293judgments of the East and of the feudal lords of the West,and which magnified the idea of justice in the eyes offoolish and irreflective people, but which were held by menof good sense to be a mere pretence of equity, with whichto mask his tyranny. The place where justice was administeredin the time of the Almohadan kings was in the Court ofthe Monteria— a vast and beautiful apartment, one of theoldest constructions in the alcazar, and of a more purelyMoorish style.The Court of the Hunters leads to another largercourt, known as the Princes' Hal l. This is more regular inform, and in it rises the chief entrance, dazzling and richlyornamented with painting and gilding, from its twin windowsto the topmost mouldmg of its projecting eaves, of the purestAlmohadan style. How can one describe it ? Not only theentrance, but the whole fa9adeis of pre cjousmarb les, thecapitals of the column s being in the most exquisite Moorishtaste ;and the facia of interlaced arches above the doorwaydisplay the escutcheons of Castile and Leon while round;another facta, running between the brackets over the twinwindows of the principal floor, there is a legend in Gothiccharacters, which says: "The very high, and very noble,and very powerful, and very victorious Don Pedro, King ofCastile and Leon, commanded these alcazars, and thesepalaces, and these doorways to be made, which was donein the era of one thousand four hundred and two." Thecupola of the Princes' Hall rises above this fa9ade, itsouter walls being adorned with little arches and bluetile work, in imitation of a pyramid, and bearing at itssummit, in the Oriental fashion, a weather-cock with gildedspheres.On entering the vestibule, one; sees first the result ofunfortunate modern reformations,little rooms or recesses toM

294 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINright and left, now almost stripped of their ancient ornamentation.On taking the corrido r^ which is at the back ofa sort of ante-chamber, nearly square, one arrives at thechief ipj ier court called the Court of the Damsels. Thereis an unfounded tradition which says this court derivesits name from the disgraceful tribute of one hundreddamsels levied by Mauregato, and paid to the khalifs ofCordova, it being supposed that the throne upon which theMoorish king sat when receiving this tribute was situated inthis court. In point of fact, as Pedro de Medrazo remindsus, there were no Moorish kings in Spain, and neither wasSeville the capital of the Andalusian khalifate, nor can it beasserted that there was a Saracen palace there before theeleventh century. Without any doubt this court was partof the great restorations of the fourteenth. century. Its planis a rectangle, with galleries of marble columns in couplesand pointed mitred arches ;the central arches of each sideare higher than the rest, and instead of resting, as these doon the columns, they are supported by small square pillars,which appear to be held up by the capitals. These smallpillars have beautiful little columns at their angles, whichat first sight seem to be a prelude to the caprices of theRenaissance, which loved so much to surmount one style byanother ;but here it is really an accident very characteristicof the Arabic-Granadian architecture, such as is often to benoticed in the Courts of the Alhambra.These arches are only seen in the fa9ade here, in theHouse of Pilate, and in the buildings of the eighthcentury in the East. One could not explain them unlessthere were hanging decorations, such as tapestries attachedto the walls, which were neither seen nor guessed in theintercolumniations. It is a strange shape, which is eleganton account of the lobules, the point, and the horseshoe-

295SEVILLEALCAZAR-VIEW OF THE HALL .)K AMHASSAl>ORS FKoM TMK MTTLK OH RT

297SEVILLEALCAZAR— HALL OF AMBASSADORS.

IIRR.

SEVILLE299formed span, which at a later period regulated the arches ofthe palaces of Fez, of Tunis, and of Cairo.The second gallery of the Court of the Damsels,added to the ancient construction, is an addition of littleimportance ; but it is a fine court, if one considers the modificationsof its style, its socles showing beautiful panels ofdecorated porcelain of admirable delicacy.Different doorslead to the saloon of Charles V., to that of the Ambassadors,and to those of the '*Caracol," or of Don Maria de Padilla.They have scarfs cut into polygons, which cover them onboth sides, but this fine work has been badly restored withstucco barbarously painted.The H gjlof Ambassadors is a square apartment of asolemn aspect, with four frontages composed of high arches,which enclose twin windows, placed on slender columns,whose little arches are more than semi-circular, withouthaving the characteristic form of the horse-shoe,— a curvewhich marks the decadent transition. The capitals aredegenerate Greco-Rom an ;but the great decorative archwith running knots, althoughit has an Arab curve, has notthe two squares in height from the floor of the hall, andthat deprivesit of elegance in its ornamentation. Thespaces, or triangles, are not original, the work is interrupted,as in the inner side of the wall of the frontage, by shutterswhich open, as though escaping from the tympan of thetwin windows. A wide frieze of windows, or painted transparencies,stretches above, in an admirable manner, andhigher still there is a geometrical band of ornaments in theform of knots, and then come architraves and supports onwhich the roof rests. The sub-basements of porcelainare adorned with arabesques, and the connecting doors aredecorated with almost exaggerated profusion. The openbalconies, with the eagles on their consols, are an eternal

300 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINaffront for him who had them made and we; may say thesame thing of the portraits with Gothic frames, placedunder the arch-like hollows of the walls, and also of thegilding, which has not the fine ornamentation of blue, red,and black, which renders these little vaults more graceful,when they are done by Arabs. The spherical cupola, withrafters with arabesques forming stars of symmetrical polygons,may have been constructed for stained glass windowsat a higher light, but later it was ineffectively decorated withlittle mirrors. The mosaics have been restored with pieceslarger than the originals, and the jasper columns seem tobe Roman and not Arab, as do many others of the decadence;and the capitals too, without uniformity, and unsuitedto the columns, appear to be Moz-Arabian work, which isseen in many of the Saracen mosques.The type of the AidcaiLinscripiipns in the alcazar isnot as fine or as pure as are those in the Hall of Comaresat Granada; but on the other hand the classic characterof the cufic inscriptions here is more uniform and moresimple. The ornaments, in the shape of leaves, of pinecones, and of palms interlaced with ribbons, with geometricaloutlines, is a style that is no longer seen after thebeginning of the Thirteenth Century. The little windows^in parallelograms above the doors, the Roman imposts, theGothic carvings, and the escutcheons with broken chiselingsshown in this palace, are the work of several generationswho were wanting in the consciousness of art.Yet the Hall of Ambassadors isbeyond dispute themQ§t_spIendid-^ndJieautifiiL_apartnient of all the palaces^of Moorish architecture belonging. to the Crowji in Spain.The paintingand giTding^oTlLrabesques, the lovely carvedwooden ceilings, now shaped like inverted bowls, now likesections of a sphere, and now like capricious many-sided

30I

305SEVILLEALCAZAR- HAI.L f)F AMMASSAOORS.

^^OF THE '^K^^ -"o^

SEVILLE305figures, which reflect the light and shade with a marvellouseffect ;the inscriptions in African characters ;the rich doorsof marquetry, surrounded by Arabic invocations (a beautifulwork done by artificers of Toledo) the; columns of variousmarbles with capitals of exquisite cut, now primitive, nowAlmohadan, now Moorish; the variegated marble of thepavement, the perforated stucco of the partitions, the ingeniouswork, with birds introduced in the doorways; andfinally this strange combination of five different styles,which in theory is so impossible, and in practice so harmonious—Arabic, Almohadan, Gothic, Granadian, andRenaissance— to be seen in so many apartments of thealcazar, but more especially in this hall, are things whichthe pen could never describe satisfactorily, and which mustbe left to the impression produced by a sight of the original,or to a contemplation of its pictured representation. Forthis reason one may not endeavour to describe, either technicallyor minutely, this magnificent hall, to the gradualarchitectural composition of which overseers and workmenof so many different times contributed. The Abbaditasmade the bold horse-shoe arches of the lower part; the Almohadans,and afterwards the school of Christians of Granadawhich arose, carried out the work of ornamenting the wallswith the ornamental arches, the perforated windows, thefacias of little interlaced arches, and the inscriptions and;they covered the hall with the marvellous dome shaped likean inverted bowl. It isprobable that the architects of theCatholic monarchs constructed the third body in the pointedstyle, forming a series of corrupted trefoils bordered withlilies, in whose centres the portraits of the kings of Spain,from Chindasvinto, are reproduced and, finally, the kings;of the House of Austria added the third body of thedecoration, four balconies, of great projection, which doubt-

3o6 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINless formerly were twin windows (ajimeces)with one or morecolumns, supported by griffons gilded, and of bold outline.It was probablyin this saloon that the ceremoniousand perfidious reception of Abu Said, King of Granada,by Don Pedro took place. The usurper of the Throne ofGranada presented himself to the owner of the alcazar,thinking he had ensured his personal safety by the gifts hehad forwarded, and by his complete submission to thewishes of his host. But after being entertained at asplendid supper, he was rewarded with prison, and death,accompanied with the most horrible mockeries. Amongstthe jewels, with which the unhappy Abu Said issupposedto have hoped to win the heart of his faithless enemy, wasthe immense ruby, which to-day shines in the royal crownof Edward VII. It was given by Don Pedro to the BlackPrince ;it later came into the possession of Queen MaryStuart of Scotland, and through her son, James I., returnedonce more to England.If the Hall of Ambassadors is rich, the Court of theDolls is not less so in its own style.This, with some othersaloons, constituted one of the remaining splendoursof thealcazar which are associated with Don Fadrique, Master ofthe Order of Santiago, the timid son of Alonso XI. Wecannot tell from what source this court has received itsmodern denomination. In the old chronicles there is notrace of such a name ;but they, and tradition, have handedus down copious notes, all of which make this part of thealcazar the theatre of that sanguinary drama of the FourteenthCentury. After reading these chronicles and romances,one imagines the ghosts of the actors moving about theapartments; one sees Don Pedro, who has already planned hisexecrable plot, receiving, with false expressions of interest,his half-brother Don Fadrique one sees the;lovely Padilla,

30;

OF TH.iJriiVERSr-

309

XHifIIiIfI%i7*IfI^1i4J*Iff

SEVILLE 311sad and terrified in her room, in the "caracor* apartments,wishing to reveal the danger which awaits him to theMaster, but not daring to do so; and one also seems tofeel the impending doom of the eccentric prince, when heisdeprived of the help of his servants, whom the portersforce to leave the courtyard with their mules, where theywere waiting for their lord. And finally we see the return ofDon Fadrique to the presence of the irritated monarch, whohas called him, and who has ordered that his companionsshall be detained outside the doors, whilst the stewards ofthe kingkill his unfortunate brother. Fadrique, after adesperate struggle, manages to escape from the murderersand to reach the court, looking for the postern of thecorral, which he fancies isopen — all the time making unavailingefforts to draw his sword, the handle of whichhas become entangled in the cords of his sash— and thereat last he falls, his head being crushed by a blow of aclub. Other accounts declare that when Fadrique returnedto Don Pedro's apartment, after paying a courtesy visit toMaria de Padilla-, he was met with the sentence, shouted inthe king's voice, *' Kill the Master of Santiago!" DonFadrique drew his sword and made a valorous defence, butwas overpowered and struck down by blows on the head.Seeing that his half-brother was still breathing, the kinghanded his own drawn dagger to an attendant and commandedhim to kill the Master outright.To-day we cannot say positively which was the'*Palacio del Yeso," or " Palace of stucco or lime,'* whereDon Pedro received his unhappy half-brother, nor yet whichwere the apartments of the " caracol." It isthought thecourt which has the chief fa9adeof the alcazar was thatwhich in the chronicle is called the " caracol," and that the" "postern was that which led from this court to that of the

312 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN**banderas." It is true that tradition persists in pointingout the Court of the Dolls and the Hall of Ambassadorsas the theatre of this horriblefraticide, without taking intoaccount the notes of the historian, who relates that DonFadrique, pursued by his murderers, ran in the direction ofthe postern, where he had been warned that he could makea stand, but found that all his escort had been driven out.The King Don Ped ro fills with his grand sinister figurethe apartments which he occupied, and even those addedby later monarchs, just as the whole gloomy pile of theEscurial seems to be haunted by the ambiguous personalityof Philip II. Sad privilege of despots; the terror_whichthey inspire in life, survives them, frpf^?;ir) the, smile,g o fhapj^iness^in 1 he. 1 i ps^ni generat ioji s ,who are free from theirmalevolent actions, even in the very chambers which theydedicate to their pleasures.The architecture of the Court of the Dolls is purelyin the style of Granada. The surface of the arches iscovered with minute mQsaic_^ work, and they rest uponbeautiful brick pillars, sustained by marble columns withdelicate capitals, while the double partitions, covered withperforated work, are of brick, wood, and stucco. Delicatetints cover the ornamentation with a beautiful veil, whichis like a lovely Persian tapestry. This court is a rectanglewith unequal sides ;there is a great arch in those lookingtowards the Hall of Ambassadors, somewhat pear-shaped,between two smaller arches of the same form ;in theother two sides there is a large arch and a smaller one, allresting upon graceful columns of different colours,in thecapitals of which (believed to belong to the primitive epoch,on account of their resemblance with those of the primitivepart of the Mosque of Cordova) there is a freshness anddelicacy of line which holds the imagination captive.The

313SEVILLE>^, T.- -^^ -^fi^ =

315

THE ^rRSITY

SEVILLE317entablatures, which are borne by the columns, are finelydecorated with vertical borders, formed by inscriptions incufic characters. The upper part of this lovely court hasbeen spoilt by bad restorations.The Hall of Ambassadors, as well as the Court of theDolls, is surJxamded_byJi£ajitiiul-saloons, starting from thechief fa9ade of the alcazar, running round the north-eastangle of the building, and forming a series of mysterious andvoluptuous rooms adjoining the galleries of the "Gardens"of the " Princes " of the " Grotto " and of the *'Dance," tillthey terminate at the other south-west corner of the Courtof the Damsels where the chapel used to be, and where itbelieved the luxurious apartments of the " caracol " stood.According to tradition they were at the eastern side of theCourt of the Damsels where the lower chapel stands to-day;this space adjoins at its north-east corner the baths, whichstill bear the name of the unhappy favourite, more worthyof pity than of hatred ;and they also lead, by a narrow andalmost hidden staircase,— the oldest in the alcazar,— to thebedroom of Don Pedro, situated in the story above.Nothing remains of the dwelling which the enamouredking prepared for the woman he loved most in his distractedand changefullife.The entrance to the famous and regaLhaths of DonaMaria de Padilla is in the garden of the " Dance," belowthe saloons constructed in the time of Charles V. It issupposed they were used by the sultanas, whilst the Saracencourt was at Seville. They are surrounded by o range andlemonJxees, and not enclosed by those massive walls whichgive the appearance of a gloomy dungeon. At the easternextremity of the garden of the " Dance " there is a tank orfountain. It is said that one day the king, being much preoccupiedwith the choice of a judgeisto whom to confide a

3i8 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINvery complicated and obscure case, drew near this tank, andcutting an orange in two, threw one half on the surface ofthe water, where it floated. He then sent for one of hisjudges and asked him what he saw floating on the water."An orange, Sire," was the reply. He received the sameanswer from several other judges whom he summoned ;butfinally came one who, when asked the question, broke off" abranch of one of the trees near by, and with it drew thefruit floating on the water to the edge, when he answered," Half an orange. Sire." Whereupon the monarch decidedto entrust him with the conduct of the case.The strange character of Don Pedro, and his mannerof administering justice, take us now to the upperthe alcazar, to the south-east corner, where, at the end of afloor ofseries of saloons of little interest, with rich bowl-shapedceilings and cornices of mosaic, there is the king's sleepingchamber, whose walls still preserve the high socle of inlaidtile work, the stucco ornaments with borders of inscriptionsin African characters, and the recessed windows withshutters, the frieze with stalactites, the ceiling of gooddesign and beautiful gilding, and an alcove with a mosaicarch. Near one of the corners there is a bas-relief in oneof the walls, representing a man seated with his bodytwisted towards the entrance door, and his head turnedupwards, as though contemplating the skull which is to beseen above the facia of African characters. It appears thatthis horrible emblem was placed there by order of DonPedro, in order to perpetuate the memory of his summarypunishment of some deceitful judges.The PrinceslJHall and the Oratory are the onlyjjpperapartments, prior to the Renaissance, which are left forus to examine,— a fire in the year 1762 having destroyedmany of the rooms of the upper story. But we must first

..Mm^-'319

UNiVERS^T^^,r

3^1SEVILLEALCAZAR-COURT OF THB VIRGIN*

SEVILLE323take note of the external objects which surround us.DonPedro^s bedroom looks on the south over the gardens the;Princes' Hail looks north, and occupies the upper floor ofthe chief fa9ade, whose elegant "ajimeces" illuminate it.The oratoryis in the east wall. In the bedroom there is abalcony, which leads to a wide gallery, with other littlebalconies, with seats running round them, at the end ofwhich there is a sort of turret, with three semi-circulararches, supported by pairs of marble columns, with capitalsof the purest Arab style. The spacious gardens stretch atour feet, forming a delightful spectacle. From the Princes'Hall one can perceive, above the watch-towers of thealcazar, the innumerable perforated weather-cocks of thecathedral ; and, towering over all, like a gigantic sentinel,the Giralda, crowned with the sacred sign of the conversiontothe faith of Christ.In the Princes' Hall and in the Oratory the influenceof the pointed style of architecture is very noticeable and;yet in studying the arches of the Oratory and the littlepillars, which surmount the columns in the centre, theinfluence of Moorish architecture on the Gothic or pointedarchitecture of the third period is most striking. Thecolumns of the Princes' Hall, and of the other adjoiningapartments, are of marble, with very rich capitals. Accordingto Jeronimo Zurita, these columns were in the royal palaceof Valencia, and were removed after the defeat of DonPedro, King of Aragon, by the King of Castile. There areluxurious divans all round the hall, and everythingis richexcept the ceiling, now destroyed, and the floor, which ispoor and in very bad repair. The Oratory was built byorder of the Catholic monarchs in 1504;its altar screenhas a picture in the centre, representingthe Visitation, withthe signature, "Niculoso Francisco Italiano,'- ptc fecit, vfhich

324 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINisnotable for the mixture of the pure Italian school, and therealistic Dutch school in its design. The blue tile plaquesof this oratory are purely Italian, and perhaps they are themost beautiful examples of this class of Christian ornamentationin Andalusia.Ford says that the Emperor, Charles V., jiiaixi ed Dofia^Isabella-of^ortugaLin this oratory, but the statement is notcorrect. Sandoval, better informed, describes the happyevent in the following words :—" Eight days after theempress entered Seville, the emperor entered, being greetedwith the same ceremonies. He went direct to the principalchurch, and from there passed to the alcazar, where theempress awaited him, accompanied by the Duchess ofMedina-Sidonia, Dona Ana of Aragon, and the Marchionessof Cenete, wife of the Count of Nassau, and by other greatladies; the empress and her ladies being all most richlydressed. Afterwards the emperor arrived ; they were marriedthat same night by the Cardinal Legate, in the great roomwhich is called the "half orange" (the Hall of Ambassadors),in the presence of all the prelates and grandeesassembled there. The empress appeared to all present oneof the most beautiful women in the world, as is testified toby those who saw her, and by her portraits. The hour ofsupper came, and the emperor and empress retired to theirapartments and after midnight, the emperor wishingit thus;for religious reasons, an altar was erected in one of theapartments of the alcazar, and the Archbishop of Toledo,who had remained for the purpose, said mass there."This, marriage, as M. de Latour rightly says, was thelast memomble pagejn^ the history_Q£-A^ alcazar ;and theworks completed by the emperor are the last notable improvementsmade in the monument. The ar^it€cts, Louisand Ga^gardeVaga, were responsible for important works

XUJI-

325SEVILLEALCAZAR— GALLERY IN THE COURT Of THE HUNDRED VIRGINM.

^EsFpg^OfTheUNlVEp^/fORN'

327SEVILLEALCAZAR—THE SULTANAS APARTMENT AND COURT OF THE VIRGINS.

uor Vh:'^^^VERSITY

f UN-SEVILLE329in the alcazar, the high gallery of the Court of the Damsels,and those looking south over the gardens and over the bathsof Dona Maria de Padilla. New habitations were thenerected, which shone with the art of the Renaissance, intertwinedwith the Arab adornments of the style called" plateresco." But the emperor did not confine himself torestoring, re-building, and to erecting fresh works in the oldalcazar; nor were the above-mentioned architects the onlyones who worked, but he also enlarged and embellished thegardens, and in that which is called the " Lion Garden," hehad built by a certain Juan Hernandez, in the year 1540, anelegant dining hall, of singular architecture— half Italian,half Moorish— which, without doubt, is a worthy dwellingplace for a fairy princess of the days of chivalry. Thissupper hall, or pavilion, has a square plan, and measures tensteps in each frontage a; gallery of five arches surrounds iton each side, which rest on graceful pillars of the rarestmarbles with capitals in the Moorish style.A frieze is seen,externally made of arabesques, forming ribbons, cuttingeach other at angles, and making stars ;all the lower partisfaced with blue tiles of Triana, with the outlines of thedesigns in bold relief. Inside there is another frieze in the" "plateresque style, cleverly perforated, and a socle ofblue tiles with a border, in which shine the arms of Castileand the imperial eagles. In the centre rises a beautifulfountain with a white marble basin. A facia of blue tiles,in imitation of inlaid tile work, runs around, and betweenthe work one can read the date of its construction andthe abbreviated name of the artificer. The dome is ofa decadent taste.The wall which encloses these gardens to the west isdecorated in the style called * vignolesque,"with stoutpilasters, and a frontispiece of two bodies above the pond

330 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINin the garden of the " Dance," and light arches which forma long " loggia " of beautiful effect.The works carried out under Philip III., and Philip V.,and Ferdinand VI. are not worthy of close attention. Theyconstructed the parts which face the gateway of the" banderas,"containing the "apeadero" and the ** armeria." The'*apeadero " is a portico thirty-eight yards long and fifteenwide, with two rows of marble columns in pairs. The*'armeria," or armoury, is a spacious apartment above,destined for the object indicated by its name. The epochof the construction of both is testified to by a stone set in**the fa9ade, which bears the following inscription: Reigningin Spain Philip III., he erected this work in the yearMDCVII.; Philip V. enlarged and repaired it, and destineditfor the royal armoury in the year MDCCXXVIII."Ferdinand VI. only constructed the offices above thebaths of Dona Maria de Padilla, repairing the damagecaused by the terrible earthquake^f ly^S-The greater part of the halls on the upper story lookingon the gardens perished in the dreadful_fire 0^^ 1762; andthe Government doubtless fearing the expense which wouldbe incurred by a regular restoration in the original style,ordered all the roofs and ceilings destroyed by the fire tobe repaired in the '* modern manner." The unhappy resultof this order was to make the ceiling of many of theapartments much too low, and to scrape away many of theancient arabesques from the walls. In the year 1805 theunhappy idea was conceived of changing the principalentrance, and of white-washing with hideous lime themagnificent stucco work in the Princes' Hall, and of otherancient apartments. The unfortunate reformation evenwent so far as to substitute a plaster ceiling, which makesone shudder, for the beautiful Arab bowl-shaped one, and

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331sf:villkALCAZAR— ENTRANCE TO THE SLEEPING 8ALCXMnORIKH KiNCH

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SEVILLE335to put modern windows in the hall over the principalfacade, called the Hall of the Princes, near the Court ofthe Dolls; and also to spoil the ceiling of the Hall ofAmbassadors with heavy beams and supports, quite ruiningthe beauty of this enamelled half-orange. One is curiousto know who it was who first tried to repair in a measurethe harm done by these so-called "restorations.*' In 1833a rational restoration of the Court of the Dolls, and ofthe hall near it to the north, was begun with laudiblezeal by the Don Joaquin Cortes, professor of painting, andthe intelligent overseer, Antonio Raso, and the official,Manuel Cortes. The real work of restoration commencedabout the year 1842, thanks to the praiseworthy efforts ofDon Domingo de Alcega, administrator of the royal patrimony,and to those who helped him in his difficult task,the distinguished artist, Don Joaquin Dominguez Becquer,and the master artificer, Jose Gutierrez y Lopez. SehorBecquer designed the Arab cornice which to-day decoratesthe outer part of the edifice defining the dome of the Hallof Ambassadors, which had been half destroyed in 1805,and he never ceased to devote his genius to the restoration,now in part and again general, of the most precious monumentof Moorish art of the fourteenth century. During theyears 1852 and 1853 the alcalde of the royal palacescompleted the work of replacing some of the stucco ornamentsin various apartments. Afterwards the vice-alcalde,Don Alonso Nunez de Prado, assisted by Senor Becquer,brought a complete restoration to a successful end, which,though it may not be faultless in the eyes of a moderncritic, is still worthy of praise, considering the period inwhich it was undertaken. In 1855 the administrator of thealcazar invited the Queen, Dona Isabella II., to interestherself in the works, with the result that he was able to

336 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINcover the Court of the Dolls with glass, and to re-build thethirty-six arches of the Court of the Damsels.There is no inscription in the alcazar which offers areal historical or literary interest to the archaeologist. Oneon the walls whichdoes not find here the fragments of poemsin the Alhambra rest the eye and speak to the intelligencein praising the heroic deeds of warriors and the beautieshabitations. In the alcazar one readsof the sumptuousthe Koran with its repeated salutations and some praisesof Don Pedro, in which the praises of the Mohammedansultans have been suppressed, also the word, Islamism ;butwe must draw attention to the fact that the greater numberof the inscriptions are the same as those employed in thealcazar of Granada, repeated a thousand times, and it wouldbe tedious and tiresome to accompany the artistic descriptionwith the same verse, repeated a hundred times, whichis to be found in the different apartments, and interrupteda hundred times also by others put in at the time of therestorations. As the persons who were charged with thework of restoring the inscriptions did not know the ancientlanguage, they very often placed the inscriptions upsidedown.On the fa9ade, and over the principal entrance of thealcazar, around the twin windows, one reads the well-known**verses Glory to our Lord the Sultan ;"" Eternal Glory:" '*for Allah, the perpetual empire for Allah ; Lasting happiness" ;" Benediction'';" The kingdom of God, the powerof God, glory to God;" *' Happiness and peace, and theglory and generosity of perpetual felicity;"*'In prosperousfortune this palace is the only one." The inscription," There is no conqueror but God," placed above and belowthe wide frieze of painted porcelain, in cufic characters, inour opinion, must be the work of an artist from Granada.

337SEVILLEALCAZAR—THB DORMITORY.

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SEVILLE341Then comes the vestibule, where one sees almost thesame inscriptions. The African characters are changedinto cufic, or neskis. These are what are in the frieze :"Happiness and prosperity are the benefits of God;"and after:" Glory to our Lord the Sultan Don Pedro, mayhis victories be magnificent."In the Court of the Damsels we find very much the"same thing: Praise to God, on account of His benefits."It must be remarked that, in all the inscriptions mentionedabove, the word '* Islamism " has been suppressed,which proves that the artists were the same Arabs who,under the Christian dominion, took advantage of thetraditional formulas in effacing the religious part of theverse.On a frieze of the same court :**Glory to our Sultan Don Pedro, may God lend himHis aid and make him victorious," &c., &c.Then follow a number of inscriptions of no importance,where one sees **repeated Happiness, Praise, Grandeur;:God is Unique,, the Fulfilment of Hopes;" and this one,more worthy of notice, "God isUnique, He does not Beget,He was not Begotten, He has no Companion." Thisinscriptionis also found at Granada on the Charcoal Gateway,in cufic characters, and itproves that it could not havebeen constructed under the Christian dominion, because itis completely contrary to the religion of Christ ; and, conse-the work of Yusufquently, that Don Pedro profited byas much as was possible.Amador do los Rios, the wellknownsavant, supposes that artists were brought fromToledo to construct this alcazar ;but this is not exact, theyonly did the repairs and restorations.On one of the doors, which like all the rest in thisedifice has undergone many restorations, the most interest-

342 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINing legend is found : ** The Sultan our Lord, the exalted,noble Don Pedro, King of Castile and of Leon— may Godperpetuate his happiness — ordered Jalabi,his architect, tomake the doors of worked wood for this magnificent portalof happiness ; he ordered this in honour of the Ambassadors.Joy broke out for their construction and dazzlingembellishment. The chiselings are the work of artistsfrom Toledo, and it was done in the year of grace 1404.*'Similar to the twilight of the evening, and verysimilar to the light at dawn of day, this work is dazzling onaccount of its brilliant colours and the intensity of itsflows for thesplendours, from which abundance of felicityhappy town where the palaces were built, and these habitations,which are for our Lord and Master, the only onewho communicates life to his splendour, the pious Sultan,who is also severe, had it built in the town of Seville, withthe aid of his intercessor, in honour of God."One sees the same inscriptions repeated in the Hall ofAmbassadors, and in the room to the left one reads :'*0h! entrance to the habitation newly dazzling andnoble. Lord of protection, of magnificence, and of virtues."In the Court of the Dolls, and round the entrancearch, one reads :*'There is no protectionif it is not Allah, in whom Itrust, for I shall return to him." ''All that thou dostpossess comes from God," &c., &c. And in the same court(cufic) : *'0h! incomparable Master, issue of a royal race,protect it." "Praise God for His benefits." ''God, myMaster."In the sleeping apartment, called that of the Moorishkings, amongst other known inscriptions"Oh !this one is found :illustrious new dwelling, thy splendid happiness hasprogressivelyincreased on account of the lasting brilliancy

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343SEVILLEALCAZAR-ROOM OF THB IWrANTA

345SEVILLEALCAZAR -COLUMNS WHERE IX)N FAUKiyLE WAS MIK.

SEVILLE 347of the greatest beauty. Thou wert chosen for the placewhere the feasts should be celebrated. He is the supportand the rule for all good, source of benefits, and food of!courage For thee. . ."We left the story of Seville somewhat abruptly to dealin detail with the alcazar. Under Almohade rule, andwhile the alcazar and the mosque were in course of construction,the c ity knew pe ace, and its conxm£i£e flourished.But the days of its security were limited ;the end of theMoslem domination in Seville was drawing to its close.The revived prosperity of the Mohammedans spurred theChristian Spaniards to renewed efforts to encompass theoverthrow of the infidels.Pope Innocent III. declared acrusade, and numbers of adventurous French and Englishfree-lances travelled to Spain in answer to the call. But in1195 the Christians were defeated at Alarcos, near Badajoz,and again the ambitious projects of San Fernando weretemporarily frustrated. In 1212 the Almohade itarmy,issaid to the number of 600,000 men, was almost destroyedon the disastrous field of Las Navas, and the work of theexpulsion of the Moors from Spain was begun. City aftercity was captured by the soldiers of Fernando III., Cordovafell in 1235, ^^^ ^^^ conqueror, with the help of the Kingof Granada, who had sworn allegiance to the Christianmonarch, marched against Seville.The army brought by the holy king to Seville was themost brilliant and numerous ever seen in Christian orMohammedan Spain. No smaller force would have beensufficient for the taking of a city which contained 12,000Mussulman families divided into twenty-four tribes, andwhich had been in the hands of the followers of Islam formore than five centuries. Jin the spring of the year 1235the army was moved from Cordova and divided into two

348 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINparts,one under the command of the Prince of Molina andthe Master of Santiago, which was to march to the Ajarafe ;and the other under the direction of the King of Granadaand the Master of Calatrava, which was to harass thecountry near Jerez. The attack on Seville and its territoriescommenced immediately, and a series of uninterrupted victoriesprefaced the happy termination which was to crownthe constant and generous efforts of the Christian warriors.Seville, at this period the court and seat of the Islamiteempire, was a city calculated to djefy,the strategy of themost skilful generals, the valour of the most devoted menat arms. In form it would resemble a shield, stretchingfrom north-east to south-west. Its head and right sidewere formed by the walls with its towers, defended by abarbican and a moat, with eight gates and a narrow sideentrance. These gates were veritable fortresses. Theywere defended by towers and bastions. Their exits werenarrow, and never in front ;the exterior passages to the cityhad angles and turnings, and very often the first turningopened into a square armed place, with narrow doorways atboth sides. "The gates of Seville," says Morgado, "wereconstructed of planks of iron, fastened on to strong hideswith steel bolts. And because it was best defended on its'west side by the river Guadalquivir, which protected morethan half the city, with the six gates in that side, it wasthought well to place the strongest walls and the bestfortified towers, with as many barbicans, and the widest anddeepest moats on the other side."The left side of the shield boasted the majestic curve ofthe river, the arsenal, and another series of walls and gates ;but at this part, there were no moats nor false entrances,because it had the strong towers of the Ajarafe opposite todefend it. There were four gates on this side, not counting

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SEVILLE353that of Bib-Ragel, which occupied the north angle of thecity and, in addition to these, ; it is believed there was asmall postern, afterwards called the " atarazanas," throughwhich it issupposed that Axataf, or "Sakkdf** his Moorishname, went out to receive King Ferdinand, and to deliverup the keys of Seville. The old wharf of Saracen Sevillecame as far as this ;and in all the space, which to-dayiscalled El Barrio de losHumeros, or the Chimney Quarter,the Mohammedans had their arsenal and shipbuilding yard,while the sailors and fishermen of the Guadalquivir werealso housed in this district. The Gate of the Triana musthave been in the vicinity; and the Gate of Hercules wasdirectly opposite the Ajarafe, which was also called theGarden of Hercules. With the gardens and orchards ofthe Macarena, which adorned it to the north, the plainsand woods of Tablada, which suppliedit with corn andwood to the east and south, with an abundant supply offresh water brought from Carmona by the aqueduct, withthe river which was its principal commercial artery to thewest, with the castles on the opposite side of the Guadalquivir,protecting the river and its bridge, and occupyingall the heights from Azalfarache nearly as far as Italica,Seville was one of the best situated, best supplied, bestdefended, and most prosperous cities of the Mussulmanempire in Andalusia. To attack her she must be cut offfrom the Ajarafe, and her bridge of boats must be taken.It would have been useless to descend to Italica and beexposed to the assaults of the city and of Triana, as long asthe bridge existed, and this task was thought to be beyondthe power and ingenuity of any enemy.The bridge of boats, protected by a great wooden chain,linked by iron rings, kept the communication open betweenthe city and the Ajarafe, that vast and fertile district from

354 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINwhich the Sevillians received jjl^ sortg^ of supplies, andwhere the Saracen magnatesTiad their country villas. Thisdelightful Garden of Hercules, in whose praise many Arabwriters have exhausted the treasure of their rich andexalted imagination, has been described in the followingmanner by an anonymous poet, in some verses dedicated tothe Abbadite Sultan Almutamed :" Seville is a youngwidow, her husband is Abbad, her diadem the Aljarafe, hercollar the winding river." Indeed, says the poet Ibn Saffar,*'the Aljarafe surpasses in beauty and fertilityall the landsof the world, the oil of its olives goes even to farAlexandria, its farms and orchards are superior to thoseof other countries on account of their extension and convenience; and, always white and pure, they seem to be somany stars in a sky of olive gardens." Travelled Arabhistorians recall with pleasure the delights of Andalus ; preferringSeville to either Baghdad or Cairo, saying : " TheAljarafe is a luxuriant wilderness without wild beasts, and itsGuadalquiviris a Nile without crocodiles." One of theauthors, quoted by El-Makkari, gives the following exactdescription of the ''Aljarafe It is an immense : district,measuring forty miles long, and almost as many broad,formed of pleasing hills of reddish earth, on which there arewoods of olive and fig-trees, which offer a delicious shade tothe traveller in the hours of the mid-day heat. This districtcontains a numerous population, scattered in beautiful farmsor collected in villages, none of which are wanting formarkets, clean baths, fine buildings, and other conveniences,such as are usually only to be found in cities of the firstorder."This fertile territory, which the Saracens called the" Orchard— of— Hercul^_s," rose gradually to the west ofSeville, after stretching along the right bank of the river.

355SEVILLEALCAZAK K«KIM «>F THK IKINCK

357SEVILLEALCAZAR—VIEW OK TIIK OALLEKV KKOM THK HKCOKD H-H.k

SEVILLE35gIts heights were covered with farmhouses and hamlets, asthe Arab writer indicates, which formed, as itwere, a continuouspopulation, rich in provisions, from which* Sevilleusually received abundant supplies of all necessaries.were four principal villages:ThereAznalfarche (to-day, San Juande Alfarache), Aznalcazar, Aznalcollar, and Solucar deAlbayda, strong walled places, where the Mohammedanscollected the revenues of the district. The fringe, formedby the heights of the Aljarafe, was given the name of*'Mountain of Mercies" (Jebl arrahmah) by the Mohammedans,on account of its extraordinary fertility, a surprisingabundance of figs, known as "Al-kuiti" and " Ash-shari,"being produced there.The Sevillians faced the Christian attack with boldness,bred of confidence, and a dete rmina tion to strain everynerve, and exhaust every resource, in repelling the invaders.They were engaging upon their last throw for the sovereigntyof Andalusia. Fernando's warships encountered theMoorish fleet at the mouth of the Guadalquivir, and drovethem from their position, and the infidels collected theirforces to make a last stand on land. But their stubbornfront was broken by the Christian host, and the war-wornremnant of the Moorish army prepared to withstand aseige. Even when the bridge of boats was destroyed, andall communications with the suburb of Triana and thesurrounding country was cut off, the Moors still fought onwithm the city walls, and it was not until fifteen monthshad elapsed that Seville was starved into submission. Onthe 23rd February, j_23'SiFernando entered the city, andAbdul Hassan, rejecting the king's invitation to becomea dependent officer of the Spanish Crown, retired withthousands of his vanquished Almohades to Africa.Fernando's first act was to have the mosque purified

36o MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINfor the celebration of a high and imposing Mass ;he tookup his quarters in the alcazar divided the Moorish; possessionsamong his knights, and rested his army after their longand arduous campaign. Four years later he died of dropsy.He was succeeded by Alfonso X., who founded the U nivers ityof Seville, devoted his leisure to the study of poetry, history,and ancient laws, and merited the title of '* El Sabio,"''the Learned." But although the beautiful alcazar appealedto the studious temperament of *' El Sabio," the fortresspalaceis more closely associated with his son, Pedro I.,Pedro, " the Cruel," the most renowned of all the Christiansovereigns who ruled Andalusia from Seville.Pedro's character has been made the study of manybiographers and historians, and he has not been without hisliterary whitewashers, but the " incidents " which illuminatehis career do not place him in a favourable light. HisBobemianism endeared him to the people, and a certainsense of justice, in cases in which his own interests were notconcerned, has gained for him the title of " The Justiciary."It may be that the plottings of Albuquerque, his father'schancellor, and the perfidious behaviour of his relatives,including his own mother, served to warp and embitter hisnature; but he had no sooner, at the instigation of hismistress, Maria de Padilla, taken up the reigns of government,than he revealed the cruelty and malignity of hischaracter. Leonora de Guzmar, the mother of Alfonso'sillegitimate son, Enrique, was done to death in his prisons ;Abu Said, the King of Granada, was seized by treachery,robbed, and executed; Urraca Osorio, for refusing Pedro'saddresses, was burned to death in the market-square ofSeville; his wife, Blanche of Bourbon, was mysteriouslymurdered ;Don Fadrique, his half-brother, was assassinatedwith Pedro's dagger; and he himself was eventually defeated

361srvillp:Oi I Hi- O'KN!IV

36;SEVILLE-,*!511i'uI. /'DETAILS OP THE OIRALDA TOWER

SEVILLE365in battle by the troops of his brother Henry and Bertranddu Guesclin, and killed in single combat by Henry.Pedro wearied of his first wife, Blanche of Bourbon, inforty-eight hours; and, having had his marriage annulled, heespoused the handsome Juaiia de Castro, only to desert hera few days later to return to his beautiful mistress, Maria dePadilla. This woman appears to have been the only personwho inspired Pedro with more than a transitory passion,and the courtiers testified to the power she wielded bychivalrously drinking the waters of her bath in El Jardindel Crucero. But Pedro's pasiiQiiJpr his mistress, thoughlasting, was not monopolising, and his amours supply uswith an incident which reveals at once the king's ferocity,his humour, and his alleged respect for justice. It was hiscustom at night to muffle himself in a cloak and adventureof entertainment. On one ofalone into the city in questthese excursions he encountered a hidalgo serenading alady, whose favours he himself coveted. Cloaked by thedim light, and made secure by the emptiness of the street,the king fought^ and slew his rival, in defiance of his ownorder, which made street fighting punishable upon theofficers of the city when they failed to bring the disturbers ofthe peace to justice. He had not bargained for the noise todisturb the rest of an old lady in the vicinity he had not;observed a venerable head protruding through an upperwindow. Believing the incident to be "wrapped in mystery,"he summoned the alcade of the city to his presence,acquainted him with the fact that the body of a hidalgo,pierced to the heart, had been found in the street, and gavehim the option of discovering the murderer within fortyeighthours, or of being hanged in his stead. And hangedhe doubtless would have been but for the timely confidenceof the old lady who had witnessed the fight.The alcade

366 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINcame again to the king with the news that the murderer hadbeen found, and would be on view upon the gallows withinthe time specified by Pedro. Curious to see who had beensecured to expiate his sin, or eager to fasten a new derelictionof duty upon the alcade, the king went to the place ofexecution and found, suspended from the gallows, an effigyof himself. "Good," said the king, "justice has beendone ! I am satisfied." There is a street in Seville whichis called the Calle della Cabeza del Rey Don Pedro, tocommemorate the duel ;and the alley from which the oldlady observed the issue is known as the Calle del Candilejo," the street of the candlestick."The alcazar extends along the river as far as theGolden Tower, built during the reign of Yusuf AlmotacidBen Nasir, by the Almohadan governor Abulala. Theview of Seville, from the Christina promenade, the famousthoroughfare, which extends from the palace of the Duke ofMontpensier to the Golden Tower, is a spectacle of whichthe Sevillians never tire, and visitors are never weary ofpraising. The tower itself, which took its present nameeither from the fact that it held the gold which the Spanishships brought from America, or because Don Pedro secretedhis treasures there, is octagonal in shape, with three recedingfloors, crowned with battlements, and washed by theGuadalquivir. The shimmering Torre del Oro, reflectingits light upon the broad bosom of the rose-coloured riverbeneath the setting sun, has inspired poets and painters ofevery age and nationality. George Borrow believes it probablethat it derived its name from the fact that the beamsof the setting sun focussed upon it makes it appear to bebuilt of pure gold and then, carried away by the loveliness;of the picture, he"cries : Cold, cold must the heart bewhich can remain insensible to the beauties of this magicKoaH^^

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SEVILLE371scene, to do justice to which the pencil of Claude himselfwere barely equal. Often have I shed tears of rapturewhilst I beheld it, and listened to the thrush and the nightingalepiping forth their melodious songs in the woods, andinhaled the breeze laden with the perfume of the thousandorange gardens of Seville."Of the great_niosque_of_Seville , which was built byAbu and JJfakubJ^fusi^^completed by the additionof the tower in 119B by his son, onlythe barest tracesnow remain. It isimpossible to determine who reallydesigned the famous Tower, now called the Giraida; buthistorians favour the claims of the renowned architect,whose name is variously spelt Gever, Hever, or Djabir, andwho is erroneously supposed to have been the inventor ofalgebra. In its original state this structure was an immenseand stately pile, planned on the model of the mosque ofCordova, and decorated with lavish magnificence. In 1235it was dedicated to the service of God and the Virgin,but it retained all its Moorish characteristics until 1401.The Moors would have destroyed the building and thebeautiful Muezzin tower before it fell into the hands ofSan Fernando's soldiers, and thus save their sacred templefrom desecration by the " infidels,'* but the king's son,Alonso " el Sabio," threatened to visit such spoliation uponthe garrison by sacking the city.This threat had thedesired effect, and for nearly two centuries the religiousspirit of Seville found expression in a temple which hadbeen built to the glory of Allah. But at the beginning ofthe fifteenth century the mosque was razed to the ground,and Seville cathedral began to take that huge and splendidform which, in the words of the pious originators, was towith the idea that its de-inspire succeeding generationssigners were mad. It was to be the greatest cathedral in

372 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINSpain, and it ended in being second only to that ofCordova, but still the third largest Christian church in^thp^world. Its area of 125,000 square feet is 35,000 square feetless than Cordova cathedral, and 105,000 square feet lessthan St. Peter's at Rome; but it is15,000 square feetgreater than that of Milan Cathedral, and greater by41,000 square feet than St. PauPs in London.The Moors, in building their mosque, employed theremains of ruined Roman and Gothic structures, and theSpaniards in 1401 used the Arab foundations in the constructionof their cathedral, while the Moorish tower waspreserved to do duty as a spire. In its original form theGiralda was only 250 feet high, the additional 100 feetwhich forms the belfry being added by Fernando Ruiz in1567. In 1506 the cathedral was completed. Five yearslater the dome collapsed, and was re-erected by Juan Gilde Hontanon. Extensive restoration work was carried outin 1882, under the superintendence of Cassova ;but sixyears after this work was completed, the dome again gaveway, and workmen have been constantly employed eversince in reconstructing this part of the vast building.According to Contreras, the Giralda is the mostejfpressive^inoimrnent of the Mohammedan dominion ; and,despiteall that has been said of its Moorish structure andprimitiveAfricaiLstyle, it is in his opinion a perfect work o fArab-art. The construction is anterior by four centuries,at least, to that of any tower of Granadian architecturesuch as that which to-day belongs to the Church ofSt. John of the Kings, but there is not the slightest differencein the manner of their ornamentation, and therhomboids of painted bricks, the festoons of terra cotta, thewindows with double arches, following the segments of acircle, present all the variety of the alcazar of Granada.

PLATE XXXIXt» ^>'^cI,L'y • V^,1. (

373SEVILLEf'SK 'V ... vr.s VIKW IN THE COURT BY THE POOH or TMIt CMAflf-

375SEVILLEHOUHE OP HILATOS- -CHAFKL

SEVILLE377**Here one sees plainly," Contreras says, "the origin of thesuperposed arch of the belvedere of Lindaraja of theAlhambra, of the hanging arch of the three entrances of theLions' Court, of the festoons of the Court of the Fountain,and of all those forms, so delicate and so luxurious, that theyare without equal in architecture. It is in the Giralda thatone finds the beginning of truly decorative art. Built ofvarnished bricks, with a stout construction, as is demandedby the fa9ade of a very high tower, it is to be regretted thatsuch a beautiful edifice should be crowned by so strange abody as its gilded frontages and painted porcelains."With the exception of the Giralda, and part of thelower portions of the walls, the Moorish remains that are tobe recognised in the cathedral are few and not remarkable.The Puerta del Perdon in the Calle de Alemanes was reconstructedby Alfonso XL, after the victory of Salado, and theplateresque ornamentations were added by Bartolome Lopezabout 1522. But although the bronze-covered doors havebeen disfigured by paint, their Moorish character is stilldistinctly traceable. Through the gateway we enter the oldMoorish courtyard, the Patio de los Naranjas (Court ofOranges), robbed of its former grandeur, but still distinguishedby its beautiful Arabic fountain, with an octagonalbasin, which occupies the centre of the court. From thisspot we get a splendid view of the cathedral and the massiveyet delicate Giralda tower, which has been declared to beeven more to Seville than Giotto's Campanile is to Florence,or that of St. Mark's to Venice. *' Long before the travellerreaches the city," writes an imaginative admirer, **the Giraldaseems tq beckon him on wards_to_his promised land ; duringall his peregrinations through the intricate streets and lanesit is his trusted guide, always ready to serve him, soaring asit does far above all surroundings, it is a thing of unfailing

378 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINbeauty and interest as day by day he passes and repasses it,or wanders about its precincts ; it tells him even afar off,how the day moves on, and how the night ;and it dwells inhis thoughts the fairest memory of his sojournings in thequeen of the Southern cities."From the Court of Oranges to the Giralda the wayleads through the Capilla de la Granada of the cathedral.A solitary horseshoe arch reminds us of the Moorish originof the building ;and the huge ele^ant'-S-tusk suspendedfrom the roof, a bridle that tradition declares belonged tothe Cid's steed, and a stuffed crocodile, are Oriental ratherthan Christian — relics. And the Giralda, in spite of its addedbelfry itssurmounting figure symbolic of the Christianfaith— and the fact that it is under the special patronage ofthe two Santas Justa and Rufina, '*who are much reveredat Seville," is still a Moorish monument. At its base thetower is a square of fifty feet, and it rises by a series of stages,or cuerpos, which are named after the architecture, decorationor use for which they are designed. At the Cuerpo deCampanas is hung a peal of bells, of which the largest,Santa Maria, eighteen tons in weight, and referred to in thevernacular as " the plump," was set up in 1588 by the orderof the Archbishop Don Gonzola de Mena, at a cost of tenthousand ducats. Above, we come to the cuerpo of theAzucenas, or white lilies, with which it is embellished ; and,going still higher, we reach El Cuerpo del Reloj, the clocktower,in which was erected, in 1400, the first tower-clockever made in Spain. Portions of this old timepiece wereemployed by the Monk Jose Cordero in making, in 1765,the clock which isworking to this day. The belfry, which isthe home of a colony of pigeons and hawks, is girdled with a** "motto from the proverb, Nomen Domini fortissima turris— (" The name of the Lord is a strong tower.") The

379SEVILLEGALLKRY OF THE HOU8B OT PILATOfl.

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SEVILLE 383Moorish summit was crowned with four brazen balls, solarge that in order to get them into the buildingit wasnecessary to remove the keystone of a door called the Gateof the Muezzin, leading from the mosque to the interior ofthe tower. The iron bar, which supported the balls, weighedabout ten cwt., and the whole was cast by a celebratedalchemist, a Sicilian, named Abu Leyth, at a cost of;^5o,ooo sterling. These particulars were set down by aMohammedan writer of the period, and their accuracy wasproved in 1395 (157 years after the overthrow of the Arabdominion), when the earthquake threw the entire mechanism,balls and supports, to the ground, where they were weighed,and the figures were found to be absolutely correct. Thefigure of La Fe, " The Faith," which now tops the Giralda,was cast by Bartolome Morel in 1568. It stands fourteenfeethigh, and weighs twenty-five cwts., yetso wonderful isthe workmanship that it turns with every breath of thewind. The head of the female figure is crowned with aRoman helmet, the right hand bears the Labaro, or banner,of Constantine, and in the left it holds out a palm branch,symbolical of conquest.But when we return from this ** strange composite fane,"with its Christian summit surmounting a Moslem tower,which again has its foundations in a Roman temple, whenwe re-cross the Court of Oranges, with its N tporish fountain,flanked by a Christian pulpit, and enter the cathedral, themind istransported at a bound from the fairy-like beautiesof ^^orisco ornamentation to the sombre, awe-inspiringmajesty, which prompted Theophile Gautier to the reflectionthat *'the most extravagant and monstrously prodigioustjindoo pagodas are not to be mentioned in the samecentury as the Cathedral of Seville. It is a mountainscooped out, a valley turned topsy-turvy Notre; Dame, at

384 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINParis, might walk erect in the middle nave, which is offrightful height pillars as large round as towers, and which;appear so slender that they make you shudder, rise out ofthe ground, or descend from the vaulted roof, like stalactitesin a giant's grotto." Lomas, who finds the exterior of thecathedral ** simply beneath criticism," and deplores that"age after age a great band of glorifiers of self, throughself s handiwork, should have been employed in producingwhat they determined should be a world's marvel," is compelledto admit that " the first view of the interior is one ofthe supreme moments of a lifetime. The glory and majestyof it are almost terrible. No other building, surely, is sofortunate as this in what may be called its presence." EvenGeorge Borrow, who thought more of his beloved testamentsthan of Spanish monuments erected to '*the spiritualtyranny of the Court of Rome," was feign to declare that itisimpossible to wander through the cathedral of Seville"without experiencing sensations of sacred awe and deepastonishment " and Caveda describes the;general effect as" truly majestic."The Ita]jaii--Xha2Sodist, Edmondo de ^mi^js,whoalways succeeds in conveying a strikingly convincing impressionof the spectacles that fascinate his sensitive mind,is at his best in his description of Seville _cathec}ral. "Atyour first entrance," he says, "you are bewildered, you feelas ifyou are wanderin^jii_an_abyss, and for several momentsyou do nothing but glance around you in that immensespace, almost as if to assure yourself that your eyes arenot deceiving you, nor your fancy playing you some trick.Then you approach one of the pillars, measure it, and lookat the more distant ones, which, though as large as towers,appear so slender that it makes ycar-tremHe to think thatthe building is resting upon them. You traverse them with

p? r XM,

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SEVILLE 387a glance from floor to ceiling, and it seems as ifyou couldalmost count the moments it would take for the eye toclimb them. There are fi ve aisle s, each one of which mightform a church. In the centre one, another cathedral, withits cupola and bell tower, could easily stand. All of themtogether form sixty-eight bold vaulted ceilings, which seemto expand and rise slowly as you look at them. Everything is enormous in this cathedral. The priji^ipal chapel,placed in the centre of the great nave, and almost highenough to touch the ceiling, looks like a chapel built forgiant priests, to whose knees the ordinary altars would notreach. The paschal candle seems like the mast of a ship,and the bronze candlestick which holds it, like the pillars ofa church. The choirLJs_ajmisemn_^ and chiselling.The chapels are worthy of the church, for theycontain the masterpieces of sixty-seven sculptors and thirtyeightpainters. The . . . chapel of San Ferdinand, whichcontains the sepulchres of this king and his wife Beatrice,of Alonso the Wise, the celebrated minister, Florida Blanca,and other illustrious personages,is one of the richest andmost beautiful of all. The body of Ferdinand, who redeemedSeville from the dominion of the Arabs, clothed inhis uniform, with crown and mantle, rests in a crystalcasket, covered with a veil. On one side, is his sword whichhe carried on the day of his entrance into Seville on the;other, a staff of cane, an emblem of command. In thatsame chapelispreserved a little ivory Virgin, which theholy king carried to war with him, and other relics of greatvalue." And here also, although De Amicis makes nomention of them, are the keys o£_Seville which AbdulHassan handed to Ferdinand at the surrender of the city.One keyis of silver, and bears the " inscription, May Allahgrant that Islam may rule for ever in this city." The otherQ

388 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINkey is made of iron gilt, and is of Mudejar workmanship.It is inscribed, " The King of Kmgs will open ; the King ofthe Earth will enter."In its churches and its old houses, Seville is rich inMoorish influences, and exhibits abundant traces of Moriscoart, which prevailed against the material dominancy of theChristian conquerors. The reconciled Arabs who remainedas subjects of Ferdinand became the chief of the mostlavishly-remunerated artisans of the city. They pursuedtheir craft in the dwellings of the rich ;and in the churchesof the " infidel." Untrammelled by religion and uninspiredby faith, they worked- ibr_ art 's__sake, and the substantialpecuniary award that sweetened their labours. The churchof San Marco has a beautiful Moorish tower built in imitationof the Giralda, and second only to the minaret towerof the cathedral in point of height San Gil is a Christianised;Mezquita Santa Catalina reveals the survival of Moorish;art in its fa9ade, while its principal chapelis Gothic. Innearly all the sacred edifices of antiquity the combinationof Moorish and Renaissance architecture betrays an incongruityof style and sentiment which is only to be foundamong the Christian churches of Spain. And if the Catholickings, who were sworn to the extirpation of the Moslems,allowed the Moors to build their churches in the style oftemples devoted to Allah, it is not surprising that many ofthe finest private residences of the city retain a Moorishdesign, and possess a distinctly Oriental atmosphere.The Casa de Pilatos, which has been pronounced thefourth great monument of older Seville, was commenced inj50Q-by Don Bedro Enri_quez, in the then popular decadentSaracenic style, and was completed by his son, Fadrique, inimitation of Pilate's palace at Jerusalem. In accordancewith this scheme, he fashioned a reception-hall, called the

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SEVILLE389Praetorium, erected an upright column—a of gift PopePius v.— copied from the pillar at which Christ wasscourged, and made a replica of the basin into whichthe thirty pieces of silver were counted. When the housecame into the possession of the first Duke of Alcala, he wasacting as the Spanish viceroy at Naples, and he filled therooms and corridors with Roman busts and statuary,gathered from Italy and the ruins of Italica. On every sidethe art treasures of the Romans adorn the perfect Moorishcolonnades, and the shadows of Roman sculptures arethrown upon diapered marble pavements from light thatenters through Arab lattices and ajimez windows. It hasbeen described as a great curiosity shop, but to the artlover it is a treasure house of almost infinite beauty andvariety.The Moorish palace of Duke_ile_Alba. in the Callethe^de las Duenas, once consisted of eley en courtyards, ninefountain s, and more than a hundred marble pillars,and wassurrounded by a garden, which is a forest of orange treesand mj^rtjes. In Seville one wanders through streets whichare redolent of Arabia, and peep into countless Orientalpatios, cool with fountains, and shaded by palms and Easterncanopies. One ** feels the East a-calling"— the colour, thescent, the witchery of it—gets into one's blood and onerecognises the truth that inspired the old Spanish saying :** To whom God loves He gives a house k\ Seville."

TOLEDO

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TOLETOLEDODAN history proper, as distinguished from themixture of fable and tradition which are associatedwith the story of this ancient and royal city, datesfrom the invasion of the Gotbs Toledo was oldwhen Euric successfully scaled its seven rocks and stormedits battlements— how old, cannot be determined. Legendclaims that the town was in existence when God made thesun ;less exalted imagination dates its foundation no furtherback than the days of Tubal, the grandson of_Noah.Alphonsus, *'the Learned," and Diego Mossem Valera, thehistorian of Isabel the Catholic, agree that it was built byPyrrhus, the son-in-law of King Hispan, and a captain ofthe army of Cyrus. Hercules has been claimed as the fatherof Toledo by Rufo Festo Avieno, and Ferecio, one of thecompanions of Ulysses, is held by some to have retreated tothis spot to escape the blood-vengeance of that little band ofGreek adventurers. Other legendajdeclare the city to be ofJewish, origin and its builders, the Judians, who fled from;Jerusalem before the victorious hosts of Nebuchadnezzar.Don Rodrigo Jimenez de Rada discovers the founders ofToledo in Tolemon and Brutus, two Roman consuls in thereign of Ptolemy Evergetes, and more reasonable suppositionfavours the theory that it was first settled by nomadic ~7Celticjheplierds, who forsook their flocks to erect walls andfortifications on the rocky eminence above the Tagus. Thelittle that is known of the origin and beginning of Toledo ;

394 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthe very mystery and obscurity of its earliest days, isaccepted by the old historian, Alcocer, as a proof of itsRais, the Moorish writer, says thatantiquity and nobility.Tago, at Toledo, was one of the eleven governors of Carpetania.Tago was foully murdered by Hasdrubal, thesuccessor of Hamilcar, and the assassination of Hasdrubalwas followed by so determined an insurrection that evenHannibal was forced to retreat before the infuriated Carpetanians.But Hannibal retreated, only to return with areinforced army, and break Carpetania beneath the might ofCarthagenian rule. In iqi B.c,,.^_after th e, fall oCCarthage,Hilermo surrendered Toledo Jo the Romanforces, underMarcus Fulvius Nobilior. But Toledo held itself sullenlyand haughtily aloof from the affairs of Rome. Viriate andCaius Plancius might cut each other's throats on the banksof the Tagus Sertorius might nurse his hates within the;city; Caesar and Pompey might be locked in a death— struggle those things mattered nothing to the contemj^tuousand independent Toledans. The Gjoth was the fi«tX real conqueror of Toledo and the; city, outwearing thescars of Rome, and throwing off the marks of the Moors, is,to-day, as insistently Gqthk as Cordova and Seville areunmistakably Moorish.One sees Toledo from the distance, from the bridges,and from the heart of the city,and recognises that it is asit has always been— that it will go down into the tomb ofthe centuries unchanged. It grew " outL_of the nighJL_of—ages " itsrocky throne has defied the ravages of time andthe transforming ingenuity of man. Maurice Barres, whohas felt the majesty and melancholy of this gaunt monumentof me

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TOLEDO397no need to consider the grave youth, the *Penseroso/ of theMedicis Chapel ;he may also do without the biography andthe *Pensees' of Blaise Pascal. With the very sentimentrealised by these great solitary works he will be filled, if hebut give himself up to the tragic fierceness of the magnificencesin ruins upon these high rocks. Toledo, on itshiilside, with the tiny halfLcnrde^Llhe .Tagus at its feet,has the colour, the roughness, the haughty poverty of thesierra on which it is built, and whose strong articulationsfrom the very firstproduce an impression of ^ergy andpassion. It is less a town, a noisy affair yielding to thecommodities of life, than a significant spot for the soul.Beneath a crude illumination, which gives to each line ofits ruins a vigour, a clearness, by which the least energeticcharacters acquire backbone, at the same time it ismysterious, with its cathedral springing towards the sky,its alcazars and palaces, that only take sight from theirinvisible patios. Thus, secret and inflexible, in this harsh,overheated land, Toledo appears like an image of jexaltationin^solitilde, a cry in the desert."Grim, austere, and forbiddingis the general type ofthe Gothic character ;the history of their kings in Spain isa long story of menace, bloodshed, and persecution ;andthat history covers Toledo as with a suit of battered mail.Christianity without the practice of the Christian virtues,valour divorced from mercy, power disjoined from justice—the religion, the might and majesty of the Gothic sovereigns,is a record of gloomy and revengeful despotis m. Hermengildo,the Gothic saint, used his religion as an excuse forattempting to wrest the throne of Toledo from his father,Leovigildo, whom he denounced as a minister of the devil ;Recaredo, who has been painted by historians as a model ofall the Christian virtues, practiced a rigorous system of

398 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINcruelty and vindictive bigotry; and his successors werenotorious for their queer morality, and their persecution ofthe Jews. Yet San Ildephonso, the most famous archbishopof Toledo under the Goths, has enriched the history of Spainwith many splendid fables of heavenly manifestations and;the piece he cut from the veil of a visiting saint, and thechasuble, with which the Virgin invested him with her ownhands, are stilldisplayed among the treasures of Toledocathedral.The figures of Wamba and Rodrigo— the warriorking who was offered the alternative of the crown of Toledo,or the thrust of a Toledan dagger, and "the Last of theGoths — " stand out with dominating prominence on thestage of Gothic history, on which warriors and priests arethe principal actors.The doctrine of the Gothic priesthood has beendescribed as the **hardest, meanest, and brutallest imaginable,"and the Gothic warriors as men who were neverother than savage tyrants, who **aped a culture whichthey could not understand, and with whose aims andtendencies their inmost character was powerless to sympathise."These are the people who gave Toledo itscharacter, a character which the art-adoring Arabs wereunable to change or even to greatly modify.It is soimportant to understand the influence which was at work inthe creation of the Toledan character, the atmosphere inwhich it was reared, and the discipline under which itdeveloped, that I make no excuse for quoting the followingilluminating appreciation of the Gothic nature from Mr.*'Leonard Williams' chapter on Toledo :Originally barbaricin their ferocity, the Goths became as their domination approachedits inevitable end, barbaric in their effeminacy. So,too, with their religious beliefs.Excepting the clergy, whowere men of some education and unlimited unscrupulous-

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399TOLEDOTHE GATE OP BLOOD

TOLEDO 401the Christian Visigoth was every whit as barbaric asness,the heathen ; barbaric, either in his violent fanaticism, orelse in his total lack of individuality, and idiotic acquiesencein the schemes of a designing priesthood. An intermediatetype was wholly, or almost wholly, wanting, and there islittle to choose between Leovigildo, the ignoranl_aiuLcni.eldesperado, and his meek successor, Recaredo, the unresistingprey of the ambitious metropolitan of Toledo. . . . Themorals of the Visigoths were on a par with their refinementand their mode of living. Serfdom was the distinguishingmark of the commons ; arrogance of the nobility avarice;and ambition of temporal power of the clergy; regicide andtumult of the Crown. It is clear that a people, disunited inthis manner, could never have exercised a long supremacyin any case and; destiny, or chance, precipitated their downfallby the arrival of the on§::£yed Tarik and his host, andthe Last of the Goths,* beside the memory-the defeat of *haunted osiers of the Guadalete."Arrogance, av^ice, ambition,—regicide, tumult here we ~7have the distinguishing qualities of the nobles, the priests,and the kings of Toledo under the Gothic rule. Thesovereigns and the nobles stamped their personality uponthe city,and were themselves moulded and dominated bythe priests.The priestly influence in Spain has ever beenfor austerity and heartless itmagnificence has ever sought;to impress by fear and superstition. In the time of theGoths, Christianity developed through the increasing powerof the bishops. The Church was terrible aod-forbidding ;the nobility was arrogant and cruel ;the monarchy wastyrannical and despotic. Hallam dismisses the considerationof the Visigoths in a sentence : I hold," he says, the** **annals of barbarians so unworthy of remembrance that Iwill not detain the reader by naming one sovereign of that

402 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINobscure race." But, under those sovereigns, and by thehands of that obscure race, Toledo was estabhshed upon itsrocky eminence, and it bears its character on its face to-day,as it did in the opening quarter of the eighth century, whenthe one-eyed Tarik entered its melancholy, deserted streets.The plunder that fell to the Moorish invader isvariously reported, but all accounts are agreed that it wasbeyond calculation. According to the learned Mohammedanauthor, Al-leyth Ibn Said, the spoils were soabundant that the rank and file of the armyall sharedin the rewards, and it was a common thing for the humblestbowmen to be possessed of costly robes, magnificent goldchains of exquisite workmanship, and strings of matchlessSo great, in many instances,pearls, rubies, and emeralds.was the greed for plunder, and so grossly ignorant werethe Berbers of the value of the spoil, that whenever a partyof them happened upon a rich fabric, they did not hesitateto cut itup between them, without regard to its worth orworkmanship. It is recorded that two Berbers secured asuperb carpet, composed of the most splendid embroidery,interwoven with gold, and ornamented with filigreework ofthe purest gold, with pearls and other gems. The mencarried it for awhile between them, but, finding this methodof conveyance cumbersome, they carved the gem-encrustedfabric in twain with their swords. In this fashion, masterpiecesof art were heedlessly destroyed forthe sake of theraw material of which they were composed.Among the precious objects seized in the palace andchurch of Toledo were twenty-five golden and jewelledcrowns— the crowns of the different Gothic kings who had— reigned in Spain the psajms of David, written upon goldleaf in water made of dissolved rubies, y3.ses filled withprecious stones, quantities of robes^ of cloth of gold and

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TOLEDO 403tissue, tunics of every variety of costly skirts and satins,magnificentsuits of chain armour and mail inlaid withjewels, and jewel-studded swords and daggers, weapons ofevery description, and Solomon's emerald table ,wrought inburnished silver and "gold. This table," says the Arabianchronicler, **was the most beautiful thing ever seen, withitsgolden vases and plates of a precious green stone, andthree collars of rubies, emeralds, and pearls." OtherArabian historians have claimed that it was composed of asolid emerald, and they are practically agreed that it wasbrought to Toledo after the sacking of Jerusalem, and thatit was valued in Damascus at a hundred thousand dinars—about ;^5o,ooo. Washington Irving, who invariably goesthe whole hog when dealing with legendary history, saysthat this *' inestimable table " was composed ** of one singleand entire emerald, and possessed talismanic powers for;tradition affirms that it was the work of genii, and hadbeen wrought by them for King Solomon the Wise, the sonof David. This marvellous relic was carefully preserved byTarik, as the fnost precious of all his spoils, being intendedby him as a present to the khalif ; and, in commemorationof it, the city was called by the Arabs, Medina Almeyda ;*that is to say, The City of the Table.' "But the historian, Ibnu Hayyau, the greatly trustedauthority of El-Makkari, gives, in the translation of DonPascual de Gayangos, the following account of the origin of**this article of virtue : The celebrated table which Tarikfound at Toledo, although attributed to Solomon, and namedafter him, never belonged to the poet-king. According tothe barbarian authors, it was customaryfor the nobles andmen in estimation of the Gothic Court, to bequeath a portionof their property to the Church. From the money soamassed the priests caused tables to be made of pure gold

404 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINand silver, gorgeous thrones and stands on which to carrythe gospels in public processions, or to ornament the altarson great festivals. The so-called Solomon's table wasoriginally wrought with money derived from this source, andwas subsequently emulously increased and embellished bysuccessive kings of Toledo, the latest always anxious tosurpass his predecessors in magnificence, until it became themost splendid and costly gem ever made for such a purpose.The fa^bric_was__G£_4iflre__gold,set with the most preciouspearls, rubies, and emeralds. Its circumference was encrustedwith three rows of these valuable stones, and thewhole table displayed jewels so large and refulgent thatnever did human eye behold anything comparable with it..... When the Moslems entered Toledo it was found onthe gr eat a.l taiLQfjLhejCbri^ianchurch, and the fact of sucha treasure having been discovered soon became public andnotorious."The history here assigned to the table is, it must beconfessed, somewhat less improbable than the suppositionof Gibbon, who is under the impression that if it everTitus at theexisted itmay have been carried away bysacking of Jerusalem, and, later, to have fallen into thehands of the Goths at the taking of Rome by Alaric.DonPascual, however, asks, very pertinently, whether it is likelythat Bishop Sindered, and those who accompanied him inhis flight, would have left behind them so valuable an object.And the conundrum still remains as to the present whereaboutsof the table. It has been asserted that it forms partof the inestimable treasures of the Vatican, but as the'*devout Moslem would say, Allah alone knoweth."Tarik, who perceived in Musa's haste to join him inToledo and take possession of the spoils, an indication ofthe governor's envy, decided to conceal one of the feet of

405TOLEDOINTBRIOR OF SANTA MARIA LA BLANCA.

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TOLEDO 407the table against future emergencies. Musa, who met Tarikwith savage upbraidings— for exceeding his instructions andsome go so far as to say that he supplemented his speechwith strokes of his whip-—demanded the production ofSolomon's table, and questioned Tarik as to the absence ofThe wily general declared that hethe missingiourthfaot.had found it in that condition, and Musa had the missingemerald supplied by a foot of gold. Subsequently Musahad Tarik cast into prison, and, it is said, that he wouldhave encompassed his death but for the prompt interventionof the khalif, who sent peremptory commands that theshould be restored to his commandsuccessful campaignerof the Moorish army. Thereupon Musa professed torestore Tarik to his confidence and friendship ;but hemust have regretted that he had not executed his originalpurpose, when, on the occasion of his presenting the famoustable as his own discovery to the khalif at Damascus, Tarikproclaimed himself to be the discoverer, and, as proof ofhis contention, produced the missing emerald foot.The M^orish_conquerors recognised the importance ofToledo as the capital of the Gothic empire, but these artadoring,sun-worshipping warriors, who found their Eden inAndalusia, lavished their affection and culture on Cordovaand Seville, and, for a time, Toledo became a secondarytown. Musa's son, Abdelasis, or Balacin, as Rasis elMoro calls him, married the widow of King Roderick,who has been variously styled Egilona, Exilona, andBlanche, and insisted upon every noble of the MoorishCourt paying her extravagant homage ; but the sultanheld his Court at Cordova, and the Toledans never forgavethis affront to their honour and dignity. They broodedin their stormy sullenness and independence. Their revolutionaryinstincts were never crushed their discontent was;

4o8 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINnever appeased through the three and a-half centuries ofthe Arab occupation of the city. Cassip, the Moorish ruler,became impregnated with the principles of independence,and threw off the yoke of Cordova, only to be betrayed inhis turn by the Toledans, who, wearied of his tyranny,welcomed A hd-er-Rahm an to the city,and submitted theirallegiance to his throne. But throughout his reign theturbulent Toledans proved uncertain and prone to revolution,and his son, Hakam, who succeeded him^ sought toconciliate them by appointing as governor i renegade'*Christian, one Amron, of Huesca. By a condescensionwhich proves our extreme solicitude for your interests," thesultan wrote to his disaffected subjects, ''instead of sendingyou one of our own subjects, we have chosen one of yourcompatriots." Hakam's error of judgment resulted in oneof the most terrible deeds in the history of Toledo, perhapsthe most disgraceful blot on the Moslem domination ofAmron was entrusted with the missimi_QfJlilliihlingSpain.his jeUoaL^ountrymen to the rule of the saltan, and heachieved his object by^^tlTe^practice^of a fiendishpolicy ofperfidious cunning.By affecting an aversion to the sultan, and preachingthe gospel of the independence of Toledo, he wori_l]ie_ixuirfid^ce,,ofJjifLJiobles, and concerted with them inreconquer the city. In furtherance of their plans, the peopleconsented to have soldiers quartered upon them ;they welcomedthe building of a fortress commanded by a strongguard at the extremity of the city ; and it was at their ownsuggestion that a castle was erected in the middle ofthe town as a stronghold for the valiant governor. Then,andhaving fqilified_himself^ith^ th^ trusplots topacked the city with troops, Amron secretly advised thesultan that the Toledans were readv for the lesson that was

409TOLEDOtolttfOATB OF THK «0N.

TOLEDO 411to be read to them. Abd-er-Rahman, the son of Hakam,advanced towards the city at the head of a great army.The governor proposed that the nobles should go out tomeet the young prince, and historians record that theseimplacable Gothic revolutionists were infatuated by thecourtesy and cordiality with which they were received.The future sultan conquered their aversion by his grace andcharm, and they loudly applauded Amrxjn's suggestion thathe should be invited to accept the hospitality of the city.Abd-er-Rahman, instated in the castle of the governor,invited the nobles and representative men of Toledo to agreat feast. They came in crowds, they were admitted tothe castle singly, and not a single invited guest returned tohis home. As each man crossed the courtyard of the castlehe walked past an executioner, who stood in the shadowwith uplifted blade awaiting his approach. No guest passedhim. The nobles entered, the blade fell, and ready handsrolled the body into a ditch. In Spanish history that**bloody dayis known as the Qayjjfjthe^oss."****Only coticeive,'* writes Hannah Lynch, the horriblepicture in all its brutal nakedness ! The gaily-apparelledguest, scented, jewelled, smiling, alights from his carriage,looking forward to pleasure in varied forms, brilliant lights,delicate viands, exquisite wines, lute, song, flowers, sparklingspeech.Then the quick entrance into a dim courtyard, astep forward, perhaps in the act of unclasping a silkenmantle, the soundless movement of a fatal arm in theshadowy silence, the invisible executioner's form probablyhidden by a profusion of tall plants or an Oriental bush, andbody after body, head upon head, roll into the commongrave till the ditch is filled with nigh uponfive thousandcorpses. Not even the famous St. Bartholomew cancompete with this, in horror, in gruesomeness. Compared

JMoors412 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINwith it,that night of Paris was honourable and open warfare.It is the stillness of the hour, the quickness of doing,the unflinching and awful personality of the executioners,who so remarkably struck down life as ever it advanced withsmiling lips and brightly-glancing eye, that lend this sceneits matchless colours of cruelty and savagery. Beside it,few shocking hours in history will seem deprived of all senseof mitigation and humanity."Only a people rebellious by blood, by training, and byevery tradition of their implacable race, could have thrownoff the prostration that followed this terrible blow, and risenfrom their stupor with renewed determination toseize theirindependence. Yet Toledo survived this blow, and manyothers, which, if not so sudden and appalling, were sufficientto ci^ish^jJie-spmt- and deaderuthe^aspiration of a moreto determine whether Abd-vincible nation. It is impossibleer-Rahman was an accessory to this deed of butchery, or tosay iflanned the massacre in the belief that it wasAmron pnecessary to the niaihtenance of Moslem rule, to terrorisethe Toledans into submission, or if the deed was inspired by|the more subtle and diabolical intention of making themore odious in the sight of the unmanageableWhen the people were sufficiently recovered fromthe horror of the atrocity to concoct a scheme of revenge,they acted with ferocious promptness. The cry for vengeance(citizens.spread from the Zocodover into the surrounding country,and the people, hastily summoned into the city, surroundedthe castle of Amron, and burnt the hateful fortress and itsinmates to the ground. There, for the time, the insurrectionarymovement stopped. An Arab governor was appointed,and the people, Christians and Jews as well as Moors,entered upon a new state of material prosperity. UnderAben Magot ben Ibraham the Moorish artistic influence

413^^^rOH? I

TOLEDO 415began to make itself felt. The architecture bore the imprintof the governing race, beautiful gardens were laid out alongthe Vega, Arabian palaces sprang into being, and on theruins of Amron's castle there was built a new alcazar.But the respite from open tumult was only temporary.The Wali, finding the merchants increasing in riches, raisedtheir tribute to the state, and smouldering discontent wasimmediately fanned into a flame. Led by a wealthy youngToledan, named Hacam, who subsequently earned the affixof *'E1 Durrete"—»*The Striker of Blows "—the peoplemurdered the Moorish officials and captured the alcazar.The Moslem troops retaliated by recapturing that strongholdand routing the revolutionists. Hacam went intoretirement until the Moors, lulled into security, relaxedtheir vigilance in the guardianship of the city, and then,striking swiftly through the neglected gates, he recoveredthe city between sunset and morning. The greater part ofthe upper town was burnt, the troops sent by Abd-er-Rahman IL were repulsed ; and, although the Toledans wereincidentally routed by the renegade Spaniard, Maisara,Toledo_was_npt then retaken. In 873 the city was besiegedfor a whole year, and only surrendered when famine hadrendered the citizens too weak to further resist the assaultsof the Moorish troops.The next firebrand to project itself into the inflammatoryfabric of ToledajOLdiscontent was the fanatical martyr,In Cordova this frenzied religionisthad fired the^ulogiiis.Christians into reviling Mohammed, and thereby exasperatingthe Moslems into persecution.To the tolerant andbroad-minded Moors, religious observances were prejudicesto be respected. They permitted, to Christians and Jews, thefullest licence in the matter of worship; they only demandedthat a similar respect should be observed towards their own

4i6 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINfaith. The Christians were not asked to reverence theProphet of Islam, but the Moslems could not allow him tobe openly blasphemed by the infidels. It was against thearticles of their creed, and it was contrary to human nature.To-day the Christian who rebelled against such a reasonablerestriction would be accounted a bigot, undeserving ofsympathyin the days of Eulogius, the re^ersjif_Moorish;religious prejudices were regarded as saints. Toledo j umpedrulers* resentment of the Christians' wanton insultat tTieIrto their faith as an excuse for an outburst of religious indignation,and Sindola seized the city and declared war againstthe khalifate by way of protesting against the execution ofEulogius's disciples. Ordofio, king of Leon, sent reinforcementsto Sindola, and the allied armes were caught inan ambush by the Moors, who struck off 8,000 Christianheads for public exhibition in the various disaffected towns.This reverse had the desired effect, and the Toledans madeno further move until the death of Wistremir afforded theman opportunity of exasperating the sultan Mohammed byelecting Eulogius to the vacant archbishopricThe sultan, who retaliated by investing the city,of Toledo.had thebridge undermined while it was in the occupation of histroops, and, by making a feigned retreat, enticed theimpetuous Spaniards to give chase. The depleted structurecollapsed beneath the sudden burden of the pursuing army,and hundreds of men met their death in the sullen depthsof the Tagus.But neither magsacre_n or mi sjortune could shake thedogged Toledans from their purpose. With the king ofLeon at their back, they put forth new efforts, and in 873they forced Mohammed to acknowledge__th£i£jjidependen ceas a RepuT)lic Tn~ return for the paymenttribute.of an annualThe treaty made with Mohammed was ratified by

TOLEDO 417his successors, Mundhir and Abdallah. Even the GreatKhalif, Abd-er-Rahman, was at first content to send fromCordova a royal proclamation, commanding Toledo to surrenderher independence to the khalifate, and acknowledgehim as liege lord, and it was not until 930, or eighteen yearsafter he had ascended the throne, that he went up with hisarmy against the arrogant and rebellious city. The siegeof Toledo by Abd-er-Rahman lasted for eight years. TheMoorish king built the city, which he called **Victory," ona mountain commanding Toledo, and here he quarteredhis troops until famine and privation should open the gatesfor him. The long years of waiting culminated in a swiftassault, and, at the close of a day's fighting, the emaciatedheads of the insurgent chiefs were impaled on spears tokeep their last sightless watch from the walls of the citythey had defended with such heroic fortitude.After the death of the Great Khalif, and, thenceforthuntil the Christian conquest, Toledo maintained a,.partialindependence, tolerating the rule_of^Moslem princes, butpaying no^legiance__tp_jCordova. And in the end~she wasrecovered to Jthe^Christians^y a piece of picturesquetreachery. Alfonso of Leon (Alfonso VI.) had fled from themonastery of Sagahun, and sought the protection of KingAlmamon of Toledo, from whom he received the mostgenerous hospitality, including gifts of palaces, farms, andorchards, and the government of the Christian section ofthe inhabitants. The Moorish king demanded only thesubscription of his guest's allegiance, and, in return, he gavea sincere affection, and promises of faithful protection.Almamon, whose one vague but ever present concern wasthe possibility of Toledo ever falling again into the hands ofthe Christians, was discussing the subject one day with hiscourtiers in the garden of Alfonso's palace, and engrossed in

4i8 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthe consideration of the possible misfortune, he describedminutely the only plan by which, in his opinion, the citymight be taken. Alfonso, who was one of the company,affected to be asleep while this dissertation was in progress,and the courtiers, who were unable to restrain the eloquenceof the king, endeavoured to obtain Almamon's consent tothe execution of his Christian guest. But the king refusedto listen to this inhospitable proposition, and on the deathof Sancho of Castile (who was murdered by Bellido, underthe walls of Zamora), his brother, Alfonso of Leon, returnedto his own kingdom, loaded with honours, and carrying withhim the secret of Toledo's vincibility. Before he departedthe two kings swore eternal amity, and entered into anoffensive and defensive alliance against the enemies ofeither, and the enemies of Almamon's son, Yahya. Butafter the death of Almamon, Alfonso, forgetting his oath tohis friend, and remembering only the plan of siege he hadoverheard in the garden of Toledo, adopted the principlesinvented by the Moorish theorist, and, in io85^__eiiteredthe city as its conqueror.What has Toledo to show to-day for the three and a-half centuries of the artistic,- influence of Mori scccultmeand influence ?Surprisingly little And ! yetit would be aneven greater surpriseif she had more to show. The villagethat climbs the bosom of a mountain does not alter thecontour of its impassive resting-place ; the etchings tracedupon a Toledo blade does not affect the temper of the steel.The city is still M ** oorish in appearance," to employ theguide-book phrase, but it is gradually divesting itself of themarks which at one time, and then only in part, disguisedits Gothic ancestry. Since Alfonso, the tyrant of theGalicians, seized the town of Toledo, " that pearl of thenecklace, that highest tower of the empire in this Peninsula"

419TOLEDOANCIENT GATE OF VISAGRA.X'-iCAST IK ^ M sKK\ \M'

TOLEDO 421(to quote Abon I Hasan), the Moorish bridge,near SantaLeocadia, and the other, which crossed the old Romanwaterway, have disappeared, and the legendaiy^Ealace ofGaliana is let out in miserable tenements to the lowest classof peasants.Moratin has immortalised GaLJana de Toledo, "mostbeautiful and marvellous," and Calderon has written of thepalace built ibrhgr by her father .Galafre, who ruled overToledo for Abd-er-Rahman I. Galafre took the old Visigothshell, and transformed the edifice, by the witchery ofMoorish windows and arches and staircases, into a palace ofdelight. He devoted his knowledge of hydraulics to theunkempt Toledan Vega, and made of it a paradise of leafand bloom and rill. In the fairy garden, Charlemagne,according to tradition, found the " most beautiful and marvellous" Galiana, and carried her away from the unwelcomeaddresses of her Moorish admirer, Prince Bradamante, toreign over France as his queen. The arms of the Guzmans,into whose possession the palace passed under Castillianrule, may still he descried uponits dismantled front.The wonderful clepsydras, or water clocks of ThIpHq,the invention of Abou-l'-Casem, Abdo-er-Rahman, or Az-Zarcal, as he is more usually styled, are quaintly andvaguely described in the following Moorish document: "Oneof the greatest towns of Spain is Toledo, and Toledo is alarge and well-populated city.On all sides it is washed bya splendid river, called the Tagus Among the rareand notable things of Toledo is that wheat may be keptmore than seventy years without rotting, which is a greatadvantage, as all the land abounds in grain and seed of allkinds. But what is still more marvellous and surprising inToledo, and what we believe no other inhabited town of allthe world has anything to equal, are some clepsydras, or

422 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINwater clocks. It is said that Az-Zarcal, hearing of a certaintaUsman, which is in the city of Arin, of Eastern India, andwhich, Masudi says, shows the hours by means of aspas, orhands, from the time the sun rises till it sets, determined tofabricate an artifice by means of which the people couldknow the hour of day or night, and calculate the day of themoon. He made two great po.niis in a house on the bankof the Tagus, not far from the Gate of the Tanners, makingthem so that they should be filled with jwater_orjemptiedaccording, to the rise and fall of-the-jnoon . * 'In Babylonia, India, and Egypt, the clepsydra was usedfrom before the dawn of history, especially inastronomicalobservations, and Latin and Greek writers refer to a typewhich resembled the niod£rn_sand_glass, and was used inthe Courts of law to limit the length of the pleadings. Thegeneral form of the clepsydra, which Pliny ascribed toScipio Nasica, consisted essentially of ajloat, which slowlyrose by the tricklings of water from above through a smallhole in a plate of metal. As the float rose itpointed to ascale of hours at the side of the water vessel ; or,in themore elaborate forms, moved^ wheel by jiieajis of a ratchet,and thus turned a -hand -cui-.a^ dial.The Moorish recounter of the wonders of the waterclocks of Toledo tells us that its movements^Avere regula:tedby the moon. As soon as the moon became visible bymeans of invisible conducts, the water began to flow intothe ponds, and, by day rise, the ponds were four-seventhsfull. At night another seventh was added, so that by dayor night the ponds continued to increase in water a seventhevery twenty-four hours, and were quite fullby the time themoon was full. On the 14th of the month, when the moonbegan to fall, the ponds also fell in like proportion. On the2 1st of the month they were half empty, and on the 29th

4^3i.:-'j;/:r:^^'^^:

TOLEDO42scompletely so. The exact working of those clepsydras,however, is lost, as a bungling astronomer, who was deputedby Alfonso '* the Learned" to examine them and discover thesecret, broke the delicate machinery, and was forthwithdubbed a Jew by the indignant and exasperated Moors.Beyond the walls of the city is a stretch of fertile landbeside the Tagus, which is called the Garden of the Kin g ;and at the further end of it is the counlxy palace of Galiana .This pleasure house is of a later date than the palace of thesame name within the city ; but, like that debased edifice,it_js_a-niiiu its walls of extreme thickness, flanked with twomassive towers, only remaining to represent what was once"A palace lifting to eternal summerIts marble walls, from out a glossy bowerOf coolest foliage, musical with birds."In the War of Independence the French soldiers madea ruin of the one-time magnificent Casa de Var gas, whichwas built by Juan de Herrera, and has been described byAntonio Ponz' as one of the architectural splendours ofToledo. Ponz tells us that ** the facade is perfect Doric, ofexquisite marble, with fluted columns on either side, andthe pedestals have military emblems in bas-relief. Thefrieze consists of helmets, heads of bulls, and goblets. Thecoat of arms above the cornice is most beautiful, and thewomen's forms, seated on each side, are life-size.Nothingcould be finer than the details, as well as the whole of thisfa9ade, and for sure it is the most serious, the most lovely,and most finished of all I have seen in Toledo. You entera spacious courtya rd with lofty gallerijes running round itabove and below the lower gallery, sustained by Doricpillars and by the upper Ionic columns. The staircase istruly regal, and likewise the various inner chambers. TheyT

426 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINcontain different chimney pieces, ornamented with gracefulfancies executed in bas-rehef; and thus, in the lowerquarters, as in the principal, are other galleries with columnslike those of the courtyard, with delicious views of themeadows and the Tagus."In the most miserable quarter of the town, far upabove the river, the visitormay see some huge blocks ofstone, and a few broken arches— all that remain s of theonce magnificent Mooridi-pal ace of H enryLof, Aragon, lordof Villena. Henry of Aragon was an enlightened princeand erudite scholar, and the possessor of a superb collectionof hooka,, which were publicly burnt on the plea thattheir owner had intercourse with the devil. Don Enriqueissaid to have used the subterranean chambers and passagesof the palace as a meeting-place for witches, and here he issupposed to have entertained his Satanic majesty. SamuelLevi, Pedro the Cruel's treasurer, turned the palace vaultinto a strong-room, but the prince, in a needy moment,proved stronger and the Toledans, following the example of;their king, completed the sacking of the mansion. TheDuke of Escalona, in the reign of Charles Quint, burnt thepalace to the ground, and fled the city with his family,rather than give house-room to the treacherous Bourbon,the Constable of France, at the bidding of his royal master.There is in the little plaza._of_SantaJ[sal)el, a halfobliteratedArabian inscription, wishing "Lasting prosperityand perpetual glory to the master of this edifice." This inscriptionidentifies the ruin as the palace of King Pedro.The beautiful Casa de Mesa bears scarcely a trace of theexquisite Moorish workmanship which characterised thepalace of the Dukes of Alva it is; impossible to determinefrom the dilapidated Casa de las Tormerias whether it wasoriginally built for a Moorish palace or a mezquita ;while

XUJI-

TOLEDO 427some few scraps of Moorish inscription in the wood-work ofa ruined wall stilltestify to the origin of the Casa deMunarriz. The alcazar, which was twice destroyed by fire,is represented by the fa9ades, the three towers, the patio,and the enormous staircase— perhaps the only parts of thebuilding that were not rebuilt by Charles Quint. Theedifice commenced by that monarch, and completed byPhilip II., was for long the most splendid and colossalpalace in Spain.Staremberg's troops destroyedthe buildingby fire in 1710 ; and, a century later, the French troopsfired the structure which Carlos III. had recomposed out ofthe ashes of Charles V.'s alcazar. The Casa de Mesa, thepalace of Estevan de Ulan, is reduced to a single chamberof exquisite Moorish workmanship the ;remaining Moorishpart of the Taller del Moro is used as a common workshop;the regal staircase of the alcazar, so wide that a whole armymight march up its noble steps, ends in space.As with the palaces^fJColedo, so it is with its teniples \— the traces of Moorish art are nearlyall defaced or )ohlitfirated. Tlie m asque ,which was replaced by the churchof San Roman, possesses the purest mudejar steeple ofToledo, erected by Esteban de Ulan, and another, if smaller,Moorish steeple, adorns the Santa Magdalena. A nxoniimeiit,which ranks among the most interesting in Spain,is theCjisto^deJaJ-iUz,located between the Puerta del Sol andthe Puerta Bisagra— a little gem of Moorish-Byzantineas the oldest and mostarchitecture, which isregardedperfect specimen of its kind in the Peninsula. On thewalls of this church, which remains to this day a perfectmosque, the conquering Alfonso VI. hung up his shield in1035 to commemorate the first mass that was celebrated inToledo after the defeat of the Moors. Until Tarik came toToledo the mosque had been a Gothic temple, before which

428 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINof the crucified Christ.hung a cross^ bearing an effigyLegend declares that two impious Jews pricked the greatlyveneratedbody with a dagger, and that from the woundblood instantly gushed forth. The Jews, who attempted toevade the penalty of their folly by hiding the crucifix, weretraced by the stains of blood to their house, and torn topieces by the infuriated Christians. Tradition furtherasserts that the Jews planned a revenge by poisoning thefeet of the restored statue, but that when a woman kneltbefore it the figure withdrew its foot from her kiss.Manyother legends attach to the sacred relic, which was removedfrom before the church when the city was captured by theMoors, and secreted in a cavity in the wall, with a burninglamp placed before it. When the Moorish dominion cameto an end, 370 years later, and the cavity was revealed, theunreplenished lamp was found to be still alight before thecrucifix in the wall of the Moorish mosque. From thislegend the church takes its name of the ChdaL of theLight.This wonderful little monument, which is only twentytwofeet by twenty-five feet, possesses six-shoxt-Jiaves, whichcross each other under niiie_yaujj:s, and in the centre arefour short, stout columns, surmounted by sculpturedcapitals, from which spring sixteen heavy horseshoe arches.This forest of naves and arches comprises a niiniature_reproductioiLjDifthe mosque of Cordova. Arcades, cusped inMoorish fashion, and supported on shafts, pierce the walls ;the inevitable "half orange" ceiling domes the centre, andabove the principal arch is the shield of Alfonso VI., embellishedwith a white cross on a crimson ground, which thevictorious king handed to Archbishop Bernardo to supplythe place of a cross above the dismantled altar. This gemof MoQiislirByzantine. architecture, s^smalL^et so perfect,

429tkAJJ KKA'.MKNT \T TAKKA«.A

.SITY

TOLEDO 431so simple yet so fantastic, conveys an impression of amazingstrength, and presents an admirable example of earlyArabian work.The nunnery of SantaJFe, which was originally a regalMoorish palace, has been shorn of nearlyall its ancientbeauty, which is now onlytraceable in the arcaded brickworkof the wall, almost obliterated by exuberant foliage.There are still the remnants of Moorish ornamentation inthe convent halls and corridors of San Juan de la Penitencia,and the influence of Moorish art is also seen in some goodazulejo and the artesonade ceiling ofSanta Isabel.The AlcantaraiJiridge, which was originally a Romanstructure, was repaired by the Goths in 687, and rebuilt by^the Moors of 866. It was of this Moorish bridge that Rasisel Moro wrote ": It was such a rich and marvellous work,and so subtly wrought, that never man with truth couldbelieve there was any other such fine work in Spain."Since then it has been repaired and restored wholly, or inpart, no fewer than eighL times and while these;alterationshave changed 'its style and itappearance,still remains oneof the finest and most picturesque monuments of Toledo.The bridge of San Martin, which compares with it ininterest and beauty, was built in 1203, and isguarded ateither end with a tower and gateway adorned with Moorisharches and battlements. The bridge of San Martin givesentrance to the city through the gate of the Cambron. Itis no longer Moorish, as it was in the time of Alfonso VI. ;but on its half-renaissance, half-classical architecture, onemay stillread the remains of some of those grandiloquentutterances of the Moorish which spirit prompted Ponz tostyle Toledo the city of magnificent inscriptions. It was adevout, if somewhat credulous, spirit which inspired thetranscription of the following article of faith: "There is

432 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINbut one God on earth, and Mohammed isHis messenger.All the faithful who believe in our prophet Mohammed, andcontinue to kiss the hands and feet of Murabite MuleyAbda Alcadar every day, will be without sin, will not beblind, nor deaf, nor lame, nor wounded and; receiving hisbenediction, when the time of his death comes, will only bethree days and ill dying, will go with open eyes to Paradiseforgiven of all sins." Another inscription bore the followingexhortation and compensatory promise:" Prayer and peaceover our lord and prophet Mohammed. All the faithful,when they went to lie down in their beds, mentioning theAlfagiu Murabito Abdala, and recommending themselves tohim, will enter no battle out of which they will not comevictorious ;and in whatever battle against Christians theymay stain their lances with Christian blood, dying that sameday, will go alive and whole with eyes open to Paradise,and his descendants will remain till the fourth generationforgiven."Ths present Vi.sagra Gate, rebuilt under Charles V.,dates back to the Moors. It is entirely Moorish in character,with the heavy simple features, the triple horseshoearches and upper crenellated apertures which we associatewith the first period of Morisco architecture. Through thisgate, which is now blocked up, AlfQnsojyXv_entei£xLlQledo.The two graceful square towers, roofed with green and whitetiles, which compose the edifice, are joined by the highturreted walls of a square courtyard, and the decorationsinclude the Senate's dedication of the gate to CharlesQuint, the sculptured arms of the emperor, a statue of St.Eugenie, two others of Gothic kings, and a life-sized angelholding an unsheathed sword. This cold, bare inventory ofthe ornaments of the gate convey no idea of the splendidimpressiveness of the structure, the splendour and charm of

PLATE XLIX.M'JoW,

TOLEDO433which sink into comparative insignificance beside its gloriousneighbour, the Gate of the Siin.This magnificent gate of rough stone, with its towers ofbrown granite, has been rightly described as one of theworldl§j2iasterpieces. Yet here again the pen is powerlessto do justice to its beauty; and to describe its proportionsand decoration is to complicate, rather than explain, theimpression that is conveyed by the camera. The squaretowers, with their semi-circular fronts, and the great centralarch resting on two Moorish columns, and the zones ofornamental arches above the horse-shaped openings, comprisea ]Vloonsh__j^em_^gainsL^ a miracleof loveliness upon a rough and naked rampart. Buthow, cries Hannah Lynch, to write of this Puerta delSol, that" thing of beauty even among crowded enchantments! It is to pick one's way through superlatives andpoints of exclamation and call in vain on the goddessof sobriety to subdue our tendency to excess and incoherence.Put this matchless gate in the middle of the desertof Sahara; it would then be worth while making the frightfuljourney alone to look at However it. far you may havejourneyed, you would still be for ever thankful to have seensuch a masterpiece— incontestably a work of supreme art,of the world." Whether the writerperhaps the rarest thingintends her high eulogy to be applied generally to any"work of supreme art," or to the Puerta del Sol in particular,influence ofmost people who have come under the witchingthe art of the Moors, will not deny that itis well deserved.

OS1r

435I

^^ OF THE '^KUNIVERSITY

MOORISH ORNAMENT

\\ 'MOORISH ORNAMENTA NOTE ON THE ELEMENTS OF ARAB ARTINart, precept is subservient ; practice is supreme. Theidea which may be hidden in a pictureis of littlemoment ;it is the design, fully accomplished, which isprized. Its inspiration may become a ** light to shinebefore men," but it attains itsparamount value only whenrealised.Refinement of manners and acuteness.of intellect have,in the East, nothing in common with what we call education.In this social state, ignorance, which, among us,condemns a man, may be the condition of^rea t originality .The Arab tent-iiwe}ler. was, and is, often, a very superiorman; for the tent is a kind of school, always open, where,from contact with educated guests who have seen men andcities, was produced an intellectual movement which ledthe Arab, in exchanging his nomadic life for a settledhabitation, to translate the tent to a more solid form ;tocommute the tent-pole for a slender marble column ;and totransform luxurious products of the loom, which had adornedhis former dwelling, to a semblance of their golden tissueson fairy-decorated diapery.If the poetry and refinement of the South of Europe inauthors wouldmodern times cannot be traced, as manyhave us believe— notably Father Andres, a learned Spaniard,anxious to give to his own country the honour of impartingto the rest of Europe the first impulse of refinement after

440 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINthe fall of the Roman Empire— to the Arabs of Spain, muchmust still be allowed to their influence; for their progress inrefinement was hardly less brilliant and rapid than theirprogress in Empire. At the period of the glory of CordoYSi,which began about A.p^_75Qj and continued to the time ofits conquest by the Christians in 1236, the scholars of Spainwere in a higher state of cultivation than could be foundelsewhere ;and if the Kingdom of Granada — the last—stronghold of the Moslem which ended in 149a, was lessrefined, it was perhaps more splendid and luxuriaus. Thepublic schools and libraries of the Spanish Arabs wereresorted to, not only by those of their own faith at homeand in the East, but by Christians from different parts ofEurope and Pope Sylvester the Second (Gerbet, a Frenchman,Pope 999-1003), one of the most remarkable men of;his age, is believed to have owed his elevation to the culturehe absorbedJLii_SeYille_and Cordova.Arab^art takes its place with the arts of Greece andJapan as one of the three great schools into which all styles— of ornament naturallyfall.Beauty and simplicity therestrained rhythm and order which form the essentialfoundation of Greek art— is as distinct from the vivaciousrealism and unsymmetrical, haphazard decoration of theJapanese, as from that elegance and complexity producedby geometrical JJimlutiQns symmejirically constructed, whichconstitute the basis of Moorish art. These three styles havebeen compared by Monsieur J. Bourgoin, in his Elements ofArab Art, to the three kingdoms of Nature. Greek art helikens to the animal kingdom, the Japanese art to thevegetable kingdom, and Arabian art, from the symmetrywhich recalls the crystallisatioa_of minerals in its uniformityof configuration, and itselementary structure, he compareswith the niLneral_kingdom.

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MOORISH ORNAMENT 441In the art of the Arabs the inspira tion is completelyinciependervLjDiLJ^^ The Arab artist proceedsfrom within to the exterior; he sets himself problems, andtransfers them by means of the compass atld^xule. Thedecorative impulse of Arab art consists of geometricaldiagrams either caxyed Jjlio^ielkf, or inlajd, or sirnply„laidflat Since the inspiration is dry, and purely abstract, theartistic development is slight and unimportant ; and, sincethe motive is restricted, Arab decorative art has remainedsimple, but still of an incomparable elegance, because theharmonj^ between inspiration and execution is perfect. Bytheir creed Mohammedan artists were forbidden to representliving forms, yet they adopted the principles they found inNature, and developed them with absolute fidelity. Thus^as I showed in dealing with the architecture of the Alhambra,in surface decoration by the Moors the lines flow from aparent stem; every ornament, however distant, can be tracedto its branch and root. In all cases we find the lines radiatingfrom a parent_gtem, as we may see exemplified inNature by the human hand, or in a leaf. We are neveroffended, as in modern practice, by the random introductionof an ornament set down without a reason for its existence.However irregular the expanse they have to decorate, theyalways commence by dWiding the £eld into equal areas, andround these main lines they fill in their details, which invariablyreturn to their parent stem, a system which provesthem to have been absolute masters of space.In the introduction to my volume on the Alhambra, Iemphasised this fact, that the Moors ever had regard tothe — first principle of architecture to decorate construction,never to construct decoration. In Arabian architecture, notonly does the decoration arise naturally out of the construction,but the constructive idea is carried out in every detail

442 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINof the ornamentation of the surfaces. A superfluous oruseless ornament is never found in Moorish decoration ;^Y§IX-^E^"5^^^it_-ajise&-jiatiii::alLy and inevitably from theparent design. The general forms were first laid down ;they were subdivided by general lines the interstices were;then filled in with ornament, to be again subdivided andenriched for closer inspection. The principle was carriedout with the greatest refinement, and the harmony andbeauty of all Moorish ornamentation is derived from itsobservance. The highest distinction was thereby obtained ;the detail never interfering with the general form. Seen ata distance, the m ajn, , Jin£& st r i ke -th^__£yg ;on nearerapproach, the ornamentation comes into the composition ;and a minute inspection reveals the detail on the surfaceof the ornaments themselves.Monsieur A. Rhone, in his UEgypie a Petites jfourneeSj"holds that, seeing the marvellous resources which theArabs have found in geometry for decorating surfaces, oneregrets less for art that the laws of Islamism have forbiddenthem, as an idolatrous act, to introduce representationsof animated forms. Although these laws were not sostrictly observed as is generally believed, who knows, if inturning the Arabian artists away from sculpture andstatuary, they have not been the means of preserving thisspecial and almost transcendant aptitude that the Semiteshave for all subtle combinations, and especially for those ofgeometrical numbers, lines, and figures?"Although the principles of Moorish art are so rigid andsevere, the Arabs have not remained exempt from exteriorinfluence, but have adapted and incorporated foreignfeeling into their art, and modified it to their purpose.this fact.A note by the late Owen Jones greatly emphasisesHe says:—**When the Mohammedan religion and civili-

PLATE Lll.1 >r7 iwn\\fS^\^aiPam-Uinff

MOORISH ORNAMENT 443sation rose with such astonishing rapidity in the East, theArabs, in their mosques, made use of the materials whichthey found ready to their hands in the ruins of old Romanbuildings which they purposely destroyed they took columnswith ;their Corinthian capitals, etc., and adapted them to thearrangement required for their own temples. In their subsequentworks they did not, as we should have done, continueto copy and reproduce the models which were at first soconvenient to them ; but, applying to them their own peculiarfeelings, they gradually departed from the original model, tosuch an extent at last, that but for the intermediate steps weshould be unable to discover the least analogy betweenthem. Yet by this process the capitals of their columnscan be traced back to the Corinthian order which they, inthe first instance, found so abundantly for their use."Arab art must ever remain distinct from every otherschool and style, because the essential foundation of it is fixedand limited. Now, those who resign themselves to a style ofart reduce themselves to formulas, to copies, or to diagrams.Greco-Romanart has its formulas of ordinance and propositions;Chino-Japanese art has its characteristic copies ;andSyro- Arabian art its abstract and geometrical diagr^^is.Thegeneral elements of Arabian art, as applied to architectureand decoration, consist of stalactites, inierlwinings, andornaments. Stalactites, which are at the same time ornamentsand members of architecture, are employed incorbelling, in coving, and in pendentives, and are modelledand superposed by tapia, or cut in wood and placed sideby side, or opened into hollows by superficial casings inwire and tressing. The intertwinings which embellish thesurfaces are carved and trimmed in splitboards of carpentry,or laid in compartments, or carved in open work, or engravedin stone, wood, and metal ;or set in filigree, vignettes, or

444 MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAINmosaics. The ornaments, which divide themselves intodecoration by embroidery or embellishment in sections,reduce themselves to a small number of elements, or flowerworkcut flat in outline. The outlines, complete in theboundary which limits them, are quite characteristic.They do not resemble in any way, except in so far as theunalterable laws of geometry decree, the outline drawn byEuropeans, nor the cursive traits used by the Chinese andJapanese. All Arab ornament isby involution of lines; inshort, it may be said to be entirely geometric.The art of the Mohammedan, so powerful in appeal tothe imagination, not only by beauty and grace, but by thedoctrine of the Koran inscribed in their temples on everyside in ornamented characters,— so admirably traced thatthey appear to form part of a perfected design proclaimingthe power of Allah, and impressing upon the believerrespect ;— for the laws and the love of virtue produces aneffect little short of magical. Still does that art accompanyits religion in a lingering death. Crushed by the rapid strideswhich surrounding nations have made in the progress ofcivilization, and which have outrun and ruined it, yet do afew bright emanations appear, to show that as in religionthey are faithful to their creed, so in art do their crumblingmonuments preserve their shattered remains on which theobserver still may see, in deep characters, the chronicles ofthe times.In the illustrations which accompany these brief notes,the Arab's mastery of line in the composition of designmay be studied, and its mystery revealed ;but to reducethese geometrical intertwinings to their original elementsdemands patience, application, and very much time; Atfirst sight these diagrams may appear monotonous, but eachis constructed^on a partic ular theme. Most of them spread

PLATE LI 1 1.Blank Window.

MOORISH ORNAMENT 445throughout the Orient, and may be more particularlystudied in the Moorish monuments ia_Spain, where they areemployed indifferently in carvings, in mosaic and_inja]d^ work,in application to chased bropze, and in compartments ofdecoration and emJbroidery. The infinite variety the artistsare able to introduce while working on strict rules, whichadmit of no exception,is the result of instinct perfected bycenturies of practice. That in their work was something tobe learned, as well as to be felt, is evident from the Moorishpoet's exhortation to us to attentively contemplate theadornments of their palaces, and thereby reap the benefit ofa commentary on decoration. It is, then, for the benefit ofstudents who would know something more of Arabian ornamentationthan can be derived from the sensation producedby broad effects, and for lovers of the fine arts who wouldunderstand the inwardness of Moorish refinement and reduceits mysteries to their primary bases, that the accompanyingdiagrams have been reproduced.At foot of each diagram is added a short explanatorynote; but it isexpedient for the student to give considerationto the plan which in is, every case, set out in dotted lines.By this means, he will discover, if he approaches his subjectwith a free mind, that his task will offer less difficulty thanwould appear at the outset. To minutely describe the constructionof each diagram, and, at the same time complywith the stringent rules of geometry, would occupy muchtoo great a space ;nor would the result, perhaps, beproportioned tothe labour.

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PLATE LIV.Ornaments on the WallSt House of Sanchez.

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PLATE LV.ornament Inpanels on the Wall*.

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PLATELXIMosaic Dado round the internal walls of theMosque.Mosaics from the Mosque and the Hall of the Baths. T^e Mosaic Dados round th«walls of the Mosque appear to be the only poKionsof the ancient private Mosqueattached to the Palace which have been preserved intact in their original situation.The motto of the Kings of Granada. "There la no conqueror but God." was replacedby "iVcc plus ultra" of Charles V.. when the Mosque was converted by him Intoa chapel. The beautiful Mosaic at the top of the plate is plaoed round the fountainof the Chamber of Repose of the Baths.

PLATELXIIAzulejos.Painted Tiles.On the floor of one of the alcoves of the Hall of Justice are to be seen thspainted tiles delineated in the oentre of this plate.

PLATELXIII.3^^^ *

PLATELXIV.Mosaic from the portico of the Cenenahfe.

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4^3I. 2,3, VARIATIONS ON A CHINKSB Motif4. 5, 6, VARIATIONS ON A tlinlif HISPANO-ARAHIAN.7. 8. 9, VARIATIONft ON A moHl . hVRCVAII AMI A>f,10. II, 12. VABIATIONH ON A moUf. OAl.U»ROMAN.X

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PLATE LXVIII.

475S^p-^cieV.W/^-'f:'^9^^1 AKAHIAN (UAMASCLS).2 CEILING, LOUIH XIII.3. 4. 3. ARABIAN (DAMASCUS).6 INDIAN.

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Socle of the Entrance Arch to the Chapel.

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PLATE LXXX.SEVILLE.Socle in the Interior of the Chapel-

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PLATE LXXXI.SEVILLE.Socle In the Interior of the Chapel.

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PLATE LXXXIV,Part of celling. of a Portico.

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586178 LOZENGE PLAN, WHERE THE GREAT AXIS IS THREETIMES THAT OF THE LESSER AXIS. SUB-DIVIDE AS IN PLAN.TRACE CIRCUMFERENCES EQUAL AND TANGENT,IN WHICH ARE INSCRIBED REGULAR PENTAGONS. THEREST IS EASILY FOLLOWED. THE NET-WORK IS COMPOSEDOF FIVE SERIES OF LINES

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