Bull's Head and Mermaid - The Bernstein Project - Österreichische ...

The watermarks in paper of the Middle Ages can be considered
a symbol, a fragment of that world and how it was understood
at the time. To start with, they are a European invention:
they are not found in old Chinese or Arabian paper.
This can be explained by the fact that papermakers in
Europe began to use rigid paper moulds to which wire figures
could be attached. In the history of papermaking, the
rise of watermarks in the European Middle Ages was quite
late on the scene.
In addition to early texts documenting the use of watermarks
from the middle of the 14 th century such as the treatise
by Bartolus de Saxoferrato described above, there are
also sources that refer to watermark forgery. For instance, in
1398 Louis de Tignonville (Bailli de Troyes) already forbade
the copying of marks by other mill owners, or placing watermarks
originally for good quality paper into poor paper.
Such texts raise questions concerning the function of watermarks
in the Middle Ages and lead to a consideration of
their forms and significance. Of course it is beyond the
scope of this volume to offer a typology of the watermarks
of the Middle Ages that even approaches comprehensiveness.
Nevertheless, a sample of watermark motifs has been
chosen in order to give at least an impression of their variety
and imagery.
The oldest known watermark was used in Cremona (Italy)
from as early as 1271. It is in the form of the letter F. Earlier,
Briquet (1907) had presumed a Greek cross (No. 5410)
used in Bologna from the year 1282 to be the oldest watermark.
But regardless of whether a cross or a letter, it is without
question that the first watermark originated in northern
Italy (Bannasch). Chronologically, the next watermark that
appears, sometime after 1293, is from Cividale, considered
the site of the oldest paper mill in Friuli: a spiral in the form
of a six or a nine. Personal names also appear as watermarks
already before 1300, as seen in the documents of the
notary Tommaso Cattaro from Piacenza. Here the name of
the papermaker Puzoli of Fabriano can be found. The name
Saluzzo can be found from 1305 (Weiß). The function of
these watermarks is clear: they are a sign of ownership that
clearly indicates the paper’s origin. The names of papermakers
are used as watermarks until about 1312; later this becomes
unfashionable and the image and symbol world of
the Middle Ages begins to spread.
Of course here and there single letters are found: in Germany,
for example, E for Esslingen, F for Frankfurt am Main
(Jaffé), M for Maria, Mother of God (Tschudin 1996), etc.
Monograms indicate the producer of the paper as well as
III The World in Watermarks
sovereign privileges. Abbreviations such as IHS (Jesus) also
appear in the world of watermarks. Watermarks in the
shape of a crown can be seen from shortly after 1310. The
crown then became one of the most common watermark
motifs. According to Briquet, it was used by Venetian paper
mills into the 18 th century.
A particularly dominant watermark is a bull’s head with
various forms and embellishments. Bull’s head watermarks
are seen in Italy as early as 1320, from where they spread
to France and Germany. It was used intensively, not disappearing
entirely until the beginning of the 17 th century,
three hundred years later. In the Ravensburg coat of arms,
used as a watermark for the first time in 1395, one finds a
bull’s head combined with a city gate. Jaffé mentions in this
regard Luke the Evangelist, whose animal attribute is an ox.
Luke also is the patron saint of painters, an occupation
close to papermaking. The animal attribute of Mark the
Evangelist, a winged lion, can also be found in the world of
watermarks. This was used above all by papermakers in
Venice, where it was also part of the coat of arms. The paper
mills of Colle di val d’Elsa (Tuscany) used a watermark in
the form of a head; its first use can be dated to 1249. The
watermark motif of a snake deserves particular attention. It
is also found in coats of arms, as for example that of the
Milan dynasty of the Viscontis. Papermakers used a snake
watermark motif above all in Swabia. Here they succeeded
in making particularly thin, good paper, and thus the snake
motif became quasi a stamp of quality (Jaffé).
Another common watermark motif is a triple mountain. It
can be found in paper made in Lucca and Padua between
1360 and 1513, although its exact origin remains unclear
(Schweizer). Later the outline of a cross was often added to
the triple mountain. According to Piccard, the first watermarks
with this motif are dated to 1444. Watermarks in the
form of a cross or staff are a good example of the symbolic
world of the Christian Middle Ages. Here one can think of
the bishop’s staff, the crook of the Good Shepherd, and the
cross staff, an attribute of many saints. The messenger staff
of Hermes is considered the symbol of traders, and the
Aeskulapian staff is a symbol still today of the medical profession.
The rod of Basel, which represents the coat of arms
of the bishopric and the city of Basel, can also be added to
this group. It was used as a watermark, also by papermakers
outside of Basel, from the 16 th century.
Finally, heraldic watermarks should be mentioned. The
use of coats of arms as watermark motifs can be seen in
connection with the forming of territorial states in the later
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