Scientific research on watermarks, their systematic collection, classification <strong>and</strong> analysis, was already begun in the early 19 th century, milestones being set thereby by the major works of Briquet <strong>and</strong> Piccard. <strong>The</strong> possibilities watermarks offer for historical research are, first of all, connected to questions concerning the history of paper, but also, of even more importance, the texts <strong>and</strong> illustrations the paper bears. <strong>The</strong> use of particular watermarks not only allows one to determine where the paper was produced, their spread also testifies to the paper’s distribution: paper trade <strong>and</strong> related economic questions can thus be examined. Maria Zaar-Görgens was able to map, on the basis of watermarks, the spread of paper from paper mills in Lorraine-Upper Rhine between 1385 <strong>and</strong> 1600, showing not only the impressive increase in paper production, but also developments in paper trade <strong>and</strong> the economic situation of southwest Germany, both over time <strong>and</strong> distance (Ill. 1). Watermarks are of particular methodological importance for describing manuscripts, which includes an analysis of the paper they are written on as well as any inscriptions <strong>and</strong> the texts themselves. In addition to actual historical questions concerning the paper, undated manuscripts <strong>and</strong> prints can usually be dated to within a few years on the basis of their watermarks; watermark research is particularly significant as it provides a much more accurate aid for historical dating (Piccard) than, for example, palaeographical analysis. A prerequisite is, of course, the existence of an identical, dated watermark, which furnishes the time period for the paper’s production. <strong>The</strong> technical possibilities for copying or reproducing watermarks from original documents range from tracing, either h<strong>and</strong> tracing or rubbing, to expensive modern techniques such as beta radiography, which has increased accuracy. Analysis of watermarks has become st<strong>and</strong>ard in scholarly descriptions of manuscripts, <strong>and</strong> has profited from the continually growing watermark collections <strong>and</strong> their availability on the internet. Literature: Zaar-Görgens, Champagne – Baar – Lothringen; Piccard, Die Wasserzeichenforschung als historische Hilfswissenschaft. P.R. (C.P.-K.) IV Watermarks <strong>and</strong> Research on Manuscripts <strong>The</strong> Commercial Aspects of Paper In common with all manufactured goods fabricated in every period <strong>and</strong> place, paper was a product that presented different mercantile properties depending on purchasers’ needs. Even if a wide range of uses for paper has been identified – as a substitute for glass in windows, for example – the most important differentiating criterion distinguished between writing paper <strong>and</strong> wrapping paper, just as it does today. Contrary to what certain people have supposed, wrapping paper did not form the bulk of the paper that was produced; rather, it represented about 20–25% of production. <strong>The</strong> thing that distinguished the two chief categories of paper wasn’t only colour – inasmuch as wrapping paper was made from rags that were more or less brown, while writing paper was made from white rags – but also the material’s degree of refinement: the pulp that was destined to produce writing paper was, in fact, far more refined, <strong>and</strong> in order to produce it, special pounding mills which were able to reduce fibres to the smallest dimensions were necessary. For this reason, not all paper mills were able to produce both kinds of paper: thus, at Colle Val d’Elsa in the 16 th century, paper mills were divided into two categories, “black”, <strong>and</strong> “white”, which only produced wrapping paper <strong>and</strong> did not enjoy the right to process white rags. However, even within the “writing paper” category, the product could present in various quality grades; in addition to “fine paper” one often encountered so-called “fioretto” grade product (the etymology of this term is unclear) or, descending even further on the quality scale, so-called “fiorettone” grade papers. In the absence of “archaeological” evidence, unfortunately we have to ignore the possible differences seen among the different quality grades. Indeed, today we would be completely unable to distinguish between the different types of sheets that corresponded to the different names. <strong>The</strong> price of paper varied in function with its quality <strong>and</strong>, needless to say, cases of fraud were numerous <strong>and</strong> frequent. For this reason, a great many regulations were issued by civic authorities in places of production <strong>and</strong>/or consumption, testimony to the care taken to safeguard consumers’ interests early on in the history of paper 33
Ill. 1: Distribution of paper from Lorraine-Upper Rhine paper mills (based on Zaar-Görgens) 34
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