download current issue - Ozean Publications

Ozean Journal ofApplied ScienceA PEER REVIEVED INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Volume 4, Issue 3, September 2011ONLINE ISSN 1943-2542 PRINTED ISSN: 1943-2429------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Managing EditorAli Ozel, Dumlupinar UniversityPublication CoordinatorTaskin Inan, Dumlupinar UniversityEditorial BoardGerald S. Greenberg, Ohio State University, USAHakki Yazici, Afyon Kocatepe University, TurkeyHayati Akyol, Gazi University, TurkeyHayati Doganay, Ataturk University, TurkeyLaurie Katz, Ohio State University, USALisandra Pedraza, University of Puerto Rico inRio Piedras, Puerto RicoLutfi Ozav, Usak University, TurkeyMihai Maxim, Bucharest University, RomaniaIbrahim Atalay, Dokuz Eylul University, TurkeyIbrahim S. Rahim, National Research Center, EgyptJanet Rivera, NOVA University, USARamazan Ozey, Marmara University, TurkeySamara Madrid, Northern Illinois University, USASamia Abdel Aziz-Ahmed Sayed, National ResearchCenter, EgyptWeb: http://www.ozelacademy.com E-mail: editorejes@gmail.comCopyright © 2008 Ozean Publication, 2141 Baneberry Ct. 43235, Columbus, Ohio, US

A peer revieved international journalONLINE ISSN 1943-2542 PRINTED ISSN: 1943-2429http://ozelacademy.com/ojas.htm

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationCHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND NUTRIENT DIGESTIBILITY OF PANICUMMAXIMUM AND PILIOSTIGMA THONNINGII LEAVESFED TO WEST AFRICAN DWARF RAMS AS DRY SEASON FEEDG. TONADepartment of Animal Production and Health, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,Ogbomoso, Oyo State, NigeriaE-mail adress for correspondence: gopadoyin02@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: An experiment was conducted for six weeks to investigate the proximate, mineral and anti-nutrientcomposition and nutrient digestibility of West African Dwarf (WAD) rams fed two different ratios of Panicummaximum: Piliostigma thonningii leaf meal (PLM). Nine rams were allocated to three dietary treatments of threeanimals per treatment in a completely randomized design (CRD) experiment. A sole diet of P. maximum (guineagrass) leaves served as the control, diet 1, while diets 2 and 3 consisted of combinations of the two forages in theratios 90:10 and 80:20 respectively. Results showed that all the nutrient digestibilities for diet 3 (Panicummaximum: Piliostigma thonningii leaf meal, ratio 80:20) were significantly (P

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011leaves are edible and may be chewed to relieve thirst (Chidumayo, 1994), and the fruits and seeds are also edible.Although there is considerable information on the nutrient composition of legumes cultivated in Nigeria, littleinformation is known about the nutritional properties of P. thonningii leaf. Thus, in this study the proximate,mineral and anti-nutrient composition, and nutrient digestibilities of P. maximum and P. thonningii leaves weredetermined over a six week period.MATERIALS AND METHODSLocation of experimentThe experiment was carried out at the Ruminant Unit of the Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke AkintolaUniversity of Technology, Ogbomoso. The site is located within the derived Savannah ecological zones, within theLatitude 8 o 15´N and Longitude 4 o 15´E (Oguntoyinbo, 1978). Also, the annual rainfall is about 1500mm andoccurs from April to November and marked dry season from December to March.Experimental animals and their managementNine WAD rams ranging between 10 and 13 kg were used for the study. The animals were obtained from theRuminant Unit of the Teaching and Research farm of Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso,between February and March, 2009. The rams were balanced for weight and placed under 3 treatment groups of 3animals per treatment in a completely randomised design.Harvesting and processing of P. maximum and P. thonningii leavesP. maximum (guinea grass) was harvested from the pasture paddock on the school farm. The P. thonningii foliagewas harvested from the wood-lot close to the Teaching and Research Farm, Ladoke Akintola University ofTechnology, Ogbomoso. The freshly cut leaves were air-dried or wilted for 24 hours before being used for feeding.Experimental diets and digestibility trialThe diets fed to the animals were as follows: diet 1 (control), animals were fed with leaves of P. maximum grassonly; diets 2 and 3, (P. maximum: P. thonningii leaves at ratios 90: 10 and 80:20 respectively). The leaves of thetwo forages were fed to the rams at the rate of about 3% of body weight in a digestibility trial that lasted for sixweeks. The experimental rams had two weeks adjustment and 4 weeks faecal collection period in individualmetabolic cages. Feed intake was measured by the differences between feed offered and refusals. The animals werefed twice daily and water provided ad libitum. Daily feed intake and faecal output were recorded for each ram forthe four weeks digestibility trial period.Laboratory analysisTotal daily faecal output for each ram were measured, bulked, sun dried and stored in plastic bags and then ovendriedat 65 o C for proximate analysis and at 105 o C for DM analysis, both for 24hours. Experimental diets and faecal190

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011samples were analyzed for proximate composition using the methods of AOAC (2005) and the data were used tocompute the apparent nutrient digestibilities of the diets.Statistical analysisData collected were subjected to analysis of variance (SAS, 2002) and means where significant were separated byDuncan’s multiple range test using the same statistical package.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONTable 1 shows the chemical composition of the leaves of the two forages used in the study. The values of neutraldetergent fibre, acid detergent fibre and acid detergent lignin contents of P. maximum were higher than that of P.thonningii. Whereas the crude protein content of P. maximum was lower than that of P. thonningii. The CP of15.25% reported for P. thonningii in this study was slightly lower than 16.25% reported earlier (Tona et al., 2010).However the CP content of 7.67% for P. maximum compared with 7.02% reported by Bankole et al. (2003). In thisstudy, the gross energy of P. maximum was slightly lower compared with that of P. thonningii. The lower CPcontent of P. maximum was expected because it contained more fibre as compared with P. thonningii. Higher fibrecontent would limit DM intake from grass and lower its digestibility. The CP content in the two forage leaves usedin this study were adequate as compared with the 7-8% CP recommended as the least value required by ruminantsfor efficient performance (Milford and Minson, 1967).In the same Table 1, the values of potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron and zinc for P. maximum were higherthan that of P. thonningii, whereas the values of calcium and copper percentages for P. thonningii were slightlyhigher than that for P. maximum. The mineral contents of the forages enhanced their palatability and acceptability.Minerals requirement in livestock is measured as the amount needed to maintain a normal haemoglobin level and toprovide an appropriate positive balance in the animal body. The nutritionally critical minerals listed in Table 1 arepotassium and iron, and these were least expected to be deficient in the diets. Potassium is required for plantgrowth, and thus if a plant grows at all it will nearly always contain sufficient potassium to meet the requirements ofthe animal that eats the plant as reported by Allaway (1975). The mineral contents in the P. thonningii fell within therecommended levels for small ruminants (Milford and Minson, 1967).The levels of the anti-nutrients phytate, oxalate and tannin (0.069- 1.37%) recorded for P.maximum and P.thonningii compared with the NRC (1985) recommendation of 2.5% maximum for small ruminants. Thus thefeeding of P. thonningii posed no danger to the experimental animals. Results of nutrient digestibility are presentedin Table 3. All of the nutrient digestibilities increased with increased levels of P. maximum supplementation with P.thonningii. These probably suggest that P. thonningii provided additional source of protein for rumen microbes,which allowed active fermentation and degradation of the fibrous diets (Singh et al., 1979).CONCLUSIONThe feeding P. thonningii leaf as supplement to P.maximum enhanced digestibility of nutrients in West AfricanDwarf rams. Also, P. thonningii can be used as supplement with P. maximum up to 20% level as dry season feed forWest African Dwarf rams.191

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESAlhassan, W. S. (1985). Advances in ruminant nutrition and their application to the utilization of poor qualityforages. Proc. of 10 th Annual Conf. of the Nigeria Society of Anim. Prod., Pp.257-288.Allaway, A. (1975). The effect of soils and fertilizers on human and animal nutrition. US Dept of Agric. InformationBulletin. Pp.378.AOAC (2005). Official method of analysis. Association of Official Analytical chemists, Washington D.C., USA(48).Bamikole, M.A., Babayemi, O.J.,Arigbede, O.M. and Ikhatua, U.J. (2003). Nutritional values of Ficus religiosa inWAD goats. Indian J. of Anim. Feed Sc.Tech. 105:71-79.Chidumayo, A. (1994). Growth Response of African Savanna Tree, Bauhinia thoningiiSchumacher to defoliation. Journal of tree structure and function. March, 2007.Springer Berlin Heidel berg, volume 21, Pp.2Fajemisin, A.N., Alokan, J.A., Aro, S.O., Alowofeso, O. and Fawolu, T.S. (2010). Nutrient intake, Digestibility andweight gain of West African Dwarf sheep fed rumen content-poultry droppings mixed diets. Proc. 33 rdAnnual Conf. Nigeria Society of Animal Production. Pp.583-586Food and Agricultural Organization (1989). FAO Production Year Book, 41 Rome, FAO, UNLock, J.T. and Simpson, M.J. (1999). Legumes of West Tropical Asia. 3 rd Edn. Academic Press Inc, London Pp.216-220.Milford, R. and Minson, O.J. (1967). The voluntary intake and digestibility of diets containing different proportionsof legumes and mature Pangela grass. Austra J. Exp. Agric. Animal Husbandry Vol.7:546-551.NRC (1985). Nutritional Requirement of Domestic Animals. Nutrient Requirement of Sheep. 5 th Edn. NationalAcademy of Sciences- National Research Council, Washington DC., USA.Oguntoyinbo, J.S. (1978). Climatic Nigeria (Eds). A Geography of Nigeria development. Heinemann Nigeria Ltd.Ibadan, Nigeria. Pp. 66.Singh, W.P., Singh, M. and Petriayak, B.C. (1979). Effect of protein levels on nutrient digestibility and woolproduction. Indian J. Anim. Sc.49:277-281.Smith, J.W., Larbi, A. Jabbar, M.A. and Akinlade, J.A. (1995). Voluntary intake by sheep and goats. ILRIPublication 3 rd Edn. Ibadan, Nigeria.SAS (Statistical Analysis Systems) Institute Inc. (2002). SAS/ STAT. User’s guide version 8. 3 rd Edn. Cary. NorthCarolina, USA. Pp. 944.Tona, G.O., Akinlade, J.A., Olabanji, R.O., Onyia, S.U. and Adekiitan, A.B. (2010). Performance and nutrientdigestibility of weaned rabbits fed graded levels of Piliostigma thonningii leaf meal-based diets. Proc. 33 rdAnnual Conf. Nigeria Society of Animal Production. Pp.278-281.192

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 1: Chemical composition of forage leaves usedas experimental dietsProximateDry matter (%)Crude protein (%)Neutral detergent fibre (%)Acid detergent fibre (%)Acid detergent lignin (%)Gross energy (Kcal/g)MineralsPotassium (%)Calcium (%)Magnesium (%)Phosphorus (%)Iron (mg/kg)Zinc (mg/kg)Copper (mg/kg)Anti-nutrientsPhytate (%)Oxalate (%)Tanins (%)P.maximum30.207.6769.5954.2618.383.890.940.790.650.73205.2031.306.501.261.370.078P.thonningii90.2515.2557.3826.7211.983.580.830.820.610.39139.7029.106.801.181.260.069Table 2: Dry matter intake by WAD rams fed P.maximum andP. thonningii leaves during the digestibility experimentDry matter intake (g) 1Diets2 3 SEMP.maximumP.thonningiiTotalFeed intake/liveweight (%)354.40 a-354.402.84242.90 b87.31 b330.212.64221.40 b72.43 b293.882.4514.47.79.3a b Means within the same row with different superscripts are significantly different(P

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 3: Nutrient digestibility by WAD rams fed P.maximumand P. thonningii leaves as experimental dietsVariables (%) 1Diets2 3 SEMDry matterCrude proteinNeutral detergent fibreAcid detergent fibre56.88 b58.51 b50.45 c59.28 b 61.60 a59.18 b57.47 b61.84 a 63.50 a60.82 a61.49 a65.84 a 3.44.66.34.8a b Means within the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationEFFECT OF SETTLING TIME ON TURBIDITY REMOVALUSING MORINGA OLEIFERA SEED POWDER* NWAIWU N.E. and ** LINGMU B.* Department of Civil and Water Resources Engineering, University Of Maiduguri, Maiduguri, Nigeria.c/o dr j. nyanganji Department of Geography, University Of Maiduguri,Maiduguri, Nigeria.*E-mail address for correspondence: nknwaiwu@yahoo.co.uk_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This paper studies the effect of settling time on turbidity removal for low and medium turbidity pond(surface) water. Physico-chemical tests were carried out on two samples (low and medium turbidity water) beforeand after the water was treated with the same dosage of Moringa oleifera seed powder for settling periods of30minutes, 1hour, 2hours, 6hours and 24hours. The settling time of 24 hours in being advocated for Moringaoleifera seed powder for treating low and medium turbidity water because better coagulation and hence higherturbidity removal was achieved with the extended settling periods.Keywords: Moringa oleifera seed powder, coagulation, turbidity, total suspended solids, settling time._____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONTurbidity in water is caused by suspended matter, such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter,soluble coloured organic compounds, planktons and other micro and macroscopic organisms (America PublicHealth Association/ America Water Works Association, 1989). Turbidity can provide food and shelter forpathogens and if not removed, can promote regrowth of pathogens in the distribution system. This can lead to waterborne disease outbreaks (EPA, 1999). Increased turbidity levels adversely affects aquatic ecosystems by reducingphotosynthesis and, therefore primary productivity at all levels of the food chain (TAG, 2002). The consumption ofhigh turbid water may constitute a health risk (WHO, 1996). The removal of turbidity in water would be extremelybeneficial as it would alleviate the majority of problems associated with turbidity. For many developing countriescoagulation, flocculation and sedimentation (which are the processes involved in removing turbidity from water) areexpensive processes because of the high costs involved and the difficulty in assessing the chemical coagulantsincluding alum. However, there have been studies on the use of indigenous natural coagulants. The use of locallygrown and natural coagulants may result in a more sustainable and economically viable alternative (Yung, 2003).Many plants have been used to clarify water. These include Moringa oleifera, Moringa stenopetala, Vicia faba(Jahn, 1986, 1988), Canavalia ensiformis, Bombax constatum(Faby and Eleli, 1993;Nacoulima et al, 2000 ).Crushed195

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Moringa oleifera, seed have been found to be viable replacement coagulant for chemicals such as aluminumsulphate (alum) in a full scale plant treatment trial at the Thyolo treatment works in southern Malawi (Sutherland etal,1994). Yao et al (2005) studied the flocculating activities of the fresh stems of mucilage of Gombo (Hibiscusesculentus) and achieved the lowering of turbidity.Generally, various settling times for Moringa oleifera water treatment have been used or proposed. Muyibi andEvison (1995) on softening hard water with Moringa oleifera seed powder used a settling time of one hour. At aMoringa oleifera dosage of 1800mg/l the calcium hardness had reduced to almost zero. Doerr (2005), on showingsteps for household water treatment, recommended a settling time of one to two hours for all the particles andcontaminants to settle to the bottom of the storage container. Lilliehook (2005) while studying the use of sandfilteration on river water flocculated with Moringa oleifera, employed a settling period of 30 minutes to 120 minutesfor low, medium and high turbidity water. In the experiment, it was observed that purification increased withincreased settling times as there was a drastic reduction in the residual turbidity between 30-45 minutes for the 50NTU water. The World Agroforestry Centre (2004) suggests a duration or settling time of one hour for a cleansupernatant to result using Moringa oleifera. On the other hand, the CDC pretreatment fact sheet(safewater@cdc.gov) prescribed a settling period of 24 hours before decanting off the clear water to anothercontainer. Hsu et al (2006) prescribed that Moringa Oleifera seed powder mixed with water should be kept for hours(number not specified) in order to obtained clean water.This paper studies the effect of settling time on turbidity removal for low and medium turbidity pond (surface)water.The Study AreaThe study area is in the rural outskirts of Maiduguri, the capital of Borno State, North East Nigeria. Borno State issituated in a semi and region of the Sahel savannah. Three seasons have been identified with the area: the cold dry(harmattan) season (October to March), hot dry season (April – June) and the rainy season (July to September).Temperatures are usually extreme all the year round with hot season temperatures ranging between 39 o C and 40 o Cunder the shade. The annual rainfall is 692mm (Nwaka, 1991).Water is a scarce resource within the semi andregion. The rainfall period is very brief making water storage imperative. At the household level, rain water instored in various vessels which include drums, plastic containers, clay pots, bucket and calabashes (Nwaiwu andOkuofu, 2005). At the community level, rain water is stored in ponds which are sometimes called river by somelocale of the region. The ponds are large holes deliberately dug into the ground by the people for the purpose of rainwater storage or borrow pits left after a road construction. Rain water is depended upon by 22.5% of the people butthere is no modern storage facility available to the local people. During the rainy season these rivers/ponds supply11.65% of the populace while in the dry season, these river/ponds supply the water needs of 8.31% of theinhabitants (Nwaiwu and Okuofu, 2006). It is then necessary that an inexpensive but efficient method of treating thewater sourced from these ponds be made available to the natives since this facility is an important source of water.METHODOLOGYSample collectionThe pond water sample was collected from an existing burrow pit located at Jimtillo, a rural outskirt of Maiduguri,the Borno State capital in North East, Nigeria. The water was collected in the middle of the pond by immersing aplastic container completely until it was full. The cap was inserted while the container was under water. The waterwas subjected to treatment using Moringa oleifera seed powder.196

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Laboratory AnalysesPhysico-chemical tests were carried out on two samples(low and medium turbidity water) before and after the waterwas treated with the same dosage of Moringa oleifera seed powder.Moringa oleifera suspension PreparationMoringa oleifera seed pods were obtained from Gombe State, North East, Nigeria. The seed coats were removedto get the kernels. The kernels were dried and ground to powder. One gram of the seed powder was mixed withclean water in a plastic bottle to form a paste. The content of the bottle was shaken for one minute to activate thecoagulant and then filtered through a sieve into the pond water to be treated. The water was stirred for five minutesand left to settle. The water was left to settle for 30 minutes, 1hour, 2 hours, 6 hours and 24 hours. After eachsettling period, the supernatant was taken for physico-chemical analyses. The parameters tested for include pH, totaldissolved solids (tds), temperature, turbidity suspended solids (tss), salinity, electrical conductivity and colour.The physico-chemical tests were carried out in accordance with the procedure in Environmental ChemistryLaboratory Manual (2000).RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONPhysical properties of raw waterThe physical properties of the water samples used are presented in Table 1. these include physical, chemical andbacteriological properties of the samples. The two water samples used fall into two categories namely: lowturbidity water (

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011In Figure 2, the variation of the concentrations of the various parameters during the 24 hours settling period isshown. It can also be seen that the addition of the Moringa oleifera seed powder did not alter the pH, temperature,salinity, electrical conductivity as well as the total dissolved solids concentration in the water. This is confirmed bythe respective coefficients of variation which are 2.3%, 1.35%, 1.4%, 1.1% and 1.9% for the parameter valuesduring the 24hour period. However, the residual concentration of turbidity, total suspended solids and colour duringthe 24 hours settling period revealed respective coefficient of variation is 43.12%, 46.5% and 37.9%. These highvalues of coefficients of variation, clearly demonstrates that turbidity, total suspended solids and colour aresignificantly affected by the presence of Moringa oleifera seed powder in water over a detention period. Highremoval efficiencies were observed for the three named parameters with respect to settling time.The range of turbidity removal efficiencies of 12% to 82.5% are shown in Table 2 for the medium turbidity water.The addition of the Moringa oleifera seed powder significantly affected the turbidity removal efficiencies. After 30minute into the 24 hour settling period, the turbidity removal efficiency was 12%. This reduced to 5.7% after onehour. After 2 hours, an increased removal efficiency of 8.96 was obtained. A six hour settling period gave aremoval efficiency of 12.1% with a residual value of 86.30NTU which is almost the same as the turbidity residualwithin the first 30 minutes into he detention period. On increasing the settling time to 24 hours, a residual turbidityvalue of 17.2NTU with a removal efficiency of 82.5% resulted. The foregoing shows that there is the need to extendthe settling period of water being treated using the Moringa oleifera. seed powder to a 24 hour settling period inorder to obtain better results than would have been using shorter detention periods. This observation applied also tothe low turbid water where the turbidity removal efficiency increased from 80% (30minutes settling time) to 96.3%(24 hour settling period). The removal efficiencies for colour for the low turbid and medium turbid waters increasedfrom 74.59% (after 30 minutes settling period) to 88.89% (after 24 hour settling period) and 12.4% (after 30 minutessettling period) to 95.2% (after 24 hour settling period) respectively. The removal efficiency of the total suspendedsolids increased from 4.92% (after 30 minutes settling period) to 26.5% (after 24 hour settling period) for the howturbidity water. There was no recorded reduction in concentration of the TSS for the medium turbidity water,instead increments in concentration from a raw value of 40.33mg/l to 320. 24mg/l after one hour settling timeresulted. This reduced to 76.28mg/l after 24 hours settling period. The results show that using the same Moringaoleifera seed powder dosage, the low turbidity water has a higher 24 hour removal efficiency (96.3%) the mediumturbidity water (82.5%). Lower turbidity removal was observed as initial turbidity of water samples increased withthe coagulant dose remaining constant for both samples. This result varies from the findings of Katayon et al (2004)and Muyibi and Evison (1996) which indicated that Moringa oleifera seed extract may not be an efficient coagulantfor low turbid water. This variation in results may be due to the fact that seeds from different sources (geographiclocations) exhibit varying coagulation performance (Narasiah et al, 2002) as a result of different protein contentsand development of the seeds. Additionally the fact that the water samples were treated with the same Moringaoleifera seed powder dosage which was the optimum for low turbid water may have had an impact on theperformance of the coagulant on the medium turbid water. Consequently the medium turbid water did not showinitial appreciable turbidity reduction. Katayon et al (2004) that showed that increased turbidity should have anincreased Moringa oleifera dosage.The Moringa oleifera seeds did not affect the pH value of the water samples, these remained within the WHOapproved value of 6.5-8.5 (WHO, 1996) for both the low and medium turbid water (Figures 1 and 2). This resultagrees with the findings of Ndabigengesere and Narasiah (1998) and Katayon et al (2004). The treatment with theMoringa oleifera seed powder resulted in a slight reduction of the pH values for both water samples. Practically,this means that no chemical is needed to bring the pH of the treated water within the above mentioned range.According to Katayon et al (2004) the slight decrease in pH may be due to hydrogen ions of the weak acidity ofMoringa oleifera stock solution which balanced the hydroxide ions in the raw water.Regression AnalysisAfter the addition of Moringa oleifera seed powder, the concentrations of constituent parameter were monitored forafter 0.5, 1, 2, 6 and 24 hours. The total suspended solids was one of the parameters measured, the measurement ofwhich is time consuming. Attempts have been made to correlate turbidity for predicting total suspended solids(Gippel , 1995;Saddle and Campbell, 1985; Holliday, Rasmussen and Miller, 2003 and Truhlar,1978). Thesepredictions may be limited in statistical certainty, predictive power and logistical coordination.198

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Despite the foregoing, there is no universal relationship between turbidity and total suspended solids. (Truhlar,1978; Rasmussen, 1995). Provision of a relationship between turbidity and total suspended solids will assist in easymonitoring of the water quality parameter during water treatment using Moringa oleifera seed powder for low andmedium turbid water(LT for low turbid water and MT for medium turbid water). Presently R 2 (coefficient ofdetermination) is used to chose the best model for turbidity- total suspended solid relationship.The observed trends in the relationship between total suspended solids and turbidity were in turn evaluatedstatistically using a linear, logarithmic, polynomial, power and exponential regression. The equations obtained forlow turbid water and medium turbid water are shown in Table 3. The adjusted R 2 is given by the followingrelationship (Kleinbaum and Kupper, 1978).Adjusted R 2 = R 2 k/ n − k − 1 1 − R 2 (1)where n is the number of observation and k is the number of independent variables. The adjusted R 2 is adjusted forthe degrees of freedom in the estimating equation to avoid the upward bias in the unadjusted R 2 when the samplesize is small relative to the number of explanatory variable in the model (Murphy, 1973).The overall F is estimated from the following equation (Kleinbaum and Kupper, 1978),F =me an square regressionmean square residual= R 2 / 1 − R 2n−k−1k(2)The overall F value shows that the general null hypothesis “Ho: all k independent variables considered together donot explain a significant amount of the variation in the dependent variable” should be rejected. This is because theoverall F statistic is greater than the critical F value and therefore all the independent variables together explain asignificant amount of variation in the dependent variable.The resulting R 2 (coefficient of determination) value for equation LT1 to LT5 generally ranged between 0.672 and0.956 for the low turbidity water while the medium turbidity water with equations MT1 to MT5 had R 2 valuesranging between 0.542 and 0.905. The critical F statistic for equations LT1, LT2, LT4 and LT5 as wells equationsMT1, MT2, MT4 and MT5 at 95% and 90% confidence intervals are F 2 , 2, 95 = 19.0 and F 2, 2, 90 = 9.0 respectively.Equations LT3 and MT3 have critical F-values of F 1,3,95 = 10.1 and F 1, 3,90 = 5.54 for 5% and 10% levels ofsignificance. The overall F statistic for equations LT1, LT3 and LT5 are statistically significant at 10% level.Equations LT1 and LT5 exceed F 2, 2, 90 = 9.0 while equation LT3 exceeds F 1,3,90 = 5.54. These values are valid forthe low turbidity water. At 5% level of significance only equation LT3 has a significant overall F-value as itexceeds F 1, 3, 95 = 10.1. The overall F-statistic for equations MT4 and MT5 are statistically significant at 10% levelof significance as they exceed F 2 , 2,90 = 9.00 while equation MT3 is significant at 90% at its overall F-value exceedF 1 , 3, 90 = 5.54 respectively.A comparison of the values of the regression properties of equations LT1, LT3 and LT5 as well as MT3, MT4 andMT5 are shown in Table 4. For the low turbidity water, equation LT1 yielded the lowest R 2 and adjusted R 2 but thehighest value of residual variance and residual standard deviation, while equation LT3 had the highest value of R 2and adjusted R 2 but the least residual variance and residual standard deviation.The Root Means Square Error (RMSE, Eq 3) was also used to determine the overall prediction accuracy of themodels, and the bias (d, Eq 4) was used to evaluate the model’s over or under-prediction.RMSE =1nn 2i=1 d i (3)199

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011d = 1 nni=1 d i(4)where di is the difference between the predicted and measured values and n is the number of measured values oftotal suspended solids. The lowest value of RMSE was obtained with equation LT3 (0.834). However, equationLT3 yielded a bias of 9 x 10 -4 . Thus considering the values of R 2 , adjusted R 2 , overall F statistic, residual variance,residual standard deviation as well as the RMSE and bias d, equation LT3 can be taken to give the best overallprediction of total suspended solids in low turbidity water during treatment using Moringa oleifera seed powder.The values of total suspended solids prediction from equation LT3 were compared with the corresponding measuredvalues and presented in Fig 3. Alternatively, use can be made of Eq LT5 for predicting the total suspend solids inlow turbidity water using Moringa oleifera seed powder at it yielded the next highest R 2 value and the next lowestvalue of RMSE.Considering the medium turbidity water, equation MT4 yielded the lowest value of R 2 and the lowest value ofadjusted R 2 , but the highest residual variance and residual standard deviation while Eq MT3 had the highest value ofR 2 and adjusted R 2 but the lowest residual variance and residual standard deviation. The lowest values of RMSEwere obtained with Eq MT3 and Eq MT5 as shown in Table 4. Equation MT3 yielded the lowest value of bias,although the highest overall F-statistic was exhibited by Eq MT5 (F = 13.43). Considering the R 2 , adjusted R 2 ,residual variance, residual standard deviation, F-statistic, bias and RMSE Eq 3 can be taken to give the best overallprediction of total suspended solids for medium turbid water which is undergoing treatment using the Moringaoleifera seed powder. An alternative equation which can be used is Eq MT5.The results of this study indicate that the polynomial equations (LT3 and MT3) give the best overall prediction oftotal suspended solids(TSS) in low-med turbid water undergoing treatment using the Moringa oleifera seed powder.This means that the relationship between the TSS and turbidity in water undergoing treatment using the Moringaoleifera seed powder is a polynomial relationship to the 2 nd order. An alternative relationship between these twoparameter (total suspended solids and turbidity) is an exponential (LT5 and MT5). The values of predicted TSSvalues from Eq MT3 were compared with the corresponding measured values and presented in Fig 4.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONMoringa oleifera seed powder is a widely acclaimed coagulant which does not alter the pH of the finished water andproper Moringa oleifera seed dosage will produce better results. Cost of treatment of water in developing countrieswill greatly be reduced if the Moringa oleifera seed powder is employed in water treatment because its use willreduce the cost on other coagulants currently being employed in water purification. The settling time of 24 hours inbeing advocated for Moringa oleifera seed powder because better coagulation and turbidity removal was achievedwith the extended times200

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESAgrawal H., C.Shee and A.K Shamma., (2007) Isolation of a 66kDa protein with coagulation activity from seeds of Moringaoleifera. Research Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences 3 (5): 418-421.American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association & Water Pollution ControlFederation(1989)Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 17 th Edition, Washington, DC.:2-12.CDC(safewater@cdc.gov) Pre-treatment fact sheet. Options to pre-treat water in chlorination projects. Safe water @edc.gov. :1-5.Doerr B. (2005). Moringa water treatment. An Echo Technical Note. http:www.echonet.org/ Environmental ChemistryLaboratory Manual (2000) Selected Analytical Method(s). International Institute for Infrastructural, Hydraulic andEnvironmental Engineering. The Netherlands: 92. EPA Turbidity provisions, EPA Guidance manual: 7-1-7-8,1999.Faby J.A. and A. Eleli (1993) Utilisation de la graine de Moringa essai de flocculation en laboratoire et en vraie grandeur C.I.E.H. :90.Gippel C.J.,(1995)Potential of turbidity monitoring for measuring the transport of suspended solids in streams. Hydrologicalprocesses. 9:83-97.Holliday, G.P., T.C Rasmussen and W.P Miller (2003) Establishing the relationship between turbidity and total suspendedsediment concentration. Proceedings of the 2003 Georgia Water Resources Conference held on April 23-24, 2003at the University of Georgia, Kathryn J. Hatcher, Editor, Institute of Ecology, The University of Georgia, Athens,Georgia.Hsu R., S. Midcap and A. Lucienne de Wilte (2006)Moringa Oleifera :Medicinal and Socio-economic uses. InternationalCourse on Economic Botany. National Herbarium Leiden, The Netherlands. September.Jahn S.A. (1986) Proper use of African natural coagulants for rural water supplies:Research in the Sudan and a guide for new projects. (Schriftenreihe der GTZ; No.191). Eschbom, Germany, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technsche Zusammenarbeit(GTZ).Jahn S.A.(1988)Using Moringa seeds as coagulants in developing countries In:Journal of the America Water Works Association 80 ( 6 ):43-50.Katayon S., M.J. Megat Mohd Noor, A. Asma, A.N. Thamer, A.G. Liwe Abdullar, A. Idris, A.M. Suleyman, M.B.Aminuddin,., and B.C. Khor (2004) Effects of storage duration and temperature of Moringa oleifera stock solutionon its performance in coagulation. International Journal of Engineering and Technology 1(2):146-151.Lechevallier M.W., T.M. Evans, and R.J Seidher (1981) Effect of turbidity on chlorination efficiency and bacterialpersistence in drinking water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 42 (1): 159-167.Lewis J. (1996) Turbidity –controlled suspended sediment sampling for Runoff-Event load estimation. Water ResourcesResearch 32(7): 2299-2310.Lilliehook H.(2005)Use of Sand filteration on River flocculated with Moringa Oleifera. Unpublished Masters Thesissubmitted to Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering. Lulea University of Technology.Mbora A. and G. Mundia (2004) River water purification using Moringa oleifera seeds. World Agroforestry centre.Muyibi S.A. and L.M. Evison (1995) Moringa Oleifera seeds for softening hard water. Water Resources 29 (4)1099 – 1105.201

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Muyibi S.A. and L.M Evison (1996) Coagulation of turbid water and softening of hard water with Moringa oleifera seeds.International Journal of Environmental Studies, 56: 483-495.Nacoulima G., J. Piro and A. Bayane ( 2000) Etude de l’activite floculante d’un complexe proteine-mucilage vegetal dans laclarification des eaux brutes J. Soc. Quest-Af chim. 9:43-57.Narasiah, K.S., A.Vogel and N.N Kramadhati (2002) Coagulation of turbid water using Moringa oleifera from two distinctsources. Water Science Technology: Water Supply 2 (5-6): 83-88.Ndabigengerese A. and K.S. Narasiah (1998) Quality of water treated by coagulation using Moringa oleifera seed. WaterResources 32 (3):781-797.Nwaiwu N.E and C.A. Okuofu (2006) Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) study of water use and financial possibilitiesin rural areas of Borno State, Nigeria. International Journal of Gender & Health Studies 3( 1 & 2 ):146-155.Nwaiwu N.E and C.A. Okuofu (2006) Knowledge, Attitude and Practice (KAP) study of water supply in rural areas of BornoState, North East, Nigeria. Journal of Engineering Science & Technology 1 (1):64-70.Nwaka G.I.C. (1991) Pedogenic factors and soil resources of Borno State. Proceedings of 1 st International Conference onArid zone hydrology and water resources. University of Maiduguri, Nigeria. : 235-262.Rasmussen T.C.(1995) Erosion and sedimentation: Scientific and regulatory issues. Report developed by Georgia Board ofRegents scientific panel on evaluating the erosion measurement standard defined by the Georgia Erosionsedimentation Act.Sidle R.C. and A.J Campbell (1985) Patterns of suspended sediment transport in a coastal Alaska stream. Water ResourcesResearch. 21 (6): 909-917.Sutherland J.P., G.K. Folkard, M.A. Mtawali and W.D. Grant (1994) Moringa Oleifera as a natural coagulant. Proceedingsof the 20 th WEDC Conference on Affordable Water Supply and Sanitation. Colombo, Srilanka. : 297-299.Technical Advisory Group (TAG) for Georgia Conservancy (2002) A protocol for establishing sediment TMDLs. TAG whitepaper.Trular J.F. (1978) Determining suspended sediment loads from turbidity records. Hydrological Sciences Bulletin 20, 4,12/1978:409-417.World Agroforestry Centre (2004) CDC pre-treatment Fact sheet. Safewater @cdc.gov.World Health Organization (WHO) (1996) Guidelines for drinking water quality –Second Edition -Volume 2- Health Criteriaand other supporting information: 971.Yao B., E. Assidjo, S. Gueu and C. Ado (2005) Study of the Hibiscus esculentus mucilage coagulation – flocculationactivity. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management 9 (1): 173 – 176.Yung K. (2003) Biosand Filtration: Application in the Developing World CE401 project prepared for University ofWaterloo. Civil Engineering Department.202

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 1: Physico chemical properties of raw water samplesA. Low turbidity waterParametersQuantityTemperature(ºC ) 22.4pH 7.72Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 68.4Turbidity (NTU) 32.8Electrical conductivity (mS/m) 98.2Salinity (mg/l) 48.4Colour(TCU) 52.83Total Suspended Solids(mg/l) 51.94BMedium turbidity waterParametersTemperature (ºC ) 23.7pH 8.1Total dissolved solids (mg/l) 113Turbidity (NTU) 98.2Electrical conductivity (mS/m) 167.5Salinity (mg/l) 83.5Colour (TCU) 89.34Total Suspended Solids (mg/l) 40.33203

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 2: Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids, and Colour removal efficiencies (%)with respect to timeA. Low turbidity waterParametersRemoval efficiencies (%) with respect to time30 minutes 60 minutes 2 hours 6 hours 24 hoursTurbidity(NTU) 80 84.1 86.3 87.5 96.3Total Suspended 4.92 12.46 16.4 22.9 26.5Solids(mg/l)Colour(TCU) 74.59 81.7 85.94 86.37 88.89BMedium turbidity waterParametersRemoval efficiencies (%) with respect to time30 minutes 60 minutes 2 hours 6 hours 24 hoursTurbidity(NTU) 12 5.7 8.96 12.1 82.5Total Suspended -ve -ve -ve -ve -veSolids(mg/l)Colour(TCU) 12.4 5.5 13.69 16.8 75.2204

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 3: Regression Analyses for relationship between Total suspended solids(mg/l) and Turbidity (NTU)A. Low turbidity waterEquation NumberRemarksEquationLT1 TSS=2.1514T +34.254 R 2 = 0.84, AdjustedR 2 = 0.79, F =15.75LT2 TSS=5.598ln (T) +35.991 R 2 = 0.672, AdjustedR 2 = 0.51, F =6.15LT3 TSS = 0.4478(T) 2 -1.294 + 38.93 R 2 = 0.9559, AdjustedR 2 = 0.912, F =21.68LT4 TSS = 36.37T 0.1311 R 2 = 0.697, AdjustedR 2 = 0.596, F =6.885LT5 TSS = 34.955e 0.0499T R 2 = 0.855, Adjusted R 2= 0.807, F =17.68B. Medium turbidity waterEquation NumberRemarksEquationMT1 TSS=2.060 T +33.76 R 2 = 0.5775, AdjustedR 2 = 0.438, F =4.1MT2 TSS=87.173ln (T) -175.36 R 2 = 0.5415, AdjustedR 2 = 0.39, F =3.54MT3 TSS = 0.2653(T) 2 -26.183 + 448.22 R 2 = 0.9049, AdjustedR 2 = 0.8098, F =9.52MT4 TSS = 12.845 0.6211 R 2 = 0.7888, AdjustedR 2 = 0.719, F =11.2MT5 TSS = 57.88e 0.0145T R 2 = 0.8174, Adjusted R 2= 0.757, F =13.43205

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 4: Comparison of Regression Analyses for relationship between Total suspended solids(mg/l) and Turbidity (NTU)ALow turbidity waterRegression EquationLT1 EquationLT2 EquationLT3 EquationLT4EquationLT5ParametersR 2 0.84 0.672 0.96 0.6970.885Adjusted R 2 0.79 0.51 0.912 0.5960.807F 15.75 6.15 21.68 6.8917.68Residual variance 3.151 6.459 0.8696 6.05772.2879Residual mean 0.00012 -0.000282 0.0009 0.05690.0342Residual standard deviation 1.775 2.541 0.9325 2.4611.6394Bias1. 2*10 -4 -2.2*10 -4 9*10 -4 0.0570.0222RMSE 1.589 2.273 0.834 2.2021.467BMedium turbidity waterRegression EquationMT1 EquationMT2 EquationMT3 EquationMT4EquationMT5ParametersR 2 0.5775 0.5415 0.9049 0.78880.8174Adjusted R 2 0.438 0.39 0.8099 0.7190.757F 4.10 3.54 9.52 11.213.43Residual variance 3192.67 3464.79 718.323 3339.322925.54Residual mean 0.0032 0.00033 0.2437 5.93344.495Residual standard deviation 56.50 58.86 26.802 57.78754.088Bias 3.2*10 -3 3.29*10 -4 0.244 5.3934.48RMSE 50.54 52.65 23.97 51.9748.59206

parametersparametersOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 201114012010080604020phtdstempturtsssalinityeccolour00 5 10 15 20 25time(hr)30Figure 1 Residual values (low turbidity water ) with time35030025020015010050phtdstempturtsssalinityeccolour00 5 10 15 20 25 time (hr) 30Figure 2 Residual values (medium turbidity water ) with time207

predicted valuespredicted valuesOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 201151494745434139373535 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 observed values 51Figure 3 Predicted versus observed values for total suspended solids (low turbidity water)3503002502001501005000 50 100 150 200 250 observed 300 values350Figure 4 Predicted versus observed values for total suspended solids (medium turbiditywater)208

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationPETROGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HACIALABAZ FORMATIONDOLOMITES (UPPER JURASSIC)IN THE BAGBASI (HADIM-KONYA/TURKEY) AREAA. MUJDAT OZKAN* VE SALIH DINC*** Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey** Program of Bore Technology, University of Batman, Batman, Turkey*E-mail adres for correspondence: mujdatozkan@selcuk.edu.tr__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The objective of this study is to determine the sedimentary properties of dolomites (Upper Jurassic) interms of petrography, which belong to the Hacialabaz Formation existing at the surroundings of Bagbasi Districtlying at the south of Konya City. Dolomite, the unit formed with dolomitic limestone and limestone begins withgray or dark gray colored, moderate-thick layered, sugar textured dolomitic limestones including micriticintermediate layers at the bottom, and continues with gray colored, medium layered limestones through the upperparts. Dark gray colored, moderate-thick layered breccioid like appearing limestone at some layers anddolomitized intermediate layers form the upper parts. Hacialabaz Formation has begun to settle as the directcarbonate sedimentation in a transgression making sea after a long emerging period. Green algae like Clypeinajurassica, Cambelliella striata, Salpingoporella sp. and foraminifera fossils like Valvulina lugeoni, Kurnubia cf.palastiniensis, Valvulamina sp., Opthalmidium sp., Siphovalvulina sp., Haurania sp., Miliolidae were found inthe Hacıalabaz Formation settled in shallow-marine carbonate platform environment (tidal-subtidal and restrictedlagoon). Eight dolomite-rock textures are recognized and classified according to crystal-size distribution andcrystal-boundary shape. These is made of unimodal, very fine to fine-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaicdolomite; unimodal, medium to coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaic dolomite; coarse to very coarsecrystallineplanar-s (subhedral) dolomite; medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite;medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) dolomite; coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-a(anhedral) dolomite; coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-c (cement) dolomite; polymodal, planar-s(subhedral) to planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite. Dolomitization is closely associated with the development ofsecondary porosity; dolomitization pre-and post-dates dissolution and corrosion and no secondary porositygeneration is present in the associated limestones. The most common porosity types are non-fabric selectivemoldic and vuggy porosity and intercrystalline porosity. These porous zones are characterized by late-diageneticcoarse-crystalline dolomite, whereas the non-porous intervals are composed of dense mosaics of early-diageneticdolomites. The distribution of dolomite rock textures indicates that porous zones were preserved as limestoneuntil late in the diagenetic history, and were then subjected to late-stage dolomitization in a medium burialenvironment, resulting in coarse-crystalline porous dolomites. Hacıalabaz dolomites have been formed as earlydiagenetic at the tidal-subtidal environment and as the late diagenetic at the shallow-deep burial depths.Key words: Bagbasi, Haialabaz, Dolomite, Peritidal, Petrography__________________________________________________________________________________________209

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011INTRODUCTIONThe Hacialabaz Formation (Upper Jurassic) in the Bagbasi area extends over 75 km 2 (Fig. 1). The aim of thisstudy was to determine the microtextural characteristics, diagenetic development and origin of the Hacialabazdolomites. Previous works in the study area (Ozgul, 1976, 1997; Alp, 1976; Kocyigit, 1977; Gedik, 1977;Monod, 1978; Andrew and Robertson, 2002) were generally aimed to elucidate the geology and mine potentialof the area. But the investigation of petrographic and geochemical properties of dolomites found in the vicinityof study area have been made by Varol (1992), Varol and Matsumoto (2005) and Eren et al. (2007). Varol(1992) studied that the Safaktepe Formation belonging to the Geyikdagi unit at Eastern Tauridis, Varol andMatsumoto (2005) were focused on the dolomites of Middle Devonian aged carbonates of Taurid Belt, and Erenet al. (2007) investigated the Lower Jurassic aged dolomites around Aydıncık. Although, the detailedstratigraphy were studied by Turan (1990,1997,2000), the carbonates (described as Hacıalabaz limestone) is stilto be investigated in detail.Various mechanisms for formation of dolostone in platform carbonates have been summarized by Hardie (1987).Among these hypotheses, dolomitization related to hypersaline brines, mixed meteoric and sea water, and deepbasinal brines have found popular acceptance. The only major source of magnesium for penecontemporaneousand shallow-burial dolomitization may be seawater (Land, 1985; Lee & Friedman, 1987). Magnesium for deepburialconditions can be supplied from (1) connate waters (trapped seawater); (2) dissolution of unstable originalminerals; (3) pressure solution (stylolitization); (4) compaction of underlying shales; and (5) basinal brines. It isdifficult to put weight on these possibilities, but basinal brines are the most likely magnesium source fordolomitization (Lee ve Friedman 1987). If thermodynamic and kinetic considerations are combined, thefollowing conditions and environments are considered chemically conductive to dolomitization: (1)environments of any salinity above thermodynamic and kinetic saturation with respect to dolomite (i.e.freshwater/seawater mixing zones, normal salina to hypersalina subtidal environments, hypersaline supratidalenvironments, schizohaline environments); (2) alkaline environments (i.e. those under the influence of bacterialreduction and/or fermentation processes, or with high input of alkaline continental groundwaters); and (3) manyenvironments with temperatures greater than about 50 o C (subsurface and hydrothermal environments) (Machel& Mountjoy, 1986).The Hacialabaz dolomites of Upper Jurassic were formed in two different diagenetic stages, early and late.Although they are not macroscopically observed in the field, their different types are easily distinguished bypetrographic examination and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). It was observed that Hacialabaz Formationis composed with the early and late diagenetic dolomitization of grey and dark grey limestones which sedimentin intertidal and subtidal shallow-marine environments.GEOLOGICAL SETTINGIn the examination field in Autochthon (Geyikdagi) and Allocthon (Bozkir Unit, Hocalar unit, Sinatdagi units)units, there are units which deposited in Upper Cambrian-Holocene time interval. Under it, there lies Seydişehirformation which covers old clayey limestone lens of Upper Cambrain–Lower Ordovician belonging toAutochthon Geyikdagi unit and which are composed of sandstone, quartzite, siltstone, shale intercalation. UponSeydisehir formation comes Hacıalabaz formation which is composed of Upper Jurassic old grey, dark grey,mild-thick layered limestone, dolomitic limestone. Upon Hacibalaz formation comes with unconformity Saytepeformation which also belongs to the same unit and composed of Upper Cretaceous aged grey, highly rudistlimestone. Upon Saytepe formation -with unconformity- comes Çobanağacık limestone which also belongs tothe same unit and composed of Lutetian aged highly nummulite limestone (Turan, 1990, 1997).Upon autochthon Geyikdagi unit comes tectonic contacted Taskent mélange which belongs to Bozkir unit andwhich has the features of ophiolite mixture and includes Upper Cretaceous aged different featured limestone,radiolarite, chert, clastic limestone, gabbro, serpentinite particles. Upon Bozkir unit comes Zindancik complexwith tectonic mixture. Zindancik complex belongs to Hocalar unit which is also allochthon units and it includesTriassic aged various limestone and marble block and is composed of slate, phyllite and metaquartzite. UponHocalar Formation comes Kahtepe Formation which belongs to Sinatdagi unit which is also an allochthon unitand which has Upper Permian aged grey, black shale and yellow, gray quartzite intercalations in its content. It iscomposed of high amount of algae, fusuline dark grey, black limestone. Upon Sinatdagi unit comes210

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Neoautochthon located Pliocene-Holocene aged weakly attached Toprakli Formation which is composed ofconglomerate, mud and caliche (Turan, 1990, 1997).METHODSThe Upper Jurassic carbonates in the study area were studied by using the following methods. This study used adata-base of 86 samples collected from five measured stratigraphic sections through the Hacialabaz Formation(Fig. 1). About 86 rock samples were collected from Hacialabaz Formation and were made into thin section. Thethin sections were stained with alizarin red-S solution to distinguish calcite from dolomite (Friedman, 1959).Carbonate rocks were classified according to Dunham (1962). XRD images of samples were taken in 2ɸ=10 o –40 o interval in MTA Directory General (Ankara) with PW3710 BASED model difractometer. Approximately tengold-coated fresh surface samples were investigated using Scanning Electron Microscopy (Zeiss 50 VP)equipped with an Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (Oxford Instruments Inca Energy) at the department ofMaterial Science and Engineering at the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture Eskisehir Anatolian University.DOLOMITE-ROCK TEXTURESPetrographyEight dolomite-rock textures have been recognized and classified according to crystal-size distribution(unimodal or polymodal) and crystal-boundary shape (planar or non-planar), using the dolomite-rockclassification sheme of Sibley and Gregg (1987). In this study, the classification of dolomite-rock textures isbased on petrographic, aided by analysis of scanning electron microscope (SEM) images. For crystal-sizedistributions the apparent maximum dimensions of the dolomite crystals were measured or estimated, andsubdivided using Folk’s (1962) size scale.Dolomite rock-texture 1: unimodal, very fine to fine-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaic dolomite:This type forms dense, dark mosaics of interlocking sub to planar-s crystals (10-60 µm; Fig. 2A,B). The densemosaics show no recognizable allochems, and are probably to be enliven associated with organic matter. Besidestylolites also is existed in this fine dolomites (Fig. 2B). Intracrystalline and intercrystalline porosity wasdetermined in this fine-grained dolomites by SEM studies (Fig. 3).211

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 1: Location and geological map of the study area (modified from Turan, 1990).212

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 2: Dolomite-rock texture 1: unimodal, very fine to fine-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaic dolomite.This type forms dense, dark mosaics of interlocking subhedral to anhedral crystals. Completely dolomitized (A)with relict crystals interpreted to be inherited from the precursor calcite (B). Thin section stained with Alizarinred-S. (PPL).Figure 3: Fine crystalline, subhedral dolomite rhombs are showed porosity of intracrystalline andintercrystalline (SEM) and energy dispersive X-Ray Spectrum (EDX).rock-texture 2: unimodal, medium to coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaic dolomite:This type forms dense mosaics of subhedral to anhedral planar-s crystals (70-600 µm), that are milky white,clear, or have a cloudy texture (Fig. 4A,B). Most characteristic for this type is non-mimetic replacement ofallochems (ooids, peloids, intraclast, fossils and bioclasts). These allochems can be recognized as ghost textures.Beside coarse-crystalline, planar-e dolomite rhombs floating in micrite and dolomicritic matrix, styloliticporosity was also determined in this type of dolomites by SEM studies (Fig. 5).213

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 4: Dolomite-rock texture 2: unimodal, medium to coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaicdolomite. Most characteristic for this type dull crystals texture (A,B) and non-mimetic replacement of allochems,which can be recognized as ghost (biomold; B). Thin section stained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).Figure 5: Coarse-crystalline, planar-e dolomite rhombs floating in micrite and dolomicritic matrix, and porosityof stylolitic crack (SEM) and energy dispersive X-Ray Spectrum (EDX) .Dolomite rock-texture 3. Coarse to very coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) dolomite:This type comprises clear to milky white, coarse to very coarse (≤1200 µm) planar-s dolomite (Fig. 6A,B) thatoccurs in patches or irregular zones associated with types 1 and 2, forming unimodal mosaics, or filling fracturescutting across type 1 dolomite (Fig. 6B).214

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 6: Dolomite rock-texture 3. Coarse to very coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) dolomite. This typeforms patches and irregular bands associated with dolomite-rock textures 1 and 2. Pore-occluding late dolomite(A). It also observed as fracture fill (B). Thin section stained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).Dolomite rock-texture 4: medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite:Mosaics of mostly planar-e, medium to coarse crystalline dolomite make up this dolomite type (Fig. 7A,B). Thecrystals are clear or cloudy textures. No replacement textures can be observed. Intercrystalline areas are eitherporous or filled with intercrystalline material. No intracrystalline truncation features are observed. In part,corrosion and dissolution of outer zones, however, are present commonly where crystals faces line pore spaces.SEM studies shows that euhedral dolomite rhombs were developed in the medium to coarse grained dolomites(Fig. 8).Figure 7: Dolomite rock-texture 4: medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite. This typeshows clear and dull euhedral crystals (A,B). This dolomite has intercrystalline porosity and less sparry calcitecement (A). Thin section stained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).215

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 8: Well developed, medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e dolomite rhombs (SEM) and energy dispersiveX-Ray Spectrum (EDX).Dolomite rock-texture 5: medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) replacement dolomite:This type of replacive dolomite has a planar-e texture. Typically the dolomites consist of scattered rhombs of150-700 µm in diameter in a micritic and dolomicritic matrix (Fig. 9A-D). The cores of the rhombs are cloudyand they have a clear an outer zone. Some of the rhombs show intercrystalline truncation features (Fig. 9A-D).Dolomite filling fractures cutting across this type 5 dolomite (Fig. 9A,D). This type dolomite rhombs floating inmicrite and dolomicritic matrix (Fig. 9A-D). Beside microstylolite also is existed in this medium to coarsecrystalline dolomites (Fig. 9B).Figure 9: Dolomite rock-texture 5: medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) replacement dolomite.Dolomite rhombs with dull core and clear rims in micrite and dolomicrite (A-D). Microstylolite cuts some of thedolomite rhombs (B). Note the dissolution some of dolomite rhombs (A-D). Thin section stained with Alizarinred-S. (A: XPL, B-C: PPL).216

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Dolomite rock-texture 6: Coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-a (anhedral) dolomite:Dense, tightly packed mosaics of coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-a dolomite comprise this type (Fig.10A,B). The crystals have irregular, serrated, curved or otherwise indistinct boundaries. They are showing vaguenon-mimetic replacement. Preserved crystal faces are rare or absent.Figure 10: Dolomite rock-texture 6: Coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-a (anhedral) dolomite. Thistype dolomite has cloudy crystals, suggesting possible neomorphism or recrystallization (A,B). Thin sectionstained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).Dolomite rock-texture 7: Coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-c (cement) dolomite:Coarse to very coarse-crystalline (up to several mm) dolomite cement makes up this dolomite type (Fig. 11A,B).Milky-white to clear crystals with sweeping extinction under crossed polars are most characteristic. Under planelight triangular surface irregularities (defects) may be visible, as well as curved crystal faces. Planar-c dolomitelines vugs and fractures and occurs as major void-filling dolomite and is thus responsible for occlusion of porespaces and fractures.Figure 11: Dolomite rock-texture 7: Coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-c (cement) dolomite. This typeshows clear saddle dolomite shape in void (A,B). Crystals of saddle dolomite (late diagenetic) with typicalcurved boundaries (A,B). Thin section stained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).217

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Dolomite rock-texture 8: Polymodal, planar-s (subhedral) to planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite:This type of replacive dolomite has a planar-e to planar-s texture. Crystal size distribution is polymodal andranges between 50 and 750 µm (Fig. 12A,B). The cores of the rhombs are cloudy and they have a clear an outerzone (Fig. 12B). Some of the rhombs show clear sucrosic features (Fig. 12A), and some of the rhombs arecutting across by microstylolite (Fig. 12B).Figure 12: Dolomite rock-texture 8: Polymodal, planar-s (subhedral) to planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite.Planar-s crystals show dull and clear textures (A). Planar-e crystals have cloudy centres and clear rims,suggesting possible neomorphism or recrystallization (B). Thin section stained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).DISCUSSIONPetrographic InterpretationThe small crystal sizes (

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20111991), and non-mimetic replacement of allochems. Cloudy cores represent replacive dolomite, whereas the clearrims are zoned dolomite cements, that occlude intercrystalline porosity (Amthor & Friedman, 1991).Preservation of primary sedimentary fabric, such as ghosts, requires that the volumetric rate of dolomite growthmust be equal to the volumetric rate of calcite dissolution (Dockal, 1988; Amthor & Friedman, 1991). Thatmeans that host-phase dissolution and precipitation must occur simultaneously along a thin solution film (Veizer,1978, 1983; Pingitore, 1982; Dockal, 1988; Maliva & Siever, 1988; Amthor & Friedman, 1991).This type includes dolomite cement and dolomite replacing precursor cement. The term void-filling dolomite(Sibley & Gregg, 1987) is employed fort his type, because it is often not possible to differentiate betweendolomite cement and dolomite replacing a precursor cement. Dolomite type 3 occurs together with dolomitetypes 1 and 2. Paragenetic relationships indicate that dolomite 3 is later than dolomite 1 and contemporaneous(replacive dolomite) or later (cement) than dolomite 2.Planar-e mosaics do not give much evidence of the pre-dolomitization texture. Because the crystal size inindividual mosaics is unimodal, it can be assumed that the nucleation sites for the dolomite were homogeneouslydistributed (Sibley, 1982; Schofield, 1984; Amthor & Friedman, 1991). The dolomite crystals share compromiseboundaries, indicating that they formed in situ (Amthor & Friedman, 1991). They grow simultaneously to formcompromise crystal boundaries and planar-e mosaics by growth-coalescence (Schofield, 1984) of zones inadjoining crystals (Amthor & Friedman, 1991). The lack of intracrystalline truncation features, the continuity,and equal width of zones indicate continuous growth of the crystals (Amthor & Friedman, 1991). Dolomite type4 occurs as matrix of collapse breccias, it forms mosaics in the burrowed dolomudstone facies, and it isencountered within fossil shells that were replaced by dolomite type 2. These paragenetic relationships indicatean intermediate to late-diagenetic origin for this type, which is also related to the presence of significantintercrystalline porosity.The medium to coarse crystalline, planar-e selective replacive dolomites are generally replaced selectively finecrystallinecalcium carbonate (Sibley et al., 1987; Amthor & Friedman, 1991). Fine particles have a very largesurface area in comparison to their volume and, therefore a rapid nucleation rate. If the nucleation rate is highcompared to the growth rate, the resultant crystal size will be small. The medium to coarse size formation inthese dolomites suggests fine crystalline calcite or dolomite replacement originated from shallow-medium buriallate diagenetic processes. The preservation of original depositional textures and the coarse crystal size suggest amajor, probably long lasting, dolomitization event, which they interpreted as of late burial origin (Amthor &Friedman, 1991). Characteristic for dolomite type 5 is the cloudy core, clear rim texture, which is common inrocks of all ages (Sibley, 1982; Amthor & Friedman, 1991), and mimetic replacement of allochems (Fig. 13).Intercrystalline truncation in the dolomite rhombs are indicated dissolution later than dolomitization. Latediagenetic filling crack saddle dolomites are occurred at elevated temperatures (burial origin), which they are cutacross type 5 dolomite. The fracture filling which cuts dolomite rhombs in medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e(euhedral) replacement dolomites of late diagenetic saddle dolomites indicates that the formation at elevatedtemperatures (burial origin). The euhedral form of the dolomite rhombs is suggestive of formation attemperatures below 50-100 o C (critical roughening temperature), since higher temperatures favour anhedralforms (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Hood et al., 2004).Non-planar-a dolomite occurs as replacement of a precursor limestone or dolostone. This type of replacementusually obliterates all original depositional textures (Amthor & Friedman, 1991). This dolomite type correspondsto the xenotopic-a dolomite as defined by Gregg and Sibley (1984) and Sibley and Gregg (1987). They proposethat the xenotopic dolomite texture resulted from the replacement of limestones by dolomite or by neomorphicrecrystallization of a pre-existing dolomite at elevated temperatures (Gregg & Sibley, 1984; Amthor &Friedman, 1991). Folk (1959) recognized non-planar-a dolomite replacing a precursor limestone in a burialenvironment. Such a replacement took place only in certain zones, which were characterized by original highporosity and permeability.219

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 13: Dolomite rock-texture 5: medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) mimetic replacementdolomite. Thin section stained with Alizarin red-S. (PPL).This coarse, non-planar dolomite cement is usually termed saddle dolomite (Radke & Mathis, 1980; Amthor &Friedman, 1991). Almost all of this dolomite has been interpreted as having formed at elevated temperatures (60-150 o C; Radke & Mathis, 1980), and from high-salinity brines. Analyses of homogenization temperatures fromfluid inclusions of Ellenburger Group saddle dolomites by Lee and Friedman (1987), who used the same coresfor their study, gave average temperatures as high as 220 o C (Amthor & Friedman, 1991). So far, no conclusiveevidence has been provided that saddle dolomite can form at low temperatures from marine or hyposaline water(Radke & Mathis, 1980; Amthor & Friedman, 1991). In the light of this evidence the non-planar-c dolomite isalso interpreted as having formed at elevated temperatures from brines with higher salinities than seawater(Amthor & Friedman, 1991).Polymodal size distributions may develop from a heterogeneous distribution of nucleation sites, multiple periodsof nucleation, or variations in the local growth rate (Sibley & Gregg, 1987). If a rock has a high porosity andplanar crystals, the crystal will tend to be euhedral. This texture is referred to as planar-e (Fig. 12B). If a rock hasa low porosity and planar dolomite, the crystals will be subhedral to anhedral and referred to as planar-s (Fig.12A) (Sibley & Gregg, 1987).To show how textures can be classified and interpreted, Sibley & Gregg (1987; Fig. 11) was illustrated with ahypothetical wackestone. First, assume that matrix and fossils are both composed of low-Mg calcite and thematrix is more finely crystalline than the fossils. If this wackestone is dolomitized with a solution that is veryhighly supersaturated with respect to dolomite, dolomite may nucleate in the matrix and fossils (Sibley & Gregg,1987; Fig. 11A). The fossils are composed of relatively large calcite crystals, so dolomite nuclei in the fossils arelikely to be rather far apart, leading to non-mimetic replacement. The final dolomite is a polymodal, planar-sdolomite with mimically and non-mimically replaced fossils and a unimodal matrix (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig.11A’). If the dolomitizing solution is somewhat less supersaturated with respect to dolomite, the matrix may bedolomitized, but the fossils may remain undolomitized (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 11B). The fossils remainundolomitized because at the lower saturation state very few dolomite nuclei form on the coarser calcite. If thesefossils remain as calcite, the resultant rock will be a unimodal, planar-s dolomite with unreplaced allochems(Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 7a). If the allochems that resisted dolomitization are later dolomitized above thecritical roughening temperature or above the critical saturation, the resultant texture may be polymodal with aplanar-s matrix (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 7c) and non-mimically replaced allochems with non-planar dolomite(Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 7b). A third possibility is that the unreplaced fossils will dissolve either during orafter dolomitization, leaving molds (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 11B’). If the undolomitized matrix andallochems dissolve, the resultant dolomite would be a unimodal, planar-e dolomite (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig.11C’). This is the category of dolomites that is commonly referred to as sucrosic. A situation similar to thatdepicted in figure 11C (Sibley & Gregg, 1987) may occur but the dolomite may continue to grow until itcompletely fills the space (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 3 and 11D’), resulting in a unimodal, planar-s dolomite.There are other scenarios for the evolution of textures depicted in Figure 11(Sibley & Gregg, 1987). Forexample, if the original lime matrix was aragonite and the fossils calcite, dolomite might nucleate selectively inthe matrix (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 11B). Also, the greater number of nuclei in 11B compared to 11C couldbe due to a difference in surface area of the reactant (Sibley & Gregg, 1987). If the matrix in 11C were coarser220

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011than the matrix in 11B, one would expect fewer dolomite crystals in 11C (Sibley & Gregg, 1987). Otherscenarios may be related to variations in the saturation state of the solution. For example, if a solution starts outhighly supersaturated with respect to dolomite (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 11B) and then the saturation statedrops below that necessary for nucleation but above that necessary for growth, a texture such as that in 11C or11C’ might develop (Sibley & Gregg, 1987).Allochem molds may develop prior to, during, or after dolomitization (Sibley & Gregg, 1987). Many molds areformed by dissolution of calcitic fossils (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 5). Because calcitic molds are much morecommon in dolomites than limestones, these molds probably form either during or after dolomitization. Ifcalcitic fossils are present in a rock, formation of molds versus dolomitization of the fossils can be determined bythe degree of supersaturation with respect to dolomite (Sibley & Gregg, 1987; Fig. 11A,B). If the solution ishighly saturated with respect to dolomite, the fossils are likely to be replaced. If the solutions are not highlysaturated with respect to dolomite, dolomite will not be as likely to nucleate on the fossils, and the fossils maysubsequently dissolve to form molds (Sibley & Gregg, 1987). It is also possible to form molds if thedolomitizing solution is highly supersaturated with respect to dolomite and undersaturated with respect to themineral that makes up the fossil (Sibley & Gregg, 1987).Dolomitization MechanismThe only major source of magnesium for penecontemporaneous and shallow-burial dolomitization may beseawater (Land, 1985; Lee & Friedman, 1987). Magnesium for deep-burial conditions can be supplied from (1)connate waters (trapped seawater); (2) dissolution of unstable original minerals; (3) pressure solution(stylolitization); (4) compaction of underlying shales; and (5) basinal brines (Lee & Friedman, 1987).If thermodynamic and kinetic considerations are combined, the following conditions and environments areconsidered chemically conducive to dolomitization: (1) environments of any salinity above thermodynamic andkinetic saturation with respect to dolomite (i.e. freshwater/seawater mixing zones, normal salina to hypersalinasubtidal environments, hypersaline supratidal environments, schizohaline environments); (2) alkalineenvironments (i.e. those under the influence of bacterial reduction and/or fermentation processes, or with highinput of alkaline continental groundwaters); and (3) many environments with temperatures greater than about50 o C (subsurface and hydrothermal environments) (Machel & Mountjoy, 1986).In trying to evaluate fluid source, it is imperative that fluid sources such as seawater, meteoric and deep basinalbrines are considered (Srinivasan et al., 1994). In general, fluids derived from the zone of sulphate reduction tendto be characterized by isotopically light carbon values (Burns et al., 1988; Srinivasan et al., 1994). MaryvilleLimestone suggest fluid derivation was below the zone of sulphate reduction (Srinivasan et al., 1994). Theobservation of heavy carbon values in dolomite samples from Hacialabaz Formation (Özkan & Dinç, 2008)indicates that dolomitization fluid is coming from the underneath of the sulphate reduction zone.Depleted δ 18 O values can result from meteoric fluids with low δ 18 O or elevated temperatures. Alternatively,heavier values can be attributed to isotopically heavy basinal fluids (Srinivasan et al., 1994).Numerous workers (e.g. Dunoyer de Segonzac, 1970; Boles & Franks, 1979; McHargue & Price, 1982; Lee &Friedman, 1987; Gregg, 1988; Kaufman et al., 1990; Srinivasan et al., 1994) have proposed that burial diagenetictransformation of smectite to illite is accompanied by the release of metal ions to the pore fluid. The potential ofbasinal shale to serve as a source of Ca, Fe, Mg, Na and Si during deep burial diagenesis is well documented inthe literature (Srinivasan et al., 1994). Fe and Mg in the smectite layers typically tend to be released at highertemperatures of transformation (Boles & Franks, 1979) and the smectite-illite conversion takes place over atemperature range of 50-125 o C (burial depths of 2-4 km with normal geothermal gradients) (Srinivasan et al.,1994). Similarly, the shales and siliciclastics of the Seydisehir Formation which unconformability lies in thebottom of Hacialabaz Formation could have provided the metal ions required for the dolomitization ofHacialabaz Formation (Ozkan & Dinc, 2008).Several mechanisms have been proposed for regional subsurface fluid flow, and these include gravity drivenfluid flow, episodic dewatering of basinal sediments and fluid flow in response to tectonism (Srinivasan et al.,1994). Mahboubi et al. (2002) are stressed that although Fe and Mn are present in much lower concentrations inmeteoric waters than Na and K, the increase of Fe and Mn and decrease of Na in their samples is probablyrelated to the sustained reduction of abundant organic matter. This hypothesis is supported by the positive221

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011correlation observed between Fe and Mn (Mahboubi et al., 2002). The dolomitization possibly took place inenvironment rich organic matter, as suggested by existence of negative correlation between Fe and Na, and ofpositive correlation between Fe and Mn in the Hacialabaz Formation dolomite samples (Ozkan & Dinc, 2008).Machel & Mountjoy (1986) are determined that large-scale dolomitization may take place in shallow subtidalenvironments of moderate to strong hypersalinity. Hood et al. (2004) are explained that Tikorangi Formationdolomites are rich in Ca, Fe, Na and Mn, and that they are euhedral rhombs with concentric CL zonations,typically involving dull inner and alternating dull-bright outer zones. Further, their non-stoichiometric,isotopically depleted and trace element-enriched mineralogy is suggestive of growth by replacement in arelatively diagenetically closed system from saline formation waters (basinal brines) and/or modified seawaterand highly reduced burial pore fluids (Hood et al., 2004).In the calculation made by Land (1980) it was found out that the isotopic characters δ 18 O = 0%o (SMOW) ofdolomites which is composed of one solution normal seawater character and when the mixture water of thesedolomitizating solutions gets (fresh water-seawater), this value can gets as lower as δ 18 O = -6%o depending onmixture rate and temperature. Increasing temperature, during hot basin based or deep buried dolomitization (latediagenetic) -which develop with the effect of hydrothermal solutions- periods, there observed a dramaticdecrease in δ 18 O values, these values gets as low as δ 18 O = -6%o or lower ( Matsumoto et al., 1988). Very lownegative values generally indicate that temperature increased during dolomitization ( Gregg & Sibley, 1984).The δ 18 O values range between -0,64 and -6,76%o (PDB), δ 13 C values +0,42 and +2.7%o (Ozkan & Dinc, 2008).These features of Hacıalabaz Formation dolomites suggest that the formation were in the early diagenesis inshallow-marine carbonate environment (tidal-subtidal) within mixed water area at low temperature and shallowto deep burial condition from the basinal brines at high temperatures (Özkan & Dinç, 2008).The meteoric-marine mixing-zone model has been popular for cases where there are no evaporites associatedwith the dolomites, subtidal facies are dolomitized, and the dolomitization event was relatively early (i.e. nearsurface,before any compactive fracture of grains). It is also able to account for low trace element (Sr, Na)contents, light δ 18 O, and a positive correlation of δ 18 O with δ 13 C from the mixing of two waters of differingisotopic composition (Tucker & Wright, 1990). Mixing-zone dolomites can be expected to develop extensivelyduring major regressive periods, when platform carbonates are being deposited. Seaward progradation of acarbonate shoreline will be accompanied by a progradation of the meteoric-marine mixing zone (Tucker &Wright, 1990). Active circulation and pumping of water through the carbonate sediments are important in thismodel (as in the others) and these will be determined to a large extent by the climate. Groundwater circulationwill be more active under a humid climate with strong seasonal rainfall, than under a more arid climate (Tucker& Wright, 1990).The principal mechanism advocated in this model is the compactional dewatering of basinal mudrocks and theexpulsion of Mg 2+ -rich fluids into adjacent shelf-edge and platform carbonates (Tucker & Wright, 1990). TheMg 2+ source invoked is the porewater (generally modified seawater) and clay mineral changes. The compositionof subsurface fluids is not well known but in fact many formation waters have lower Mg/Ca ratios (1.8-0.04)than seawater (5.2) (Tucker & Wright, 1990). This loss is mainly due to the formation of chlorite and toprecipitation of dolomite during shallow burial. Formation waters derived from evaporite sequences, however,are likely to have higher Mg/Ca ratios than seawater and a higher Mg 2+ content (Tucker & Wright, 1990).The transformation of clay minerals with increased burial and rising temperature is well documented and it isfrequently suggested that Mg 2+ , along with Fe 2+ , Ca 2+ , Si 4+ and Na + are released on the conversion of smectite toillite with Ca 2+ and Si 4+ being released early (to precipitate as calcite and quartz cements) and the Fe 2+ and Mg 2+later (Tucker & Wright, 1990). Basinal shales are commonly organic rich, and the diagenesis of this organicmatter would contribute CO 3 2- (Tucker & Wright, 1990).On the plus side, dolomitization should proceed more easily at depth, where higher temperatures mean that someof the kinetic hindrances to dolomite precipitation are diminished (Tucker & Wright, 1990). The proportion ofhydrated Mg 2+ ions should decrease, and reaction rates of dolomite precipitation should increase. There is alsomore time available in the burial environment (Tucker & Wright, 1990).In addition, Turan (1990, 1997) has been found out Clypeina jurassica, Cambelliella striata, Salpingoporella sp.such as green algae and Valvulina lugeoni, Kurnubia cf. palastiniensis, Valvulamina sp., Opthalmidium sp.,Siphovalvulina sp., Haurania sp., Miliolidae such as foraminifer fossils in Hacıalabaz Formation. Existence ofthe green algae and benthic foraminifer fossils suggest that Hacıalabaz Formation was possibly deposited inshallow-marine carbonate platform environment. The green algae and benthic foraminifer fossils are determined222

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011that Hacialabaz Formation is deposited in the shallow-marine carbonate platform (intertidal-subtidal)environment.In conclusion, Hacialabaz Formation dolomites have been formed as early diagenetic at the tidal-subtidalenvironment and as the late diagenetic at the shallow-deep burial depths.CONCLUSIONSUnimodal, very fine to fine-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaic dolomite is interpreted as early-diageneticdolomite replacing subtidal to intertidal carbonate muds.Unimodal, medium to coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) mosaic dolomite is interpreted to represent anintermediate to late-diagenetic replacement dolomite.Coarse to very coarse-crystalline planar-s (subhedral) dolomite is later than dolomite 1 and contemporaneous(replacive dolomite) or later (cement) than dolomite 2.Medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) mosaic dolomite occurs as matrix of collapse breccias, it formsmosaics in the burrowed dolomudstone facies, and it is encountered within fossil shells that were replaced bydolomite type 2.The medium to coarse size formation in medium to coarse-crystalline planar-e (euhedral) replacement dolomitessuggests fine crystalline calcite or dolomite replacement originated from shallow-medium burial late diageneticprocesses.Coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-a (anhedral) dolomite was occurred as replacement of a precursorlimestone or dolostone.Coarse to very coarse-crystalline non-planar-c (cement) dolomite is usually termed saddle dolomite formed atelevated temperatures from basinal brines with higher salinities than seawater.Polymodal, planar-s dolomite formed probably by non-mimetically replacement of unimodal matrix andallochems.Polymodal, planar-e dolomite was occurred by dissolution of undolomitized matrix and allochems.The shales and siliciclastics of the Seydisehir Formation which unconformability lies in the bottom ofHacıalabaz Formation could have provided the metal ions required for the dolomitization of Hacialabazformation.Hacialabaz Formation dolomites have been formed as early diagenetic at the tidal-subtidal environment and asthe late diagenetic at the shallow-deep burial depths.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe research was funded by Selcuk University Scientific Research Fund (BAP) as part of Project 07101020. Wethank the Research Fund of Selcuk University.223

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESAlp, C. 1976. Hadim (Konya) Yöresinin Maden Jeolojisi ve Pb-Zn Etüdleri Önraporu, M.T.A. Orta Anadolu 2.Bölge (Konya) Müd., Rap.No: 30.Amthor, J. E. and Friedman, G. M. 1991. Dolomite – Rocks Textures and Secondary Porosity Development inEllenburger Group Carbonates (Lower Ordovician), West Texas and Southeastern New Mexico,Sedimentology, 38, 343-362.Andrew, T. and Robertson, A.H.F. 2002. The Beyşehir-Hoyran-Hadim Nappes: Genesis and Emplacement ofMesozoic Marginal and oceanic Units of The Northern Neotethys in Southern Turkey, Jour. Geol.Soci..London, 159, 529-543.Boles, J. R. and Franks, S. G. 1979. Clay Diagenesis in Wilcox Sandstones of Southwest Texas: Implications ofSmectite Diagenesis on Sandstone Cementation, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 49, 55-70.Burns, S. J., Baker, P. A., Showers, W. J. 1988. The Factors Controlling the Formation and Chemistry ofDolomite in Organic-rich Sediments: Miocene Drakes Bay Formation, California. In: Shukla, V., Baker,P. A. (eds.), Sedimentology and Geochemistry of Dolostones, Society of Econ. Paleont. Miner. Spec.Publ., 43, 41-52.Dockal, J. A. 1988. Thermodynamic and Kinetic Description of Dolomitization of Calcite and Calcitization ofDolomite (dedolomitization), Carbonates and Evaporites, 3, 125-141.Dunham, R. J. 1962. Classification of Carbonate Rocks According to Depositional Texture. In: W. E. Ham.(ed.); Classification of Carbonate Rocks, AAPG, 1, 108-121.Dunoyer de Segonzac, G. 1970. The Transformation of Clay Minerals During Diagenesis and Low-GradeMetamorphism: A Review, Sedimentology, 15, 281-345.Eren, M., Yeşilot-Kaplan, M. and Kadir, S. 2007. Petrography, Geochemistry and Origin of Lower LiassicDolomites in The Aydıncık Area, Mersin, Southern Turkey, Turkish Jour. Earth Sci., 16, 339-362.Folk, R. L. 1959. Thin-Section Examination of Pre-Simpson Paleozoic Rocks. In: Stratigraphy of the Pre-Simpson Paleozoic Subsurface Rocks of Texas and Southeast New Mexico (eds. By V. E. Barnes, P. E.Cloud, Jr, L. P. Dixon, R. L.Folk, E. C. Jonas, A. R. Palmer and E. J. Tynan), University of Texas, Bur. Econ. Geol. Publ., 5924, 95-130.Folk, R.L. 1962. Spectral Subdivision of Limestone Types, in Ham, W.E., ed., Classification of CarbonateRocks-A Symposium: Amer. Assoc. of Petrol. Geol. Memoir 1, 62-84.Friedman, G. M. 1959. Identification of Carbonate Minerals by Staining Methods, Journal of SedimentaryPetrology, 29, 89-97.Gedik, İ. 1977. Orta Toroslar’da Konodont Biyostratigrafisi, Türkiye Jeol.Kur.Bült., 20/1, 35- 48.Gregg, J. M. and Sibley, D. F. 1984. Epigenetic Dolomitization and the Origin of Xenotopic Dolomite Texture,Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 54, 908-931.Gregg, J. M. 1988. Origins of Dolomite in the Offshore Facies of the Bonneterre Formation (Cambrian),Southeast Missouri. In: Shukla, V. And Baker, P. A. eds. Sedimentology and Geochemistry ofDolostones, Soci. Econ. Paleont. Mineral. Spec. Publ., 43, 67-84.Hardie, L.A. 1987. Dolomitization: A Critical View of Some Current Views, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 57, 166-183.Hood, S. D., Nelson, C. S. and Kamp, P. J. J. 2004. Burial Dolomitisation in a Non-Tropical CarbonatePetroleum Reservoir: the Oligocene Tikorangi Formation, Taranaki Basin, New Zeland, Sedim. Geol.,172, 117-138.Kaufman, J., Meyers, W. J. and Hanson, G. N. 1990. Burial Cementation in the Swan Hills Formation(Devonian), Rosevear Field, Alberta, Canada, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 60, 918-939.Koçyiğit, A. 1977. Karaman-Ermenek (Konya) Arasındaki Bölgenin Tektoniği, Türkiye Jeol.Kur.Bült., 20/1, 1-8.Land, L. S. 1980. The Isotopic and Trace Element Geochemistry of Dolomite: the State of the Art. SEPM Spec.Publ., 28, 87-110.224

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Land, L.S. 1985. The Origin of Massive Dolomite, Jour. Geol. Educ., 33, 112-125.Lee, Y. I. and Friedman, G. M. 1987. Deep-Burial Dolomitization in the Lower Ordovicia Ellenburger GroupCarbonates in West Texas and Southeastern New Mexico, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 57, 544-557.Machel, H.G. and Mountjoy, E. W. 1986. Chemistry and Environments of Dolomitization-A Reappraisal, Earth.Sci. Rev., 23, 175-222.Mahboubi, A., Moussavi-Harami, R., Brenner, R. L. and Gonzalez, L. A. 2002. Diagenetic History of LatePaleocene Potential Carbonate Reservoir Rocks, Kopet-Dagh Basin, NE Iran, Jour. Petrol. Geol., 25,465-484.Maliva, R. G. and Siever, R. 1988. Diagenetic Replacement Controlled by Force of Crystallization, Geology, 16,688-691.Matsumoto, R., Iijima, A. and Katayama, T. 1988. Mixed-water Hydrothermal Dolomitization of the PlioceneShirahama Limestone, Izu Peninsula, Central Japan, Sedimentology, 35, 979-999.Mattes B. W. and Mountjoy, E.W. 1980. Burial Dolomitization of the Upper Devonian Miette Build-up, JasperNational Park, Alberta. In: Concepts and Models of Dolomitization (eds. by D. H. Zenger, J. B.Dunham and R. L. Ethington), Spec. Publs. Soci. Econ. Paleont. Miner., 28, 259-297.McHargue, T. R. and Price, R. C. 1982. Dolomite from Clay in Argillaceous or Shale- Associated MarineCarbonates, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 52, 873-886.Monod, O. 1978. Güzelsu-Akseki Bölgesindeki Antalya Napları Üzerine Açıklama (Orta-Batı Toroslar, Türkiye)Türkiye Jeol.Kur.Bült., 19/1, 65-78.Murray R. C. and Lucia, F. J. 1967. Cause and Control of Dolomite Distribution by Rocks Selectivity, Bull.Geol. Soci. Amer., 78, 21-35.Özgül, N. 1976. Torosların Bazı Temel Jeoloji Özellikleri, Türkiye Jeol. Kur. Bült., 19/1, 65-78.Özgül, N. 1997. Bozkır-Hadim-Taşkent (Orta Toroslar’ın Kuzey Kesimi) Dolayında Yer Alan Tektono-Stratigrafik Birliklerin Stratigrafisi, M.T.A.Derg., 119, 113-174.Özkan, A. M. ve Dinç, S., 2008, Hadim (Konya) Dolayındaki Karbonat Kayaçların (Üst Jurasik)Sedimentolojisi, S. Ü. Bilim. Araş. Proje., No: 05401032, 132 s.Pingitore, N.E. 1982. The Role of Diffusion During Carbonate Diagenesis, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 52, 27-39.Radke, B. M. and Mathis, R. L. 1980. On the Formation and Occurrence of Saddle Dolomite, Jour.Sedim. Petrol., 50, 1149-1168.Schofield, K. 1984. Are Pressure Solution, Neomorphism and Dolomitization Genetically Related? In: Stylolitesand Associated Phenomena – Relevance to Hydrocarbon Reservoirs, Spec. Publs Abu Dhabi Nat.Reservoir Res. Found., 183-201.Sibley, D. F. 1982. The Origin of Common Dolomite Fabrics, Clues from the Pliocene, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 52,1087-1100.Sibley, D. F. and Gregg, J. M. 1987. Classification of Dolomite Rock Textures, Jour. Sedim. Petrol., 57, 967-975.Sibley, D. F., Dedoes, R. E. and Bartlett, T. R. 1987. Kinetics of Dolomitization, Geology, 15, 1112-1114.Srinivasan, K., Walker, K. R. and Goldberg, S. A. 1994. Determining Fluid Source and Possible PathwaysDuring Burial Dolomitization of Maryville Limestone (Cambrian), Southern Appalachians, USA,Sedimentology, 41, 293-308.Tucker, M. E. and Wright, V. P. 1990. Carbonate Sedimentology, Blackwell Scientific Publ., Oxford, 482 p.Turan, A. 1990. Toroslar’da Hadim (Konya) ve Güneybatısının Jeolojisi, stratigrafisi ve Tektonik Gelişimi,S.Ü.Fen Bil. Enst., Doktora Tezi, Konya, 229 s.Turan, A. 1997. Bağbaşı ve Korualan Kasabaları (Hadim - Konya) Arasındaki Otokton ve Allokton BirliklerinStratigrafisi, S.Ü.Müh.Mim.Fak. Derg., 12/1, 46-62.Turan, A. 2000. Karaköy (Gündoğmuş)-Hadim Arasındaki Toroslar’ın Stratigrafisi, DEÜ Müh.Fak.Derg., 2/1,61-89.225

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Varol, B. 1992. Doğu Toroslar Geyikdağı Birliğinde Orta Devoniyen (Şafaktepe formasyonu) DolomitlerininPetrografisi ve Kökeni (Tufanbeyli-Saimbeyli), M.T.A.Derg., 114, 37-46.Varol, B. and Matsumoto, R. 2005. Early and Late Dolomites in The Carbonate Platform: An Example FromMiddle Devonian Carbonates of The Taurus Mountains, South-Central Turkey, N. Jb. Miner. Abh.,181/2, 135-145.Veizer, J. 1978. Simulation of Limostone Diagenesis – a Model Based on Strontium Depletion: Discussion, Can.Jour. Earth. Sci., 15, 1683-1685.Veizer, J. 1983. Chemical Diagenesis of Carbonates: Theory and Application of Trace Element Technique. In:Arthur, M.A., Anderson, T.F., Kaplan, I.R., Veizer, J., Land, L.S. (eds.), Stable Isotopes in SedimentaryGeology, Soc. Econ. Paleont. Miner. Short Course, Vol. 10, pp. 3.1-3-100.Zenger, D. H. 1983. Burial Dolomitization in the Lost Burro Formation (Devonian), East-Central California, andthe Significance of Late Diagenetic Dolomitization, Geology, 11, 519-522.226

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationIMPROVING PHOSPHORUS AVAILABILITY FROM PHOSPHATE ROCK INCALCAREOUS SOILS BY AMENDING WITH:ORGANIC ACID, SULFUR, AND/ OR ORGANIC MANUREAL-OUD S. SDepartment of Soil Sciences, Faculty of Food Sciences and Agriculture,King Saud University P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451.E-mail address for correspondence: alouds@hotmail.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: A set of laboratory experiments were conducted to investigate phosphate-dissolution ability from rockphosphate (RP) in a calcareous soil as a function of either incubation period, or application of organic acids,elemental sulphur and /or organic manure. The experimental treatments included different rates of RP (0, 30, 60,90 and 120 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1 ), different incubation periods (0, 15, 30, 45 and 90 day), three rates of elemental sulphur(0,0.5 and 1.0%) and /or three rates of organic manure(0,3 and 6%). The availability of P from rock phosphate inthe studying calcareous soil was also investigated using some organic acid solutions containing (0, 0.1 and 0.2mmolL -1 from each of Oxalic acid, Citric acid and EDTA). The obtained results indicated that the availability ofP from rock phosphate was increased by increasing incubation period up to 90 days. For example, the percentageof P-availability reached 243.4, 420.4, 481.5, 554.6, 542.0, 487.2% as a result of incubating calcareous soil for aperiod of 15, 30, 45, 60.75, and 90 day, respectively, regardless of the rate of applied RP. On the other hand thesolubility and /or availability of RP were increased by increasing the rate of applied elemental sulphur and /ororganic manure. The maximum P releasing capacity for the soil treated with RP was attained by treatingcalcareous soil with combined treatment (6% O.M + 1% S). Furthermore, the oxalic acid solution at the rate of0.2 mmolL -1 was superior to the other solution of either citric or EDTA.Key words: Calcareous soil - rock phosphate, Elemental sulphur, Organic manure, Citric acid, Oxalic acid,EDTA.__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe application of rock phosphates in arid and semi arid regions is not common, because of its low availabilitygiven the fact that most soils are alkaline under drought stress, high in pH, and low in organic matter. A numberof studies have examined the solution of Rock phosphate (RP) in soils and its subsequent effect on soilavailability such as soil pH, particle size of RP, and concentrations of Ca and P in soil solution (Mackay andSyers, 1996; Tunesi et al., 1999; and He et al., 2005). On the other hand, calcareous soils are frequentlycharacterized by its low bioavailability of plant nutrients due to high base status and pH between 7.5 and 8.5 andthe presences of carbonate minerals (Marschner, 1995). The efficiency of P fertilizers in these soils is generallyvery low because P applied to the soil reacts with Ca forming minerals such as dicalcium phosphate dihydrate,227

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011octacalcium phosphate, and ultimately hydroxyl-apatite (Tunesi et al., 1999 and Leytem and Mikkelsen, 2005).Therefore, Phosphate rock is chemically processed with sulphuric acid or phosphoric acid into soluble phosphatefertilizers (Van Straaten, 2002). Also, rock phosphate application as a phosphate fertilizer along with the activityof soil microorganisms can be effective in solubilizing RP (Kang et al. 2002). Most soil microorganisms such asbacteria, fungi and actinomycetes have the ability to change insoluble phosphates to soluble forms. Bacillus andPseudomonas are important genera of phosphate solubilizing bacteria. (Reyes et al., 2006; Valverde etal.,2006 ;Vassilev et al., 2006; Taalab and Badr 2007; Mittal et al., 2008 ; Pandey et al., 2008; El– Azouni 2008 andOgbo, 2010). On the other hand , elemental sulphur seems to play an important role in reducing soil pH valuesthrough its transformation to sulphuric acid by sulphur oxidizing bacteria , therefore it may be helpful inincreasing the solubility of P from RP. In this respect, Tibbett and Diaz, 2005, reported that the combiningphosphate rock RP with elemental sulphur is resulted in the production of mineral acids which will create alocalized high acidity in the immediate vicinity of RPs. Moreover, phosphate fertilizers could be increasedmarkedly if they were applied along with organic acids or with organic wastes due to their influences in loweringsoil pH values along with chelating Ca and Mg ions and consequently increase the availability of phosphate(Rajan and Ghani, 1997; Sagoe et al., 1998 ;.Sinaj et al., 2002 ;Van Straaten, 2002; Savini et al.,2006 andIvanova et al., 2006). Therefore, the objective of this study was to improve the solubility and hence theavailability of P from rock phosphate as a function of incubation period, addition of elemental sulphur, organicmanure, and some organic acids such as Citric, oxalic and EDTA.MATERIALS AND METHODSSurface soil samples (0- 20 cm) having high content of calcium carbonate (35.1%) were collected from theexperimental station of the King Saud University at Derab about 40 km south west of Riyadh city, Saudi Arabia.The collected samples were prepared for physical and chemical analyses according to Page et al.,(1982), Day(1965) for particle-size analysis, Nelson and Sommers (1996) for the determination of soil organic matter, andLoeppert, and Suarez (1996) for the determination of calcium carbonate. The soil was sandy loam in texture,having pH of 7.87, EC of 1.18 dS.m -1 , O.M of 0.825%, CaCO 3 of 35.1%, C.E.C of 6.8 C mol.kg -1 , field capacityof 14.22 %, wilting point of 5.21%, and available water of 9.01%, respectively.Laboratory Incubation Study:A set of experiments were carried out on Jan 2011 under the laboratory conditions to investigate phosphorousavailability from rock phosphate (RP) in calcareous soil treated either with organic acids, organic manures andelemental sulphur applications. In the 1 st experiment, the collected soil samples were thoroughly mixed andcrushed to pass through a 2 mm sieve and put in plastic pots of 2 kg soil capacity. Different rates of rockphosphate namely (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1 ) were thoroughly mixed with the soil. All treatments werearranged in a completely randomized block design with five replicates. Irrigation was carried out daily tomaintain soil moisture content within the soil field capacity using fresh water. Soil samples were taken atdifferent incubation time namely, 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 day from starting experiment, for thedetermination of available p using the method described by (Olsen and Dean, 1965). The obtained data werestatistically analyzed using SAS programme,(1995).Column experimentsPolyvinyl chloride plastic columns of (5 cm internal diameter and 40 cm length with an end cap drilled for anoutlet) were used in this study. About 973 g soil sample were poured into each column through a funnel with aplastic tube extension to reach the bottom. This was gradually raised to minimize particle segregation as fillingproceeded (Belling et al. 1996). Each column was packed ten times from a height of 10 cm to obtain a finalheight of soil in each column to 30 cm with an approximately bulk density of 1.65 g cm -3 . The treatments were:(A) five rates of rock phosphate namely (0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1 ) were thoroughly mixed with the soilin columns. (B) Three rates of elemental sulphur namely, S 0 (0.0%), S 1 (0.5 %), and S 2 (1.0 %.). (C) Three ratesof organic manure (0.0, 3 and 6%) were mixed with the soil in columns. Soil columns were arranged in a228

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011completely randomized block design with three replicates. The soil columns were maintained in a verticalposition and incubated for 28 days at the room temperature. During the incubation period, the soil moisturecontent was kept at the soil field capacity with tab water. Thereafter, the soil columns were subjected to theintermittent leaching for ten times (eight days intervals) using tab water at a moisture content equivalent to thefield capacity of soil plus 30% of it.In another set of columns the soil treated with the same doses of rock phosphate, soil columns were subjected tothe intermittent leaching for ten times (eight days intervals), using prepared solutions from oxalic acid, citric acidand EDTA at the concentrations of zero, 0.1, 0.2 mmol l -1 of each organic acid.At the end of the experiments, each soil column was sampled at six subsequent depths i.e. (0 – 5), (5-10), (10 –15), (15 – 20), (20 –25) and (25 – 30) cm from top to bottom, respectively. The soil of each depth was air driedground, thoroughly mixed and stored for the determination of available p using the method described by (Olsenand Dean, 1965.). The obtained data were statistically analyzed using SAS programme,(1995).Results and discussionsEffect of incubation period on the P-availability from rock phosphate in calcareous soilData in (Table 1 and Fig. 1) indicated that the availability of P from rock phosphate was increased by increasingincubation periods. The rate of increment reached 243.4, 420.4, 481.5, 554.6, 542.0 and 487.2% after 15, 30, 45,60, .75 and 90 days, respectively, regardless of the rate of adding RP. Such results were confirmed by Agbeninand Tissen (1995). They found that P- adsorption occurs rapidly in the first period and followed by a slowadsorption processes, reaching the soil to equilibrium after 50 days. While Chan et al., (1995) found that the stateof equilibrium in some sedimentary soils occurred during two days only. On the other hand increasing theapplication rate of RP resulted in increasing P-availability from RP by 80.84, 365.8, 479.6, and 477.3% for theapplication rate of 30 60, 90 and 120 kg P 2 O 5 ha -1 , respectively (Table 1 and Fig.1). The interaction betweenincubation time and the rate of RP had a positive impact in increasing the availability of RP. Generally thehighest concentration of available-P was obtained after 60 days of adding RP.Table 1: The overall mean of available of P from RP as affected incubation time(0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90 days) at and RF application arte (0,30,60,90 and120 P 2 O 5 kg ha -1 ) .Incubation Time (day) 0 15 30 45 60 75 90)Available p (mg/kg1.47 5.05 7.65 8.55 9.62 9.44 8.63229

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Fig. 1: The availability of P from RP as affected by the incubation time and RP application rate.Effect of organic manure and elemental sulphurData in (Table 2) indicated that the availability of P from rock phosphate was significantly increased by treatingcalcareous soil with different rates from either elemental sulphur and / or organic manure. It is needless to saythat organic matter, upon hydrolysis, may supply some organic function groups or anions such as citrate andoxalate that can effectively chelate Ca 2+ ions and thus lower the Ca 2+ activity in soil solution. This in turnprovides a driving force for further dissolution of RP. The mechanisms also may explain, at least in part, thebeneficial effect of farmyard manures on increasing P availability from RP utilization (Reddy et al., 1999). Mostresearchers have assumed that the organic acids produced from the manures enhanced the RP dissolution. Directevidence of chelating Ca 2+ ions by the hydrolyzed soil organic matter was demonstrated by Savini et al.,2006,who found that the amount of free Ca 2+ ions found in the solution, indicating a liberation of chelated Ca 2+ intothe solution after the Ca - organic matter complex was decomposed.230

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011OMTable 2: Effect of organic manure and elemental sulphur on the distribution ofavailable-P from rock phosphate throughout calcareous soil columnsP rateSoil column depth (cm)Sulphur(kg/ha) 0 - 5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-300 3.87 3.39 4.90 5.07 3.87 3.87Control30 3.44 3.05 5.07 6.04 4.89 4.310%OM3%OM6%OM0.5 %S1.0%SControl0.5 %S1.0%SControl0.5 %S1.0%S90 4.65 5.46 5.95 5.96 4.41 5.510 5.04 5.65 6.31 6.94 7.14 6.0930 5.65 5.29 5.80 8.38 6.48 5.0490 6.36 5.43 9.16 16.35 11.40 6.940 4.97 5.26 6.29 7.07 7.70 10.1930 5.43 4.80 5.75 10.23 9.94 6.7590 8.27 7.06 11.91 17.33 12.09 7.360 8.99 8.00 8.99 8.00 12.33 7.3530 14.61 16.09 17.82 15.61 11.12 9.5990 16.73 18.04 15.20 15.81 14.70 14.750 10.78 9.60 10.78 9.60 14.79 8.8230 17.54 19.30 21.38 18.73 13.34 11.5190 20.07 21.65 18.24 18.97 17.64 17.690 15.10 13.44 15.10 13.44 20.71 12.3530 24.55 27.03 29.93 26.23 18.68 16.1290 28.10 30.31 25.54 26.56 24.70 24.770 18.12 16.13 18.12 16.13 24.85 14.8230 29.46 32.43 35.92 31.47 22.42 19.3490 33.72 36.37 30.64 31.88 29.64 29.730 19.57 17.42 19.57 17.42 26.84 16.0130 31.82 35.03 38.79 33.99 24.21 20.8990 36.42 39.28 33.10 34.43 32.01 32.110 19.96 17.77 19.96 17.77 27.37 16.3330 32.46 35.73 39.57 34.67 24.70 21.3190 37.15 40.06 33.76 35.11 32.65 32.75*LSD at 5 %level = 1.953 for OM , 1.953 for sulphur level and 1.953 for P level while it was 2.262 for soilsampling depth.231

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011On the other hand the effective utilization of rock phosphate in combination with sulphur was obvious by the Srole in decreasing soil pH, which helped in transformation of insoluble P to available form for plant uptake.Moreover, mixing the RP with elemental S and/or organic manure caused a significant increase in the availableP over those applied without S and/or OM. (Table 2).Effect of organic acidsData in (Table 3 and Fig. 2) show that the P-availability from rock phosphate was significantly increased byirrigating calcareous soil with organic acid (e.g. oxalic, citric or EDTA) at the rates of either 0.1 or 0.2 mmolL -1 .This may be due to the favorable effect of such acids in increasing the solubility of P from RP. in this respect(Marschner et al. 1990) pointed out that, plant excrete organic acids such as citric, oxalic and tartaric acid in rootzone to increase phosphorus solubility and availability in rhizosphere. The oxalic acid was superior to the otherused two acids. The highest available P was obtained when calcareous soil was treated with 90 kgha -1 andirrigated with 0.2 mmol oxalic acid solution (Fig. 2 )Table 3: Distribution of available-P from rock phosphate throughout calcareoussoil columns as affected by organic acids.TreatmentsP rate(kg/ha)Soil column depth (cm)0 - 5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30mg/kg0 2.85 2.75 2.72 2.65 2.05 2.72Control30 3.46 4.47 4.501 4.50 4.501 4.50190 4.32 3.93 5.47 5.47 5.47 5.47Oxalic(0.1)Oxalic(0.2)EDTA(0.1)EDTA(0.2)Citric(0.1)Citric(0.2)0 8.94 9.98 9.92 6.44 8.64 5.6730 11.26 11.49 13.17 14.78 14.00 14.5890 11.42 15.92 14.52 13.36 14.20 12.280 9.31 10.33 9.11 7.15 7.43 7.4330 13.48 14.92 14.13 13.36 14.13 13.3090 17.82 17.26 17.26 13.36 13.75 14.200 6.68 6.41 6.28 7.89 7.72 8.2030 9.89 10.29 12.18 14.90 14.45 13.3090 9.72 13.58 12.82 12.22 12.60 11.830 10.40 9.72 10.10 7.97 8.05 7.9730 10.19 11.19 14.62 12.35 12.02 10.9390 9.59 10.39 11.19 11.12 11.32 11.000 8.81 8.47 7.19 12.92 11.45 10.2230 11.76 9.90 11.54 7.71 8.11 6.4790 9.00 10.44 9.84 7.09 8.57 7.490 8.74 7.87 7.56 8.50 8.95 7.0430 8.05 11.05 10.64 10.99 9.07 5.5190 11.59 14.17 12.33 10.67 10.17 7.79*LSD at 5% level = 0.852 for acids, 0.492 for P level and while it was 1.476 for soil sampling depth.232

Available P (mg/kg)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 201110090807060504030201000 - 5 cm 5-10cm 10-15 cm 15-20 cm 20-25 cm 25-30 cmP P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P(0) (30)(90)(0) (30)(90)(0) (30)(90)(0) (30)(90)(0) (30)(90)(0) (30)(90)(0) (30)(90)Control Oxalic(0.1) Oxalic(0.2) EDTA(0.1) EDTA(0.2) Citric(0.1) Citric (0.2)TreatmentsFig. 2: Distribution of available- P from rock phosphate throughout calcareous soil columnsas affected by adding organic acidsCONCLUSIONFrom the above mentioned results it can be conclude that the amount of available P from rock phosphate couldbe increased by increasing incubation time of rock phosphate in calcareous soil. The applications of organicacids or organic manure and/or elemental sulphur could be successfully used for increasing P-availability fromrock phosphate. in calcareous soil.AKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author deeply thanks the Agriculture Research Center-Deanship of Scientific Research, King SaudUniversity and SABIC , Saudi Arabia for the financial support.233

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESAgbenin, J.O. and H. Tissen (1995). Phosphorus sorption at field capacity and soil ionic strength: Kinetics andtransformation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 59:998-1005.Belling, G.; M. E. Summer; D. E. Radcliffe and N. P. Qafoku (1996). Anion transport through columns of highlyweathered acid soil: Adsorption and retardation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 60:132-137.Chan, D.; S.N. Randhawa and A.G. Vig, (1995). Standardization of equilibration time for phosphate adsorptionstudies in low P fixing alluvial soils. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci. 43:676-678.Day, P.R. 1965. Particle fractionation and particle size analysis, pp. 545-567, in Black, C.A. ed., Methods of SoilAnalysis, part 1, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.El-Azouni, I.M., 2008. Effect of phosphate solubilizing fungi on growth and nutrient uptake of soybean (Glycinemax L.) plants. J. Applied Sci. Res., 4: 592-598.He, Z. L., H. Yao, D. V. Calvert, P. J. Stofella, X. E. Yang, G. Chen, and G. M. Lloyed. 2005. dissolutioncharacteristic of central Florida phosphate rock in an acidic sandy soil. Plant Soil. 273: 157 - 166.Ivanova,R; B.Darinka; G. Ivan; D. Dimitar (2006).The Solubilization of Rock Phosphate by Organic Acids.Phosphorus, 181, r 11,. 2541-2554(14).Kang, S.C., C.G. Ha, T.G. Lee and D.K. Maheshwari, 2002. Solubilization of insoluble inorganic phosphates by asoil-inhabiting fungus Fomitopsis sp. PS 102. Curr. Sci., 82: 439-442Leytem, A.B. and R.L., Mikkelsen (2005). The nature of phosphorus in calcareous soils. Better Crops. 89. 2:11-13.Loeppert, R.H. and D. Suarez. (1996). Carbonate and Gypsum. In. Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3. ChemicalMethods. Edited by Sparks et al., SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI. Pp. 437-474.Mackay, A. D., and J. K. Syers. 1996. Effect of phosphate, calcium, and pH on the dissolution of a phosphate rockin soil. Nutri. Cycl. In Agroecosys. 10: 175 — 184.Marschner, H. (1995)."Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants". 2nd ed. Academic press, London.Meak, B.D.; L.E. Graham; T.J. Donovan And K.S. Maryberry (1997). Phosphorus availability in a calcareous soilafter high loading rates of animal manure. Soil Amr. J. 34:741-744.Mittal, V., O. Singh, H. Nayyar, J. Kaur and R. Tewari, 2008. Stimulatory effect of phosphate-solubilizing fungalstrains (Aspergillus awamori and Penicillium citrinum) on the yield of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. cv.GPF2). Soil Biol. Biochem., 40: 718-727.Nelson, D.W. and L.E. Sommers. (1996). Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. In. Methods of soilanalysis. Part 3. Chemical Methods. Edited by Sparks et. al., SSSA and ASA, Madison, WI. Pp. 961-1010.Olsen, S.R. and L.A. Dean (1965). Phosphorus in: Methods of soil analysis, Part 2 (ed) C.A. Black. Agron. 9:1035-1048, Am. Soc. Agron. Madison, Wis. USA.Ogbo, F.C., 2010. Conversion of cassava wastes for biofertilizer production using phosphate solubilizing fungi.Bioresour. Technol., 101: 4120-4124.Page, A.L.; R.H .Miller and D.R. Keeney. (1982). Methods of Soil analysis. No .9 (part 2) in the AgronomySeries. Amer. Soc. of Agron. Madison.,Wisc., USA.Pandey, A., N. Das, B. Kumar, K. Rinu and P. Trivedi, 2008. Phosphate solubilization by Penicillium spp. Isolatedfrom soil samples of Indian Himalayan region. World J. Microbiol. Biotechnol., 24: 97-102.Rajan S.S., Ghani A. (1997).Differential influence of soil pH on the availability of partially sulphuric andphosphoric acidulated phosphate rocks. 2. Chemical and scanning electron microscopic studies. Nutr.Cyc. Agroecosyst. Vol. 48:171-178.Reddy, D. D.; A.S. Rao, and P. N. Takkar (1999). Effects of repeated manure and fertilizer phosphorus additionson soil phosphorus dynamic under soybean wheat rotation. Biol. Fertil. Soil. 28:150-155.Reyes, I.1; Valery, A.; Valduz, Z. (2006).Phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms isolated from rhizospheric andbulk soils of colonizer plants at an abandoned rock phosphate mine. Plant and Soil, 287, 1-2, 69-75(7).234

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Sagoe C.I., Ando T., Kouno K., Nagaoka T. (1998).Effects of organic-acid treatment of phosphate rocks on thephosphorus availability to Italian ryegrass. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. Vol. 43:1067-1072.S.A.S Institute, (1995). SAS guide for personal computers. Version 6.07 ed. SAS Inst., Cary, NC.Savini, I.; Smithson, P.; Karanja, N. (2006). Effects of added biomass, soil pH and calcium on the solubility ofMinjingu phosphate rock in a Kenyan Oxisol Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science 52, Number 1,February pp. 19-36(18)Sinaj, S.; O. Traore and E. Frossard (2002). Effect of compost and soil properties on availability of compostphosphate for white clover (Trifolium repens L.). Nutrient Cycling in Agro ecosystems. 62: 89-102.Taalab AS, M.A. Badr (2007) Phosphorus availability from compacted rock phosphate with nitrogen to sorghuminoculated with phosphor- bacterium. Journal of applied Sciences Research 3, 195- 201.Tunesi, S., V. Poggi, and C. Gessa. (1999). Phosphate adsorption and precipitation in calcareous soils: The role ofcalcium ions in solution and carbonate minerals. Nutr. Cycling Agroecosyst. 53:219–227.Tibbett, M.; Diaz, A. 2005.Are sulfurous soil amendments (S0, Fe(II)SO4, Fe(III)SO4) an effective tool in therestoration of heat land and acidic grassland after four decades of rock phosphate fertilization?Restoration Ecology, Volume 13, 1,. 83-91(9)Valverde, A., A. Burgos, T. Fiscella, R. Rivas and E.V. Quez et al., 2006. Differential effects of co inoculationswith Pseudomonas jessenii PS06 (a phosphate-solubilizing bacterium) and Mesorhizobium ciceri C-2/2strains on the growth and seed yield of chickpea under greenhouse and field conditions. Plant Soil, 287:43-50.Van Straaten, P. 2002. Rocks for crops: Agrominerals of sub-Saharan Africa. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya, 338 pp.Vassilev, N.1; Medina, A.; Azcon, R.; Vassileva, M. 2006.Microbial solubilization of rock phosphate on mediacontaining agro-industrial wastes and effect of the resulting RPoducts on plant growth and P uptake. Plantand Soil, 287, 1-2, 77-84.235

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationWEIGHT BEARING INDEX AND GAIT SPEED AS VALID PREDICTORS OF FUNCTIONALPERFORMANCE CAPACITY IN PATIENTS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETIC MELLITUS.KAYODE I. OKE*, ELIAS O. AGWUBIKE** and AIHANUWA EREGIE****Department of Physiotherapy, University of Benin Teaching Hospital, Benin City. Nigeria.**Department of Health, Environmental Education and Human Kinetics,University of Benin, Benin City. Nigeria.***Department of Medicine (Endocrinology Unit), University of BeninTeaching Hospital, Benin City. Nigeria.*E-mail address for correspondence: kayodeoke2001@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Reduction in physical functional performance status is a well established complication in patients withtype 2 diabetes mellitus and the impact of this compromise on the total quality of life of the affected persons isconsidered a most potent impediment among the sufferers. Different tools have been used to measure physicalfunctional performance status in this group of patients and other patients with chronic diseases but the draw back inmost of the tools is that they are most of the time comprehensive, cumbersome, expensive and difficult toadminister. The purpose of this study was therefore to establish the correlation between simple tools like the weightbearing index (WBI) and gait speed (GS), which are simple to administer and cheap in terms of cost, as possiblepredictors of functional performance capacity and quality of life in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Followinga six-week structured exercise therapy, a correlation in the pattern of changes in the assessed parameters asexpressed in the significant positive relationship in the difference between the pre and post exercise training valuesafter being subjected to SPSS statistics was observed. Pearson’s correlation coefficient suggested that the twoparameters, WBI and GS can be used as prognostic tools in assessing progress or deterioration in patients with type2 diabetes mellitus. It was therefore concluded that weight bearing index (WBI) and gait speed (GS) [fast] can serveas prognostic parameters in assessing physical functional performance status and quality of life of patients with type2 diabetes mellitus.Keywords: Diabetes Mellitus, functional performance predictors._____________________________________________________________________________________________237

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011INTRODUCTIONType 2 diabetes (non-insulin-dependent) mellitus is one of the most complicated diseases managed in primary care(de Grauw, van de Lisdonk, Behr, van Gerwen, van den Hoogen & van Weel, 1999) in medical or healthinstitutions.Studies show that a decline in muscular strength increases the risk of loss of physical function and that a decline inexercise capacity increases the risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality (Taylor, 2009).Functional impairment and physical disability directly attributable to diabetes have been less frequently studied,despite the fact that these are direct threats to personal independence and quality of life (Sinclair, Conroy, & Bayer,2007).Capodaglio, Ferri, Scaglioni, Marchi and Saibene (2005) revealed that impairments of muscle power are importantfactors limiting mobility in both nursing home residents and community-dwelling elders. They went further toindicate that greater attention has been focused on the need to increase muscle power in older populations addingthat women in particular may reach levels below the threshold for tasks important for an independent life.Weight Bearing Index (WBI- quadriceps strength/ body weight) has been used to determine physical functionalcapacity in well-functioning elderly (Wen-Yu, Jin-Jong, Hsuein-Chen, Tzu-Chiao, Chi- Han, 2010).Petrella, Miller and Cress (2004) reported that leg muscle strength and power are important contributors to mobilityand function in older adults. Recent research has studied the influence of lower limb peak power on functionalindependence in older adults. Leg Extensor Power (LEP) is needed for many activities of daily living such aswalking, climbing stairs, and rising from a seated position. Maintaining leg power throughout life may reduce therisk of falls and associated sprains and fractures.Gait speed is an aspect of walking that can change with age, health status and a number of other factors. Gaitcharacteristics differ in individuals with diabetes compared with those without diabetes. Diabetes is associated withgait alterations in older adults (Brach, Talkowski, Strotmeyer & Newman, 2008).Gait speed has been recommended by geriatricians, healthcare epidemiologists and physical therapists as a clinicallyimportant indicator for community-dwelling elderly adults. It has also been shown to identify important differencesin health status and function among acutely ill persons and also believed to be associated with health services useand costs during hospitalization and during the first year post-hospitalization (Purser, Weinberger, Cohen, Pieper,Morey, Li, Williams & Lapuerta, 2005).Lopolopo, Greco, Sullivan, Craik and Mangione (2006) have also reported that gait speed has been shown to be apredictor of functional decline, nursing home placement, and mortality. Specifically, a decrease in gait speed of 0.1m/s has been associated with a 10% decrease in the ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living.A study on gait speed and activities of daily living function in geriatric patients has reported that elderly people witha gait speed of

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Reduced physical functioning capacity has been studied and established among aged population and senior adults,and also in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Moreover, reduced gait speed with difficulty in the performance ofactivities of daily living has been studied in this group of people. What is left to be studied is to assess if theparameters like gait speed and weight bearing index improve with improving physical functional performancecapacity following involvement in exercise therapy. This study therefore aims at examining the possible correlationor relationship between improving physical functional capacity and weight bearing and gait speed among adultpatients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.HypothesesThis study hypothesized that1. Improvement in physical performance capacity is not significantly correlated with improvement in weightbearing index of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.2. Improvement in physical performance capacity is not significantly associated with improvement in gaitspeed of patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus.METHODOLOGYThis study was based on the assumption that there would be not significant correlation between improvement inweight bearing index and gait speed and improvement in functional performance capacity of patients with type 2diabetic mellitus.Weight bearing index variables of knee extensors’ strengths and body weight, gait speed variables of time requiredto cover a 50-foot (15.2m) distance of brisk walk, and variables of physical functional capacity derived fromModified-Physical Performance Functional test battery by Brown and Sinacore (2005) were the assessmentmodalities adapted.ParticipantsFifteen patients (10 males and 5 females) whose ages ranged between 55 and 75 years diagnosed with type 2diabetes mellitus (using the WHO 1999 criteria) attending the endocrine clinic of the Out-patients Department of theUniversity of Benin Teaching Hospital, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria were purposively recruited to the study.The inclusion criteria for the participants were having been diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus for a period oftwo years and those who have been assessed and found safe for exercise therapy participation by theirphysicians/endocrinologists.All the subjects signed informed consent forms prior to participation in the study after the procedures and theintricacies of the test had been explained to them. The study was also approved by the Research and EthicsCommittee of the University of Benin Teaching Hospital, Benin City. Nigeria.MeasurementsSocio-demographic data were obtained from the subjects. The body weight was measured with the subject in lightclothing without shoes using a bathroom weighing scale (Hanson Limited, Ireland). It was recorded in kilogrammesto the nearest whole number. The height was measured to the nearest 0.01 meters using a height meter rule (Seca,England). The weight bearing index (WBI) was calculated from the knees extensors muscle strength (Kg)/ bodyweight (Kg). Leg strength was measured with the subject sitting in an arm-rest chair and grasping the arm -rest in239

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011order to fix the body position. A dynamometer (Adapted hybrid pocket weight balance, Germany) was attached tothe ankle joint by a strap and the subject stretched the leg to 60 degrees. The WBI is closely related to exercisecapacity in terms of speed of walking up stairs, standing up from a chair and gait speed (Miyatake, Nishikawa &Fujii, 2001).Gait speed was calculated by dividing the 50-foot distance (converted to meters [15.2m]) brisk walk done by thesubject with the time (s) it took him/ her to execute it. The components of the modified-physical performance scalewhich assessed the frailty or otherwise of the subject to carry out basic activities of daily living comprising the staticstanding balance, chair rise, book lift, put on and remove a jacket, pick a coin from the floor, turn 360 degrees, do a50-foot walk test and do a stair climb. The scoring system on the scale has minimum of less than 17 for those whowere unlikely to be able to function in the community to a maximum of 36 for those who were not frail at all.Statistical AnalysisThe SPSS-15 Analytical Package was used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics of mean and standarddeviation were used to present the values of parameters measured. Pearson correlation coefficient method wasemployed to determine the relationship between the post exercise therapy values of physical performance capacitywith the post exercise therapy values of weight bearing index and gait speed. The level of significance wasconsidered to be 5% (p< 0.05).RESULTSThe results of the study are presented in tables 1 – 4 below.The physical characteristics of the participants are contained in table 1 showing the mean age of the participants tobe 60.5± 10.4 years with a range of 30. 00 – 72. 00 years. The mean body weight was 79.3± 7.96kg with a range of64. 00 – 92. 50 kg.The baseline data for the physical functional capacity, weight bearing index and gait speed along with the postexercisetherapy values for these parameters are shown in table 2. There were significant differences between the preand post-exercise therapy values of the physical functional capacity, weight bearing index and gait speed of theparticipants after involvement in six weeks period of structured exercise therapy (Table 2).Table 3 shows the correlation between the pre and post exercise therapy values of the PFC, WBI and GS and clearlyshowed that post exercise therapy values were significantly related to involvement in structured exercise therapy.The r value of 0.133 is less than the calculated significant value of 0.260 [PFC]; r value of 0.281 is less than thecalculated significant value of 1.00 [WBI]; and r value of 0.070 is less than the calculated significant value of 0.151[GS]; all at alpha value of p< 0.05.Table 4 shows the Pearson’s correlation coefficient of the physical functional capacity with weight bearing index ofthe participants. The result showed that PFC was positively correlated with weight bearing index (r= 0.578, p

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011DISCUSSIONIn this study, the correlation in the responses in physical functional capacity and the weight bearing index and gaitspeed of aging patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus was investigated before and after involvement in six weeks ofstructured exercise therapy sessions.It was observed that there were significant positive correlations between the responses in the physical functionalcapacity and weight bearing as well as also the gait speed of this group of patients. There is a growing realizationthat beyond improvement in the metabolic components of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, there is need forimproved functional ability which studies have also revealed to be closely related to the quality of life of this groupof people.Till date, attempts are still being made to provide simple and cheap assessment tools for functional assessment forpeople with various forms of functional limitations. It was therefore found from this study the usefulness of theweight bearing index and gait speed in assessing and monitoring improvement or deterioration in patients with type2 diabetes mellitus.There was a significant difference between the pre and post exercise therapy values of gait speed in this study, infact, there was a 15% increase in the gait speed capacity of the participants. Gait speed has been shown to be apredictor of functional decline, nursing home placement, and mortality. Specifically, a decrease in gait speed of 0.1m/s has been associated with a 10% decrease in the ability to perform instrumental activities of daily living(Lopolopo et al., 2006).It has been reported that elderly people with a gait speed of

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011The weight bearing index and gait speed may be useful surrogates to other known but expensive and cumbersomemethods of assessing physical functional capacity of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus both in clinical settingand in research. These tools can be used to evaluate the effects of intervention on physical functional deficiencies orlimitation in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.CONCLUSIONWe concluded that improvement or otherwise in PFC is related with WBI and GS. WBI and GS are thereforesignificant predictors of PFC of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Positive correlation of WBI and GS with PFCcan therefore be of value in monitoring functional progression or otherwise in this group of patients.It thus means that improvement in physical functional capacity of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus can beassessed and monitored through or by use of simple parameters of weight bearing index and gait speed.RecommendationsIt is recommended that clinicians and exercise therapists should make use of WBI and GS in assessing progressionor otherwise of individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus as part of the routine clinical examination in order that abetter rehabilitation goal that includes their quality of life is achieved.It is also recommended that the significant positive effects which exercise therapy had on WBI and GS is a pointerto the fact that exercise therapy should remain a necessary part of therapeutic regimen for patients with type 2diabetes mellitus.REFERENCESBabalola, J (2010). Relationship between body composition and functional capacity in patients living withosteoarthritis of the knee. European Journal of Scientific Research. 44 (1): 6-12.Brach, JS; Talkowski, JB; Strotmeyer, ES; & Newman, AB (2008, Nov). Diabetes mellitus and gait dysfunction:Possible explanatory factors. PT mag. 88(11): 1365-74.Brown, M & Sinacore, D.R (2005). Physical and performance measures for the identification of mild to moderatefrailty. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 55:M350-5Cesari, M; Kritchevsky, SB; Penninx, BWHJ; Nicklas, BJ; Simonsick, EM; Newman, AB; et al., (2005). PrognosticValue of Usual Gait Speed in Well-Functioning Older People—Results from the Health, Aging and BodyComposition Study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 53, (10): 1675–1680.Capodaglio, P; Capodaglio, EM; Ferri, A; Scaglioni, G; Marchi, A & Saibene, F (2005). Muscle function andfunctional ability improves more in community-dwelling older women with a mixed-strength trainingprogramme. Age and Ageing; 34: 141–147.Definition, diagnosis and classification of Diabetes and its complications. Report of a WHO Consultative Group. 2 nded. Part 1. WHO/ NCD/ NCS/99, Geneva. World Health Organisation 1999; 1- 59.242

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011de Grauw, WJC; van de Lisdonk, EH; Behr, RRA; van Gerwen, WHEM; van den Hoogen, HJM; & van Weel, C.(1999). The impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus on daily functioning. Family Practice; 16 (2): 133 - 139Houston DK, Cai J, Stevens J. (2008).Overweight and Obesity in Young and Middle Age and Early Retirement: TheARIC Study. Obesity, 17 1, 143- 149. doi:10.1038/oby.2008.464Kluding P, Gajewski B (2009). Lower-extremity strength differences predict activity limitations in people withchronic stroke. Phys Ther.; 89:73-81.Larsson, UE & Mattsson, E (2001, June). Functional limitations linked to high body mass index, age and currentpain in obese women. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development. 25 (6): 893- 899.Lopopolo, R.B., Greco, M., Sullivan, D., Craik, R.L & Mangione, K.K (2006). Effect of therapeutic exercise on gaitspeed in community-dwelling elderly people: A meta-analysis. Phys Ther. 86, (4): 520-540Miyatake, N; Nishikawa, H & Fujii, M.(2001). Clinical evaluation of physical fitness in male obese Japanese.Chinese Medical Journal. 114 (7): 707- 710.Petrella, JK; Miller, LS & Cress, ME (2004). Leg extensor power, cognition, and functional performance inindependent and marginally dependent older adults. Age and Ageing 2004; 33: (4): 342–348.Purser, JL; Weinberger, M; Cohen, HJ; Pieper, CF; Morey, MC; Li, T; Williams, GR; & Lapuerta, P. (2005).Walking speed predicts health status and hospital costs for frail elderly male veterans. Journal ofRehabilitation Research and Development. 42, (4): 534- 546.Sinclair, A.J., Conroy, S.P & Bayer, A.J (2007). Impact of diabetes on physical function in older peoplehttp://care.diabetesjournals.org on 16 November 2007.DOI: 10.2337/dc07-1784.Singh, AS; Paw, MJMC; Bosscher, RJ; van Mechelen, W (2006): Cross-sectional relationship between physicalfitness components and functional performance in older persons living in long-term care facilities. BMCGeriatrics. 6:4doi:10.1186/1471-2318-6-4.Taylor, J.D (2009). People with Type 2 diabetes can improve muscular strength. Science Daily, American PhysicalTherapy Association. Retrieved September 7, 2010, fromhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090922132850.htmWells, KF; Luttgens, K. (1976): Kinesiology; scientific basis of human motion. (6 th ed.), Phildelphia: W.B. SaundersCompany.Wen-Yu, K., Jin-Jong, C., Hsuein-Chen, L., Tzu-Chiao, L., Chi- Han, C. (2010). Weight-bearing Index or GripStrength, Which Is Better Physical Function Predictor for well-functioning elderly?. Medicine & Science inSports & Exercise. 42 (5): 592 doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000385475.59414.01Table 1: Physical characteristics of the participants.Variables N Mean Standard Deviation RangeAge (years) 15 60.5 10.4 30.00- 72.00Weight (Kg) 15 79.3 7.96 64.00- 92.50Height (m) 15 1.66 0.076 1.53- 1.79243

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 2: Pre and Post-exercise therapy relationship between physical performancecapacity and weight bearing index cum gait speed.Variable Mean Standard Deviation RangePhysicalFunctionalCapacityWeight BearingIndexPre Post Pre Post Pre Post30.2 35.33 1.71 0.7226.00-33.0034.00-36.000.4601 0.589 0.1417 0.178 1.09- .32- .951.52Gait Speed 1.39 1.60 .159 .128 1.27 1.79Table 3: Pearson’s correlation of Pre and Post exercise therapy effect onPFC, WBI and GSVariable Pearson Coefficient Significance value p

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationUPPER PRIMARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OFENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES:A CASE STUDY FROM TURKEYSÜLEYMAN ĠNCEKARA*, FĠKRET TUNA and ZEYNEP DOĞANFatih University, Department of Geography, 34500, Istanbul, Turkey*E-mail address for correspondence: sincekara@fatih.edu.tr_____________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The attitudes of children are a major focus of many environmental education programs and thedevelopment of environmentally sensitive attitudes in youth is seen as important to behavior later in life.However, a different path for environmental education has emerged aiming at children’s participation andemancipation through the transfer of knowledge, ownership and empowerment variables. Students’attitudes towards environmental issues are the object of many quantitative and qualitative studies indifferent countries. However, little has been done to analyze students’ perceptions of environmentalissues, in Turkey. At present, there is an urgent need to test the relationships between theory and practiceto understand whether Turkish schools provide sufficient education on the environment. This study aimsto explore these perceptions in primary education. For this purpose 209 primary school students weresurveyed. Comparisons were made based on gender by using descriptive and inferential statistics. Theresults suggest that students had insufficient knowledge about the environmental issues and femalestudents had higher consciousness level than the male students. The study also revealed that the studentswere quite pessimistic about the future regarding environmental problems.Keywords: Turkish students’ perception of environment, environmental problems,_____________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe prime purpose of the education is to serve the general welfare of a democratic society, by assuringthat the knowledge and understanding necessary to exercise the responsibilities of citizenship are not onlymade available but actively inculcated (Disinger, 2001). In this respect, education is a key factor indeveloping public knowledge and awareness about issues that affect the future of a nation and,subsequently, the world (Esa, 2010).Educationists are concerned with preparing students to become good stewards of the world in which theylive (Ballantyne, 1999) and interest in environmental education and an awareness of environmental issuesare one of their important subjects (Jeronen and Kaikkonen, 2002). Geography educators, particularly, areconcerned with people-environment relationships and the resultant spatial patterns on the earth’s surfaceand aim to develop caring environmental attitudes, values and behavior in students (Ballantyne, 1999).245

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011In the last decade or so, the attitudes of children are a major focus of many environmental educationprograms and the development of environmentally sensitive attitudes in youth is seen as important tobehavior later in life (Eagles and Demare, 1999). However, there have been growing concerns thattraditional environmental education is too limited in its scope to effect the necessary attitudinal changesneeded if ecological degradation is to be reduced (Taylor et al., 2003). So, a different path forenvironmental education has emerged aiming at children’s participation and emancipation, not onlythrough the transfer of knowledge but also through ownership and empowerment variables (Tsevreni,2011) and environmental education moved away from traditional education about the environment to amuch stronger focus on education for the environment.Many studies have been conducted on environment education from various perspectives in differentcountries including Taylor et al. (2003), Tsevreni (2011), Eagles and Demare (1999), Kaikkonen (2002),Esa (2010) and Disinger (2001).Analogous studies have also been conducted in Turkey to analyze students’ perceptions of environmentalissues. Four important studies were conducted in universities including Erol and Gezer (2006), Ġncekara(2010), Kahyaoğlu et al. (2008) and Özmen et al. (2005). The results showed that students’ attitudetoward environment and environmental issues were not very high. Furthermore, environmental attitude ofgirls was higher than that of boys at a significant level. As for high school students, Ġncekara and Tuna(2011) and Alp et al. (2006) conducted studies to measure student knowledge levels in environmentalissues. The results suggested that students were relatively knowledgeable about environmental issues.Besides these, two studies have been done by Gökçe et al. (2007) and ġimĢekli (2004), to analyze primaryschool students’ perceptions of environmental issues. The results showed that primary school studentshad insufficient attitudes towards environmental issues. However, the assessment of primary schoolstudents’ perceptions of environmental issues by comparing the gender of the students was an importantresearch gap in the field. Therefore, the main motive behind this study was the need to investigate theprimary school students’ perceptions of environmental issues focusing on gender.MATERIALS AND METHODSThis study aimed at determining the perceptions and consciousness level of Turkish primary schoolstudents towards environmental problems. In this investigation, the three fundamental research questionsthat guide the study are:1. What are primary school students’ perceptions and consciousness level about environmentalproblems?2. What are their thoughts about the future of the world regarding environmental problems?3. Are there correlations between the gender and the self-rating scores of students on environmentalquestions?To seek answers to the stated research questions, 8-item questionnaires were prepared and distributed to209 seventh and eighth year primary school students within Istanbul (in Kartal and Tuzla) province ofTurkey. The questionnaire consisted of the following two sections after the first question about gender:(1) a perceptions section in which students were given 5 questions and asked to rate their answersaccording to the following three-level Likert scale: 0-never, 1-sometimes and 2-always. (2) Opinionssection including two questions regarding their thoughts about environmental education and the future ofthe world regarding environmental problems.Descriptive statistics were used to calculate frequencies, while Mann-Whitney U tests were used toanalyze the inferential statistics because of the data according to one-sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov testwhich did not have a normally distributed interval variable (p < 0.05). The reliability coefficient was75.9% based on a factor reliability analysis of the dependent variables (Cronbach’s alpha coefficient:0.759)246

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011RESULTSAccording to the descriptive statistics, out of 209 students polled, 46.89% were male (n=98) and 53.19%were female (n=111) (Table 1).Table 1: Distribution of respondents by genderGender Frequency (f) Percentage (%)Male 98 46.89Female 111 53.19In the first section of the survey, students were asked five questions to assess their opinions by choosingan answer level (never, sometimes and always) about environmental problems. According to thedescriptive analysis of the answers given to the statements, the mean score for all questions was 1.01 outof 2, which corresponded to “sometimes”. The level was highest on the fifth question: “Do you believethat individuals can contribute to the reduction of environmental problems?”, with a score of 1.17. Thiswas followed by the third question: “How often do you read the newspapers for articles aboutenvironmental problems?” with a score of 1.08 and the first question: “How concerned are you aboutenvironmental issues?” with a score of 0.99. However, the mean score levels were relatively low forquestion 2 (How often do you talk about environmental problems with your family or friends?) with 0.95and 4 (How often do you separate the wastes at your home?) with 0.87 (Figure 1).Always2Sometimes10.99 0.951.080.871.171.01Never01 2 3 4 5 Mean ScoreQuestionsFigure 1: Student answer levels in environmental problems. The average score of 1.01 corresponds to“sometimes”.The answers of the perceptions section revealed that, about 60% of the students “sometimes” concernabout environmental problems. Of the students, 75% replied that they sometimes talk about theenvironmental problems with their family or friends. It was observed that 69.38% of the studentssometimes read the newspapers for articles about environmental problems. On the question aboutseparating the wastes at home, the mean score was relatively low, as only 30.62% of the students neverseparate the wastes. The question about the contribution of individuals to the reduction of environmentalproblems was quite encouraging; 36.73% of the students always believed that the individuals cancontribute (Table 2).247

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 2: Students’ answers in questions about environmental problemsQuestion Gender Never Sometimes Always Totaln % n % n % N %1 Male 26 26.53 62 63.27 10 10.20 98 100Female 17 15.32 62 55.86 32 28.83 111 100Total 43 20.57 124 59.33 42 20.10 209 1002 Male 18 18.37 71 72.45 9 9.18 98 100Female 13 11.71 86 77.48 12 10.81 111 100Total 31 14.83 157 75.12 21 10.05 209 1003 Male 14 14.29 71 72.45 13 13.27 98 100Female 10 9.01 74 66.67 27 24.32 111 100Total 24 11.48 145 69.38 40 19.14 209 1004 Male 36 36.73 39 39.80 23 23.47 98 100Female 28 25.23 69 62.16 14 12.61 111 100Total 64 30.62 108 51.67 37 17.70 209 1005 Male 17 17.35 45 45.92 36 36.73 98 100Female 22 19.82 50 45.05 39 35.14 111 100Total 39 18.66 95 45.45 75 35.89 209 100To determine whether boys and girls differed significantly in their answers about environmentalproblems, Mann-Whitney U test were performed. This was an appropriate procedure because thedependent variables were ordinal and variances were unequal. The p values refer to the statisticallysignificant differences in the mean ranks of boys and girls on the first and third questions due to the factthat the p values were smaller than 0.05. The difference was highest on the first question with the p valueof 0.001. This was followed by the third question with the p value of 0.031 (Table 3).Table 3: Mann-Whitney U test results for male and female students’ answersQuestion Gender N Mean Sum of U Z prank ranks1 Male 98 91.82 8998.00 4147.00 -3.365 0.001Female 111 116.64 12947.002 Male 98 100.91 9889.00 5038.00 -1.215 0.224Female 111 108.61 12056.003 Male 98 97.20 9525.50 4674.50 -2.161 0.031Female 111 111.89 12419.504 Male 98 103.92 10184.50 5333.50 -0.266 0.790Female 111 105.95 11760.505 Male 98 106.60 10447.00 5282.50 -0.390 0.697Female 111 103.59 11498.00Considering the student responses to the questions in the last section, it was observed that 84% (n = 176)of students thought that environmental problems should have been studied in the schools. The responsesto the question “How will our environment be in 30 years, considering contemporary environmentalproblems?” were quite discouraging in the sense that, only 27.8% of the students (n = 58) replied that thefuture of the environment would be better.248

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Environmental problemsshould be studied in schools33;16%176;84%In 30 years, our environmentwill be58;28%151;72%YESNOBETTERWORSEFigure 2: Students’ answers to the questions in the last section.DISCUSSIONAnalysis of the students’ answers about environmental problems indicated that, they rated theirconsciousness at the “sometimes” level with average score of 1.01 out of 2, which is a reasonable resultfor primary school students. The results showed that about one fifth of the primary school students werenever concerned about environmental issues and they do not talk and read about environmental problems.This finding underscores an important problem; students have insufficient knowledge about theenvironmental issues. For the separation of wastes, this rate increases to 30%. An encouraging finding ofthis study is that almost 82% of the students who were surveyed believed that the individuals wouldcontribute to the reduction of the environmental problems.In addition to the results from the responses of the students, inferential statistics indicated that malestudents differed significantly from female students on the first and third questions.According to the statistics, female students had higher consciousness level than the male students.However, they had more negative opinions than the male students about the contribution of individuals tothe reduction of environmental problems.The analysis of the questions in the last section, which was designed to investigate student opinions onthe need for the environmental education and the future of our world regarding environmental pollution,suggested that students had positive approach towards the need of environmental education in the schools.However, 72% thought that the future of the environment would be worse in 30 years.Finally, the results of this study have provided enough evidence to observe the need for improvingenvironmental consciousness in Turkey, since almost all of the students surveyed had lack of knowledgeabout environmental issues and they were quite pessimistic about the future. Some key steps taken byauthorized institutions can help students to fully understand the environmental issues and organizing therelated subjects in curriculums according to research findings may remove the doubts from students’minds and encourage the development of environmental education.249

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESAlp E., Ertepinar H., Tekkaya C., Yilmaz A. (2006). A statistical analysis of children’s environmentalknowledge and attitudes in Turkey. Int. Res. Geogr. Environ. Educ. 15(3), 210-223. DOI:10.2167/irgee193.0Ballantyne, R. (1999). Teaching environmental concepts, attitudes and behaviour through geographyeducation: findings of an international survey, International Research in Geographical andEnvironmental Education, 8(1), 40-58. DOI: 10.1080/10382049908667588Disinger, J. F. (2001). K-12 education and the environment: perspectives, expectations, and practice, TheJournal of Environmental Education, 33(1), 4-11. DOI: 10.1080/00958960109600795Eagles, P. F. J., Demare, R. (1999). Factors influencing children's environmental attitudes, The Journal ofEnvironmental Education, 30(4), 33-37. DOI: 10.1080/00958969909601882Erol, G. H., Gezer, K. (2006). Prospective of elementary school teachers’ attitudes toward environmentand environmental problems, International Journal Of Environmental And Science Education,1(1), 65-77.Esa, N. (2010). Environmental knowledge, attitude and practices of student teachers, InternationalResearch in Geographical and Environmental Education, 19(1), 39-50.10.1080/10382040903545534Gökçe, N., Kaya, E., Aktay, S., Özden, M. (2007). Elementary students’ attitudes towards environment,Elementary Education Online, 6(3), 452-468.Ġncekara, S. (2010). How do undergraduate geography students perceive environment and sustainabledevelopment? a case study from Turkey, World Applied Science Journal (WASJ), 11(6), 687-694.Ġncekara, S., Tuna, F. (2011). Attitudes of secondary school students towards Environmental andsustainable development issues: a case study from Turkey, African Journal of Biotechnology,10(1), 21-27.Jeronen, E., Kaikkonen, M. (2002). Thoughts of children and adults about the environment andenvironmental education, International Research in Geographical and EnvironmentalEducation, 11(4), 341-353. DOI: 10.1080/10382040208667501Kahyaoğlu, M., Daban, ġ., Yangın, S. (2008). Attitudes of primary candidate teachers about environment,Dicle University Journal of Ziya Gökalp Education Faculty, 11, 42-52.Özmen, D., Çetinkaya, A., Nehir, S. (2005). University students’ attitudes towards environmentalproblems, TAF Preventive Medicine Bulletin, 4(6), 330-344.ġimĢekli, Y. (2004). Sensitivity of elementary schools to the environmental education activities forincreasing environmental knowledge, Uludağ University Journal of Educational Faculty,17(1), 83-92.Taylor, N., Nathan, S., Coll, R. K. (2003). Education for sustainability in regional New South Wales,Australia: an exploratory study of some teachers' perceptions, International Research inGeographical and Environmental Education, 12(4), 291-311. DOI:10.1080/10382040308667543Tsevreni, I. (2011). Towards an environmental education without scientific knowledge: an attempt tocreate an action model based on children's experiences, emotions and perceptions about theirenvironment, Environmental Education Research, 17(1), 53-67. DOI:10.1080/13504621003637029250

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationCONTRIBUTIONS OF RESERVOIR ELEMENTS TO MONTHLY ELECTRICITYGENERATION IN THE JEBBA HYDROPOWER RESERVOIR, NIGERIAIFABIYI, IFATOKUN PAULDepartment of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Business and Social Sciences,P.M.B. 1515 University of Ilorin, Ilorin; Nigeria.E-mail address for correspondence: tokunifabiyi@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Nigeria has enormous hydroelectric power resources potential, presently hydroelectric power contributeabout 50% of the total energy use in Nigeria. Nigeria electricity supply is largely irregular and epileptic. An insightinto reservoir management will assist in alleviating this problem. This paper examines the contribution of 10reservoir elements in electricity generation in Jebba dam, Nigeria. Data on the 10 elements were obtained from theHydrology Department of the Jebba Business District, Power Holding Company of Nigeria, Jebba Dam Nigeria. Thedata collected span for 10 years (1989-1999). Both descriptive and inferential methods were used for datainterpretation in the study. The descriptive methods are mean, frequency analysis and graphs. The factor analyticaltechnique was used as a reduction model and to identify the orthogonal factors and the monthly contribution of theelements to electricity generation in Jebba. The results of the cumulative contributions of the factors range from79.3% in April to 92.3% contributions in December. Frequency analysis showed that reservoir balance has thehighest appearances, featuring in 8 of the 12 months of study, while reservoir level appeared in 2 months of the 12months. Also, December has the highest elements contributing to the explanations of electricity generation (5elements). Generally, months of high runoff are kwon to have lower numbers of elements contributing to electricitygeneration. This suggests that reservoir management in dry period is more challenging. The paper also observed thatoutflow variables are more prominent in the months of high runoff, while inflow variables are more prominent inlow flow period. The paper recommends that reservoir management should be reviewed along this scenario forbetter results.Keyword: Hydro-electricity generation, Reservoir Elements, Factor Analysis, Factor Defining Variable.____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONSince the 1970s, energy crises have been reported across the world. In Nigeria Chendo (2001) reported thatnational energy supply is at present almost entirely, dependent on fossil fuels and fire wood. Also, Akinbami(2001) also observed that the total energy consumption in Nigeria comprises of 5.22% of natural gas, 3.05%251

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011of hydroelectricity, and 50.45% natural gas, 3.05% of hydroelectricity, and 50.45% of fuel work. Meanwhile,Aliyu and Elegba, (1990) indicate that Nigeria possess potential renewable source of energy along hernumerous river systems. Indeed , they reported that a total of 70 micro dams, 126 mini dam and 86 smallsites have been identified in Nigeria. Despite these enormous resources electricity is still a mirage in every partof Nigeria, indeed, power outages remain the order of the day.The performances of water dams in Nigeria are still largely below expectation. Evidences of this can be seen in thefrequent dam breakages in northern Nigeria, which is partly due to underutilized water resources. Inefficientreservoir operations also partly explain the low hydro power generation in Nigeria. There are evidences that thewater resources of these dams are largely underutilized. The water has not been properly managed probably due topoor reservoir operation guidelines. Inefficiently reservoir management has partially intensified flood problems.Indeed, the problem of inappropriate reservoir operations may worsen an existing situation. Water reservoirs aremade to provide multiple benefits, flood control , etc; for water reservoir to fulfill any of these obligations,there is need for an appropriate reservoir management techniques or operation rules. Reservoir operationinfluences temporal flow patterns, which have implications on water resources management, and alsoaffect healthy riverine ecosystem.Reservoir operations depend on various optimization approaches. The choice of any optimization techniquesdepend upon the objective and water resources policy at a given time. Meanwhile, the success ofoptimization rules will depend on the nature of reservoir element at a given water reservoir. These elementscomprises basically the input, throughout an output terms of the reservoir, namely : discharge, reservoir level,reservoir storage balance, inflow m outflow, etc. Reservoir evaporation is the amount of water that is lost withinthe reservoir, which is computed on monthly basis, discharge is the amount of water that is discharge fromthe power house, comprising of outflow and turbine discharge. Reservoir level is the average depth of waterin the reservoir, it is a measure of the potential energy required in power generation. Storage balance is thevolume of water available for generation over a given time. It should be noted that, it is not the total water instorage that are available for use as dead storage is provided to keep sediment off from the power house.Outflow is the water going out of the reservoir; inflow must be commensurate with outflow and reservoir balance.This must be controlled for water to be available for production. Efficient inter play of these element iscrucial to sustainable power generation potential of dam reservoir.Power dam across the world and indeed Nigeria is currently under severe problems of climate change.(Ileasanmi, 1972; Lamb, 1982; Olaniran, 1991; 2002; Oladipo, 1995; Odjugo, 2009; 2010) This has reduced thereservoir balance lower the hydraulics head, and has been observed in Nigeria (Sule and Aribisala,1998).Efficient reservoir operation also has implication for downstream communities and aquatic ecosystem.This present study will examine the relative contribution of the reservoir element to power generationwith a view to making suggestions for the purposes of sustainable power management at the Jebba powerstation.The Study AreaJebba reservoir is located on latitude 9 o 35` and 9 o 50`N and longitude 4 o 30` and 5 o 00` E. It located on river Niger,Nigeria (Fig. 1). It is a 540mw dam. Jebba is underlain by Basement Complex rocks such as porphyritic granite,mica, quartzite, etc (Sagar, 1985; NEDECO, 1959; Imevbore, 1970). It has an estimated surface area of 303km 2 anda volume of 3.31x 10 9 m 3 . The maximum depth is 105m and a mean depth f 11m (Ita, et al 1984)252

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Fig. 1: The Niger Basin(Adapted from Emoabino, I. U., Alayande, A. W. and O. A. Bamgboye (2007))According to NEDECO (1959) and NEDECO and Balfour Beatty (1961) 2 patterns are discernable in the seasonalhydrological regime of river Niger in Jebba. In the months of May to October rainfall in the northern parts ofNigeria south of Niamey produces flood that quickly reaches Jebba area with a peak of 4,000-6,000 m 3 s -1 inSeptember to October. This flood water is laden with silt and clay sediment and its of high turbidity. Due to itscolour, it is locally called ‘white flood’. The second flood originates from the rivers headwater region from rivers ofhigh annual rainfall in the Fouta Djallon highlands in Guinea and passes through sub-arid region and deltaic swampsin Timbuktu. In this area much of the silt is lost to evaporation and infiltration. Little water is added before it reachesKanji in November with a peak flow of 2000 m 3 s -1 , the water is relatively clear known as black flood (Oyebande, etal, 1990; Mbagwu, et al, 2000;; Olaosebikan, et. al., 2006). These floods lead to high water levels which alwaysgive rise to water release at the dam sites which eventually have negative consequences on the study area. The flowregime of the River Niger below the Jebba dam is governed by the operations of the Kanji and Jebba Hydroelectricschemes and runoff from the catchments. The annual ‘white floods’ event which usually sets in July and peaks inSeptember does not maintain the same frequency as almost every four years the flood sets in with greater velocity,this lead to the dam overflowing its banks. This caused destruction of sugar cane plantation by inundation of sugarcane field, irrigation pumps and submerging of farming areas occupied by the villages.According to Lawal and Nagya (1999), Bolaji (1999), Olukanni, and Salami (2008) and Sule, et. al. (2009) thehavoc wreaked by the flooding of the lower Niger in 1998 and 1999 also has its effect on social services to thepeople of the area. For example schools in about 32 and 52 villages were submerged in the flood of 1988 and 1999in the downstream of Jebba respectively, while schooling for fleeing villagers remain disrupted and the hospitalswere not spared by flood253

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Materials and MethodsSecondary data were used in this study. A total of 10 hydro engineering/ reservoir elements were examined onmonthly basis in this study. These are minimum inflow, storage balance, evaporation, average outflow, peak inflow,peak outflow, reservoir level, average inflow, minimum evaporation outflow and discharge. These parameters weresampled for 10 years (1989-1999). The required monthly data were collected from the Hydrology Department ofJebba Business District, Jebba Dam, Niger state, Nigeria.Both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used in data interpretation. The descriptive methodsinclude mean, frequency analysis and graphs. The factor analysis was used as reduced rank model, to rewrite the 10elements to few orthogonal ones that will efficient be used in the explanations of power generation in Jebba dam.Factor analysis is mostly for data reduction purposes: To get a small set of variables (preferably uncorrelated) from alarge set of variables (most of which are correlated to each other). Factor analytical operations were conducted onmonthly basis in order to identify the orthogonal reservoir elements that will explain electricity generation in Jebbadam. Altogether, 12 factor analytical operations were conducted in this study, showing annual pattern from Januaryto December.Results and DiscussionThe result of the factor analyses of reservoir elements their parentage cumulative contribution is presented Table 1.JanuaryIn the months of January out of the 10 reservoir elements considered for the month of January 3 elements (storage balance, minimum outflow and lake evaporation ) were relevant to the explanation in the equation.These 3 factors contributed 90.6% to the explanation of the variance. This shows that 7 of the reservoirelements were redundant in power generation in January. These seven elements only explained 9.4% of thevariance in the equation (Table 1).FebruaryFour factors were relevant in February; these are minimum inflow, storage balance, average outflow and peakinflow. February is the season when black flood becomes important; when water is released due to rainy seasonrunoff from the headwater of Jebba. The 4 factors altogether explained 90.6% explanation the variance in theequation. This suggest that 9.4% are account for 6 reservoir elements showing high level redundancy in the reservoirelements in electricity generation for the months of February.MarchIn March 3 elements were relevant to electricity generation. These are minimum inflow, average outflow and peakinflow. These elements have a cumulative contribution of 91.0 % explanation the month of March is the driestmonth in Jebba area, and it is a month when inflow is minimal. In March high level of redundancy is alsoexperienced in the interaction of reservoir elements.254

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011AprilIn April peak outflow, reservoir basin and average inflow offered a total explanation of 79% in the variance in theequation. April is generally a season of low water level in the reservoir. This explained while peak outflow, which isan indication of reservoir release which is normally at its lowest in this season. Also it also explains while inflowand water level are crucial to power generation. This is simply because of the low water level in April.MayThe month of May marks the effective start of the rainy season, otherwise known as rainfall onset in the immediateupstream of river at Jebba. It marks a period of runoff restoration. Therefore, water is relatively available in thereservoir in May. In May, 4 reservoir elements were relevant to power generation. These are: lake evaporation,average outflow, peak inflow and lake evaporation. These 4 elements contribute a total of 89.7% to the explanationof the variance.JuneJune marks the first peak of rainfall around Jebba; this month is the month which predate the ‘white flood’ in Jebba4. It is a period when the ITD has stabilized over Nigeria. Hence, the local catchments of the Middle Niger areyielding inflow to the Jebba reservoir. At this time 4 elements dominate the explanation, namely: minimum inflow,average outflow, reservoir level and discharge. They contributed altogether contribute 88.8% explanation to thevariance. The selection of minimum inflow is in view of the high runoff and that of average outflow is suggestive ofthe tail race water, reservoir level is suggestive of the lake filling and discharge is suggestive of the higher waterrelease due to increasing inflow.JulyHigh incidences of rainfall have made 3 elements dominant in July namely: storage balance, minimum outflow anddischarge to dominant reservoir operation in July they offered 87.9% explanation. The month of July in Jebba marksthe beginning of ‘white flood’ in Jebba, this flood eventually peak in September. The dominance of the elements isexpected. This has to do with water excess, for example once the reservoir is filled some spilling must commence inother to protect the dam structure. High redundancy is demonstrated in this month amongst the reservoir operationelements. The 3 elements contributed 87.9% explanation to the variance in the equation.AugustAugust is usually a month of heavy rainfall in the catchment, average outflow, storage balance and dischargedominate the explanation. This is expected in view of the peculiarity of the Jebba reservoir hydrology in august. Themonth of august is ‘white flood season when some spilling is done in other to protect the dam, outflow, dischargeand reservoir balance become relevant in management routine in the dam. These output variables altogethercontributed 89.1 % explanation to variance in the explanation.SeptemberIn September, minimum inflow, average outflow and reservoir level dominate the explanation. September is usuallythe peak of the white flood in the reservoir when large amount of water enters into the dam. This explains while255

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011peak inflow is dominant. It also explains while average outflow is also dominant; as some reasonable levels ofspilling must be done. These 3 elements together contributed 87.4% explanation to the variance.S/NTable 1: Percentage Contribution of Monthly Reservoir ElementsMonthFactors Defining VariablesReservoir ElementsPercentageContribution(%)CumulativeContribution1 January 1. Peak Inflow 49.6 82.62. Storage Balance 20.03. Evaporation 12.92 February 1. Minimum Inflow 33.62. Storage Balance 24.93. Average Outflow 21.74. Peak Inflow 10.33 March 1. Minimum Inflow 33.62. Storage Balance 25.03. Average Outflow 21.74. Peak Inflow 10.74 April 1. Peak Outflow 37.42. Storage balance 26.43. Average Inflow 15.45 May 1. Peak Inflow 27.52. Reservoir Level 25.53. Evaporation 11.24. Average Outflow 25.4(%)90.791.179.289.76 June 1. Minimum inflow 24.9 88.82. Average Outflow 23.93. Discharge 16.24. Reservoir Level 23.77 July 1. discharge 37.4 88.02. storage balance 36.43. minimum outflow 14.28 August 1. Average Outflow 37.42. Storage Balance 36.43. Discharge 14.29 September 1. Minimum Inflow 33.088.0256

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20112. Average Outflow 30.8 87.43. Reservoir Level 23.610 October 1. Peak Inflow 38.42. Storage Balance 25.084.33. Average Inflow 20.911 November 1. Average Inflow 27.92. Peak Inflow 27.480.93. Discharge 25.412 December 1. Peak Outflow 26.02. Minimum Outflow 18.292.33. Storage 17.44. Discharge 15.85. Evaporation 14.8OctoberStorage balance, average inflow and peak inflow are the most dominant in October. This is expected since the whiteflood is just receding. These 3 elements contribute 84.3% to the explanation of electricity generation in October atthe Jebba reservoir.NovemberIn the month of November, 3 elements namely: average inflow, peak inflow and discharge are relevant toelectricity generation in the dam. The inflow variables of average and peak are still dominant because of the aftereffects of the white flood. Discharge is also an important parameter. This is because in November the flood hasceased and reservoir balance has to be maintained. Average inflow, peak inflow and discharge altogether contributed80.9% explanation to the variance.DecemberDecember second month that have the highest number of elements (5) namely: storage balance, lake evaporation,peak outflow, minimum outflow and discharge controlling power generation in the Jebba reservoir. These are peakoutflow, minimum outflow, storage balance, discharge and evaporation. It also mark the beginning of the blackflood, a period when high flow is recorded due to the arrival wet season runoff from the upper Niger catchmentafter about 1000 km journey. This explains while 3 output variables (peak outflow, minimum outflows, dischargeare dominant). Indeed, evaporation, another important output term is also significant in view of the high potentialevapotranspiration in the months of December in Jebba. These four elements will affect reservoir balance andconsequently affect power generation in the Jebba station. These factors together explain 92.3% explanation in thevariance.257

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011DISCUSSIONThe analysis of the results of monthly contributions of reservoir elements presented above show that Decemberhas the highest numbers of reservoir elements contributing to power generation. This is followed by February,March, May, and June with four elements each. January, April, July, August, September, October and Novemberhave 3 elements each. It is pertinent to note that, December coincides with the period of ‘black flood’ whenminimal water is added to the flow in Jebba reservoir, this is also the case for February, March, May, and June(Table 2, 3 and figs 2and 3). It therefore implies that during drier conditions more reservoir elements will berequired for power generation. This therefore makes reservoir operations more complex as the dam hydrologist willneed to be more careful and proactive for efficient power generation. Further, in the wetter period of the ‘whiteflood’ (July to October) only 3 elements each are relevant to dam operations; these comprises of reservoir balance(July, August and October), peak inflow (October) and discharge (July and August, average outflow in August andSeptember and average inflow in October). A look at these elements shows their level of relevance. Reservoirbalance is an indication of the quantity of water available for turbine actions, it also determines the reservoir leveland invariable the quantity ofTable 2: Monthly Frequencies of Entries of Factor Defining Variables into the Statistical ExplanationsJan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct. Nov. Dec Total1.Mini Inflow 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 42.Storage Balance 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 83. Evaporation 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 34.Average Outflow 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 65.Peak Inflow 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 66.Peak Outflow 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 37. Reservoir Level 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 28.Average Inflow 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 39.Minimum Outflow 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 310. Discharge 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 53 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 5258

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011MonthsTable 3: Frequencies of Monthly Entries and CumulativeContributions of Reservoir Elements to Power GenerationMonthly Entries ofReservoirElements into theFactor AnalysisComputationMonthly CumulativePercentage (%) ofExplanation of FactorAnalysis.1. January 3 82.62. February 4 90.33. March 4 91.04. April 3 79.05. May 4 89.06. June 4 88.87. July 3 88.08. August 3 88.09. September 3 87.410. October 3 84.311. November 3 80.912. December 5 92.3259

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011DecNovOctSeptAugJulJunMayapriMarFebJan0 1 2 3 4 5Fig 2: Frequencies of Monthly Contributions of Reservoir Elements inPower Generation260

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011876543210Fig 3: Frequency of Reservoir Elements in Monthly PowerGenerationNovemberOctoberDecemberJanuary959085807570FeburarymarchAprilSeptemberMayAugustJuneJulyFig. 4: Monthly Percentage Contribution Of FactorAnalysis Cummulative Varaiance Explained By ReservoirElements261

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011power generation. Peak inflow is indicative of high water inflow into the reservoir; it also affects the reservoirbalance and dam level. It is suggestive of adequate water in the reservoir, which is a condition for efficient powergeneration. Discharge and outflows are indicative of water release for reservoir protection from damages or possiblefailure due to high inflow. If discharge is not properly managed at this time it may lead to problems. It is also toprovide water to downstream communities.Furthermore, the analysis of the contributions of individual elements to reservoir operations in all months in thestudy period shows that, reservoir balance or reservoir storage has the highest contributions (8 months), followed byaverage outflow and peak inflow, (6 months), discharge (5 months), minimum inflow (4 months)), reservoirevaporation, peak outflow, average inflow and minimum outflow (3 months) and finally reservoir level featuringonly in June and September (2 months). The high frequency exhibited by reservoir balance is expected because it isvariable water availability for electricity. That of peak inflow and average outflow is suggestive of a balance whichis implicative of water availability and the entry and exit of water from the reservoir. Runoff discharge is alsocrucial to the sustainability of the reservoir itself and the downstream ecosystem. It should be noted that downstreamcommunities (including Jebba township) depend on the dam spillage, tail water and others for their domestic watersupply fishing, irrigation (Bacita Sugar Plantation is just about 20 kilometers downstream of Jebba in Belle andYelwa area), transportation and other forms of livelihood. Therefore discharge of water should be of paramountimportance to reservoir operation, particularly in Jebba dam.Furthermore, the cumulative percentage explanations of the various factors are all significantly high throughout themonths (Table 1, 2 and Fig 4), suggesting these reservoir elements are relatively highly important to the success ofpower generation in Jebba hydropower dam. These percentages range from 79.0% in April; to a maximum of 92.3%in December. This implies that the best synergy in the operation of the elements was recorded in December. Theseelements are: storage balance, lake evaporation, peak outflow, minimum outflow and discharge. This is closelyfollowed by what obtains in March (91.0%) when 4 elements are dominant (minimum inflow, storage balance,average outflow and peak inflow). These elements are similar in nature; therefore they must be recognized for bettersynergy in reservoir operations in Jebba. Meanwhile, it is important to note that higher performance will be ensuedwhen operations depend on higher number of elements than when few elements dominate. For example, thepercentage explanation of factor analysis were higher when higher number of factors were in operation than whenfewer factors were in operation (Table 2)CONCLUSIONThe problem in the Nigerian power sector should not only be viewed mainly in terms of capital investment, it shouldalso be viewed in technical terms too. The success of any investment in the sector depends on the effectiveoperations of the reservoir which forms the nexus of power generation. Efficient reservoir management will beensured with a better understanding of the interactions of the various elements of reservoir hydrology which thispaper is hinged upon.According to the above, period of low water levels especially December have the highest numbers of reservoirelements contributing to power generation. It therefore implies that during drier conditions more reservoir elementswill be required in power generation. This therefore makes reservoir operations at dry periods more complex as thedam hydrologist will need to be more careful and proactive for efficient power generation. In wetter period of the‘white flood’ (July to October) fewer elements (only 3) may be relevant to dam operations. Furthermore, storagebalance, peak inflow, average outflow, discharge, and minimum inflow must be carefully monitored for efficientpower output. These elements feature more in monthly operations than others. The cumulative percentageexplanations of the various factors were all significantly high throughout the months suggesting that all the 10reservoir elements are important to the success of power generation in Jebba hydropower dam. The best synergy262

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011was recorded in December and other drier periods when higher numbers and similar elements were dominant.Meanwhile, it is important to note that higher performance will be ensued when operations depend on highernumber of elements than when few elements dominate.REFERENCESAkinbami, J.F.K. (2001). Renewable Energy Resources and Technologies in Nigeria: Present Situation, FutureProspects and Policy Framework. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 6: 155-188,2001. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Netherlands.Aliyu, U. O. and Elegba, S.B. (1990); Prospects for Small Hydropower Development for Rural Applications inNigeria. Nigerian Journal of Renewable Energy 1: 74-86.Aribisala, J.O. and B. F. Sule,( 1998) Seasonal operation of a Reservoir Hydropower system, TechnicalTransactions Nigerian Society of Engineers, NSE, 33 (2) : 1-14,Bolaji, T (1999). Sacked by the Almighty River Niger, Newspaper Publication. The Guardian on Sunday, October23, 1999. pp 4 -5Emoabino, I. U. , Alayande, A. W. and O. A. Bamgboye ( 2007) Tail water recycling for higher efficiency inhydropower – case study of Kainji – Jebba hydropower dams in Nigeria International Conference on SmallHydropower - Hydro Sri Lanka, 22-24 October 2007Ilesanmi, O.O.(1972) Aspect of the precipitation climatology of the July-August rainfall minimum of SouthernNigeria”. Journal of Tropical Geography, 35: 51-59Imevbore, A.M.A (1970) Some preliminary observation on the sex ratio and fecundity of the fish in the river Nigerin: S.A. Visser (ed) Kainji Lake Studies vol 1 university press Ibadan.Ita, E.O., W.S. Omorinkoba, N.O. Bankole and B. Ibiwoye, (1984) A preliminary report on the immediate postimpoundment fishery of the newly created Jebba lake. Kainji Lake Research Institute Annual Report. pp75-92Lamb, P.J. (1980). Sahelian drought. New Zealand J.Geog., 68:12-16Lawal, A.F and Nagya, M.T (1999). Socio-Economic effects of flood disaster on farmers in Mokwa LocalGovernment Area, Niger State, Nigeria. A paper presented at the 33rd Annual Conference of AgriculturalSociety of Nigeria held at National Cereal Research Institute, Badeggi, Niger State, Nigeria. pp 1 – 10Mbagwu, I.G. and Ladu, B.M.B. and Amadi, A.O. (2002) Contributions of the seasonal and long term flood patternsof River Niger to the development and control of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in Kainji Lake,Nigeria. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Water Hyacinth, 27 Nov. - 01 Dec., 2000, NewBussa, Nigeria.NEDECO (1959) Niger dam projects. Part 2: hydrology and reservoir operations.Odjugo, P.A.O. (2009) The impact of climate change on water resources: global and Nigerian analysis FUTYJournal of The Environment 4(1)263

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Odjugo, P. A. O. (2010) Regional evidence of climate change in Nigeria Journal of Geography and RegionalPlanning 3(6):142-150.Olukanni, D. O and A. W. Salami (2008) Fitting probability distribution functions to reservoir inflow athydropower dams in Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Hydrology, The Electronic Journal of theInternational Association for Environmental Hydrology on the World Wide Web athttp://www.hydroweb.com. 2607 Hopeton Drive San Antonio, TX 78230, USA, 16 (Paper 35): 1-7.Oladipo, E.O. (1995). An indication of abrupt change of rainfall and it potential impact on energy development inNigeria. In: Umolu, J. C. (ed). Global Climate Change: Impact on Energy Development. DAMTECHNigeria Limited, Nigeria.Olaniran O. J. (1991a). Rainfall anomaly patterns in dry and wet years over Nigeria. International Journal ofClimatology, 11:177-204Olaniran O.J. (1991b): Evidence of climatic change in Nigeria based on annual series of rainfall of different dailyamounts, 1919-1985. Climatic Change 19:319-341Olaosebikan, B.D., Muschoot,T and Umar,Y.(2006) Growth mortality and yield of Parailia Pellucida in the upperportion of Jebba reservoir , Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Fisheries. 2/3 (2): 345-357Oyebande, L. V. O. Sagua, J. L. Ekpenyong (1980) The effect of Kainji Dam on the hydrological regime, waterbalance and water quality of the River Niger The influence of man on the hydrological regime with specialreference to representative and experimental basins — L'influence de l'homme sur le régime hydrologiqueavec reference particulière aux études sur les bassins représentatifs et expérimentaux (Proceedings of theHelsinki Symposium, June 1980; Actes du Colloque d'Helsinki, Juin 1980): IAHS—AISH Publ. 130.Sarkar, S, L, (1985) The role and effects of harnessing the River Niger at Kainji and Jebba Scientific Basis for WaterResources Management (Proceedings of the Jerusalem Symposium, September 1985). IAHS Publ. 153.Sule, B.F. , A.W. Salami and O.G. Okeola (2009) Operational impact of hydropower generation and highlights onpreventive measures in lowland area of river Niger, Nigeria International Electronic EngineeringMathematical Society IEEMShttp://www.ieems.net International e-Journal of Engineering Mathematics:Theory and Application http://www.ieems.net/iejemta.htm ISSN 1687-6156, 7:109-126264

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationGEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF A SITE IN AJIBODE,SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA FOR LANDFILL* I. A. OYEDIRAN and G. O. ADEYEMIDepartment of Geology, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.*E-mail address for correspondence: oyediranibrahim@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Indiscriminate disposal of wastes generated by the increasing human population and industriespollute surface and groundwater, consequently creating health hazards. An evaluation of a site insouthwestern Nigeria was undertaken to investigate geotechnical properties of residual soils for use asisolation barriers and to generate baseline information on soil vulnerability, necessary in assessing sitesuitability for waste disposal. Geological mapping of rocks in the area was undertaken while Geotechnicalparameters namely, grain size distribution, consistency limits, permeability and Unconfined Compressivestrength were also determined. The soils possessed amount of fines (30.0 - 73.0 %) and clay content (11.3 –38.7 %) that are within the minimum 30 % and 10 % respectively considered adequate for a landfill site.Furthermore, they are well graded exhibiting low to medium plasticity with plasticity index of 9.1 to 20.3% and low leakage potential of 0.3 – 0.4 cm/s. Permeability coefficient (k) ranged from 4.7 x 10 -8 - 1.9 x10 -6 cm/s and was within the range of 10 -8 -10 -6 cm/s required for attenuation by natural geological barrierswith no likelihood of lateral movement of leachate.Geotechnical evaluation of the site indicated that the study area is geologically stable, geotechnically safeand therefore suitable for waste disposal.Keywords: Geotechnical evaluation, Landfill, Groundwater, Pollution______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe increased consciousness of the consequence of climate change to present and future generations byindiscriminate or careless dumping of materials has made the call for the establishment of properlydesigned waste repositories persistent. In the developed parts of the world, waste management andenvironmental sustainability have been quite successful. This can be attributed to factors which includeexistence of sound environmental laws that are strictly enforced and adoption of integrated wastemanagement approach. Furthermore waste collection for proper disposal is enhanced by accessibility whichis as a result of adequate and sustained physical planning.265

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Urban workers who redeem recyclable materials from richer refuse have few or no incentives to servicepoor suburban settlements with the result that wastes are dumped indiscriminately (Sule, 1982; Adedibu,1986). There are many materials that are too low in value to recycle, too difficult to degrade, too thick toinject into deep wells and too contaminated with heavy metals and other non inflammable materials toincinerate. Thus the disposal operation of last resort is ground burial of such materials which of course isnot an ideal solution, not necessarily even a good solution but the only solution that exists. It is generallyaccepted that an engineered sanitary landfill is a safer waste disposal method than open dumping. Despitewaste reduction and recycling policies, and waste pretreatment programmes to lower the proportion ofwaste going to landfill, at the end of the day landfills will still be required to accommodate residual wastes(Allen et al. 1997).The role of soil in landfills is to provide cover, attenuate potential contaminants, control runoff andleachate, and serve as a bulking agent (if the sludge characteristics and land filling method warrant). Thechemical and physical/hydraulic properties of a soil determine how effective it will be in performing theseroles. Investigations by Jessberger (1994), Edelman (1999), Jones and Dixon (1997) have demonstratedthat optimization of landfill barrier design cannot be achieved without specific geotechnical properties.According to Sitig (1979) relevant physical/ hydraulic soil properties that should be noted during theselection process are Texture, Structure, Soil depth, Quantity and Permeability. Prospective sites should beevaluated with respect to type of soil available, drainage, prevailing winds, availability of access roads andhaul distance involved. Hagerty and Pavoni (1973) concluded that the use of the site evaluation system willimprove the quality of site selection and will reduce contamination and pollution problems created byconstruction of refuse landfills at unsuitable locations. It is thus obvious that a site for disposal of wastemust be well chosen.The problem of management of solid waste within the metropolis of Ibadan is of considerable magnitudeand has been the subject of discourse by several authors (Maclaren, 1970; Oluwande, 1974; Egunjobi,1986). The study area is thus strategic as the population of the surrounding University of Ibadan, IbadanPolytechnic, Apete, IITA, Orogun, Agbowo, Ojoo and Sasa communities is on the increase. The site wasevaluated geotechnically to establish baseline conditions and hence determine its suitability for a landfill.Study AreaThe study area, Ajibode is a village located within Ibadan and shares boundaries with the University ofIbadan and Orogun communities to the south and to the North the IITA, Ojoo, Shasha and Moniyacommunities of Ibadan. The area lies between longitudes 3 o 52‟ and 3 o 54‟ East of the Greenwich meridianand latitudes 7 o 27‟ and 7 o 28‟ North of the Equator. The area is easily accessible by a network of roads.The U.I/Shasha bye-pass links the study area to the surrounding communities. Footpaths and untarredfeeder roads also exists around the area. (Fig. 1.) The area which is part of southwestern Nigeria lies withan average elevation of about 230m above sea level (Faniran 1994) and is well drained by River Ona. Theclimate is influenced by two major air masses controlling the seasons (wet and dry) with average annualrainfall of the Ibadan area for a 5 year period between 2003 and 2007 being 1245.92 mm (InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture, 2007) Due to the alternation of wet and dry seasons, the water tablefluctuates in response to the seasonality of rainfall. The study area lies within the Basement Complex rocksof southwestern Nigeria which comprises igneous and metamorphic rock units such as gneisses, migmatitesincluding Older Granite ridges and pegmatites (Fig. 2).266

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Fig. 1. Map showing study area and environs.Fig. 2. Generalized geological map of Nigeria (Geological Survey of Nigeria, 2004)MATERIALS AND METHODSGeological field mapping of the study area was undertaken to identify the different rock types, understandthe mode of occurrence of the rocks, enable macroscopic field identification and subsequent microscopiclaboratory identification. The soil samples were collected from test pits spread across the sampling locationwhich according to DoE (1995) not only ensures rapid coverage but also allows visual examination ofstrata. Eighty-four soil samples comprising fifty-six disturbed samples at 0.5m interval and twenty-eightundisturbed samples at 1.0m interval were obtained from 7 test pits to a maximum depth of 4m. Forcompleteness of the investigation, the range of laboratory tests conducted on collected disturbed and267

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011undisturbed samples in accordance with Bs 1377 (1975) include grain size distribution, consistency limits,permeability and Unconfined Compression tests.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONGeological Field MappingGeological field investigations of exposed rocks show that the sampling location is underlain by GraniteGneiss which is medium grained and pinkish. The outcrops occur as prominent ridges. The rock iscrystalline with interlocking grains and quite extensive, thus can be quarried as rock aggregates. The trendof the foliation is generally N-S while numerous E-W trending joints exist on the outcrops. The rocks areessentially dipping to the east. The dip ranges from 17º to 42º East. Thin section study of the samples ofGranite gneiss shows the presence of quartz, biotite, plagioclase and microcline feldspars. Foliation ispreserved (Plate 1 and 2) showing biotite (mafic mineral) with elongate structures and this defines thefoliation trend. Quartz occurred as irregularly shaped crystals which were relatively unbroken. Plagioclaseshowed vivid polysynthetic twinning while microcline also showed cross hatches. Few opaques wereobserved. The minerals identified are Quartz (40%), Hornblende (25%), Plagioclase (15%), Biotite (10%),Microcline (5%) and other minerals (5%).Keller (1980) noted that Limestone or highly fractured rock quarries and most sand gravel pits make poorlandfill sites because these earth materials are good aquifers however Granite gneiss is a rock suitable forthe location of a landfill because it is not chemically active.MQPPBHHBQ = Q u a r t z , B = B io t it e , H = H o r n b le n d e , M = M ic r o c lin e , P = P la g io c la s ePlate 1. Photomicrograph of Granite Gneiss in transmitted light showing quartz, biotite, microcline,plagioclase, hornblende and other minerals (magnification x40)268

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011MHBQBPQ = Q u a r t z , B = B io t it e , H = H o r n b le n d e , M = M ic r o c lin e , P = P la g io c la s ePlate 2. Photomicrograph of Granite Gneiss in transmitted light showing quartz, biotite, microcline,plagioclase, hornblende and other minerals (magnification x40)Geotechnical ParametersGrain size distributionThe character of a soil is established from its grain size composition. The dominant grain size groupnaturally establishes the behaviour pattern and depending on the quantities of the other group sizes present,the soil characteristics are modified. According to Kabir and Taha (2004), hydraulic conductivity behaviourof soil liners is greatly influenced by the particle size distribution because the relative proportions of largeand small particle sizes affect the size of voids conducting flow.The results of the analysis of the grain size distribution of the fifty-six disturbed studied soil samplesobtained from seven test pits at 0.5m interval (Table 1) and grading curves (Fig. 3 to Fig. 9) are presentedrespectively. Elsbury et al. (1990), North West Waste Disposal Officers, NWWDO (1991), USEPA (1993),Daniel (1993), National Rivers Authority, NRA (1994), Benson et al. (1994) and Rowe et al. (1995)recommended materials with high clay content or a high silt and clay content as the soils will exhibit lowpermeability. Materials with a high percentage of gravel or with excessively large particles should not beused. However suitably graded materials with a low clay fraction content can still perform acceptably.Brunner and Keller (1972) recommended finer soil materials because of high specific surface and lowmigration of leachate as soil texture becomes finer. Daniel (1993b), Benson et al. (1994) and Rowe et al.(1995) recommended that soil liners should have at least 30% fines and less than 30% gravel. Also Declanand Paul (2003) indicated a requirement of minimum clay content of 10%. Well graded materials will tendto compact to a lower porosity (and hence permeability) than uniformly graded materials (DoE, 1995).It was observed from the results of grain size distribution that soils from all the pits at the depth of 3.00 mto 4.00m have amount of fines greater than or equal to the minimum of 30% recommended by Daniel(1993b); Benson et al. (1994) and Rowe et al. (1995) for soils used as landfill liner. These soils also satisfythe recommendation of Declan and Paul (2003) for a minimum clay content of 10% and exhibit high clayand silt content with low amount of gravel (USEPA, 1993; NWWDO, 1991; NRA, 1994; Elsbury et al.,1990; Benson et al., 1994 and Daniel, 1993).Generally all the soils from the pits have high amount of fines and will have high specific surface and lowleachate migration as soil texture becomes finer (Brunner and Keller, 1972). Furthermore the soils are wellgraded and are expected to compact to a low porosity and hence permeability than uniformly gradedmaterials. The soils will perform well as they are suitably graded and have low clay fraction content.269

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Moreover, the soils contain adequate amount of sand which may offer notable protection from volumetricshrinkage and impart adequate strength as recommended by Kabir and Taha (2004).Table 1: Grain size distribution parametersPitDepth(m)%Gravel%Sand%Coarsefraction%Silt%Clay %FinesfractionAJB 1C 0.50 4.5 80.8 85.3 6.7 8.0 14.71.00 20.8 66.1 86.9 5.1 8.0 13.11.50 4.1 81.0 85.1 6.9 8.0 14.92.00 6.7 74.7 81.4 8.6 10.0 18.62.50 8.7 77.1 85.8 6.2 8.0 14.23.00 13.1 77.0 90.1 4.9 5.0 9.93.50 11.4 71.4 82.8 6.0 11.2 17.24.00 10.0 73.2 83.2 5.5 11.3 16.8AJB 3A 0.50 3.0 75.0 78.0 12.0 10.0 22.01.00 20.9 64.1 85.0 6.5 8.5 15.01.50 3.0 54.0 57.0 22.5 20.5 43.02.00 0.0 38.0 38.0 31.0 31.0 62.02.50 0.0 34.0 34.0 33.0 33.0 66.03.00 0.0 56.0 56.0 22.0 22.0 44.03.50 0.0 66.0 66.0 16.0 18.0 34.04.00 0.0 67.0 67.0 16.0 17.0 33.0AJB 3F 0.50 6.2 78.1 84.3 7.7 8.3 16.01.00 7.5 77.8 85.3 6.8 8.2 15.01.50 7.0 75.0 82.0 8.9 9.1 18.02.00 37.0 42.0 80.0 10.3 10.0 20.32.50 0.0 15.5 15.5 44.5 40.0 84.53.00 0.0 43.2 43.2 29.8 27.0 56.83.50 0.0 49.1 49.1 25.9 25.0 50.94.00 0.0 51.9 51.9 24.1 24.0 48.1AJB 4B 0.50 12.5 65.4 77.9 10.7 11.4 22.11.00 18.0 66.0 84.0 6.0 10.0 16.01.50 5.7 74.0 79.7 10.0 10.3 20.32.00 0.0 39.1 39.1 30.0 30.9 60.92.50 0.0 52.8 52.8 24.2 23.0 47.23.00 0.0 49.1 49.1 22.9 28.0 50.93.50 0.0 58.8 58.8 19.0 22.2 41.24.00 0.0 67.0 67.0 9.9 23.1 33.0AJB 4E 0.50 13.3 78.3 91.6 4.1 4.3 8.41.00 38.3 49.2 87.5 5.4 7.1 12.51.50 0.0 68.4 68.4 13.6 18.0 31.62.00 0.0 39.9 39.9 40.1 20.0 60.12.50 0.0 68.6 68.6 10.7 20.7 31.43.00 0.0 81.1 81.1 6.9 12.0 18.93.50 0.0 70.0 70.0 11.0 19.0 30.04.00 0.0 69.8 69.8 12.0 18.2 30.2AJB 5C 0.50 2.7 69.0 71.7 10.3 18.0 28.31.00 0.0 49.7 49.7 21.3 29.0 50.31.50 1.0 54.7 55.7 20.0 24.3 44.32.00 0.0 48.2 48.2 21.2 30.6 51.82.50 0.7 72.0 72.7 10.6 16.7 27.33.00 2.9 71.1 74.0 11.0 15.0 26.03.50 4.3 60.7 65.0 14.6 20.4 35.04.00 3.0 67.0 70.0 12.5 17.5 30.0AJB 6B 0.50 5.0 77.0 82.0 8.0 10.0 18.01.00 8.0 70.8 78.8 11.2 10.0 21.21.50 1.0 63.3 64.3 18.4 17.3 35.72.00 1.0 60.1 61.1 18.9 20.0 38.92.50 0.0 36.8 36.8 30.0 33.2 63.23.00 0.0 29.6 29.6 34.4 36.0 70.43.50 0.0 26.0 26.0 36.7 37.3 74.04.00 4.3 22.7 27.0 34.3 38.7 73.0270

% PASSING% PASSING% PASSING% PASSINGOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011CLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00mFig. 3. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 1CCLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00mFig. 4. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 3ACLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00mFig. 5. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 3FCLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00m271

% PASSING% PASSING% PASSINGOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Fig. 6. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 4BCLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00mFig. 7. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 4ECLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00mFig. 8. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 5CCLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL COBBLES10090807060504030201000.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000 100.000PARTICLE SIZE (mm)0.50m 1.00m 1.50m 2.00m 2.50m 3.00m 3.50m 4.00mFig. 9. Grading curves of soils from pit AJB 6BConsistency LimitsConsistency means the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed. It has to do with the relationship orinteraction with water. Liquid limit, Plastic limit and the Plasticity Index are the most useful indicators ofengineering behaviour of soils. The results of the consistency limits test are displayed in Table 2.272

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Liquid limit is an important index property since it is correlated with various engineering properties. Soilswith high liquid limit generally have low hydraulic conductivity (Kabir and Taha, 2004). According toBenson et al (1994), a minimum liquid limit of 20 % is recommended for liner materials.Table 2: Consistency limits of soilsPitParameters (%)Depth(m) Liquid limit Plastic limit Plasticity indexAJB 1C 0.50 34.0 19.9 14.11.00 31.6 18.5 13.11.50 47.9 28.7 19.22.00 33.7 20.2 13.52.50 29.2 22.3 6.93.00 non plastic3.50 non plastic4.00 non plasticAJB 3A 0.50 20.1 17.2 2.91.00 31.8 16.9 14.91.50 37.8 32.2 5.62.00 47.6 28.4 19.22.50 61.5 37.6 23.93.00 56.6 36.0 20.63.50 52.0 34.6 17.44.00 44.2 27.9 16.3AJB 3F 0.50 45.6 24.2 21.41.00 48.6 34.1 14.51.50 39.7 29.2 10.52.00 43.9 26.7 17.22.50 78.9 32.8 46.13.00 68.5 39.6 28.93.50 58.6 38.0 20.64.00 44.2 27.9 16.3AJB 4B 0.50 45.8 21.5 24.31.00 41.7 25.4 16.31.50 49.5 45.3 4.22.00 41.4 23.2 18.22.50 54.6 27.6 27.03.00 57.0 32.7 24.33.50 44.4 30.6 13.84.00 45.7 36.6 9.1AJB 4E 0.50 36.9 25.9 11.01.00 35.5 20.5 15.01.50 40.7 36.3 4.42.00 47.5 42.3 5.22.50 44.0 27.1 16.93.00 35.1 30.8 4.33.50 41.5 33.4 8.14.00 41.2 29.3 11.9AJB 5C 0.50 42.6 24.3 18.31.00 45.6 28.7 16.91.50 40.6 22.2 18.42.00 55.7 34.0 21.72.50 30.7 29.3 1.43.00 non plastic3.50 34.4 22.5 11.94.00 38.0 25.7 12.3AJB 6B 0.50 33.3 7.7 25.61.00 43.8 25.5 18.31.50 43.9 12.5 31.42.00 45.8 10.9 34.92.50 63.0 40.5 22.53.00 43.9 26.9 17.03.50 40.9 24.4 16.54.00 48.9 28.6 20.3273

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Declan and Paul (2003) stipulated that the liquid limit of soil liners should be less than 90 %. Thedetermined liquid limits of the studied soils are all above 20 % and are less than 90 % particularly forsamples at 4.00 m depth. The values range from 34.4 % to 68.5 % which is above the 20 % stipulatedminimum standard and less than the 90 % maximum limits. Thus the soils are expected to exhibit lowhydraulic conductivity and are suitable for use as liner materials.Plasticity index is one of the most important criteria for selection of soil as a liner material. According toKabir and Taha (2004), it is the key property in achieving low hydraulic conductivity. Values of plasticityindex for the studied soils range from 6.9 – 19.2 %, 2.9 – 23.9 %, 10.5 – 46.1 %, 4.2 – 27.0 %, 1.0 – 16.9%, 1.4 – 21.7 % and 16.5 – 34.9 % for soils from pits AJB 1C, 3A, 3F, 4B, 4E, 5C and 6B respectively.Daniel (1993b), Benson et al (1994), Rowe et al (1995) all indicated that plasticity index must be greaterthan 7% for soils to be suitable for use. The soils are found to have met the requirements set with theexception of soils from pits AJB 1C at 2.50m, AJB 3A at 0.50m and 1.50m, AJB 4B at 1.50m, AJB 4E at0.50m, 1.50m and 2.00m and AJB 5C at 2.50m. It was observed that soils that do not conform to thestandard stipulated are found at depths between 0.50 m and 2.50 m. All other soils meet the requirementand more importantly soils found at the 4.00 m depth in all the pits.According to Daniel (1991) soils with plasticity index exceeding 35 % are expected to display excessiveshrinkage and settlement. None of the soils from the depth of 4.00m has plasticity index in excess of 35 %and are thus not likely to suffer excessive shrinkage and have the ability to minimize hydraulicconductivity. The United States Environmental Protection Agency, USEPA (1993) indicates that soils withhigher plasticity index can be used but require greater care to avoid shrinkage. The studied soils can thus besaid to be suitable for landfill base materials particularly those obtained at the depths of 4.00m.Ola (1982) specified the relationship between plasticity index and the swelling potential of clays (Table 3).The soils obtained at the depth of 4.00m will exhibit low to medium swelling potential.Table 3: Relationship between plasticity index and the swelling potential of clays (Ola, 1982)Plasticity Index Swelling Potential0 – 15 Low15 – 25 Medium25 – 35 High> 35 Very HighPermeabilityPermeability is a property of soil by virtue of which the soil mass allows water (or any other fluid) to flowthrough it. The permeability of a soil is dependent on the soil texture and structure. Since permeability isthe key parameter affecting the performance of most soil liners and covers (Daniel, 1987 and 1990), greatattention is generally focused on ensuring that low permeability is achieved.A permeability of 10 -4 cm/s is frequently used as a borderline between pervious and impervious soils(Lambe, 1951 and USEPA, 1978) thus a soil with permeability less than 10 -4 cm/s might be considered foran impervious blanket while that greater than 10 -4 cm/s may be used for a pervious backfill.Clayton and Huie (1973), Daniel (1993a), Rowe et al. (1995) and Mohamed and Antia (1998) agreed thatfor use as isolation barrier, a particular soil should have a maximum permeability of 1x10 -7 cm/s.According to Allen (2000), natural geological barriers, are low permeability clay-rich geological units withpermeability of less than 10 -6 cm/s, which can perform the function of an attenuating layer, enabling274

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011leachate to percolate slowly downwards, simultaneously undergoing attenuation by filtration, sorption andexchange processes with the clays in the unit. Extremely low permeable geological units of less than 10 -8 cm/s cannot fulfill an attenuation function. Similarly, geological units with permeability greater than 10 -6 cm/s do not provide sufficient confinement to leachate, so are also unsuitable for an attenuation role. Thusthe optimum permeability for attenuation is of the order of 10 -6 -10 -8 cm/s. The coefficients of permeabilityof all the soils from the pits are presented in Table 4.Table 4: Coefficients of permeability (k) of the soilsPitDepth (m)K (cm/s)AJB 1C 1.00 7.51 x 10 -62.00 2.79 x 10 -63.00 4.14 x 10 -64.00 2.61 x 10 -6AJB 3A 1.00 5.20 x 10 -62.00 2.85 x 10 -73.00 2.95 x 10 -74.00 2.91 x 10 -6AJB 3F 1.00 6.13 x 10 -62.00 7.49 x 10 -63.00 5.33 x 10 -64.00 2.79 x 10 -7AJB 4B 1.00 6.46 x 10 -62.00 2.84 x 10 -73.00 6.88 x 10 -74.00 9.54 x 10 -7AJB 4E 1.00 7.84 x 10 -62.00 4.77 x 10 -83.00 5.31 x 10 -64.00 5.02 x 10 -7AJB 5C 1.00 6.46 x 10 -62.00 3.33 x 10 -73.00 3.95 x 10 -74.00 1.88 x 10 -6AJB 6B 1.00 6.14 x 10 -62.00 6.38 x 10 -73.00 4.73 x 10 -84.00 4.71 x 10 -8According to USEPA (1978), all the soils will exhibit very slow permeability and are likely to be clayeysoils with high sorption capacity. Almost all the soils have very low permeability (Lambe, 1951) exceptsoils from AJB 4E (2.00m) and AJB 6B (3.00m and 4.00m) which are likely to be practically impermeable.All the soils can be considered for an impervious blanket (Lambe, 1951).Furthermore all soils from AJB 3A (2.00m and 3.00m), AJB 3F (4.00m), AJB 4B (2.00m, 3.00m and4.00m), AJB 4E (2.00m and 4.00m), AJB 5C (2.00m and 3.00m) and AJB 6B (2.00m, 3.00m and 4.00m)meet the standard of at least 1x10 -7 cm/s recommended by Clayton and Huie (1973), Daniel (1993a), Roweet al. (1995) and Mohamed and Antia (1998) for soils proposed for use as landfill seals. All the soils fallwithin the optimum permeability range of 10 -6 -10 -8 cm/s for attenuation by natural geological barriers asrecommended by Allen (2000).Analysis of the results obtained for the permeability tests on the studied soils using the statistical „F‟ tests[F CALCULATED (1.66) is less than F in table (2.70)] shows that the lateral variation in permeability coefficientk is not significant. This implies that there is no likelihood of large scale lateral movement of leachateproduced in the landfill.275

Unconfined Compressive StrengthOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011The results of the unconfined compression test of the soils are displayed in Table 5. The strength is themain structural property of soil that provides the supporting ability or bearing capacity of soil and alsodetermines the slope stability of the soil. Walsh and O‟Leary (2002) indicated that to design a landfill forslope stability, elements that influence stability such as strength of materials must be examined. Foundationsoils must be capable of supporting the landfill's weight. Failures occur when foundation soils beneath oradjacent to the landfill yield because of the applied load. Kabir and Taha (2004) specified that soils used inwaste containment system as isolation barriers are expected to sustain certain amount of static load exertedby the overlying waste materials. The bearing stress which acts on the barrier system depends on the heightof landfill and the unit weight of waste. Daniel and Wu (1993) mentioned that soil used as barrier materialshould have minimum unconfined compressive strength of 200 kN/m 2 . Almost all the soils examinedespecially those at the 4.00m depth in all the pits possess higher strength than the recommended minimumstrength of 200 kN/m 2 for barrier soils.Table 5: Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of studied soilsAJB 1C AJB 3A AJB 3F AJB 4B AJB 4E AJB 5C AJB 6BDEPTH(m) UCS(kN/m 2 )UCS(kN/m 2 )UCS(kN/m 2 )UCS(kN/m 2 )UCS(kN/m 2 )UCS(kN/m 2 )UCS(kN/m 2 )0.50 165.38 273.56 154.25 85.891.00 188.01 329.77 289.18 326.671.50 313.03 208.12 300.49 266.72 356.22 263.432.00 464.73 251.82 237.57 744.00 247.69 332.042.50 245.47 667.66 672.97 398.92 567.87 393.83 378.023.00 411.99 746.13 333.91 595.41 537.54 202.50 625.833.50 500.31 541.02 646.69 1033.69 628.25 1275.994.00 1047.31 601.32 932.54 1069.94 997.81 931.87Bottom leakage potential (L p )The bottom leakage potential is the potential which a formation has for passage of leached materials fromthe base of the landfill through the substrata into the groundwater body. According to Frempong (1998)there is the tendency for precipitation entering the landfill through cover soil to carry deposited waste insuspension since an absolutely impermeable medium does not exist in nature. According to Hagerty andPavoni (1973);L p = 300 (k) 1/3 ……………………….. (1)tbWhere L p = Bottom leakage potentialk = permeability in cm/stb = bottom soil thickness in mThe bottom leakage potential is related to the permeability of the substratum which is confinedbetween the base of the fill and the aquifer. For the study area the bottom leakage potential at the 4.00mdepth ranges from 2.71 x 10 -3 to 9.26 x 10 -3 . According to Hagerty and Pavoni (1973), this range of valuesis very low and makes the study area suitable for disposal of waste.276

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011CONCLUSIONSGeotechnical evaluation of the study area has helped in arriving at the following conclusions;The sampling location is underlain by granite gneiss which is a rock suitable for the location of a landfillbecause it is not chemically active. The soils at the 4.00m depth in all the pits are generally well gradedreddish brown sandy silty clay of low to medium plasticity and are likely to exhibit low to mediumcompressibility with adequate amount of fines and the minimum clay content expected of landfill base. Thepermeability coefficient of the soils obtained from the 4.00m depths in the test pits fall within the optimumpermeability range of 10 -6 -10 -8 cm/s required for attenuation by natural geological barriers and for soils thatshould form the base of landfills. There is no likelihood of lateral movement of leachate at the study area ifused for disposal of waste as there is no significant lateral variation in the coefficient of permeability of thesoil as confirmed from statistical treatment. Soils at the 4.00m depth in all the pits possess adequatestrength required of barrier soils. The very low bottom leakage potential range of 0.36cm/s to 0.46cm/s atthe 4.00m depth makes the study area suitable for disposal of waste.Observation and results obtained from all the tests employed in the geotechnical evaluation of the studylocation for landfill siting, indicate that the location is remote from highways, has available space, is remotefrom habitable areas, is remote from the airport and has easy accessibility and limited haul distance.Furthermore the location has suitable geology (the bedrock is not chemically active), and soilcharacteristics in terms of grading, consistency and permeability. There is also no likelihood of lateralmovement of leachate at the 4.00m depth if used as base.REFERENCESAdedibu, A. A. 1986. Solid waste management and a new environmental edict: A case study from Ilorin,Kwara State, Nigeria. The Environmentalist 6: 63–68.Allen, A. R., Dillon, A. M. and O‟Brien, M. 1997. Approaches to landfill site selection in Ireland. InEngineering Geology and the Environment (Ed. Marinos, P.G., Koukis, G.C., Tsiambaos, G.C.and Stournaras, G.C.) Balkema. 1569-1574.__. 2000. Attenuation landfills – the future in landfilling. Retrieved Dec. 8 2008 fromwbiis.tu.koszalin.pl/towarzystwo/2000/17allen_t.pdfBenson, C. H., Zhai, H. and Wang, X. 1994. Estimating hydraulic conductivity of clay liners. Journal ofGeotechnical Engineering ASCE, 120.2: 366-387.Brunner, D. R. and Keller, D. J., 1972. Sanitary landfill design and operation. U. S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 59 p.BS1377:1975. Methods of tests for soils for civil engineering purposes. British standard Institution,London. 2, Park Street London WI A2 BSClayton, K.C. and Huie, J.M. 1973. Solid wastes management: the regional approach. Cambridge, Mass.,Ballinger Pub. Co. xvii, 140 p.Daniel, D. E. 1987. Earthen liners for land disposal facilities. Geotechnical practice for waste disposal.GSP No. 13, (Ed. Woods, R.D.), New York, ASCE, pp 21-39.__. 1990. Summary review of construction quality control for earthen liners. In: Waste containmentsystems: construction, regulation, and performance. GSP No. 26, (R. Bonaparte, Ed.), New York,ASCE, pp 175-189.277

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011__. 1991. Design and construction of RCRA/ CERCLA final covers, Chapter 2: Soils used in coversystems. EPA/ 625/4-91/025, US EPA, Cincinnati, Ohio.__. 1993. Keys to the successful design, construction, testing and certification of soil liners for landfills.GCRDA. Journal of Municipal Solid Waste Management.__. 1993a. Landfill and Impoundments. In: Geotechnical practice for waste disposal (ed. David E. Daniel)Chapman & Hall, London, UK, pp 97-112.__. 1993b. Clay liners. In: Geotechnical practice for waste disposal, (ed. David E. Daniel) Chapman &Hall, London, UK, pp 137-163.__. and Wu Y.K. Wu (1993) “Compacted clay liners and covers for arid sites”, Journal of GeotechnicalEngineering ASCE Vol. 119, No. 2, pp 223–237.Declan, O and Paul, Q. 2003. Geotechnical engineering & environmental aspects of clay liners for landfillprojects. Retrieved 13 February 2009 from www.igsl.ie/Technical/Paper3.doc Fehily Timoney &Co. & IGSL LimitedDepartment of the Environment (DoE), 1978. Landfill design, construction and operational practice. Wastemanagement paper 26B 1 and 2. Her majesty Stationery Office, St. Clements House 2 – 16Colegate, Norwich NR3 IBQ. 289p.Edelmann, L., Hertweck, M. and Amann, P. 1999. Mechanical behaviour of landfill barrier systems.Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 137.4:215-224.Egunjobi, L. 1986. Problems of solid waste management in Nigerian urban centres. In Adeniyi, E.O.;Bello-Imam, I.B., ed., Development and the environment. Nigerian Institute of Social andEconomic Research, Ibadan, Nigeria. 74–92.Elsbury, B. R., Daniel, D. E., Sraders, G.A. and Anderson, D.C. 1990. Lessons learned from compactedclay liner, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering 116. 11:1641–1660.Faniran, A. 1994. Relief and drainage. In: Filani, M.O., Akintola, F.O. and Ikporukpo, C. O. (ed) IbadanRegion. Rex Charles Publication. pp 28-48.Frempong, E.M. 1998. Engineering geological assessment of a proposed waste disposal site in coastalsouthwestern Ghana. Springer-Verlag, Environmental Geology 37.3: 255-260.Hagerty, D. J. and Pavoni, J. L. 1973. Geologic aspects of landfill refuse disposal. Eng. Geology 7:219-229.International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA). 2007. Annual summary of weather data for IITAcentral station Ibadan, Nigeria.Jessberger, H. L. 1994. Geotechnical aspects of landfill design and construction- part 2: materialparameters and test methods. Proc. of the ICE Geotechnical Engineering Journal 107:105-113.Jones, D. R. V. and Dixon, N. 1997. The long term stability of landfill side slopes. Proc. 6 th Internationallandfill symposium, Sardinia, 3:507-516Kabir, M. H. and Taha, M. R. 2004. Assessment of Physical Properties of a Granite Residual Soil as anIsolation Barrier, Electronics Journal of Geotechnical Engineering Vol. 92c, 13p.Keller, E. A. 1980. Environmental Geology. Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus Ohio43216: 229-265.Lambe, T. W. 1951. Soil testing for engineers. John Wiley and sons Inc. New York.162p.Maclaren International Ltd. 1970. Master Plans for Waste, Disposal and Drainage, Ibadan, Vol. V; SolidWaste, Western State of Nigeria. Retrieved Jan. 12 2007 fromwww.springerlink.com/index/PJ074Q1771M60623.pdf.Mohamed, A.M.O. and Antia, H.E. 1998. Geoenvironmental Engineering. Developments in GeotechnicalEngineering 82, Elsevier, pp.707.National Rivers Authority (NRA), 1994. Landfill liners. Internal Guidiance Note No. 7 North west wastedisposal Officers.278

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011North West Waste Disposal Officers (NWWDO), 1991. Leachate Management report. Lancashire Wastedisposal Authority, Preston, 1991.Ola, S.A. 1982. Geotechnical properties of an Attapulgite clay shale in Northwestern Nigeria, EngineeringGeology Amsterdam. 19: 1-13.Oluwande, P. A. 1974. Investigation into certain aspects of refuse in western state of Nigeria. IndianJournal of Environmental Health 1: 46-54.Rowe, R. K., Quigley, R. M. and Booker, J.R. 1995. Clayey barrier systems for waste disposal facilities, E& FN Spon, London.Sitig, M. 1979. Landfill disposal of hazardous wastes and sludges. Noyes data Corp. Park Ridge, NewJersey. 365p.Sule, R. A. 1982. Environmental pollution in an urban centre. Waste disposal in Calabar. Third World Plan.Rev. 3: 4 –7.USEPA, 1978. Process Design Manual: municipal sludge landfills, Document No. EPA-625/1-78-010; SW-705, Cincinnati, Ohio, Environmental Research Information Center.USEPA, 1993. Quality assurance and quality control for waste containment facilities. Technical GuidanceDocument EPA/600/R-93/182. Office of Research and development, Washington DC 20460.Walsh, P. and O‟ Leary, P. 2002. Evaluating a potential sanitary landfill site. Retrieved April 27 2005, fromhttp://bvsde.per.paho.org/ 10p279

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationFROM A PUBLIC SPACE TO A SHOPPING MALL: THE CASE OF CITY SQUARE INBURSA, TURKEYSIBEL POLAT* and NESLIHAN DOSTOGLU**Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture,* University of Uludag, Gorukle, 16059 Bursa, Turkey,** Kultur University, Bakirkoy, 34156, Istanbul, Turkey*E-mail address for correspondence: sibelpolat77@yahoo.com____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: In recent years, many new projects have been prepared for neglected public spaces which have lost theirfunctions in different cities of Turkey, either by means of private commissions or competitions. However, thisprocess has generally resulted either in the complete disappearance of public spaces or the transformation of publicspaces to transit areas or more controlled spaces like shopping malls. The Central Garage, which was constructed in1961 as the largest garage of the Balkans and which was used for thirty five years as the terminal of Bursa is aninteresting example for this subject. After the Central Garage lost its function as a terminal, it was abandoned, andexperienced physical and social dilapidation for a long time, and was finally transformed into a shopping mall. Thispaper aims to evaluate the process during which the Central Garage was transformed from a public space to ashopping mall in Bursa.Keywords: public sphere, public space, physical and social dilapidation, urban regeneration, Central Garage,City Square, Bursa_________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe concepts of public sphere and public space are generally confused in daily use. However, scholars have madeclear distinctions between these two concepts. In general, public sphere (public realm) is defined as an area in sociallife where people can get together and freely discuss and identify social problems, by means of which they influencepolitical action (http://www.wikipedia.org-2009). On the other hand, public space concept is used to emphasize thespatial dimension, boundaries, social relations, rules and communication forms of the the public sphere concept(Özbek 2004). This study is related to the public open spaces which have become special project areas in citieswhich are in competition to get a share from global economy in recent years.281

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Public spaces, which have existed since the first cities in the world, have been shaped according to different factorsin history. In antiquity, public spaces, such as agoras, had a political meaning; however, they lost their politicalcharacteristics in time, and became religious and ceremonial areas reflecting the prestige of the rulers especially inthe Middle Ages. Together with the Renaissance, central despotism, colonialism and oligarchy, which were reflectedin nation-states, became dominant (Mumford 1989). Although public spaces regained their political power with theEnlightenment period during which rationality was prevalent, this situation did not last long. In the 19th century,there was a transition from citizens who made rational arguments to masses of consumers, from public opinionprinciple as a means to establish a democratic collective government to the legal-buraucratic administration ofpublic interest, and from the consensus established as a result of the clever arguments among individuals to thereconciliation reached as a result of the deals between the state and organizations (Habermas 1991). In this context,the city started to change faster than people’s emotions, and could not protect the flow of its experience. Nomeanings were left in the physical environment which became unstable and transient, except the memories ofpeople, and thus the confidence of intellectuals in the modern city was lost, and the fall of the public sphere began.In this process, the family became an idealized shelter, a world by itself, carrying values higher than public space.In short, the content of public sphere was exhausted when people started to consider public life as miserable from amoral point of view (Sennett 1992).At present, new public spaces are being shaped as controlled shopping malls in accordance with the globalconsumption ideology, and most of the old public spaces have started to lose their public character and have becomeareas serving transportation function. In addition, since the technological developments in public communicationdevices have supported individualism rather than socialization, passive visual observation and watching what peopledo in other places have replaced active participation and experience. In this context, while public spaces spreadvirtually on the one hand, they are deserted physically and socially, and finally disappear on the other hand.However, in order for the development and sustainability of social life, and the improvement of urban quality, it isnecessary to prevent this transformation in public spaces, and to develop planning and design policies on national,regional and urban scales rather than piecemeal and focal approaches.This paper demonstrates how a city square in Bursa, which was constructed as a result of project competition, wasused by local authorities as a means to maintain profit, and to produce concrete projects in a short period of time bymeans of populist planning decisions instead of paying attention to historical and social values, in order to win theelections once again. The Central Garage area, where many projects were prepared by various local authorities indifferent periods, embodied an important example of modern architectural heritage in Bursa and Turkey, and had asymbolic value in urban memory. However, it was demolished in the process of the competition and the “CitySquare Shopping Mall” was built instead of the Garage after the Bursa Central Garage City Square Architectural andUrban Design Project Competition in 2005.The authors used several different methods in this study, such as literary and archival analysis, casual observationand interviews. In addition to these, they participated in various meetings about the process and the results of thecompetition to learn the ideas of different actors.In the article, first the concepts of public sphere and public space will be discussed, followed by a summary of thedevelopment of the public spaces in Bursa. In the second part of the paper, the historical/spatial development andplanning activities, and the results of the architectural and urban design competition organized by the MetropolitanMunicipality of Bursa for the Central Garage Area will be examined, and in the last part, the results of thetransformation of the district in terms of public space concept will be evaluated.282

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011THE CONCEPTS OF PUBLIC SPHERE AND PUBLIC SPACEThe word “kamu” (public) in Turkish is defined as the total administrative organs which serve the public and thewhole society in a country. Thus, public sphere is described as the place which belongs to the public and wherepublic activities are carried out (http://www.tdk.org.tr-2009). The first meaning of the word “public” in English inthe 15 th century was based on declaring the public similar to the common interest of the society. In the 16 th century,the meaning of “being open to general observation and being obvious” has been added to this definition (Sennett1992). In general, the public sphere is an area in social life where people can get together and freely discuss andidentify social problems, by means of which they influence political action (http://www.wikipedia.org-2009).The modern meaning of the concept of “public” is a phenomenon related to the bourgeois society and has been usedin the history of the West since the end of the 17 th century. Although its conceptualization as a historical categoryand democratic norm, which has influenced discussions on democracy beginning in the 1980’s, was first discussedin Jurgen Habermas’ book entitled “Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere” in 1962, the concept has an oldand long history which enables it to be used in different frames. In this context, definitions of the concept of publicsphere will be shortly evaluated.First, in discussing the segregation of public from private, it can be observed that these two concepts get theirmeaning in the reciprocal relationship which they establish in a given framework. According to Weintraub (1997),there are two basic criteria which separate public and private, even though these are evaluated in different forms anddimensions. Visibility, which is the first criterium, separates the introvert or hidden from open, revealed andaccessible, while collectivity, which is the second criterium, separates the individual from collective or that which isfor the common interest of the society. However, Weintraub indicates that public and private duality is more oftenused in descriptive and/or normative forms for differentiating various types of human activity and different activityspheres of public life.On the other hand, various researchers have classified the difference between public and private according todifferent models in social and political analysis. In this context, Habermas (1991) indicates that the separationbetween public and private spheres is social and historical, and that the process of the break-down of the feudalauthority in the West and the appearance of the bourgeois society which gained its autonomy from the absolutistregional state has been realized together with the polarization of public and private spheres.Habermas defines a public sphere as an area, which is accessible for all citizens, and where public opinion in sociallife develops. Public sphere is the area for gathering, critical public discussion, agreement and activity area forcitizens, outside the formal governmental system and commodity production and movement. In other words, it is anarea where the opinions and wills of citizens are revealed, and fights for equity and freedom develop (Habermas1991).However, the way that Habermas limits public sphere within the boundaries of Europe and sees it as an area shapedby the bourgeois, and his exclusion of other social structures from public sphere (his idealization of liberal publicsphere) was criticized, and Nebt and Kluge (1993), reevaluating Habermas’s bourgeois public approach, definedpublic sphere as proletarian. Proletarian or opposite public sphere points at the revolutionary potential of relatingand strengthening the experience, talent and relations of public labor power.In this context, Fraser uses the contradictory-public sphere concept, basing his critical approach on certain newsocial movements such as feminism. This approach is not a public vision based on production, but rather it isrelated to the enlargement of the otherness and diversity content of the public sphere understanding of Habermas(Fraser 1992).In his book entitled “The Fall of Public Man”, Sennett describes becoming public as the possibility for people toestablish dense social relations in certain spaces in West European cities. According to Sennett, public sphere exists283

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011in an urban or non-urban group, and comprises concrete areas such as squares and streets. According to him, theseareas, which embody democracy and serve as the heart of the city, and where civic emotions and memories persist,are the means to physically, socially and symbolically transform and reconstruct the city (Sennett 1992).Public sphere according to Weber is the place where people from different social classes, races, ethnic structuremeet and can share ideas (Weber 1966). According to Arendt (1998), public spheres are firstly areas whereeverything is seen and heard by everyone in the most explicit way. Thus, experiences can be shared, activities can beevaluated and identities can be described. Secondly, it both presents a common world to everyone, and alsodifferentiates special places. Public sphere both unites and separates us. The public sphere of Arendt is nottopographic or institutional, rather it is based on action and expression. It is not the same as the political approach; itis as comprehensive as the public, and thus it involves the construction process of the limits of living together, moralcodes and its directions. However, Habermas indicates that social norms and collective political decisions arecreated in a democratic way (Sarıbay 2000).According to Carmona, (2006) as a political stage, the public realm involves and symbolises activities important tocitizenship and the existence of a civil society. The public realm has physical (space) and social (activity)dimensions. The physical public realm means the spaces and settings- publicly or privately owned- that support orfacilitate public life and social interaction. The activities and the events occuring in those spaces and settings can betermed the sociocultural public realm.Actually the concept of public sphere involves two different meanings: Public sphere defines collective bodiesforming the production process of public meaning and the meaning content appearing in this process (publicopinion, culture, experience). Public space, on the other hand, is used to emphasize the spatial dimension,boundaries, social relations, rules and communication forms of the public sphere concept. Public spaces are socialareas where ideas, expressions and experiences are produced, exposed, shared, and circulated in social life (Özbek2004).Public spaces which play an important role in the development and sustainability of urban life embody certaincommon features. In this context, public spaces can be defined as active and accessible areas where social events,cultural and sports activities, meetings, political and unionist actions, commercial events take place, and which areopen to public use. These areas afford socialization, and reflect urban and architectural identity. Social relations andspatial forms (environmental perception and aesthetics) are united in these areas, which also enable the circulation ofinformation, goods, opportunities and possibilities, and thus become the center of political and commercialactivities. Public spaces are areas where coincidences can occur and result in productivities (Gökgür 2008), andwhich require an active administrative system with different partnerships and resources (http://www.pps.org/-2009).In addition to all these characteristics, public spaces, at present, differ according to the conditions of ownership,management, maintenance, control, usage and function. Based on the discussions above, the development of thepublic spaces in Bursa center will be evaluated through the differentiation of public and private spaces, in the nextsection.THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC SPACES IN BURSABursa, which is located in a region where different civilizations have settled since 6000 B.C., was established byPrusias I in 185 B.C. After the dominance of Roman and Byzantian Empires (1st century B.C. – 14th century A.D.),the city became the capital of Ottoman State until the conquest of Edirne (Yenal 1996a). Tekeli (2007) indicates thatthe city experienced three important structural transformations together with the Ottoman domination.284

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011The first is the establishment of a market system, developing around the covered bazaar, outside the fortress area,and its becoming a stong focal point which determined the development dynamics and identity of the city during thesecond half of the 14 th century. The second is the reconstruction of the city under Ottoman modernity during thesecond half of the 19 th century, which continued with the establishment of the Republic in 1923. Finally, the third isthe urban transformation caused by urbanization that was influential in Turkey after the Second World War, and thedevelopments in industry, especially in Bursa, after the 1970’s. Naturally, the economic, political, social and culturaltransformations in Bursa influenced the physical structure of the city, and its public spaces which are expressions ofurban and social identity.From the 15 th to the 17 th century, Bursa became one of the most important commercial and production centers in theworld, because of its location on Silk and Spice Routes (Yenal 1996b). Thus, the most important areas for theintensification of public life in Bursa were the covered bazaar, shopping district and market place. The public areasat the center were the inns where merchants stayed, commercial buildings like covered bazaars, religious buildingslike mosques and tombs, and socio-cultural buildings like baths and madrasahs (Gökgür 2008).Research shows that the administration system, religious approach and principles of social life in traditional Turkishcities put limits on urban public spaces. Urban administration was not segregated from central administration, alladministrative rights were accepted to belong to the sultan, based on the understanding that the society consisted ofmortals. Thus, people living in cities during the Ottoman period were not able to establish communal unity. Incontrast, controlled spaces segregated into sub-units, were kept under strict surveillance and control. The strength ofcentral authority was felt in every stage of daily life in the city. Neighborhoods and piecemeal urban productionareas developed a result of this understanding (Yenal 1996b).In housing areas of the Muslims, there was generally a small mosque or a dervish lodge which served as thereligious, administrative, social and cultural center of the neighborhood, and a small square, defined by a coffeshop,fountain and generally a plane tree, which was at the intersection point of streets and which became a gatheringplace for people. Coffeshops and taverns were the most important public spaces for men, and public baths wereimportant for women (Kaplanoğlu 2006). In addition, open-air prayer places, popular excursion spots for walkingand recreation, fields, river banks and sea shores, open areas outside cities, which were used for sports activities,ceremonies, entertainment, execution of death sentences and other punishments, such as hippodromes, and archerygrounds, were used for public purposes (Cerasi 1999). Public spaces belonged to the empire; however, free accessand usage was not equally possible for everyone. In other words, public use in this period can be described aslimited.The rural characteristics of Bursa began to change after the influence of the Industrial Revolution became prevalentin the city in the 19 th century. Especially, after the earthquake in 1855, and with the effects of Westernization, greatpublic improvements were undertaken in the city (Dostoğlu 2001). In this period, new public buildings, such ashotels, city hall, theater, which were used both by men and women, were constructed. In addition, social activities,such as a modern exhibition and bicycle races (1906), were realized, and dinners, balls and plays were organized.With the proclamation of the Republic, three development plans were made by Western planners (Lörcher, Prost andPiccinato) in different periods for Bursa (Dostoğlu and Vural 2004) and Republican Squares and governmentbuildings, which reflected the idea of the creation of a new national state, and the existence and strength of the stateruled by a single party, were constructed. The only example in Bursa, in this context, was the Heykel Square, whichwas surrounded by the Government Building, Courthouse, Internal Revenue Office (1926) and Community Center(1940) (formal public buildings where conventions, way of behaving and thinking, taste for art and music, sportsand recreation habits required by the Kemalist ideology, were implanted in the society) (Yeşilkaya 1999).Ceremonies and greetings to reinforce national unity and solidarity were organized in this Square (Figure 1), whereAtaturk’s statue was placed in 1931. Although not exactly like the Empire period, public behavior was also limitedin this period. Public spaces belonged to the state and were used only for functions required by state ideology.After the Heykel Square, no other public exterior spaces were implemented in Bursa until the 1980’s. There arevarious reasons for this, such as the political and economic conditions required by the Second World War, the285

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011migration from rural to urban areas as a result of the unplanned, unprogrammed liberal economic policies (1950-1960), starting with the multiparty elections after the state control period in industry (1933-1950), and the transitionfrom agriculture to industry based economy, the tendency to invest in housing rather than public buildings due to theincreasing number of squatter housing areas in major cities, the importance given to individual profit rather thanpublic gains, the priority given only to industry and infrastructure investments together with the Import SubstitutionIndustrialization Period (1960-1980), military coups, and the attempt to prevent public opposition.After 1980, with the Export Substitution Industrialization Period which started as a result of the influence ofglobalization, the character of public spaces have changed under the pressure of the capitalist economy andconsumption ideology. The most important example from this period in Bursa is the transformation of an area,which was partially private property in the central district, into a public space (Orhangazi Square) (Figure 2), bymeans of the attempts of a mayor who gave the commission to an architectural office after the military coup in 1980.This square surrounded by Ulu Mosque, Koza Inn and Orhan Mosque, historical City Hall and Orhangazi marketarea, is a lively public open space embodying many social, cultural, commercial activities (Dostoğlu 1999). In thissquare, people sit and rest, meet their friends in cafes, shop in the stores and inns, watch the events in special daysand pray in the mosques around. In short, this square is an example which suits the definition of public space. Theownership, management, maintenance and control of the area belong to the Municipality, and it is open andaccessible for everyone.In addition to Orhangazi Square, an architectural competition was organized for the area known as Zafer Square inthe historical urban center in 1987; however, rather than applying the first project, Zafer Plaza Shopping Mall wasconstructed in 1999 (Figure 3) (Özbay 1988). On top of this shopping mall, which was partially constructedunderground, there are public exterior spaces which embody transition and resting functions on two different levelsseparated by a glass pyramid which provides entrance to the mall. However, these spaces are not related to theshopping mall or its environment (Anon 1999). The shopping mall in this area has created a controlled public spacein terms of accessibility and functionality. A limited use is possible when the shopping mall is closed. In addition,passing through security control while entering the shopping mall and being observed by cameras once inside, causesuch areas to have panoptican properties. As Foucault (1995) explains in his criticism of Bentham’s Panopticandesign, people who feel observing glances, internalize these glances so much that they reach the point of watchingthemselves. Thus, people will not try to do anything wrong or abnormal as a result of continuous surveillance.Sehrekustu Square, which is located at the intersection of the historical city center and new city center (Figure 4), isthe only public space where meetings are held and election publicity is performed in Bursa, in addition to functionssuch as transportation, commerce, accommodations and recreation. The Osmangazi Statue placed at the square in1995 and the Sarajevo Brotherhood Fountain constructed in 1995 are important elements defining this square. TheSehrekustu Mosque and the Office of the Mufti, on the other hand, impose religious functions to the square.Actually, since the subway station which is closest to the historical city center is located in this area, and since it ispossible to walk from this square to the urban center, the square has the characteristic of a road junction andtransition area. However, it is a public space owned, administered and controlled by the Municipality, and it is openand accessible for everyone.In the last part of this paper, the City Square, which was constructed in the old Central Garage area in 2008, will beevaluated in more detail because it is the first city square and public space in Bursa which was constructed as aresult of a project competition.286

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011HISTORICAL / SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING ACTIVITIES IN THE OLD CENTRALGARAGE DISTRICTThe old Central Garage District is located to the northwest of Bursa, at the intersection of Istanbul, Izmir and Ankarahighways (Figure 6). Until the 1940s, it was used as the urban garbage of Bursa . In 1954, a Central Garage began tobe built in this area with the aim of uniting dispersed and small garages in Bursa (http://www.bursaterminali.com-2005).The Central Garage which covered approximately 1.7 hectares and was the largest garage of the Balkans in thatperiod, was so distant from the city center that people criticized its location. The complex was used as the busterminal of Bursa until 1978, when a big fire in the area caused part of the garage building to collapse. After thisevent, the undamaged part of the garage area was used until 1986 without any changes. Because of the increasingpopulation in Bursa due to high migration rate, the capacity of the Central Garage became insufficient during the1980s. Thus, an architectural competition was organized for a new Garage building in 1986, but none of the prizewinning projects were implemented because of bureaucratic problems.In the 1990’s, not only the increasing population in the city, but also the traffic problems resulting from the locationof the Garage caused local administrators to reconsider the site of the bus terminal. Accordingly, the final decisionwas to construct a new bus terminal outside the city center, on the belt highway under construction in Bursa. Afterthe new bus terminal of Bursa, which was built on Istanbul highway, began to be used in 1997, the old CentralGarage lost its function.Until 2006, the Central Garage area was used by minibuses as a terminal for inner city transportation and as aparking lot (Figure 5). The old terminal building and the tents, served as a cheap marketplace, and also as arefectory for poor people during Ramadan months. The old hotel building and the old garage management offices,on the other hand, were used as offices and shops. In the course of the time, economic, physical, functional andsocial obsolescence, filtering and urban decay started in the Central Garage District. Besides, lack of confidence andsocial dilapidation started to be experienced in the District because of low-income groups like street urchins,beggars, prostitutes and pedlars (Polat 2009).However, it was anticipated that the new administrative and commercial center of the city would develop in thisDistrict in the 21 st century. In addition, the area was expected to be the new tram junction of east and west districtsof Bursa. Thus, the potential of this area was comprehended by local authorities, and the District was declared as a“special planning area”. In 1996, the Metropolitan Municipality of Bursa assigned the old Central Garage DistrictUrban Design Project to a private planning company (Polat 2009).This company carried out comprehensive analyses, developed a few alternative projects for the area, and preparedrelevant reports, plans and an urban design project. As a result of this process, it was concluded that the old CentralGarage District should be developed as a mixture of land uses, and in 1998 the new plan which proposed high-riseand low-rise buildings, public open spaces and buildings under the ground level in the old terminal area wasapproved by the Municipality.According to the urban design project, a complex which comprised transportation, social, cultural, recreational andcommercial activities on the basement floor, daily commercial and recreational activities on the ground floor,offices, private and public services on the upper floors and green terraces near the junction, would be built in the oldterminal area (UTTA 1997). But none of them were implemented. In spite of the comprehensive analyses, reportsand plans, neither a special method, nor a clear model were developed for the District in these proposals. In addition,the necessary urban design principles could not be finalized, and large blocks which were not suitable for the areawere proposed in the project287

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011After this phase, because of technical, functional and spatial problems related with the changes in the transportationsystem, the plan was revised, and the old terminal area was proposed as a “specially designed building block”, butthe plan was not approved. In the 2000’s, the next local authority proposed a different project for the Central GarageArea, but this project was not implemented either.Finally, the implementary development plan was changed in 2005, and the old terminal area was determined as amixed use public square, followed by the decision to organize an architectural and urban design competition for thisarea (Polat 2009). The old terminal area belonged to the Municipality of Bursa and Head Office of Pensioners’Institute until the announcement of the competition, when the Municipality of Bursa rented these parcels for 49years.In the competition program, it was stated that the old Central Garage area should be integrated with the developmentplans of the region and with its environment. The City Square and the necessary functional arrangements whichwould give vitality to the square and symbolic reference to urban identity, were to be designed on the south. Thesquare, on which social and cultural activities like meetings, ceremonies, open air concerts, art facilities wereexpected, was to have a public function. In addition to these, spaces related to eating and drinking, entertainment,shopping, working, management and parking were to be considered and developed by competitors (BursaBüyükşehir Belediyesi Projeler Daire Başkanlığı 2005).However, from the beginning of the competition until the present, a lot of arguments have been made about the aimof the competition, the context of the specification, requirements from competitors, program, project evaluationcriteria, the award winning projects and the first project. The most important criticism about the first project was thatit dealt only with the Central Garage area, while it was stated in the specifications that the district should beintegrated with the development plans and the other new projects in the region. Besides, the project was notconvenient to the urban regeneration law, Bursa transportation master plan, the specification of the competition andthe development plan reports in the region.The other arguments about the first project are related to the discrephancies and insufficiency of the size of the citysquare and green areas, accesses, precautions for climatic conditions, increase in the the total building area of theproject during the implementation phase and dominance of the large triangular block which covered the silhouette ofthe city and the mountain from the north way and caused negative effects on the city’s identity. After thiscompetition in 2007, the Central Garage District was declared as an urban regeneration and development district, theborders of the project area were determined, and the master plan was changed.In summary, the process of the competition can be criticized because it dealt with short-term solutions. The CentralGarage District was declared as an urban regeneration and development district after the competition was organized.The Municipality prepared neither a systematic project for the District, nor utilized the analyses, reports, and theurban design projects made before this stage. This is just a typical case in Turkey, where one of the major problemsis the change that often takes place in urban planning consultants and design firms working with the municipalities ifa new local government takes over after elections. This process causes a waste of time, money and effort (Tuncer2008). Instead of these developments, the competition could have been one of the action plans of the urbanregeneration project in the Central Garage District, with physical/design, social, economic and legal/managerialdimensions in a transdisciplinary way, based on a multi-sectoral partnership model. Although the competitionprocess has largely been criticized, the construction of new buildings in the area has triggered other developments inthe vicinity, such as the complex, including commercial areas and offices, that is being constructed on the west sideof the Central Garage Area at present (Bursa Büyükşehir Belediyesi Mali Hizmetler Daire Başkanlığı StratejiGeliştirme Şube Müdürlüğü 2008).In order to determine the success of the developments in the Central Garage area, the authors decided to implementa small scale research related to evaluating the importance of city squares in central Bursa. Only four of the fifteenparticipants indicated that the “City Square” at Central Garage area is the most important one among the fouralternative squares (eight people chose Heykel Square, two chose Orhangazi Square, one person chose SehrekustuSquare). While three of the users stated that the construction of the City Square is positive from physical, functional,288

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011social and semantic aspects, one disagreed. This user, who had a different point of view, stated his complaints aboutthe physical structure of the Square, and also indicated that he preferred not to go there with his family because theteenagers in the area disturbed families with their conversations and behavior, and because the area becamedangerous in the evening, and expressed that the new place which had no semantic trace of the old garage botheredhim. In addition, he expressed that the area was used more frequently and easily, that it was a public place when itwas a garage, and that it became an expensive place surpassing his economic power after the new construction.Interestingly, one of the users evaluated the functional changes at an urban scale and expressed that the functions atthe City Park were integrated with those at Merinos Congress - Cultural Center and the Park. In relation to thesemantic meaning of the physical changes that took place in the district, the emphasis was on the fact that the areabecame safer. On the other hand, five of the other users who rated the other three squares as more important,expressed negative points of view on the City Square, and indicated that the area is unsafe and undefined as asquare.CONCLUSIONAfter the interviews and evaluations about the District, it was concluded that the City Square (Figure 7), which wasbuilt in place of the Central Garage Complex which was a public space open to everyone, is defined as the courtyardof a shopping center rather than a freely accessible square. The shopping center has created a controlled public spacein terms of accessibility and function. When the shopping center is closed, the use of the square is limited. In thiscontext, if the City Square is evaluated in terms of the common characteristics of public spaces, it can be said that ;the mobility and the accessibility are limited and controlled, especially the motorway on the north side ofthe Square prevents pedestrian access, thus limiting the influence of the square in the neighborhood,attractions and destinations are limited, social activities (concerts, dance shows, etc.), cultural activities(Ramadan entertainment, expositions, presentations, etc.), and especially commercial activities which aimto increase consumption (competititons, sports activities, special day activities, campaigns etc.) areorganized in the Square, however ceremonies, meetings, political and unionist actions are not allowed inthe Square. Thus, the Square cannot be defined as a public space semantically.it offers opportunities for socialization.it is insufficient in reflecting urban and architectural identity, lacks a strong image element, and decreasesurban perception because of its scale.social and spatial forms (environmental perception and aesthetics) cannot be integrated, the relationshipbetween the Square and the shopping mall and the relationship between the inner square and the outersquare is poor, green areas and urban furniture are insufficient, flexible design principles and seasonalstrategy are not considered.it is the center of commercial facilities more than political activities (information, opportunity and utility)productivities resulting from serendipity are difficult because of camera control in the Squarethe city authorities were not effective against the pressure of speculative income, and were not able to directthe project competition and implementation process successfully since they were unable to provide theparticipation of the citizens and the stakeholders in a subject so important for Bursa.As a conclusion, although the Municipality had an opportunity to create a new public space in the new centralbusiness district of Bursa, the authorities could not evaluate this opportunity because of their populist planning289

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011decisions, based on realizing concrete projects in a short period, and supplying speculative income, in their ambitionto win the next local elections.REFERENCESAnonym, (1999). Projeler: Zafer Meydanı Yeniden Alışverişin Mimarisi, Journal of Domus M, (1):10, 122-128. (inTurkish)Arendth, H., (1998) The Human Condition. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.Bursa Büyükşehir Belediyesi Projeler Daire Başkanlığı, (2005) The specification of Bursa Central Garage CitySquare Architectural and Urban Design Project Competition. Bursa: The Metropolitan Municipality ofBursa. (in Turkish)Bursa Büyükşehir Belediyesi Mali Hizmetler Daire Başkanlığı Strateji Geliştirme Şube Müdürlüğü, (2008) Theactivity report of the Metropolitan Municipality of Bursa. Bursa: Gülmat Publications. (in Turkish)Carmona, M., et al., (2006) Public Places- Urban Spaces. Oxford: Elsevier.Cerasi, M.M., (1999) Osmanlı Kenti. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Culture Art Publications. (in Turkish)Dostoğlu, N., (1999) Bursa’da Orhangazi Meydanı ve Arolatlar’ın Katkısı. In: G. Güvenç ed. Mimar, Anlam,Beğeni. İstanbul: YEM Publications, 86-95. (in Turkish)Dostoğlu, N. T., (2001) Osmanlı Döneminde Bursa: 19. Yüzyıl Ortalarından 20. Yüzyıla Bursa Fotoğraflar.Antalya: Akmed Publictions. (in Turkish)Dostoğlu, N. and Vural, T., (2004) Lörcher, Prost ve Piccinato’nun Bursa’daki Kentsel Gelişime Katkıları. Journalof Bursa’da Yaşam. Piccinato Special Issue, (October): 122-126. (in Turkish)Foucault, M., (1995) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Random House.Fraser, N., (1992) Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy. In:C. Calhoun, ed. Habermas and The Public Sphere. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 109-142.Gökgür, P., (2008). Kentsel Mekanda Kamusal Alanın Yeri. İstanbul: Bağlam Publictions. (in Turkish)Habermas, J., (1991) The Structural Transformation of Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category to BorgeoisSociety. Cambridge: The MIT Press.Kaplanoğlu, R., (2006) Meşrutiyetten Cumhuriyet’e Bursa. İstanbul: Avrasya Etnografya Publications. (in Turkish)Mumford, L., (1989) The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations and Its Prospects. Florida: Harcourt, Inc.Negt, O. and Kluge, A., (1993) Public Sphere and Experience: Towards an Analysis of the Bourgeois andProleterian Public Sphere. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.290

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Özbay, H., (1988) Yarışmalar: Bursa Zafer ve Şehreküstü Meydanları Arasındaki Alanda Kentsel Tasarım veMimari Proje Yarışması, Journal of Mimarlık, (26): 4, 56-61. (in Turkish)Özbek, M., (2004) Kamusal Alanın Sınırları. In: M. Özbek ed., Kamusal Alan, İstanbul: Hil Publications, 19-91. (inTurkish)Polat, S., (2009) A Populist Instrument: Urban Regeneration. The Case of Central Garage-Bursa. In: InternationalSymposium of IAPS-CSBE & HOUSING Networks, 12-16 October 2009, İstanbul, Revitalising BuiltEnvironments: Requalifying Old Places for New Uses. (in Turkish)Sarıbay, A.Y., (2000) Kamusal Alan Diyalojik Demokrasi Sivil İtiraz. İstanbul: Alfa Publications: (in Turkish)Sennett, R., (1992) The Fall of Public Man. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.Tekeli, İ. 2007. Bursa’nın Tarihinde Üç Ayrı Dönüşüm Dönemi. In: C. Çiftçi, ed. Symposium of Bursa’nın Kentselve Mimari Gelişimi, 07-08 April 2007 Bursa: Municipality of Bursa Osmangazi Publications, 59-106. (inTurkish)Tuncer, M. (2008) Kentsel Dönüşüm Sempozyumu. Journal of Bursa Defteri, (31-32). 104-109. (in Turkish)UTTA, (1997) The Report of Santral Garajı ve Yakın Çevresi Kentsel Tasarım Planlaması, Seçeneğin Geliştirilmesi.Ankara: Utta Planning, Projecting&Counseling Ltd. Co. (in Turkish)Weber, M., (1966) The City. New York: Free Press.Weintraub, J., (1997) The Theory and the Politics of the Public/Private Distinction. In: J. Weintraub and K. Kumar,eds. Public and Private in Thought and Practice. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1-42Yenal, E., (1996a) Osmanlı Öncesi Bursa. In: E. Yenal ed., Bir Masaldı Bursa. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Publications,11-15. (in Turkish)Yenal, E. (1996b) Osmanlı Başkenti, Osmanlı Kenti Bursa. In: E. Yenal ed., Bir Masaldı Bursa. İstanbul: YapıKredi Publications, 19-59. (in Turkish)Yeşilkaya, N., (2003) Halkevleri: İdeoloji ve Mimarlık. İstanbul: İletişim Publications. (in Turkish)http://www.wikipedia.org (Accessed 15 July 2009)http://www.bursaterminali.com, (Accessed 07 May 2005)http://www.pps.org (Accessed 15 July 2009)291

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Figure 1: Heykel Square, 2009(From the archive of Sibel Polat )Figure 2: Orhangazi Square, 2009(From the archive of Sibel Polat )Figure 3: Zafer Plaza Shopping Center, 2009(From the archive of Sibel Polat)Figure 4: Şehreküstü Square , 2009(From the archive of Sibel Polat)Figure 5. The old Central Garage area and its environment, 2005292

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011(The specification of Bursa Central Garage City Square Architectural and Urban Design Project Competition Bursa:The Metropolitan Municipality of Bursa)İstanbul Wayİzmir WayAnkara WayFigure 6. The aerial view of the old Central Garage area, 2005(The specification of Bursa Central Garage City Square Architectural and Urban Design Project Competition Bursa:The Metropolitan Municipality of Bursa)Figure 7. The City Square Shopping Center, 2008(http://www.wowturkey.com)293

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationEFFECTIVENESS OF ROOT AND TUBER EXPANSION PROGRAMME ONCASSAVA FARMERS PRODUCTIONIN REMO AREA OF OGUN STATE, NIGERIATIJANI, S.A and K.A THOMAS*Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural DevelopmentUniversity of Ibadan*E-mail for correspondence: kehindeadesina@yahoo.com_________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The study assessed the effectiveness of Root and Tuber Expansion programme on cassava farmer’sproduction in Remo Area of Ogun State. Random sampling technique was used to select 90 farmers from thelist of registered participants with cassava farmers’ association in Ikenne zone of Ogun State AgriculturalDevelopment Programme (ADP). Data were analysed using frequency distribution and percentages, Chisquare, Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and t-test. The study revealed that (40.0%) respondentswere between ages of 31-40 years, married (90.0%) and went beyond secondary education (50.0%).Production output increased (98.8%), improved (92.2%) sales outcome and processing methods for eachhousehold improved (87.1%) after the intervention. The study showed that respondents’ age (χ 2 =26.63;p

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Capitalizing on lesson learnt from Cassava Multiplication Programme (CMP), the Root and Tuber ExpansionProgramme (RTBP) was conceived in 2001 as a follow-up phase that extends support to other roots and tubers(including yam and potatoes) and placing additional emphasis on processing and marking (IFAD, 2001).The specific objectives of Root and Tuber Expansion Programme were:a) Development of root and tuber production technology to increase productivity.b) Multiplying improved planting material of cassava, yam and sweet potatoes,c) Developing processing technology and marketing activities,d) To collaborate with NGOs 10 provide training to farmers (FMANR, 2006).Cassava is a crop that has the potential to increase farm incomes, reduce rural and urban poverty, and help closethe food gap (Ashaye, 2005). In the world, Nigeria is the largest producer of cassava with about 38 millionmetric tons per annum ahead of other world producers like Brazil and Thailand (Ashaye, 2005). However,Nigeria only account for about 0.00 1% of the world export market whereas country like Thailand that producesless than Nigeria accounts for over 50% of the export in European Union market. This is because about 70% ofthe Nigerian production is being consumed as food in the country, thereby resulting into small quantity or nonleft for commercial purposes. Farmers make less profit from this venture because the cost of production andmarketing of this crop is about 104 US dollars per ton in Thailand (Qyewule, 2006). The quantity and quality ofcassava produced in Nigeria has not reached a level to meet both the demands of local and international markets.It has been observed that producers command a relatively low share of the wholesale and retail price and selltheir produce on credit. The cassava market is an unguided industry with operators behaving as they wishwithout reference to any guideline. The haphazard nature of the industry is partly responsible for its lack ofdevelopment. (Adegeye, 1999).The Nigerian government's dream of developing this sector through her Root Tuber Expansion Programmethrough strategic measures is expected to improve the living conditions of poor small holder households in theprogramme area. Therefore the need to assess the effectiveness of this programme to provide a guide for futureRoot and Tuber development project necessitated this study.The general objective of this study is to determine the effectiveness of Root and Tuber Expansion Programmeamong cassava farmers in Remo area of Ogun State. The study objectives are to:1) Determine the personal characteristics of cassava farmers in the study area.2) Ascertain cassava farmers’ access to Root Tuber Expansion elements and its sources3) Determine changes in production strategies of the cassava farmers in the study area.4) Examine the changes in marketing strategies of cassava farmers in the study area.METHODOLOGYStudy AreaThe study area was Ogun State in the Southwestern part of Nigeria. It covers 16, 760 square kilometers with apopulation of 3, 738,093 (NPC, 2006). Ogun State has twenty (20) Local Government Councils; it bordersLagos to the South and Oyo state. The climate of Ogun State is typically equatorial with distinct wet and dryseasons. The mean annual rainfall is 1, 480mm while the mean monthly temperature range is 18 - 24°C duringrainy season and 30 0 C — 35 0 C during dry season (IITA, 2005).Study PopulationThe population of the study consisted of all registered cassava farmers under cassava farmers' association whoparticipated in the Root and Tuber Expansion Programme in Ikenne ADP Zone of Ogun State.296

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Sampling Procedure and Sample SizeMulti-stage random sampling procedure was used to draw respondents for the study. In Ikenne ADP Zone, thereare four (4) extension blocks, 50% of the blocks were randomly selected to give two (2) blocks. In each block,there are five (5) cells and 50% of the cells were randomly selected giving 5 cells. In each cells, I8 respondentswere randomly selected to give a total of 90 respondents interviewed.Table 1: Distribution of Respondents According To Their Personal CharacteristicsVariables Frequencies PercentagesAge21-30 6 6.731-40 38 42.241- 50 26 28.950yrs and above 20 22.2SexMale 69 76.7Female 21 23.3Marital statusMarried 81 90.0Single 9 10.0Educational levelNo primary 21 23.3Secondary 28 31.1Tertiary 41 45.6Sources ofawarenessElectronic media 7 7.8Print media 19 21.1Extension officers 46 51.1Neighbours 5 5.6Friends 23 25.6Cooperative society 3 3.3Source: Field Survey, 2010.Results on table 1 show that the programme was beneficial to several age brackets. Farmers within the ages31—40 years constitute 42.2% of the beneficiaries of the programme and this is closely followed by the agebrackets of 41- 50 (28.9%). This shows that most of the beneficiaries of the programme are farmers in theiryouthful days within the age of 31 - 40 with much energy to dissipate and concentrate on productive effort. In arelated study Awoyinka (2009) found that majority of the participants of presidential initiative of cassava were intheir youthful age.Majority (76.7%) of the respondents were men, while 23.3% were women. This implies that cassava and rootrelated crops may be tedious, while the processing is catered for by the women. The high percentage of male farmersin cassava farming as obtained in this study agreed with the report of Nweke et al , (2002b) on collaborativestudy of cassava in Africa (COSCA) that more male are involved in cassava farming in the Nigeria.From the table, majority (90.0%) of the respondents were married and only 10% were single. The implication isthat family labour will be readily available to help the farmer in his productive efforts. Awoniyi, et al (2009) in asimilar study found that more married respondents were involved in presidential initiative of cassavaprogramme.297

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Respondents’ level of education revealed that over 50% of the respondents had both secondary (31.1%) and postsecondary education (45.6%) respectively. The implication of this is that it will enable farmers understandinginnovation better and adopt such innovation faster than others with lower level of education. This is similar toAdebayo (2009) that, secondary and post secondary education is common among cassava processors in SouthwestNigeria.Table 1 further shows that most of the farmers within the extension block learnt about RTEP intervention through theextension officers i.e. 51.1%. This is followed closely by friends (making up 25.6%) who are the beneficiaries of theprogramme, while the media (electronic and print) also proved effective because 28.9% of the farmers learnt aboutthe programme through the media. The cooperative society scored lowest in information dissemination about theintervention programme.Table 2: Farmers’ enterprise characteristics before and after InterventionBefore interventionAfter interventionEnterprise characteristics Frequency Percentages % Frequency Percentages %Land ownershipPersonalRented / leasedFamily ownedCommunal ownedFarm sizeLess than 1haBetween 1-3haYieldLess than 1 tonBetween 2-4 tonsMarketing strategiesFarm gateLocal marketAgro industriesFarmers’ cooperatives273623435457020205451230.040.025.64.438.950.077.822.230421442664147033.346.715.64.4Types of cassava cultivatedImproved 29 32.2 67 74.4varietiesLocal varieties 40 44.4 8 8.9Names of varieties cultivatedTMS 30572 21 23.3 70 77.8Oko lyawo (local 25 27.8 11 12.2variety)Ege dudu (local 22 24.4 6 6.7variety)Odougbo (local 11 12.2 9 2.2variety)Ole kan aga (local 2 2.2 1 1.1variety)Idi 1'eruwa (local 10 11.1 5 8.9variety)Nikan kiyan 2 2.2 _ 2.2(local variety)Ato gbagba (local 3 3.3 1 1.1variety)TMS 920057 - - 2 2.2NR 8092 - - 2 2.222.260.05.613.32120411328.971.115.684.423.322.245.614.4298

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 2 shows that the number of farmers using personally owned farmland before (30.0%) increased after(33.3%) RTEP intervention. Also, the percent of famers using rented land increased from 40.0% to 46.7%in a bid to increase the area of farm size cultivated in order to take full advantage of the intervention. Othersources of land declined probably because such lands were limited in availability and could therefore not satisfydesires of users.Percentage of farmers on table 2 above who cultivated between 1 — 3 hectares increased from 50.0% to 71.1%, whilefarmers with less than one hectares reduce from 38.9% to 28.9% before and after the intervention respectively. Thisimplies that greater percentage of farmers in the study area took full advantage of the RTEP to increase their farm sizealthough small, this finding agreed with Uchechi and Nwachukwu, (2010), they opined that majority of cassavafarmers in Nigeria have small land holdings.Before the intervention the percentage of farmers who had yield of less than 1 ton were 77.8% but with the introductionof RTEP, the percentage of farmers who produced between 2 -4 tones shoot up from 22.2% to 84.4%. This means thatmore farmers took advantage of the programme to increase their annual cassava yield. This result shows a significantimprovement in the cassava output after the intervention when compared to what existed before the introductionof RTEP. This increased output might because improved varieties which produce more cassava per plant werecultivated ((FMARD 2004 and Phillip, 2004).Table 2 further revealed that before the intervention most farmers cultivated local varieties of cassava but withthe introduction of the RTEP, awareness was created on the advantages of the improved varieties over the localvarieties. There was a large number from 8.9% farmers to 74.4% after intervention was introduced.On marketing strategy, most (60%) of the farmers used to sell their farm produce in the local marketwhile few (22.2%) sell at the farm gate and those who sold through both farmers cooperativesocieties and agro industries were 13.3% and 5.6% respectively. But after the intervention, more (45.6%)farmers preferred to sell to agro industries because of the ready market provided by the industry.299

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 3: Farmers Access to Elements of Root and Tuber Expansion ProgrammeElements Always Occasionally NeverAgro input supplyFreq. % Freq. % Freq, %Improved stem cutting 62 68.9 21 28.9 - -Fertilizers 52 57.8 37 41.1 1 1.1Pesticides 50 55.6 39 43.3 1 1.1Herbicides 50 55.6 40 44.4 - -Market outlet availableFarm gate 43 47.8 43 47.8 2 2.2Middlemen 39 43.3 49 54.4 2 2.2Local market 33 36.7 54 60.0 3 3.3Farmers association 27 30.0 59 65.6 4 4.4Government buying agents 20 22.2 63 70.0 7 7.8Agro industry 23 25.6 62 68.9 5 5.6Extension services (training)On production 2S 31.1 56 62.2 5 5.6On processing 17 25.6 60 66.7 7 7.8On marketing 24 26." 5S 64.4 8 8.9Farm gate processing centreGovernment 17 I8. 9 50 56.7 21 23.3Cassava growers association 59 65.6 24 26.7 7 7.8Privately owned 55 61.1 31 34.4 4 4.4Community owned 51 56." 33 36." 6 6.7Other farmers association 46 51.1 37 41.1 6 6.7Types of processing centreMobile grater enterprises 35 3S.9 55 61.1 - -Micro processing centres 33 36." 56 02.2 1 1.1Industrial processing centre 24 26." 59 65.6 4 4.4Credit facilitiesBank 13 14.4 70 77.8 4 4.4State government 13 14.4 71 78.9 6 6.7Federal government 13 14.4 72 80 5 5.6International agencies 10 11.1 75 83.3 6 5.6Type of supply linkGroup marketing 17 I5. 9 66 73.3 6 6.7Linking buyers with sellers 22 24.4 61 67.8 6 6.7Establishing collection 23 25.6 61 68.8 6 6.7Village market 24 26.7' 63 70 2 2.2Contracts 23 25.6 61 67.8 6 6.7Agricultural machinesTractors machines 24 26.7 60 66.7 4 4.4Sprayers machines 26 28.9 60 66.7 2 2.2Chipping machines 25 27.8 62 68.9 3 3.3Drying platforms 23 25.6 59 65.6 7 7.8Packaging devices 21 23.3 60 66.7 9 10.0Graters 23 25.6 56 62.2 10 11.1Pressing machines 25 27.8 55 61.1 10 11.1Grinder/miller 24 26.7 57 63.3 9 10.0300

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011a) Agro input supplyTable 3 above revealed majority of the respondents (68.9%) always had access to improved stem cutting. However,28.9% of the cassava farmers were accessible to inputs supply. Cassava farmers that always had access to fertilizeras an input were 57.8%, but those with occasional access were 41.1% while those with "no access" was 1.1%.Pesticides were "always" made accessible to 55.6% of the farmers, occasionally (43,3%) and negligible percentageof the farmers (1.1%) never had access to pesticides at all. Cassava farmers (55.6%) were "always" having access toherbicides to control weeds, while 44.4% were occasionally accessible to herbicides.b) Market outlet available for sale of cassava tuber and products.On marketing outlet, 47.8% of cassava farmers "always" and "occasionally" alike had access to farm gate as saleoutlets, while 2.2% never had access to this element. Occasionally, middlemen were more accessible tomarket outlet (54.4%). However 43.3% of the middlemen were "always" accessible to this element while only2.2% had no access at all. Local market was "occasionally" accessible to farmers (60%) to market cassava produceand products, only 36.7% of the fanners "always" had access to local market while 3.3% never had no access tothis element. 65.6% of the respondents were "occasionally" accessible to farmers association to market cassavaproduce.However, 30% had access "always" the association and 4.4% did not have access at all. Government buyingagents were not often accessible to cassava farmers to market their farm proceeds, but the percentage that werealways had access to this element was 22.2% while 7.8% of the respondents never had access to these agents.68.9% of the cassava farmers "occasionally" were not regularly having access to agro industry to marketcassava produce and products, but 22.2% were "always" accessible to these industries. It is only 5.6% ofthe farmers that do not have access to this element.c) Extension services (Training)i.) Production: Majority of the respondents had access to training on production occasionally; this isindicated by 62.2%. 31.1% were "always" accessible to production training while just 5.6% never hadaccess at all.ii.) Processing: 66.7% of the cassava farmers were occasionally accessible to processing training.However, 25.6% were always having access to it, but 7.8% were never accessible to this element.iii.) Marketing: 8.9% of the cassava farmers did not have access to marketing training, 26.7% alwayshad access to it, while 64.4% were occasionally accessible to marketing training.d) Farm gate processing centreRespondents that rarely had access to government farm gate processing centre were 67.7% while 18.9%"always" had access to it, but 23.3% did not have access at all. Majority of the cassava farmers (65.6%) oftenhad access to cassava growers association, 26.7% occasionally had access to it and 7.8% did not benefit from thisassociation. Of all the respondents, 61.1% always had access to privately own processing centre, 34.4% occasionallyhad access to it and 4.4% did not have access to it at all. Majority of the respondents (56.7%) always had access tocommunity owned processing centre, however 36.7% occasionally had access to it and just 6.7% never hadaccess to this element.e) Type of processing centreMobile grater enterprises processing centre were occasionally accessible to cassava farmers this is indicated by61.1% while 38.9% were "always" having access to this processing center. More than half of the respondents(60.2%) rarely had access to micro processing centres however, 36.7% of the cassava farmers always had access tothis element while only 1.1% never had access at all. 65.4% of the cassava farmers were indicated to rarely had301

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011access to industrial processing centre, but 26.7% always had access to it and only 4.4% of the farmers never hadaccess to industrial processing centre.f) Credit facilities used by farmers77.8% of the cassava farmers were indicated to rarely have access to bank credit facilities; while 14.4% of therespondents were always having a good access to this element and negligible percentage 4.4% never had access atall. In this same vein, it is indicated by 78.9% that greater number of the cassava farmers rarely had access to stategovernment credit facilities; while 14.4% were regularly having access to these facilities and only 6.7% neverhad. Majority of the respondents (83.3%) occasionally had access to international agencies credit facilities ,11.1% only had access to it and just 5.6% did not have access at all.g) Type of supply linkOf all the respondents, 73.3% were occasionally accessible to group marketing supply link, 18.9% always and 6.7%never. The percentage of farmers that rarely had access to element of linking buyers with sellers was 67.8%, 24.4%always had access while 6.7% did not have access.h) Agricultural machinesCassava farmers that occasionally had access to tractor to carry out various operations on the farm were 66.7%.Respondents with always were 26.7% while 4.4% of the cassava farmers never had access to tractor at all.Sprayers were rarely accessible to cassava farmers; this is indicated by 66.7%. 28.9% were always having accessto sprayers while 2.2% of the farmers never had access to sprayers to carry out various spraying operations bothon the field and in the store. Chipping machines were occasionally accessible to the cassava fanners who wereinto processing of cassava produce into chips; this is indicated as 68.9% followed by 27.8% farmers whowere always accessible to these chipping machines while 3.3% did not have access at all.Occasional accessibility by cassava farmers to packaging devices is indicated by 66.7%. Those who hadaccess always were 23.3% and respondents who were never accessible ere 10%. 62.2% of the respondentswere occasionally accessible to grater that is used in grating cassava tubers, 25.6% farmers always had accessto it while the percentage of those who had zero access were 11.7%. Pressing machine was alsooccasionally accessible to cassava processors; this is indicated by 61.1%, followed by 27.8% farmerswith always accessibility while 11.1% had nil accessibility to this agricultural machine.Majority of the cassava fanners who were using grinder/miller to crush dried cassava chips into flour hadoccasional accessibility to this machine; this is indicated by 63.3%. However, 26.7% farmers had always beenaccessible to it while the percentage that did not have access is 10%.TESTING OF HYPOTHESESHypothesis IThere is no relationship between the farmers' selected characteristics (age, sex, marital status and level ofeducation) and the access to the programme elements.302

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 4: Chi square analysis of the relationship between farmers’ personal characteristics andaccess to the programme elementsVariables χ 2 Degree of Freedom P-Value DecisionAge 26.63 3 0.008 SignificantSex 0.003 2 0.960 Not significantMarital status 1.270 2 0.270 Not significantEducational level 15.50 5 0.006 SignificantChi square analysis of the relationship between some selected farmers’ personal characteristics access to theprogramme revealed that age (χ 2 = 26.6; p< 0.05) and education (χ 2 = 15.5; p< 0.05) were significantly related,while marital status (χ 2 = 1.27; p> 0.05) and sex (χ 2 = 0.003; p> 0.05) were not significantly related. It impliesthat age perhaps because of experience required and the education level which is major index for adoption.Hypothesis 2There is no significant difference in the extent of cassava fanners' commercialization of the cassava production before andafter expansion program.Table 5: Significant difference in the extent of cassava farmers' Commercialization of the cassavaproduction before and after expansion programmeVariable N df Statistical Tool T Value P-Value DecisionCommercialization 90 89 T-test 8.99 0.00 SignificantOf cassavaProductionTable 5 reveals that there is significant difference in the extent of cassava farmers' commercialization of cassavaproduction before and after expansion programme. It implies that introduction of RTEP intervention has better thelots of the respondents in terms of output when compared to what they use to obtain before the intervention.Hypothesis 3There is no significant relationship between cassava farmers' access to the expansion elements and theircassava production output.303

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 6: Correlation analysis of the relationship between cassava farmers’ access tothe expansion elements and cassava production outputVariable Description N df r- value p– value RemarkFarmers’ access 90 88 0.3718 0.0001 SProduction output 90 88 0.3197 0.0001 SSource Field Survey 2010As revealed in table 6 above, access to expansion element (r= 0.3718; p< 0.0.05) is significantly correlated to thefarmers’ production output (r= 0.3197; p< 0.0.05), it therefore implies that farmers’ access to the root and tuberexpansion elements contribute significantly to production of cassava in the study area. This relates to Awoniyi,(2009) that most farmers in Osun state benefited from the initiative through access to credit facilities andimproved cassava variety.CONCLUSIONSBased on the findings of the study, the following conclusion were drawn‣ The programme was beneficial to several age brackets, particularly farmers within theages 31—40 years.‣ The number of farmers using personally owned farmlandinterventionincreased after RTEP‣ Majority of the respondents had access to improved root and tuber expansion programmeelements.‣ There was a significant difference in the extent of cassava farmers' commercialization of cassavaproduction before and after expansion programme.‣ Access to expansion elements was significantly correlated to the farmers’ productionoutput.RECOMMENDATIONS‣ Adequate land should be made available to cassava farmers through a more modified land tenuresystem so that they will be able to increase their cassava production output to justify the objective ofRoot and tuber Expansion Programme.‣ Adequate information for training for training on production, processing andmarketing of cassava should be made available most especially at the farmers' cooperativesociety level.304

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011‣ There should be greater cooperative between Federal state and localgovernments in area of disbursement of counterpart funding to enhance smoothimplementation of this type of agricultural development programme in the future.REFERENCESAdebayo,K (2009). Dynamics of technology adoption in rural-based cassava processing enterprises in South-West Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural Economics and Rural Development (IJAERD),2(1):15 – 25Adegeye, A.J (1999): Essential of Agricultural Economics. Impact Publishers Nig. Ltd. Ibadan, Nigeria PP 49,165Adegeye, A.J.,Omonona, B.T. and Awoyemi,T.T.(1999).Issues and options in expanding the cassava industry (production, processing, and marketing) in Nigeria. Report prepared for FADU, LFN andNIRADO.Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan.Nigeria. pp 2.Agumagu, A. C. and Adesope, O. M. (2007). Farmers' response to the Root and Tuber Expansion Programme inJmo state, Nigeria. Nigeria/? Journal of Rural Extension and Development V o l . 2 p p 11.Awoniyi O.A., Awoyinka Y.A and Kehinde A.L. (2009). Effect of the Presidential Initiative on cassava andhousehold food security status in Iwo zone of Osun State Agricultural Development Programme.African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, Uganda.Vol. 9. pp. 755 – 760Awoyinka Y. A. (2009a). Cassava Marketing: Option for Sustainable Agricultural Development in Nigeria.Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2) Pp 175-183.Awoyinka Y. A. (2009b). Effect of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava Production Efficiency in Oyo State –Nigeria. Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2) Pp 185-193.Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD, 2006). Yearly statistics of agriculturalproduction in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Abuja.FMANR: Roots and Tuber Expansion Programme. http//www. fidafingnew.net December 2009.FMANR: Snap shot of Integrated Cassava Project (2003-2008) http//www.cassava biz.org/news/reports/sn.September 2009.I.I.T.A (2005) Status of Cassava Production in South east and South- south, Nigeria; A Base line Report pp 42-43.IFAD (2001) http://www.fidafrique.net/ntbriquel 174.html Assessed Dec., 2009Kormawa, P. and Akonda M. O. (2003) Cassava supply chain arrangement for industrial utilization inNigeria, Ibadan.NPC (2006) Ogun State of Nigeria: Nigeria Information & Guide http//www.nigerialleniacom. Assessed 30 November, 2009.Nweke, F, I., Dunstan S.C. Spencer and John K. Lynam (2002). The Cassava Transformation; Africa’s BestKept Secret. Michigan State University Press. Michigan. Pp 60-65Nweke, F. (2004): Challenges in cassava transformation in Nigeria and Ghana. Environment and production.Technology divisions 1FPRI, 2033K street NW Washington DC 20006 USA pp 1 – 118305

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Nweke, F. J, Goran K., Dixon, A. O., Ugwu, B. O., Ajobo, O., Koudio T. (1994). Cassava distribution in sub-Saharan African. The collaboration study on cassava in a Africa. Working paper No. 12, IITA, Ibadan,NigeriaOyewole, B. O. and Phillip B. (2006) Agro-food chain and sustainable livelihood: A case study of cassavamarketing in Agro-food chains and Networks for development. Reuben, B. and Slingerland (eds),Springer, Netherlands. Ppl07 -115Phillip, T. P., Taylor, D. S., Sanni L. and Akoroda, M. O. (2004). A cassava industrial revolution in Nigeria: Thepotential for a new industrial crop. International Fund for Agriculture Developments and Food andAgriculture Organization, Rome pp 33 - 42Phillip, T.P., Taylor, D. S., Sanni, L. and Akoroda, M.O. (2004). A cassava industrial revolution in Nigeria.: thepotential for a new industrial crop. International Fund for Agriculture Developments and Food andAgriculture Organization, Rome. Pp 1-49Uchechi A. and Nwachukwu, (2010): Averting household Food Insecurity Through Adoption of ImprovedCassava Varieties by Farmers in Abia State, Nigeria. In Akinlade J.A., Ogunwale, A.B., Asaolu,V.O., Aderinola, O.A., Ojebiyi, O.O., Rafiu T.A., Olayeni, T.B. and Yekinni O.T.(eds).Restrategizing Nigerian Agriculture in a Rapidly changing Climatic Conditions for SustainableFood security. Proceeding of 44 th Conference of Agricultural Society of Nigeria. Ladoke AkintolaUniversity of Technology, Ogbomoso. Pp 192-196.Ugwu, B. (1996). Increasing cassava production in Nigeria and prospect for sustaining the trend.Outlook on Agriculture, 25(3), 179-185Ugwu, B., (1996). Increasing Cassava production in Nigeria and Prospect for Sustaining the trend. Outlook onAgriculture, 25 (3), 179-185.Ugwu, D. S. (2006) Contributions of the Root and Tuber Expansion Programme (RTEP) to livelihooddevelopment among rural farming households Enugu state, Nigeria. Global Approaches toExtension Practice (GAEP) 2 (2) 51 – 57.306

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationTOWARDS ACHIEVING A ROBUST LIFE EXPECTANCY BY THE YEAR 2020: ASTATISTICAL EXAMINATION OF MAJOR GLOBAL DETERMINING FACTORSISAAC .O. AJAO*, AWOGBEMI, C. A.** and EWUMI, T.O. **** Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Federal Polytechnic, Ado - Ekiti** National Mathematical Centre, Abuja*** University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado- Ekiti**E-mail address for correspondence: awogbemiadeyeye@yahoo.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: For Nigeria to attain the goal of becoming one of the twenty (20) largest economies by the year 2020,the life expectancy of her citizens must be robust. This paper therefore reveals the relationship that existsbetween global Life Expectancies (LEXP) and some of its major predictors: Gross Domestic Products (GDP) percapita, Electricity Consumption (ECM) per capita, and Assess to safe water (ASW), others are Infant MortalityRate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) reportedcases with the aim of formulating an appropriate model for measuring such relationship. Using the OrdinaryLeast Squares Regression Analysis, it is observed that the determinants contribute most significantly to thegrowth of life expectancies. The Multiple Regression Analysis reveals highly significant and negatively linearrelationship between Life Expectancy and Maternal Mortality Rate with significant and positive association withGross Domestic Product per capita and Access to Safe Water.Keywords: Life Expectancy, Determining factors, Significant relationship, Vision 2020__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONLife expectancy at birth is the number of years a new born infant of either gender may be expected to live ifprevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth stay the same throughout its life time. Life expectancyreflects social factors such as health care, disease control, immunization, overall living conditions, and nutrition.In the last several decades, life expectancy has increased in all regions for both men and women. In high –income countries, women rend to outlive men by six to eight years. In developing countries, the differencebetween male and female life expectancy is much less- about two to three years. (United States Census Bureau,International programs centre; International database).A good economic environment having the necessities of life normally should lead to a robust life expectancy.Life expectancies of nations are therefore determined by certain factors, among such factors that have beeninvestigated and identified in the past by researchers are Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and ElectricityConsumption (EC) (Nwankwo et al, 2007), other recognisable factors are Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) andMaternal Mortality Rate (MMR) (Ogunmolasuyi, 2009).307

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011In this paper, we examine the effect of Gross Domestic Products (GDP), Electricity Consumption (EC), InfantMortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR), Assess to safe water (AW) and Acquired ImmuneDeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) on life expectancies of some notable nations of the world in comparison with thatof Nigeria, and to proffer possible solutions to the low life expectancy in the country in order to make vision2020 a reality, using the 2008 global data provided by the United States Census Bureau; International database.For the purpose of analysis, only the countries having data on the six (6) determining factors are considered, andhaving satisfied its assumptions, the Multiple Linear Regression was employed as the method of analysis.INFANT MORTALITY RATE (IMR) AND MATERNAL MORTALITY RATE (MMR)The infant mortality rate indicates the number of children, per 1,000 live births, who die before they reach theirfirst birthday. The rate reflects the probability of dying between birth and exactly one year of age. An infantmortality rate above 50 per 1,000 live births reflects socioeconomic problems such as malnutrition, poverty,relatively widespread childhood infectious diseases, and lack of affordable health care, prenatal care, andimmunizations. (United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center; International database, 2008)The maternal mortality rate measures the number of women who die due to pregnancy and childbirthcomplications, per 100,000 live births. It provides an indicator of the overall quality of health care available towomen within a country. Higher numbers, representing more deaths, may indicate limited access to basic healthcare and may have negative effect on life expectancy of people. (United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)database, 2005).ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION PER CAPITAElectricity consumption per capita is the average annual electric energy usage per person, measured in kilowatthours.It is calculated by dividing a country’s total electricity consumption by its population. Electricity is aversatile energy form that is easily stored and transmitted; it can provide heat, light, and mechanical power ondemand. Expressing electricity use per person is useful for comparisons between countries because the figurescompensate for differences in population among countries. The larger the number, the greater the annual use ofelectricity per person in a country. (United States Energy Information Administration (EIA); InternationalEnergy Annual database, 2004). Researches prove that any country with low electricity per capita stands the riskof having low life expectancy.GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) PER CAPITAGross Domestic Product (GDP) measures the value of all economic activity within a nation’s borders. It is equalto the market value of all goods and services that are exchanged for money or traded in a market system. GrossDomestic Product at purchaser values (market prices) is the sum of gross value added by all resident and nonresident producers in the economy, plus any taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of theproducts. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion anddegradation of natural resources. The GDP is an important economic indicator because it measures the value ofeverything produced in a given country. (World Bank database and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and308

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Development (OECD), 2006). A robust life expectancy may be impossible in a nation with too low GDP percapita, it’s a vital determinant.ACCESS TO SAFE WATERAccess to safe water for the total population refers to both urban and rural areas. As defined by the World HealthOrganization (WHO), in rural areas access to safe water /means that a family need not spend a disproportionatepart of the day fetching water. In urban areas, it means access to piped water or a public standpipe within 200meters (219 yards) of a dwelling or housing unit. Safe drinking water includes treated surface water anduntreated water from protected springs, boreholes, and sanitary wells. The definition of what constitutes 'access'to safe water varies from country to country. Generally, walking distance or time from household to water sourceis the principal criterion, particularly in rural areas. Access to safe water is essential in preventing waterbornediseases, and it is a minimum requirement for human health and well-being. (United Nations Children’s Fund(UNICEF) database, 2008). A high life expectancy may be a mirage in a land where inhabitants have no or lessaccess to safe water, as most diseases come up as a result of consumption of unsafe water.ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS) REPORTED CASESAcquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the late stage of infection by the Human immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV), which results in the suppression of the body's immune response. AIDS is a usually fatal disease thatis transmitted sexually, through infected blood or blood products, in uterus, during birth, or through breastfeeding.The system of reporting AIDS cases vary greatly among countries. Most of the industrialized countriesreport almost all AIDS cases; while others report vary few cases. Overall, the cumulative number of AIDS casesreported is less than 15 percent of the total estimated number of AIDS cases. This results from under-diagnosis,incomplete reporting, and reporting delay.Most countries report confirmed AIDS cases to the World Health Organization (WHO). The reported number ofAIDS cases is presumed to be lower than the estimated number, due to under-diagnosis, under-reporting, anddelays in reporting. Data have been compiled and estimated by the WHO from official national reports andspecial studies (unpublished). (World Health Organization (WHO), 2003). This of course lowers the lifeexpectancy of a country having high number of AIDS cases.METHODOLOGYData collectionThe data were collected from various organizations, among which are: United States Census Bureau,International Programs Center; International database, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) database),World Bank database and Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World HealthOrganization (WHO).309

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Out of the more than 190 countries of the world, only 177 having the six predicting variables were used in theanalysis.Multiple linear regressionThis is applicable when the data are multivariate. A multiple linear regression model relates a response variableY to more than one explanatory variable.The main purpose of the multiple regression analysis is to find which explanatory variables contribute to thevariation of the response variable. We are usually looking for the ‘best’ subset of the explanatory variables.The ModelyiWhere: , 0 1x1i 2x2i kxki i, i 1,2,...n.k is the number of explanatory variables,, are the parameters of the model, is a random error term.i0HH011k: 1 2 k 0: at least one of the 0i(y does not depend on x' s)MS( regression)Test Statistic F MS( residual)Reject H0if observed F > F k , n k, . Conclude that y does depend on x.Residual analysis to validate the assumptions of the model:The residuals are given by: ei yi yiThe assumptions are:i) Errors are independentii) Mean zero, constant varianceiii) Normally distributed.Plot of residuals vs fitted valuesShould be randomly scattered about zero with fairly constant ‘spread’ if assumption of independence andhomogeneity are valid.If the model fitted is inadequate, this can also be noticed from a distinctive pattern to this plot310

0Density.2 .4 .6-2stdRESIDUALS/Fitted values0 2 4Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011stdRESID vs stdPRED40 50 60 70 80stdPREDICTEDstdRESIDUALSFitted valuesFig. (1): Plot of residuals vs fitted valuesComments: There is a definite pattern to the residual plots by fitted values. The observations may not beindependent and also the linear fit in the model may be inadequate.histogram-2 0 2 4stdRESIDUALSFig.(2):HistogramThe Histogram Should be symmetric about zero and bell shaped, if the Normality assumption is valid.Comment: Histogram looks relatively symmetric.311

Normal F[(stdRESIDUALS-m)/s]0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011normal prob. plot0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00Empirical P[i] = i/(N+1)Fig. (3): Normal Probability PlotComment: Normal probability plot looks like a straight line. Hence, Normality assumption looks valid.Shapiro-Wilk tests for normalityHypothesisH o : The data are normalH 1 : The data are not normalReject H o if P < α (α = 0.05Table (1): Shapiro-Wilk W test for 3-parameter lognormal dataVariable Obs W V z Prob >Life Exp 177 0.8991 13.5400 -0.6980 0.7573Comment: Since P (0.7573) is not less than α (0.05), we do not have sufficient reason to reject the nullhypothesis, hence it is concluded that normality is significant.312

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011EMPERICAL RESULSTSAll analyses were done using STATA 8.0 SE and MICROSOFT- EXCELTable (2): Some of the Countries with Life Expectancy and notable determinantsCOUNTRIES LEXPEstimtd.in yearsMMRDeathsPer100,000IMRDeathsPer1000GDPUS$ percapitaECMKWHPerASWInpercentageAIDSReportedcasescapitaJapan 82.1 6 2.8 34,194 7,413 100 2,548Singapore 81.9 14 2.3 29,474 7,267 100 100France 80.9 8 3.4 36,700 7,205 100 57,772Sweden 80.7 3 2.8 42,251 14,838 100 1,923Spain 79.9 4 4.3 27,757 5,631 100 67,466Israel 79.7 4 6.6 19,927 6,170 100 945U. Kingdom 78.8 8 4.9 39,257 5,841 100 20,440U. States 78.1 11 6.3 43,968 12,574 100 806,157Libya 77.1 97 21.9 8,333 2,412 72 74Saudi Arabia 76.1 18 12 14,745 5,572 95 327Algeria 73.8 180 27.7 3,440 783 85 501Russia 65.9 28 10.8 6,926 5,665 97 467Ghana 59.5 560 52.3 561 243 75 14,449Haiti 57.6 670 62.3 527 61 54 0Kenya 56.6 560 56 623 132 61 81,492Nigeria 47.8 1,100 93.9 797 117 48 60,564Niger 44.3 1,800 115.4 172 22 46 5,598Zambia 38.9 830 101 133 533 58 44,942Swaziland 32 390 69.6 104 1,075 62 4,787Sierra Leone 40.9 2,100 156.2 175 49 57 317Source: Encarta, 2009Table (3): Model or Regression StatisticsMultiple R 0.9926R Square 0.9854Adjusted R Square 0.9849Standard Error 1.1342Observations 177313

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table (4): Analysis of Variancedf SS MS F Significance FRegression 6 14791.5972 2465.2662 1916.2623 2.8523E-153Residual 170 218.7045 1.2864Total 176 15010.3018Table (5): Parameter EstimatesCoefficients Standard t Stat P-valueErrorIntercept 28.0841 0.6207 45.2434 1.004E-96MMR -0.00901 0.0036 -2.4507 0.0152IMR 0.01006 0.0365 0.2749 0.7837GDP 0.0003 0.00005 5.4893 1.45E-07ECM 0.0001 0.0001 0.535 0.5933ASW 0.4992 0.01284 38.8762 1.64E-86AIDS -1.50E-04 2.51E-06 -0.6002 0.5491Response variable: Life Expectancy at Birth (LEXP)The appropriate model is:LEXP = 28.0841 - 0.0090 MMR + 0.0101 IMR + 0.0003 GDP + 0.0001 ECM + 0.4992 ASW – 0.00002 AIDSDISCUSSION OF RESULTSValidation of normality assumptions are presented in fig. (i) – (iii) and table (i) . The importance of this can notbe over emphasised in any statistical analysis, neglect of which has brought questionable results in the world ofstatistics.It can be seen in table (ii) that Japan has the second to the highest life exp (83.5 years) in the world by virtue ofits MMR and IMR are very low but high value in GDP, ECM and ASW. Nigeria’s life expectancy ranks 175 thposition in table with a value of 47.8 years simply because she does not have good values in some favourablepredictors, the country ranks 10 th among the countries with highest MMR and AIDS reported cases and 14 th inIMR. An African nation, Swaziland has the lowest life expectancy on the globe of 32 years. MMR and IMR inNigeria are 1,100 and 93.9 respectively compared with Sweden with less population has MMR and IMR of 3 and2.8 respectively. Despite her abundant rivers, Access to safe water in Nigeria is 48% while it is 97% in SaudiArabia where vast of the land is desert!314

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011With Regression Statistics presented in table (iii), Coefficient of Multiple Determination R 2 of 98% and devianceof 1.13, it shows that the model (regression equation) is efficient and it adequately fit the data. It also means thatthe predictors can affect life expectancy by 98%.Table (iv) shows the Analysis of variance, which confirms a generalized high significant linear relationship withP-value of 2.85E-153 between life expectancy and the predictors.Of all the significant determinants in table (v), Access to Safe Water (ASW) has the highest value, 1.64E-86, thisof course is a major determinant of a robust life expectancy, it is also enough evidence to show its inevitabilityfor any nation having a goal of becoming great.CONCLUSIONBased on the results from the tables, it can be concluded that MMR, GDP per capita and ASW are significantlyassociated with life expectancy. Nigeria and some other fellow African countries are in the rear, with low lifeexpectancies which is the aftermath of low GDP per capita, Electricity consumption (ECM) per capita, andAccess to Safe Water (ASW).The negative relationship between life expectancy, MMR and AIDS reported cases is normal; increase in eitherMMR or AIDS means decrease in life expectancy and vice versa.RECOMMENDATIONFor Nigeria to achieve the goal of vision 2020, her life expectancy must significantly improve, 47.8 years lifespan is too low for a country with such a goal. The government should provide adequate health care facilities inorder to reduce MMR, IMR and AIDS cases; this will go a long way in bringing these variables on a perpetualnegative side. Despite the huge population, the Electricity consumption (ECM) per capita is about 117kwh. Thisis too small if compared with Israel, which has 6,170kwh per capita with population of just 6.5 million people!Future researchers should look into the effect of standard of living, quality of leaders, system of government,debt service and poor infrastructures such as roads on life expectancy in Nigeria.315

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESNwankwo, C.H. et al. (2007): Good Governance and Life Expectancy in Nigeria, Nigerian StatisticalAssociation 2007 Conference proceedings. 69-71.Ogunmolasuyi, D.I. (2009): Global Life Expectancies: Yardstick for measuring Good Governance and Health ofNations. (Unpublished)United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) database; (2004): Access to safe water, total population(www.unicef.org)United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) database; (2005): Maternal mortality rate (www.unicef.org)United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center; International database (2008): Life expectancy atbirth and Infant mortality rate (www.census.gov/ipc)United States Energy Information Administration (EIA); International Energy Annual database (2003):Electricity consumption per capita (www.eia.doe.gov)World Bank database and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2006): GDP percapita (www.oecd.org)World Health Organization (WHO) (2003): Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) reported cases(www.who.org)316

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationCOMPARING OF SOME ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF CLAYEY SOILSIN DIFFERENT REGIONS OF TURKEYALI GOKOGLU* and OSMAN GUNAYDIN***Vocational School of Ceyhan, University of Cukurova,Ceyhan-Adana, Turkey**Geological Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering,University of Nigde, Nigde, Turkey*E-mail adres for correspondence: agokoglu@cu.edu.tr____________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: It is known that index properties of soils are effective on engineering behaviour of soils.Especially, grain size in coarse-grained soils, moisture content in fine-grained soils and condition ofconsistency happened on based moisture, clay types within soils have had a negative effect on soilstrength. In this study, they were determined soils types with index properties such as specific gravity,natural moisture content, grain size, consistency limits, swelling potential of clayey soils which providedcity of Adana, Osmaniye, and Bolu in Turkey and results were compared. The units consist of HandereFormation, Guvenc Formation, Almanpinari clay, alluvion-1, 2, 3, 4. Soil types were determined as usingthree different plasticity chart. They were done correlation analysis between variables such as liquid limit,plastic limit, plasticity index, shrinkage limit, colloid content, swelling potential. Consequently, liquidlimit and plasticity values were high except for aluvyon-1, 3, Usually, soil types according to Casagrandeplasticity chart has been “CL”, “ML” according to Polidori plasticity chart, “CL” according to plasticitychart of British standards, “A-7-5” according to AASHTO. At the end of correlation analysis, it was anegative correlation between shrinkage limit and colloid content, shrinkage limit and plasticity index,shrinkage limit and swelling. It was resulted that it was a pozitive correlation between shrinkage limit andsand+silt content, activity and plasticity index, swelling potential and plasticity index.Key words: Handere Formation, Almanpinari clay, alluvion, correlation, soil type._____________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe system of classification of soils at the same time is communication language between engineers. Soilclassifications provide a systematic method that classifies soils according to specific engineeringbehaviors and let other engineers use an engineer’s experiences. A classification of soils, of course, doesnot eliminate requirements of detailed analysis of soil laboratory experiments that measure engineeringproperties. However, it is a fact that, properties of engineering are parallel to properties of indexes and317

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011classification of soils. Thus, an engineer, by knowing how to classify the soil, can know how to solve theproblems under building loads at construction (Holtz ve Kovacs 2002).In this study, index properties of soils that were brought from different places of Turkey were determinedand these soils were classified using different plasticity chart (plasticity charts of Casagrande, Polidori,British standards). The soil units in this study were taken from Adana, Osmaniye and Bolu that are citiesof Turkey. The information that belongs to these units was defined from Çetin (2005), Schmidt (1961),Özçelik et al. (1993), Yetiş (1991), Yetiş and Demirkol (1986), Sevin and Aksay (2002).MATERIAL AND METHODMaterialIn this study, the units that were provided from different cities of Turkey were used. In these units,Handere formation clays were taken from a somewhere on the road of Çatalan Dam which is at nearKaraisalı town. The Almanpınarı clays were taken from Almanpınarı plateau which is south east ofOsmaniye city. The alluvion samples were taken from four different locations which are on the NortheastAnatolian Fault Zone. This zone is at northeast of Gerede town. The first location is at 3 km east ofGerede town (alluvion-4). The second one is at 1 km north of Çayoren district which is 10 km east ofGerede town (alluvion-3). The third one is at Ardıçlı location which is at 15 km east of Gerede town(alluvion-1). The last one is at Doruktarla hill which is at 30 km northeast of Gerede town (alluvion-2)(Fig. 1).The Geological Properties Of The UnitsAlmanpınarı clayAlmanpınarı clay source, Jurassic-Cretaceous aged, is in the limestones and it makes deposits and thethickness of deposits can reach 150 m. The color of this is between brown and red and it is in middlestrength and also it contains a few pieces of mica and sand. Three colored zone were determined inAlmanpınarı clay. The first zone is red and contains illite and kaolinite minerals. The second zone is inyellow color and contains illite mineral and the third one is grey and contains kaolinite mineral (Çetin,2005).Güvenç formationGüvenç formation surface along Kuzgun-Kaplankaya boundary. It overlays from Karaisalı village(Adana) in the north to Kuzgun village (Adana) in the south. The formation was named by Schmidt(1961). This formation contains mainly grey, dark grey, yellowish shales, marls, thin sandstones,claystones and siltstones. It was determined that it is the lower-middle Miocene aged (Özçelik et al.1993). 80% of Güvenç formation is made up of shales and marls. Yellowish grey colored sandstone andclaystone exist as intermediate layer. At sandstone zone, ripple marks can sometimes be seen. Thethickness of unit increases from west to east and can reach until 3000 m. The unit is transitional byKaraisalı limestone in west of Karaisalı town, by Cingöz formation in the east. Kuzgun formation surfaceabove this unit near Kuzgun village (Yetiş 1991).318

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Handere formationHandere formation overlays in southside of Adana Basin. The formation was named by Schmidt (1961)and is upper Miocene-Pliocene-aged. Handere formation consists of coarse clastics in west, and fineclastics in east. Gravelstone, coarse-middle sandstone in west is much. Gravelstone, fine sandstonesiltstonein east is too much. The unit consists the mainly of gravelly sandstone, sandstone, siltstone,mudstone and contains gypsum lenses in the west of the Seyhan dam lake. there is terrace which iscovered by the old and current alluvion overlying on Handere formation in south of Adana basin (Yetiş veDemirkol 1986).Quaternary alluvionThe four of units used is alluvuion that is Quaternary-aged unit. The unit is in northeast of Gerede townof the city of Bolu. Quaternary aged units consist of river-lake sediments, slope debris, fault breccia,travertine, alluvions and their fans in general. Quaternary aged units which continued sedimentation weredeposited by the fault control along the Northeast Anatolian Fault Zone (KAFZ) (Sevin ve Aksay 2002).Alluvion is along Gerede (Bolu)-İsmetpaşa highway and Northeast Anatolian Fault Zone (KAFZ). Foursamples used in this study obtained from this region.MethodThe experiments in the study were done according to ASTM (American Society for Testing andMaterials) standards. Specific gravity, determination of moisture content, analysis of grain size, liquidlimit and plastic limit, shrinkage limit experiments were done according to ASTM D 854-02 (2003),ASTM D 2216-98 (2003), ASTM D 422-63 (2003), ASTM D 4318-00 (2003), ASTM D 427-98 (2003)standards respectively. Also classifications of soils were done according to ASTM D 2487-00 (2003),plasticity charts of Casagrande, Polidori and British standards and AASHTO (American Association ofState Highway and Transportation Officials).RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONIndex properties of the unitsSpecific gravity and grain size analysisThe values of specific gravity of soil units were determined according to ASTM D 854-02 (2003). Afteranalyses, specific gravity (G s ) values of fine-grained soils and coarse-grained soils (alluvion soils) weredetermined averagely as 2.737 and 2.570 respectively. In soils, specific gravity values were decreased byincreasing coarse-grain content (Table 1). Grain-size analyses that belong to soils were determinedaccording to ASTM D 422-63 standard and after analyses, grain size curves were drawn. From thesecurves, it was understood that sand percentage are between 4 and 44 % and the values of amount of siltare between 16.20 and 46.75%. The amount of clay are between 14.20 and 25.70 %. The amount ofcolloid are changing between 14.90 and 41.30% (Fig. 2). Also it was seen that at the fine-grained soils,the portions of silt, clay and colloid are high and at coarse-grained soils, the portions of silt and sand are319

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011higher than the portions of clay and colloid. In addition to these, at the coarse-grained soils, especially atalluvion-2, the amount of colloid is higher than the amount of colloid at the other alluvion samples. Whenthe values of specific gravity and grain size analyses are considered together, it can be seen that thesevalues support each other.Consistency limitsThe tests of liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) were done according to ASTM D4318-02 (2003)standard. While the liquid limit values at the fine-grained soils are changing between 42.55 and 45.78%,the values at coarse-grained soils (alluvion-1, 2, 3, and 4) are changing between 28.30 and 61.20% (seeTable1, Fig. 3). The liquid limit values of alluvion-2 and alluvion 4 are 61.20% and 49.80% respectively(Fig. 3). Although plastic limit values of the fine-grained soils are changing between 22.01 and 23.51%,the values of the coarse-grained soils are between 21.45 and 26.35%. Parallel to the liquid limit values,the plastic limit values of alluvion-2 and alluvion-4 are 25.28% and 26.35% respectively. As the same asin the liquid limit values, the plastic limit values of the same units are also high. Except for the values ofalluvion-3 and alluvion-1, the values of plasticity index (PI) of coarse-grained soils are higher than thevalues of plasticity index of the fine-grained soils (Table 1). This situation shows us that, plasticity indexvalues increase consequently with the values of liquid and plastic limit. By looking at Fig. 4, it isunderstood that there is a positive relationship between liquid limit and plasticity index. Correlationconstant between liquid limit and plastic limit variables is 0.82 and the correlation constant betweenplasticity index and plastic limit is found as 0.76 (Figs. 4 and 5). The equations between parameters aregiven below.PL = 0.1311LL + 17.969 (r = 0.82) (1)PI = 4.1471PL - 78.421 (r = 0.76) (2)The reason of high and different values of liquid limit values at fine-grained soils and the coarse-grainedsoils was thought because of containing different clay minerals of soils. According to Uras et al. (2005),Handere formation is made up of smectite, illite, and kaolinite with in the order of increasing amount. Thestudy done by Sayarslan et al. (1997) showed that Güvenç formation contains smectite, kaolinite andpaligorskite with in the order of increasing amount. It was also understood from the study of Çetin (2005)that Almanpınarı clay has illite and kaolinite. Under the lights of these data, the reason of high value ofliquid limit and plasticity index at the fine-grained soils can be explained by sensitive clays against waterin the soil.It was determined that the values of activity clays in the units are changing between 0.846 and 4.989. Byusing Skempton (1953)’s study, except for the clays in alluvion-2 unit, all clays are in the active claysclass. In similar way, by using the study of Seed et al. (1962) activity values of clays were determined andit was seen that these values are changing between 2.21 and 16.327 (Table 1). From the correlationanalysis of values of activity (A) and plasticity index (PI) which were determined by using the studies ofSkempton (1953) and Seed et al. (1962), it was understood that there is a positive correlation between thevalues of activity and plasticity index. After drawing graphs, the correlation constants (r) were calculatedas 0.94 by using Skempton (1953)’s study and as 0.77 by using Seed and et al. (1962)’s study (Fig. 6 and7). From these values and graphs, it was understood that the method of Skempton (1953) is giving morereliable data than those which are given by study of Seed and et al. (1962) (Fig. 6 and 7). The equationsnumber 3 and number 4 that are given below, show the relationship between the variables.A = 0.13PI - 0.0441 (r = 0.94) (according to Skempton 1953) (3)A = 0.3723PI + 0.3863 (r = 0.77) (according to Seed et al. 1962) (4)320

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011At the classification which done by using liquidity index belong to soils, fine-grained units in alluvion-1and alluvion-3 are semisolid-solid class. The other fine-grained units are plastic class. Classification ofliquidity index provided from Holtz and Kovacs (2002). It was supported that the units are entered toplastic soil group that expect for alluvion-1 ve alluvion-3, units are high of value of natural moisturecontent (ω) and plasticity index (Table 1).Classification which done by using consistency index provided from Ulusay (2001). They weredetermined that Handere formation, Güvenç formation, fine-grained units of alluvion-2 and alluvion-4 arein hard class according to consistency index. Almanpınarı clay is in semihard class, alluvion-1 andalluvion-3 units are in very hard class according to consistency index. While soils which the values oflikit limit and plasticity index are high are in hard soil group, soils which the values of likit limit andplasticity index are low are very in hard soil group (Table 1).Shrinkage limits values of soil samples were determined according to ASTM D 427-98 (2003) standard.The values of shrinkage limits of the units are changing between 16.42% ve 19.63%. In this study, it wasdetermined influence to shrinkage limit of content of colloid and plasticity index. From graph, it wasdetermined that it was negative correlation between colloid content (CC) and shrinkage limit (SL).Correlation constant (r) between every two parameters (colloid content-shrinkage limit) was determinedas -0.89 (Fig. 8). In similar way, it was determined that it was negative correlation between clay+colloidcontent (CCC) and shrinkage limit (SL). Correlation constant (r) between every two parameters(clay+colloid content-shrinkage limit) was determined as -0.76 (Fig. 9). It was determined that it wasnegative correlation between plasticity index (PI) and shrinkage limit (SL) and correlation constant (r)between every two parameters was determined as -0.84 (Fig. 10). Equations number 5, 6, 7 indicatedcorrelations between variables.SL = -0.1287CC + 21.189 (r = -0.89) (5)SL = -0.0813CCC + 21.633 (r = -0.76) (6)SL = -0.1097PI + 20.128 (r = -0.84) (7)Swelling potential (S)Swelling potential (SL) due to the clays in the soil units and the percentage of swelling potential valueswere determined using experimental methods in the studies of Seed et al. (1962). These values arechanging between 0.236 and 13.473% using the studies of Seed et al. (1962). The classification whichwas done by using the study of Seed et al. (1962), showed that the swelling potentials of alluvion-1 andalluvion-3 are in low class, the swelling potentials of others are put in middle class (Table 1). It wasunderstood that there is a positive relationship between the plasticity index (PI) and swelling potential(SL) after doing the correlation analyses between these values. The values of correlation constantsbetween plasticity index and the swelling potential that were calculated by helping the studies of Seed etal. (1962) are 0.95 (Fig. 11). It is thought that clay types affect increasing the swelling potential valuesrelated with plasticity index. The equation number 8 given below shows relationship between thevariables.S = 0.4404PI – 4.4413 (r = 0.95) (according to Seed et al. 1962) (8)321

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011When the relationship between shrinkage limit (SL) and swelling potential (S) were analyzed, it wasunderstood that there is an inversely negative relationship between them. The correlation constantsbetween swelling potential and shrinkage limit were calculated as -0.74 by using the studies of Seed et al.(1962) (Fig. 12). The equation number 9 that was written below shows the relationship between shrinkagelimit and swelling potential.S = -2.6319SL + 51.498 (r = -0.74) (according to Seed et al. 1962) (9)Soil typeTypes of soils were determined using different plasticity charts and comparison of soil types was alsodone. After the classification that was done by using Casagrande plasticity chart, the soil types ofalluvion-1, alluvion-2 and the others were determined as CL-ML, CH and CL respectively (Fig. 13).According to the classification that was done by using the Polidori plasticity chart, the soil types ofalluvion-2, alluvion-4 and the others were determined as MH, CL and ML respectively (Fig. 14).According to plasticity charts of British standards, the soil types of alluvion -2 and the others were put inCI and CL type soil groups respectively (Fig. 15). If it is looked at table 1, it will be understood that thesoil at alluvion-2 is put in different groups at different plasticity charts. It is also seen that high silt contentin soil units supports the classification of soil type using Polidori plasticity chart.CL type soil group which was obtained from the classification is made up of inorganic clay with the lowmiddleplasticity, gravelly clay, sandy clay, silty clay, fat clay. ML type soil group contains inorganic siltand very fine sand, rock flour, silty or clayey very fine sand, silt with slight plasticity clay. CH type soilgroup is composed of inorganic clay with high plasticity, fat clay. MH type soil group is formed byinorganic silt, micaceous and diatomaceous fine sandy or silty soil and elastic silt (Holtz and Kovacs,2002). Finally, CI type soil group consists of medium plasticity clay (Carter and Bentley 1991).After the classification done by using AASHTO, Handere formation, Güvenç formation, Almanpınarıclay, and alluvion-4 are put in a soil group named as A-7-5. Alluvions number 1, 2, and 3 are classified asA-6, A-7-6 and A-4 groups respectively (Table 1). According to these data, after the classification of soiltypes using plasticity charts with Casagrande, British standards and AASHTO, the soil groups supporteach other.AASHTO’ya göre elde edilen “A-4” soil group is typically a nonplastic or moderately plastic silty soilusually with a high percentage passing the 0.075mm sieve. The group also includes mixtures of silty finesands and silty gravelly sands. “A-6” soil group is typically a plastic clay soil having a high percentagepassing the 0.075mm sieve. Also mixtures of clayey soil with sand and fine gravel. Materials in thisgroup have a high volume change between wet and dry states. “A-7-5” soil group materials havemoderate plasticity index in relation to the liquid limits and may be highly elastic as well as subject tovolume change. “A-7-6” soil group materials have high plasticity index in relation to the liquid limits andare subject to extremly high volume change (after Carter and Bentley 1991).322

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011CONCLUSIONS(a) Average value of specific gravity that belongs to fine-grained soils is 2.737. However, this value ofcoarse-grained soils is decreasing to the 2.570. The reason of this decreasing is the increase of contentof coarse grain in alluvions.(b) After the grain size analysis, the amount of silt, clay and colloid in the soil units with fine grain ishigh. Also according to this analysis, in the soil units with coarse grain, the amount of sand and silt ishigher than the amount of clay and colloid. Besides these, the colloid amount in alluvion-2 is higherthan the amount of colloid the other alluvion units (number 1, 3, and 4). When the grain size analysisand specific gravity analyses are evaluated together, the values support each other.(c) Except for alluvion-1 and alluvion-3 soil units, the values of liquid limit and plasticity index of otherunits are high. The different clay types in the soil units with fine grain are thought of the reason of thehigh values.(d) It is determined that the clay in alluvion-1 is in normal clay group. The clay that is in other soil unitsare in active clay group. It is thought that the different type of clays in alluvion-1 is the reason ofclays of alluvion-1 which are put in normal clay group. Correlation analyses between the values ofplasticity index and activity that belongs to soil units, were done and after analyses, it was found thatthere is positive relationship between two variables.(e) Although the shrinkage limit values of the soil units with coarse grain are high, these values of thesoil units with fine grain are low. The reason of this event is that, shrinking at the soils with fine graintakes place more than shrinking of other soil units does. They were done correlation analysesbetween colloid content, plasticity index. According to correlation analyses, it was understood thatthere are inversely negative relationships between colloid content and shrinkage limit, plasticity indexand shrinkage limit.(f) After the classification that was done by using the study of Seed et al. (1962), it was determined thatswelling potentials of alluvion-1 and alluvion-3 are put in low group and the swelling potentials ofalluvion-2 and the other units are put in high and middle groups respectively. When correlationsituations were examined by using graphs, it was understood that there is a positive relationshipbetween plasticity index and swelling potential. The high value of plasticity index is thought becauseof content of water sensitive clay minerals. Also it was showed that there is a negative relationshipbetween swelling potential and shrinkage limit.(g) According to the Casagrande plasticity chart, the soil type of alluvion-1 and alluvion-2 and the othersare put in CL-ML, CH and CL groups respectively. According to the Polidiori plasticity chart, thesoil types of alluvion-2, alluvion-4 and the others are classified as MH, CL and ML groupsrespectively. Although according to the British standards chart, the soil type of alluvion-2 isclassified as CI type soil group, the others are classified as CL type soil group. It was determined thatalluvion-2 is classified as different soil type groups by using different plasticity chart. According toAASHTO, Güvenç formation, Handere formation, Almanpınarı clay, and alluvion-4 are put in A-7-5type soil group. Besides this, by using the same standards, alluvion-1, 2, and 3 are classified as A-6,A-7-6 and A-4 type soil groups respectively. The high silt amount in the soil units supports theclassifications that were done by using Polidori plasticity chart.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSAuthors would like to thank Assistant Professor Dr. Hüseyin Bekir Yıldız of Department of Chemistry atKaramanoğlu MehmetBey Üniversity for their help.323

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011REFERENCESASTM D 422-63 (2003). Standard test method for particle-size analysis of soils. In: Annual Book ofASTM Standards, Volume 04.08, West Conshohocken, PA., 10-17.ASTM D 427-98 (2003). Standard test method for shrinkage factors of soils by the mercury method. In:Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.08, West Conshohocken, PA., 22-25.ASTM D 854-02 (2003). Standard test method for specific gravity of soil solids by water pycnometer. In:Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.08, West Conshohocken, PA., 93-99.ASTM D 2216-98 (2003). Standard test method for laboratory determination of water (moisture) contentof soil and rock by mass. In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.08, WestConshohocken, PA., 219-223.ASTM D 2487-00 (2003). Standard practise for classification of soils for engineering purposes (unifiedsoil classification system). In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.08, WestConshohocken, PA., 248-259.ASTM D 4318-02 (2003). Standard test method for liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils.In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 04.08, West Conshohocken, PA., 582-595.Carter M., Bentley S. P. (1991). Correlations of Soil Properties. Pentech Press, London, 130pp.Çetin S. (2005). Bazalt Tüfü Kullanılarak Yapılan Firitlerin Endüstriyel ve Sanatlar Sırların YapımındaKullanılması, Fiziksel ve Kimyasal Özelliklerinin Araştırılması. Çukurova Üniversitesi SosyalBilimler Enstitüsü Seramik Anasanat Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, s.27 (yayımlanmamış).Holtz R., Kovacs W. D. (2002). Geoteknik Mühendisliğine Giriş. (Çeviren: Kayabalı, K.). Gazi Kitabevi,Ankara, 723s.Özçelik N., Yetiş C., Nazik A., Şafak Ü. (1993). Adana baseni Güvenç Formasyonu'nun (Alt-OrtaMiyosen) fasiyes ve ortamsal nitelikleri. 46. Türkiye Jeoloji Kurultayı Bildiri Özleri, s115.Polidori E. (2003). Proposal for a new plasticity chart. Geotechnique, Volume 53, 4, 397-406.Sayarslan M., Öner F., Kapur S. (1997). Adana-Güvenç formasyonundaki sedimanların mineralojik vekimyasal bileşimi. Çukurova Üniversitesi’nde Jeoloji Mühendisliği Eğitiminin 20. yılıSempozyumu. Geosound-Yerbilimleri, 30, 717-724.Schmidt G. C. (1961). Stratigrafic nomenculature of the Adana region petroleum district. VII:PetroleumAdministration Bulletin, Number:6, Ankara, 47-62.Seed H. B., Woodward R. J., Lundgran R. (1962). Prediction of swelling potential of compacted clays.Proceedings ASCE Journal of soil mechanics and Foundation Division, 88, 07-131.Sevin M., Aksay A. (2002). Bolu-G28 Paftası 1:100000 ölçekli jeoloji haritası. MTA Raporları, RaporNo:35, 25s.Skempton A. W. (1953). The colloidal activity of clays. Proceedings of 3rd International Conference onSoil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 367-376.Ulusay R. (2001). Uygulamalı Jeoteknik Bilgiler. TMMOB Jeoloji Mühendisleri Odası Yayınları: 38,Ankara, 385s.Uras U., Ergül S., Akyıldız M., Yaman S. (2005). Üst Miyosen-Pliyosen Yaşlı Handere Formasyonu(Adana Baseni) Killi Kayaçlarının Mineralojisi ve Jeokimyası. 12. Ulusal Kil SempozyumuBildiriler, Van, 73-79.324

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Yetiş C., Demirkol C. (1986). Adana Baseni Batı Kesiminin Detay Jeoloji Etüdü. MTA Derleme Rapor8037, 138-146.Yetiş C. (1991). Saha Jeolojisi Ders Notları. Çukurova Üniversitesi Mühendislik-Mimarlık Fakültesi,Yayın 01, 114s.Weston D. J. (1980). Expansive roadbed treatment for Southern Africa. Proceedings of 4th InternationalConference on Expansive Soils. 1, 339-360.A LIST OF CAPTIONSFig. 1 Location mapFig. 2 Grain size curvesFig. 3 Flow curvesFig. 4 Relationship between liquid limit and plastic limitFig. 5 Relationship between plastic limit and plasticity indexFig. 6 Relationship between plasticity index and activity (according to Skempton 1953)Fig. 7 Relationship between plasticity index and activity (according to Seed et al. 1962)Fig. 8 Relationship between colloid content and shrinkage limitFig. 9 Relationship between clay+colloid content and shrinkage limitFig. 10 Relationship between plasticity index and shrinkage limitFig. 11 Relationship between plasticity index and swelling potential (according to Seed et al. 1962)Fig. 12 Relationship between shrinkage limit and swelling potential (according to Seed et al. 1962)325

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Fig. 13 Casagrande’s plasticity chart (after Holtz ve Kovacs 2002)Fig. 14 Polidori’s plasticity chart (Polidori 2003)Fig. 15 Plasticity chart of British standards (after Carter and Bentley 1991)N●●●● places thatsamples providedFig. 1326

Moisture content (%)Percent passing (%)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20111009080706050Handere Formation40Güvenç Formation30Almanpınarı clayAlluvion-120Alluvion-210Alluvion-30Alluvion-40,0001 0,001 0,01 0,1 1 10Grain size (mm)Fig. 27065605550Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-345Alluvion-440353025201 10 25100 1000Number of blows, NFig. 3327

Plasticity index, PI (%)Plastic limit, PL (%)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011282624Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-410 25100 1000Number of blows, N2220Fig. 4PL = 0,1311LL + 17,969r = 0,820 10 20 30 40 50 60 70Liquid limit, LL (%)403530252015Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-41050PI = 4,1471PL - 78,421r = 0,7618 20 22 24 26 28 30Plastic limit, PL (%)10 25100 1000Number of blows, NFig. 5328

Moisture content (%)Activity, AActivity, AOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 201165432Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-410 25100 1000Number of blows, N10Fig. 6A = 0,13PI - 0,0441r = 0,940 10 20 30 40Plasticity index, PI (%)1816A = 0,3723PI + 0,3863r = 0,77147065605550454035121086420Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-40 10 20 30 40Plasticity index, PI (%)3025Fig. 7201 10 25100 1000Number of blows, N329

Moisture content (%)Shrinkage limit, SL (%)Shrinkage limit, SL (%)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20112120SL = -0,1287CC + 21,189r = -0,89191817161514Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-40 10 20 30 40 50Colloid content (%)Fig. 810 25100 10007021Number of blows, N652060555045403530251918171615SL = -0,0813CCC + 21,633r = -0,76Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-430 40 50 60 7020Clay+colloid content (%)1 10 25100 1000Number of blows, Fig. 9 N330

Swelling potential, S (%)Shrinkage limit, SL (%)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20112120SL = -0,1097PI + 20,128r = -0,84191817161514Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-40 10 20 30 40Plasticity index, PI (%)Fig. 1010 25100161000Number of blows, NHandere Formation14 Güvenç Formation12 Almanpınarı clay10Alluvion-1Alluvion-28 Alluvion-36 Alluvion-410 25100 1000Number of blows, N420Fig. 11S= 0,4404PI - 4,4413r = 0,950 10 20 30 40Plasticity index, PI (%)331

Plasticity index, PI (%)Moisture content (%)Swelling potential (%)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20117065605550454035302520181614121086420S= -2,6319SL + 51,498r = -0,74Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-416 17 18 19 20Shrinkage limit, SL (%)1 10 25100 1000Fig. 12Number of blows, N6050403020100CL-MLMLCasagrande Plasticity ChartCLML-OLU-hattıPI=0.9(LL-8)MH-OH0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Liquid limit, LL (%)CHA-hattıPI=0.73(LL-20)Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3Alluvion-4Fig. 13332

Liquid limit, LL (%)Plasticity index, PI (%)Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Polidori Plasticity Chart80706050Handere FormationGüvenç FormationAlmanpınarı clayAlluvion-1Alluvion-2Alluvion-3C-hattıLL>60; Ip = 096LL-370.5C hattıLL>29; Ip = 0.96LL-23U-hattıLL>16; Ip = 0.96LL-10U-hattı0.5C-hattı40Alluvion-4MH30CHC-hattı20100OHMLCLOL0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100Liquid limit, LL (%)Fig. 1480706050L-Low plasticityPlasticity Chart of British StandardsI-MediumplasticityH-HighplasticityV-Very highplasticityCVE-Extremely highplasticityCEME403020100CHHandere FormationMVGüvenç FormationCIAlmanpınarı clayMHAlluvion-1CLAlluvion-2MIAlluvion-3MLAlluvion-40 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120Plasticity index, PI (%)Fig. 15333

Handere Fm.2.74026.434.0044.5025.5026.0042.5523.5119.0417.582.441Active clay6.8000.153PlasticGüvenç Fm.2.73024.686.2546.7521.4025.6043.4024.1219.2818.002.605Active clay8.0330.029PlasticAlmanpınarıKili2.74029.8916.8016,2025,7041.3045.7822.0123.7716.422.032Active clay3.4150.318PlasticAlluvion-12.65112.2327.0037.0021.1014.9028.3021.456.8519.630.846Normal clay2.210-1.346Semisolidor solidAlluvion-22.54029.2831.2026.3014.2028.3061.2025.2835.9216.514.989Active clay16.3270.111PlasticAlluvion-32.58811.8044.0021.5017.9019.6032.2022.1810.0219.221.590Active clay7.708-1.036Semisolid orsolidAlluvion-42.50026.9934.4029.1017.0019.5049.8026.3523.4518.453.127Active clay9.3800.027PlasticOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011334

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Specific gravity, GsPlasticity index, IpLiquidity index, ILHandereFm.0.847Hard2.863MediumCLMLCLA-7-5GüvençFm.0.971Hard2.952MediumCLMLCLA-7-5Almanpınarıclay0.682Semihard4.920MediumCLMLCLA-7-5Alluvion-12.346Very hard0.236LowCL-MLMLCLA-6Alluvion-20.889Hard13.473HighCHMHCIA-7-6Alluvion-32.036Very hard0.598LowCLMLCLA-4Alluvion-40.973Hard4.760MediumCLCLCLA-7-5Table 1 Some properties of soilsParameterNatural moisture content, ω (%)Grain size (%)SandSiltClayColloidLiquid limit, LLPlastic limit, PLShrinkage limit, SLAktivity, A-Skempton (1953)’a göreClassification-Seed et al. (1962)’ne göreClassification335

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Consistency index, IcTable 1 ContinuedParameter-ClassificationSwelling potential (%)-According to Seed et al. (1962)- Classification(according to Seed et al. (1962))Soil type-According to Casagrande plasticity chart-According to Polidori plasticity chart-According to British standards plasticity cahrt-According to AASHTO336

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011MISSN 1943-2429OD© 2009 Ozean PublicationMODELLING VOLATILITY IN FINANCIAL TIME SERIES: EVIDENCEFROM NIGERIAN INFLATION RATESAWOGBEMI, C.A.* and AJAO, OLUWASEYI***National Mathematical Centre, Abuja, Nigeria.**Mathematics/Statistics Dept., Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.* E- mail address for correspondence: awogbemiadeyeye@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This research work tends to describe volatility in the consumer prices of some selected commodities inNigerian market. This is achieved by examining the presence or otherwise of the volatility in their prices usingARCH and GARCH models with the monthly Consumer Price Index (CPI) of five selected commodities over aperiod of time (1997 – 2007) collected from National Bureau of Statistics, Headquarters, Abuja. The data obtainedwere analyzed using MS-Excel and E- view software packages. Akaike information Criteria (AIC) and BayesianInformation Criteria were used to test the adequacy of the models. Langragean Multiplier test was also used to testfor the presence of ARCH effects and the data for the prices showed varying degree of ARCH effects.Keywords: Volatility, Inflation Rates, ARCH, GARCH, Volatility Clustering_____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONInflation and its volatility entail large real costs to the economy (Antonio Morenio,2004 ). Among the harmfuleffect of inflation, the negative consequences of inflation volatility are of particular concern(Philip, 2004).Theseinclude higher risk premia for long term arrangement, unforeseen redistribution of wealth and higher costs forhedging against inflation risks. Thus inflation volatility can impede growth even if inflation on average remainsrestrained.Volatile periods are hectic periods with price fluctuations. Intuitively, such periods reflect investors‟ uncertaintyabout the fundamentals in the economy. The inflation rate as measured by Consumer Price Index in Nigeria variedwidely over time, and that high variability has been associated with periods of high inflation. Friedman (1997)opined that higher inflation leads to greater volatility and higher inflation volatility is detrimental to economicgrowth. A lack of price stability exerts harmful effects on the economy not only through changes in the price levelbut also through increased price level uncertainty. High volatility of inflation over time raises such price leveluncertainty.337

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011According to Emmanuel (2008), the major component of instability in inflation rates is exhibited by the volatility ofthe inflation rates. Hence, to be able to establish and maintain a viable economy that will contribute its quota to thewelfare and development of its citizens, there must be an in depth and comprehensive understanding of inflationvolatility.Gujarati (2004) is of the opinion that the knowledge of volatility is of crucial importance in many areas. Forexample, considerable macro economic work has been done in studying the volatility of inflation rate over time. Fordecision makers, inflation in itself may not be bad, but its high variation makes the forecasting of economic planningdifficult and the decision making processes may be negatively affected.Brooks (2004) opined that financial data exhibit a number of features such as volatility clustering, leptokurtosis,among others. He also raised the question of how financial time series for instance could be modeled because oftheir volatility. In the light of this, the researcher investigated varying variances of monthly inflation rates in Nigeriaby modeling volatility of some selected prices of items using ARCH and GARCH models.RESEARCH PROBLEMThe underlying characteristic of most financial time series is that in their level form they are random walks, that is,they are non-stationary (Gujarati, 2004). The question is how do we model such financial data which is known toexhibit volatility? Since volatility has to do with variability of financial data, the volatility characterized by the datacan be brought out by modeling the variability or variance by establishing a variance model of the data(Joutz, 2006).The special problem involved in forecasting financial time series such as inflation rates is that of capturing thepattern of volatility that characterizes their movement. That is, they are characterized by a phenomenon known asvolatility clustering which typifies periods in which they exhibit wide swings for an extended period followed by aperiod of comparative tranquility. The need for stability on the price levels is inevitable for general performance ofNigerian economy.When relative prices vary because of inflation, such movements may decrease economic welfare for society as awhole. The efficiency of resource allocation also decreases because decision makers have less useful information onprices to guide their decision. The main thrust therefore is to undertake a careful study of volatility in prices ofsome selected items that accompanies inflation in Nigeria.MATERIAL AND METHODIn this study, the data used were collected from price unit of National Bureau of Statistics, Abuja. The data alsoconsist of Consumer Price Index of five randomly selected commodity items: In this study, the monthly consumerprices of Food, Clothing & Footwear, Housing, Health, and Transport from 1997 – 2007 inclusive are examined.The data are published on monthly basis by National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and readily available on nationaldailies. Therefore, the data are of public interest.The plotting of graphs and analysis were carried out using E views Software338

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011AUTO REGRESSIVE CONDITIONAL HETEROSCEDASTICITY (ARCH) MODELSARCH models represent the changes of variance along time (heteroscedasticity). This implies that changes invariability are related to or predicted by recent past values of the observed series. The models were introduced byRobert Engle (1982) to model and forecast conditional variance of error terms and later generalized byBollerslev(1986)as GARCH models.ARCH models considered the variance of the current error term to be a function of the variances of the previoustime period‟s error terms. ARCH relates the error variance to the square of a previous period‟s error. It is commonlyemployed in modeling financial time series that exhibit time varying volatility clustering i.e., periods of swingsfollowed by periods of relative calm.ARCH (q) model is expressed as:2t 012t1 q2tq 0ql1 i2tiwhere 0 0 and i 0,i 0 .The conditional disturbance variance is the variance oft 1, , t p . It may be expressed as:t , conditional on information available at time2/ , , / , var1,2t t t1tpEt ttpGENERALIZED ARCH (GARCH) MODELSIf an Autoregressive Moving Average Model (ARMA) is assumed for the error variance, the model is a GeneralizedAutoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity (GARCH) model. In that case, the GARCH (p, q) model is givenby: 2t 012t1pq20 iti i1i1q i2tp2ti 12t1 2where p is the order of the ARCH terms: ti , q is the order of GARCH terms:q2tq339

PRICESPRICESOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011 2 ti i, 0 is constant, i 0,i 1 , and i 1i. GARCH (p,q) models express the conditionalvariance as a linear function of p lagged squared disturbances and q lagged conditional variances.TIME SERIES PLOT OF THE DATAIn this study, time series plots were carried out to illustrate the pattern of price movement of various commodityprices for a period of 11 years on monthly basis. The time plots of x t are presented in figures 1a, 2a, 3a, 4a, and 5afor Food, Clothing & Footwear, Housing, Health and Transport respectively. See attached figures.Before applying the estimation procedures, it is necessary to study the data to see what behavior they can produce.Non stationarities were observed by the plots of the various series. To induce stationarity in the series, thedifferencing transformation of the data was carried using Box and Jenkins procedures. The logarithmtransformations are carried out on various series. See figures 1b, 2b, 3b, 4b, 5b and differencing of logged serieswere performed. See figure 1c, 2c, 3c, 4c and 5cAn examination of the plots in figures 1c, 2c,…5c reveals that some element of stationarity has been induced intothe data. The Box and Jenkins procedure was then applied to the variance series Z 2 t obtained from differenced –logged series according to the procedure described in chapter 3. In this case, the model building commences with theevaluation of the sample (ACF) and sample (PACF) by using correlogram plots. See figures below:TIME PLOT OF ORIGINAL SERIES OFFOOD20010000 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007 MONTHLY)Figure 1a6TIME PLOT OF LOGGED SERIES OFFOOD4200 YEARS (1997 50 - 2007) 100 MONTHLY 150Figure 1b340

PRICESPRICESPRICESPRICESOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20116420-2TIME PLOT OF DIFF. LOGGED SERIES OFFOOD0 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007) MONTHLYFigure 1cTIME PLOT OF ORIGINAL SERIES OFCLOTHING AND FOOTWEAR20010000 50 100 150YEARS (1997-2007) MONTHLYFigure 2aTIME PLOT OF LOGGED SERIES OFCLOTHING AND FOOTWEAR5,54,5 540 50 100 150YEARS (1997- 2007)MONTHLYFigure 2b5TIME PLOT OF DIFF. LOGGED SERIESOF CLOTHING AND FOOTWEAR0-50 50 100 150YEARS(1997 - 2007)MONTHLYFigure 2c341

PRICESPRICESPRICESPRICESOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011TIME PLOT OF ORIGINAL SERIES OF250,0HOUSING200,0150,0100,050,00,00 50 100 150Figure 3aYEARS(1997-2007 MONTHLY)10TIME PLOT OF LOGGED SERIES OFHOUSING00 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007) MONTHLYFigure 3b420-2TIME PLOT OF DIFF. LOGGED SERIES OFHOUSING0 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007 ) MONTHLYFigure 3c2000TIME PLOT OF ORIGINAL SERIES OFHEALTH0 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007)MONTHLYFigure 4a342

PRICESPRICESPRICESOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011TIME PLOT OF LOGGED SERIES OF HEALTH5,254,84,64,44,20 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007)MONTHLYFigure 4bTIME PLOT OF DIFF. LOGGED SERIES OF6HEALTH420-2 0 50 100 150YEARS(1997 - 2007)MONTHLYFigure 4c200TIME PLOT OF ORIGINALSERIES OF TRANSPORT10000 YEARS (1997 50 - 2000 MONTHLY)100 150Figure 5a64TIME PLOT OF LOGGED SERIES OFTRANSPORT200 50 100 150YEARS (1997 - 2007)MONTHLYFigure 5b343

PRICESOzean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 20116420-2TIME PLOT OF DIFF. LOGGED SERIES OFTRANSPORT0 50 100 150YEARS(1997 - 2007)MONTHLYFigure 5cESTIMATION OF THE PARAMETERS AND TEST FOR ARCH EFFECTSThe fixed values of the parameters associated with the ARIMA models are estimated while ARCH disturbances arealso tested using Langragean Multiplier Test by considering the hypothesis of no ARCH effect :H o : α 1 = α 2 = α 3 …..α p = 0 versus the alternative hypothesis that the conditional variance is given by ARCH(p) process.DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICSThe various Z 2 t were collated and analyzed to produce various features or statistics that describe the distribution ofvarious commodity prices over time. The summary of the result for the five selected commodity items are shown inthe table below:Table 1: Descriptive MeasureSTATISTICS FOOD CLOTHING HOUSING HEALTH TRANSPORT&FOOTWEARMEAN 0.123558 0.149311 0.090126 0.147996 0.114513STANDARD 1.4110682 1.696749 1.003789 1.657608 1.298082DEVIATIONSKEWNESS 11.35813 11.35799 11.35748 11.35763 11.35808KURTOSIS 130.0073 130.0052 129.9974 129.997 130.0066344

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011From the table above, and considering the mean (which is a more volatility in the case) of CLOTHING &FOOTWEAR has the highest volatility followed by HEALTH. Next is Food and TRANSPORT while HOUSINGhas the least volatility.We measure the skewness of any distribution based on how far the peak is from the centre of the distribution.Food has the highest skewness followed by TRANSPORT, CLOTHING & FOOTWEAR, HEALTH; while the leastis observed in HOUSING. They are all positively skewed; meaning that the mean is greater than the mode of theirrespective distributions. The kurtosis values for the different commodity items show that the FOOD has the highestvalue, closely followed by HEALTH and with HOUSING as the least. From the observation above, it means thatFOOD item has the highest peakedness at the centre of the distribution i.e. there is long tail.ESTIMATED MODEL FOR FOOD PRICESTable 2: Summary StatisticsMODELPARAMETER AIC BIC R 2 SIG. PROB.ESTIMATEDARIMA(0,1,3) θ 1 = 0.152660θ 2 = 0.103078θ 3 = 0.9225822.232879 2.298398 0.735786 0.00000.00000.0000Z 2 t = 0 . 1527ε2t -1 + 0.1031 ε 2 t-2 + 0.9226 ε 2 t-3 + µ t ………. ……………………….This is the familiar ARMA (0, 3) without a drift.Performing Lagrangean Multiplier test on FOOD prices series Z 2 t leads to rejection of H 0 : that there is noARCH effect or disturbance at α = 0.05 ( i.e. nR 2 > X 2 p). Hence, the model estimated above using Box and Jenkinsapproach with Least Squares estimation is not adequate. Thus, we try ARCH/GARCH models as postulated byEngle (1982) and Bollerslev (1986) respectively.ARCH (1)/GARCH (0, 1) Model: Z 2 t = 3.33E – 06 + 0.4329 ε 2 t-1 + µ t ……………………This gives smaller values of both AIC = -8.303221 and BIC = -8.172185 than when the popular Box Jenkinsapproach was used.ESTIMATED MODEL FOR CLOTHING & FOOTWEARTable 3: Summary StatisticsMODELESTIMATEDPARAMETER AIC BIC R 2 SIG. PROB.ARIMA(0,1,2) θ 1 = 0.001173θ 1= 0.9799790.622330 0.6666009 0.962957 0.00000.0000345

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Z 2 t = 0.0012ε 2 t-1 + 0.9800 ε 2 t-2 + µ t ……………………………………………………………………………….This is GARCH (0, 2) model.Testing ARCH disturbance effect in the CLOTHING & FOOTWEAR series shows that thereis an ARCH effect at α = 0.05.The conditional variance equation is thus given as :Z 2 t = 2.99E- 05 + 0.0030 ε 2 t-1 + µ t ………………………………………….This is GARCH (0, 1) model which gives lower values of AIC = -7.068391 andBIC = -6.959194 than the ARIMA approach.ESTIMATED MODEL FOR HOUSING PRICESTable 4: Summary StatisticsMODEL PARAMETER AIC BIC R 2 SIG. PROB.ESTIMATEDARIMA(0,1,2) θ 1 = 0.002567θ 2 = 0.9799920.594031 0.637710 0.962270 0.00000.0000Z 2 t = 0.0132ε 2 t-1 + 0.9800 ε 2 t-2 + µ t ……………………………………………………………………………….This is also ARMA (0, 2) model.The Langrangean Multiplier test indicates the presence of ARCH disturbance at α = 0.05 in the series Z 2 t of theHOUSING prices.The conditional variance equation:Z 2 t = 4.57E – 05 – 0.0163 ε 2 t-1+ µ t ……………………………………………………………………………….This is also GARCH (0, 1) model which gives lower values of AIC = -6.6866 andBIC = -6.5774 than the ARIMA approach.346

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ESTIMATED MODEL FOR HEALTH PRICESTable 5: Summary StatisticsMODEL PARAMETER AIC BIC R 2 SIG. PROG.ESTIMATEDARIMA(0,1,2) θ 1 = 0.002567θ 2 = 0.9799920.594031 0.637710 0.962270 0.00000.0000Z 2 t = 0.0026ε 2 t-1 + 0.9800 ε 2 t-2 + µ t ……………………………………………………………………………….This is ARMA (0, 2) model without a drift. Lagrangean Multiplier test indicates the presence of ARCH effect at α=0.05.Conditional variance equation:Z 2 t = 3.87E -06 + 0.031869 ε 2 t-1 + µ t ……………………………………………………………………………….This is GARCH (0, 1) model which gives smaller values of AIC = -7.243096 andBIC = -7.133899 than the ARIMA approach.ESTIMATED MODEL FOR TRANSPORT PRICESTable 6: Summary StatisticsMODELPARAMETER AIC BIC R 2 SIG. PROB.ESTIMATEDARIMA(0,1,2) θ 1 = 0.016191θ 2 =0.9799400.231913 0.275592 0.362465 0.00000.0000Z 2 t = 0.0162ε 2 t-1 + 0.9799 ε 2 t-2 + µ t ……………………………………………………………………………….Testing for ARCH effect shows the presence of ARCH disturbance at α = 0.05.The conditional variance equation is thus given as:Z 2 t = 4.56E – 06 +0.0698 ε 2 t-1 + µ t ………………………………………………………………………………. (5.5b)This is GARCH (0, 1) model which gives lower values of AIC = -8.047575 andBIC = -7.938378 than the ARIMA approach.From the correlogram of each of the series, it was noticed that ACF and PACF tail off which suggests a mixedmodel (ARMA) of Z 2 t. Generally, volatility in the series seems to be adequately modeled by ARCH AND GARCH.347

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table7: Forecasting With Estimated ModelMODEL 1 ST 2 ND 3 RD MSEFOODARIMA(0,1,3)GARCH(0,1)-0.1503-0.06750.10830.0083-0.17690.0830.52981.7499CLOTHING &FOOTWEARARIMA(0,1,2)GARCH(0,1)HOUSINGARIMA(0,1,2)GARCH(0,1)HEALTHARIMA(0,1,2)GARCH(0,1)TRANSPORTARIMA(0,1,2)GARCH(0,1)-0.21500.02000.00070.03030.01970.01960.00050.01130.05740.02010.00000.0303-0.00580.00580.00010.01130.00000.02010.00000.03030.00000.00000.00000.01130.10752.80660.04330.98930.10452.55030.07271.0743From table 7 above, we present forecasts for some time periods based on the estimated models. Particularly, threesteps ahead forecast were made and the corresponding Mean Squares Errors obtained. The results are provided inthe table belowSUMMARY OF FINDINGSGoing by the values of kurtosis and skewness obtained for various commodity items as shown in table 4.3.1, variousseries exhibit high peakedness and are also highly skewed. That is, the distribution is leptokurtic which is one ofthe features of any financial data. Hence, the present finding is in agreement with the finding of Brook (2002).Besides, all the commodity items considered show that the error term µ t is time heteroscedastic; which implies thatthe conventional estimation procedure based on ARMA estimation technique does not produce optimal results.Hence, this result is in line with the finding of Pynnonem (2007). That is, despite the popularity of ARMA models intime series, it has limitation(s). One of such limitations is that it assumes a constant conditional variance while mostof econometric and financial data exhibit non-constant conditional variance which is self evident from the findingsof this research work.There is no series that shows constant conditional variance; hence, there is no outlier in this regard. Thus this workis in agreement with the findings of Asokan, Shojaeddin and Abbasali (2001).From our measure of volatility as presented in equations 4.1a – 4.5b, there is quite a bit of persistence in thevolatility as the volatility in the current month depends on volatility in the preceding month.The results of the forecast show that the Box – Jenkins approach has lower values of Mean Squares Error thanARCH/GARCH models for various commodity items considered. The values of the forecast are highly comparable.Also, the Mean Squares Errors are marginally different from one another. Hence, their forecasting ability iscomparable.348

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011CONCLUSIONThe study has shown that ARCH and GARCH models are better models because they give lower values of AIC andBIC for data of this type than the conventional Box and Jenkins ARMA models. This is due to the fact that theygave the best model selection criteria for the data analyzed. Since volatility seems to persist in all the commodityitems (as can be seen in the results of the analysis); it means the “bullish crowd” will be highly favored in the marketof the said commodity items.RECOMMENDATIONThe Researchers recommend the use of ARCH and GARCH models in the analysis of other Financial time series inNigeria Similar research should be carried out using a variety of asymmetric ARCH/GARCH models such asExponential GARCH (E- GARCH) model of Nelson (1991), Threshold ARCH model attributed to Rabemananjaraand Zakoian (1994), Glosten-Jagannathan GARCH (GJR- GARCH) model by Glosten, Jagannathan and Runkle(1993), GARCH – in- Mean (GARCH-M) model, Quadratic GARCH model by Sentana (1995) and IntegratedGARCH (I- GARCH) model. Other commodity items‟ prices at the states level in Nigeria could be investigated tocapture their volatility status.REFERENCESAbbasali, K.M., Asokan, M.V. and Shojaeddin, C. (2000): ARCH and GARCH Models,Waterlo University, CanadaAdedayo, A.O. (1998): Understanding Statistics, JAS Publishers Ltd, LagosAndre, F. (2004): Business Mathematics and Statistics, 6 th Edition, Ashford Colour Press Gosport Hampshire, U.K.Anyawu, J.C. (1993): Monetary Economics; Theory, Policy and Institution, 1 st Edition, Hybrid Publisher Ltd.,Onitsha, Nigeria.Ari, A. and Francisco, J.V. (2006): International Monetary Fund Working Paper, WP/06/212, Asian PacificDepartment.Bera, A.K. and Higgins, M.L. (1993): „‟ARCH models; Properties, Estimation and Testing‟‟, Journal ofEconometrics surveys, vol. 7 No.4, pp. 307 – 366.Bollerslev, T. (1986): “Generalized Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity”, Journal of Econometrics,VOL. 31, pp. 307-327.Box, G.E, Jenkins, G.N.and Reinsel, G.C. (1994): Time series Analysis, Forecasting and Control; 3 rd Edition,Prentice Hall, New Jersey.349

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Brooks, C. (2002): Modelling Volatility and Correlation; Introductory Econometrics for Finance Slide Presentation.Dimson, E., Marsh, P. (1990): “Volatility Forecasting without Data Snooping, Journal of Banking and Finance,Vol. 14, pp. 399 – 421Engle, R. (1982): “Autoregressive Conditional Heteroscedasticity with Estimates of United Kingdom Inflation”,Econometrica, Vol. 50, pp.987 – 1008.E view, Version 3.1 (1998): ARCH and GARCH Estimation, Quantitative Micro software Help File, GothenburgUniversity.Frimpong, J.M, and Oteng, A .E (2006): Department of Finance and Accounting, Kwame Nkrumah University ofScience and Technology, Ghana.Gujarati, D.N. (2004): Basic Econometrics, 4 th Edition, Tata Graw Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New York.350

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationEFFECTS OF STRUCTURED EXERCISE THERAPY ON PHYSICAL FUNCTIONALINDICES OF PATIENTS WITH TYPE 2 DIABETES IN A NIGERIAN TERTIARYHOSPITALKAYODE I. OKE*, ELIAS O. AGWUBIKE**and AIHANUWA EREGIE***Department of Physiotherapy, University of Benin Teaching Hospital,Benin City. Nigeria.**Department of Health, Environmental Education and Human Kinetics,University of Benin, Benin City. Nigeria.***Department of Medicine (Endocrinology Unit), University of Benin Teaching Hospital, Benin City. Nigeria.*E-mail address for correspondence: Kayodeoke2001@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the effects a six-week structured exercise therapy had on thephysical functional indices of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). They were patients attending theendocrinology clinic of a tertiary health institution in Nigeria. A total of 60 patients (40 males and 20 females)whose ages ranged between 50- 75 years were purposively recruited into this study. Participation was voluntaryand the patients signed informed consent forms and were treated in accordance with experimental ethics specifiedin the policies of the hospital. They were certified safe for exercise participation by their attending physicians/endocrinologists. The patients’ pre-test physical performance capacities were compared to those of their post-testusing the modified-Physical Performance Test battery by Brown and Sinacore (2005) which is a standardized andconsistently measured test that focused on patients’ impairments and frailty to perform functional activities. Datacollected were analyzed using the parametric statistics of t-test at alpha level of 0.05. The results showed significantimprovements in the patients’ ability to perform standing static balance, book lift, putting on and removal of jacket,turning 360 0 and 50-foot walk tests. However, climbing stairs, picking up a coin from the floor and chair rise did notsignificantly improve. It was therefore concluded that since structured exercise therapy significantly improvesphysical functional performance capacity of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, inclusion of such exercisetherapy in their management milieu should be institutionalized.Keywords: Exercise therapy; physical function; T2DM patients___________________________________________________________________________________________351

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011INTRODUCTIONDiabetes mellitus (DM), formerly called adult-onset diabetes, is a global health issue affecting children, adolescentsand adults. It is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by abnormal fuel metabolism, which resultsmost notably in hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia, due to defects in insulin secretion, insulinaction, or both. Diabetes is a serious chronic disease without a cure, and it is associated with significantmorbidity and mortality, both acute and chronic (Pittas & Greenberg, 2003). Several co-morbid conditions arerelated to and accompany diabetes mellitus, including coronary heart disease, obesity, arthritis, stroke, depression,and visual impairments and have been identified as contributors to DM-related disability (Hilton, Tuttle, Bohnert,Muller & Sinacore, 2008).Type 1 diabetes results from cellular-mediated autoimmune destruction of the pancreatic beta cells which causesabsolute deficiency of insulin secretion. It usually occurs in children and young adults although disease onset canoccur at any age (Barr, Myslinski & Scarborough, 2008). Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a progressive disease causedby a combination of complex metabolic disorders that result from coexisting defects of multiple organ sites, such asinsulin resistance in muscle and adipose tissue, a progressive decline in pancreatic insulin secretion, unrestrainedhepatic glucose production, inappropriate glucagon secretion, and diminished production of gastrointestinalincretins, as well as other hormonal deficiencies and impairments (Barr. et .al., 2008).DM is posing a great socio-economic burden to many nations and is being associated with a considerable personalhealth burden. Its impact on the healthy quality of life of the people affected by it has created the need for all thehealth care practitioners involved in its care and management to seek for an established and most effectivemultidisciplinary management protocol (Oke & Agwubike, 2009). It is hoped that such approach can enhance thelevel of independence, improve functional status, prevent complications, thus improving the healthy quality of lifeof the affected persons.Some studies have reported that functional impairment and physical disability that are directly attributable todiabetes are direct threats to personal independence and quality of life (Sinclair, Conroy & Bayer, 2007). Despitethis assertion, there are still paucity of publications in Nigeria and even Africa that have directly looked at the wayand pattern by which exercise therapy will enhance or otherwise the physical functional performance of patientswith type 2 diabetic mellitus. It is against this backdrop that this study aims at bridging the gap in both knowledgeand research efforts in the management of this chronic condition.HypothesisThis study hypothesized that involvement in structured exercise therapy will not significantly influence the physicalfunctional indices of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.METHODOLOGYSubjectsThe study involved sixty (60) purposively recruited patients which consisted of forty (40) males and twenty (20)females, whose ages ranged between 50- 75years, with a mean age of 61.8 years. They were those who have beendiagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus using the WHO 1999 criteria. Their heights ranged between 1.66m and1.79m with a mean weight of 79.3kg. Participants were recruited from patients attending the Endocrine unit of theConsultant Out-patients department of the University of Benin teaching hospital, Benin City, Nigeria. Inclusioncriteria were ability of the participants to move both upper limbs and lower limbs without assistive devices, absenceof visual impairment, limbs deformities, current inflammatory joint condition or injury and diagnosed psychosocial352

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011disorders. It also included a report of good metabolic control and safe blood pressure range for exerciseparticipation.Instrumentation and proceduresEthical clearance was obtained from the ethics and research committee of the teaching hospital. The patients wereinformed of the aims and procedures of the research and they all gave their informed consent to participate. Allmeasurements were obtained at the same period of the day. All the test procedures and exercises were performed atthe large fitness gymnasium of the department of physiotherapy of the hospital. The anthropometric data of weightand height were obtained with the participants in light clothing without shoes. The body weight was measured usinga bathroom weighing scale (Hanson Limited, Ireland) and recorded in kilogrammes to the nearest whole number.The height was measured to the nearest 0.01 meters using a height meter rule device (Seca, England). Other toolsthat were used for the test assessments included the Stopwatch (timing the phases of tests), Pulse meter,sphygmomanometer (Sunbeam electronic sphygmomanometer [model 7654]), stethoscope, dumb bells (freeweights of various sizes) and exercise mats. The main research instrument used for the study was the modified-Physical Functional Performance Test Battery developed by Brown and Sinacore (2005) which has been used foridentification of mild to moderate frailty. The instrument (modified-Physical Performance test battery) has beenvalidated and has been found to be reliable (ICC=.85-.97) and sensitive (DI=.21-.54) with minimal floor and ceilingeffects in assessing physical functional performance in people of different age groups including the elderly (Cress,1996; Cress, Petrella, Moore & Schenkman, 2005).Administration of the treatment packageThe instrument was administered in eight (8) phases of the testing protocol. The subjects were given two chances tocomplete each item. The patients were pre-assessed with each instrument immediately after selection for the studyin addition to taking their demographic data that were determined and recorded. They were then later subjected to asix-week period of structured exercise therapy involving treatment on 8 parameters. They were re-assessedthereafter and the differences were analyzed. There was a 5-minute warm-up session preceding each exercisetherapy session. The warm-up session involved the following warm-up exercises: hamstring stretch, body twist,heel cord stretch, and quadriceps stretch.Each warm-up session lasted 5-10minutes per participant.The type of therapeutic exercise package included various forms of exercise training on flexibility, strength(progressive resistance exercises), aerobics, balance, gait, and relaxation. The package was divided into phases thatwere taken by each subject one after the other in a structured pattern each exercise day.These phases involved flexibility exercises which aimed at stretching the major body muscles (especially the trunkand limbs musculatures) that were involved in the structured exercise engaged-in; balance exercises which involvedthe subjects walking heel-to-toe on a straight line drawn on the floor, single limb stance, body circles and balancingwand; and a phase for strength exercises. Each participant did biceps curls with calibrated weights commensuratewith his/her muscle strength for ten (10) times. Abdominal curls and calf raises were conducted ten (10) times eachday. Grip strength exercises were done with hand held spring exerciser while the strengthening of the shouldergirdles’ musculatures was carried out with a weight adjustable reciprocal pulley device. The exercises wereProgressive Resistance Exercises (PRE) with increasing weights used as the subjects strength improved.The other phases included aerobic exercise session which involved two (2) bouts of fifteen (15) minutes ofstationary cycling on a bicycle ergometer (stationary exercise cycle); climbing a flight of stairs (four steps) to andfro ten times at the fastest rate that was safe for each patient. The step used for in this study was a regulated typewith rails on both sides to provide safety and means of support for the subjects in case anyone missed his/ herstep(s). This stair climbing exercise was done ten times for the first three weeks and fifteen times in the last threeweeks by each subject. Each participant also had sessions of brisk walk on a distance of 152.4meters (500 feet). Thedistance was increased to 228meters (750 feet) from the fourth week to the six week. Each of these was carried out(3) times a week for a period of six (6) weeks. The aerobic exercise was done at a moderately intense rate with thesubjects’ heart rates (HR) maintained at 50-70% of the maximum heart rates.353

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011The last phase of the therapeutic exercise package was divided into two parts that were carried out a treatmentcouch with each patient laid supine. The first part involved strapping a calibrated weight of 3.5kilograms aroundeach leg (just around the ankle joint) and each patient did a straight leg raising exercise fifteen times with theweight. Same was repeated for the other leg for each subject. The second part of this phase had each subject done acurl-up (sit-up) exercise from supine lying to sitting with the tip of the fingers touching the toes. It was repeated tentimes for the first three weeks and fifteen times for the last three weeks.All the subjects had five (5) minutes of relaxation after each day’s exercise.The eight (8) phases of the Modified - Physical Performance Test (mPPT) developed by Brown and Sinacore (2005)which include the Standing Static Balance, Chair Rise, Book Lift, Put on and remove a jacket, Pick up a coin fromfloor, Turn 360 degrees, 50-foot walk test, and Stairs climbing were used in assessing the physical functionalperformance capacities of the patients pre and post exercise therapy sessions. All the required precautions andmeasures concerned in the use of the m-PPT battery were observed. Each of these measured parameters was ratedagainst a maximum value of four (4) on the modified-Physical Performance Test scale based on the number ofseconds it took each subject to perform each task. Each subject’s assessed and recorded values were added togetherand rated against the maximum value of thirty-six (36) as shown in the m-PPT scoring format in table 1.Statistical analysisData obtained were entered into and analyzed using the SPSS version 16 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The datawere analyzed using descriptive (mean, standard deviation, range and percentiles) and inferential statistics involvingpaired t-test to compare pre and post test values. The alpha level was set at 0.05.RESULTSThe results are presented in tables 2 and 3. The physical characteristics of the subjects are presented in table 2.Their ages ranged between 50- 75years, with a mean age of 61.8 (±10.41) years who have been diagnosed with type2 diabetes mellitus. Their heights ranged between 1.66m and 1.79m (mean = 1.659± 0.0756), their body weightranged between 64.00- 92.50kg (mean = 79.3±7.96).The results of the t-test statistics showed that there were significant differences between the pre and post therapeuticexercises on standing static balance status of the studied patients (t= 0.000, p< 0.000), ability of the subjects to liftup a book and put it on top of a shelf ((t= 4.00, p< 0.001), the ability of the subjects to put on and remove a jacket(t= 5.916, p< 0.000), the time and speed with which the subjects carried out a 50-foot walk test (t= -10.396, p

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011DISCUSSIONStudies have revealed that patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus have reduced physical functional performancecapacity (PFPC) when compared with their age and sex matched counterparts without diabetes, and even whencompared with those with other chronic diseases [Caruso et al., (2000); de Grauw et al., 1999; Lopopolo et al.,(2006); Singh, Chin A Paw, Bosscher, & van Mechelen, (2006)]. This study was set to study the effect of structuredexercise therapy (SET) on physical functional performance capacity (PFPC) of patients with type 2 diabetic mellitusin a tertiary hospital.Findings from this study have revealed significant positive effects on the level of physical functioning of this groupof patients after they were subjected to SET for a period of six weeks at a frequency of three sessions per week. Theresults revealed that the main hypothesis and five (5) out of the eight (8) sub-hypotheses tested in this study wererejected. The rejection of the main hypothesis that SET would not have a significant positive effect on PFPC ofpatients with type 2 diabetes mellitus is therefore a manifestation of the fact that the poorer physical functionalperformance status of patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus when compared with their non-diabetic aged and sexmatched counterparts can be significantly improved upon by structured exercise therapy like the type the subjects inthis study were subjected to.The basic physical functional performance parameters like the standing static balance, book lift, putting on andremoval of jackets, climbing one flight of stairs and the speed and time it took them to walk a 50-foot distance,were all significantly enhanced in these patients after being involved in a six-week period of therapeutic exercises ata frequency of three (3) times a week. The measured parameters of physical functional indices comprised activitiesof daily living which are basic and instrumental in human normal functioning. They have also been shown bystudies such as Singh et al., (2006); Kamarul, Ismail, Naing & Wan Mohamad (2010); and Kalda, Rätsep & Lember(2008), to be expressions of normal physiological functioning (muscular strength and exercise capacity) and whichare also intimately connected to “quality of life” of healthy individuals.The present study indicates that reduction in PFPC of patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus is believed to be anexpression of decline in skeletal muscle mass and strength. Current evidence supports a claim that among personswith type 2 diabetes, risk for diabetes-related complications results from hyperglycemia over time and not from agealone (American Diabetes Association, 2006).The pre exercise therapy intervention assessment of physical functional indices of all the studied subjects using thevalidated modified- Physical performance test (m-PPTB) developed by Brown and Sinacore (2005) showed thatmost of the patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus had varied degrees of frailty and less than optimal physicalfunctional status. The post therapy review of the status of the subjects revealed a significant improvement in theirfunctional status as shown by the significant differences in the statistical analysis of the data. It can therefore beconcluded that structured exercise therapy (SET) resulted in the improvement of physical functional indices of thepatients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. This is in agreement with the results of the study by Taylor (2009) whichshowed that improving muscular strength and exercise capacity in people with type 2 diabetes is crucial inpreventing loss of physical function and decreasing co-morbidity and mortality in these patients. This study alsosupports the report that a decline in muscular strength increases the risk of loss of physical function and that adecline in exercise capacity increases the risk of cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. This justifies the inclusionof supervised exercise programme in the management of patients with type 2 diabetics. Both muscular strength andexercise capacity in this group of people were significantly improved. There is a significant difference in the gaitspeed of the subjects in this study. These results prove the fact that gait speed is a useful and clinically importantindicator of current health for acutely ill, hospitalized, older adults, and predicts 1-year patterns of health andfunction over time (Purser, Weinberger, Cohen, Pieper, Morrey, et al., 2005).The results of the present study agree with those of Miyatake, Nishikawa and Fujii (2001) who also reported thatgait speed is closely related to exercise capacity in terms of speed of walking and climbing stairs. The ability of thesubjects to climb a flight of stairs in this study which improved significantly agrees with Wells and Luttgen’s (1976)assertion that the speed of gait is directly related to the magnitude of the pushing power and to the direction of itsapplication, adding that the force is provided by the extensor muscles of the hip, knee and ankle joints.355

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Our findings in this study have therefore revealed increased muscular strength and exercise capacity which arecomponents of the improved physical functional performance status of the patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus.CONCLUSIONThe present study proved that Structured Exercise Therapy is effective in enhancing Physical Functional Indices ofpatients with type 2 Diabetes.The findings in this study have established that structured exercise therapy had positive effects on the physicalfunctional indices of patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus by showing increased abilities in carrying out the testedparameters which are features of basic and instrumental activities of daily living.This study therefore shows the need for structured exercise therapy to be considered as an important adjunct in themanagement of patients with type 2 diabetic mellitus. This is with a view to enhance their physical functionalability, which is a correlation of total well-being. It is also hoped that other diabetic-related complications can beprevented for the purpose of optimal well-being and good quality of life through such structured exercise therapyfor the diabetics.REFERENCESAmerican Diabetes Association (1995). Diabetes and exercise: the risk-benefit profile. In J.T Devlin, N. Ruderman,V.A Alexandria, (Eds), The Health Professional's Guide to Diabetes and Exercise American DiabetesAssociation. 34.Barr, R., Myslinski, M.J & Scarborough, P (2008). Understanding Type 2 diabetes: pathophysiology and resultingcomplications. PT magazine. February: 34- 48Bell, R.A., Summerson, J.H., Spangler, J.G., Konen, J.C (1998). Body fat, fat distribution, and psychosocialfactors among patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Behav Med. 24(3): 138-43Brown, M & Sinacore, D.R (2005). Physical and performance measures for the identification of mild to moderatefrailty. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 55:M350-5Caruso, L.B., Silliman, R.A., Demissie, S., Greenfield, S & Wagner, E.H (2000). What can we do to improvephysical function in older persons with Type 2 diabetes? J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 55 (7): M372-M377Cress, M.E., Buchner, D.M., Questad, K.A., Esselman, P.C., deLateur, B.J & Schwartz, R.S (1996). Continuousscalephysical functional performance in a broad range of older adults: a validation study. Arch Phys MedRehabil. 77(12):1243-1250.Cress, M.E., Petrella, J.K., Moore, T.L & Schenkman, M.L (2005). Continuous-Scale physical functionalperformance test: Validity, reliability, and sensitivity of data for the short version. Phys Ther. 85:323-335de Grauw, W.J.C., van de Lisdonk, E.H., Behr, R.R.A., van Gerwen, W.H., van den Hoogen, H.J.M & van Weel, C(1999). The impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus on daily functioning. Family Practice 16: 133- 139356

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Hilton, T.N, Tuttle, L.J, Bohnert, K.L, Mueller, M.J & Sinacore, D.R (2008). Excessive adipose tissue infiltration inskeletal muscle in individuals with obesity, diabetes mellitus and peripheral neuropathy: Association withperformance and function. Phys Ther. 88: (11) 1336- 1344.Kisner, C & Colby, L.A (2007). Therapeutic Exercise: Foundations and Techniques.(5 th Ed). Philadelpia:F.A.DaviesCompany.Kalda, R., Rätsep, A. & Lember, M. (2008). Predictors of quality of life of patients with type 2 diabetes. PatientsPreferences and Adherence: 2: 21- 26Kamarul, I.M., Ismail, A.A.A., Naing, L., & Wan Mohamad, W.B (2010). Type 2 diabetes mellitus patients withpoor glycaemic control have lower quality of life scores as measured by the Short-form-36. Singapore MedJ; 51 (2): 157-162Larsson, U.E & Mattsson, E. (2001). Functional limitations linked to high body mass index, age and current pain inobese women. International Journal of obesity (6): 893- 899.Lopopolo, R.B., Greco, M., Sullivan, D., Craik, R.L & Mangione, K.K (2006). Effect of therapeutic exercise on gaitspeed in community-dwelling elderly people: A meta-analysis. Phys Ther. 86, (4), 520-540Miyatake, N; Nishikawa, H & Fujii, M.(2001). Clinical evaluation of physical fitness in male obese Japanese.Chinese Medical Journal. 114 (7): 707- 710.Oke, K.I & Agwubike, E.O (2009, in Press). Exercise therapy for the Type II diabetic persons: A pillar of glycaemiccontrol. Accepted for publication in the Journal of Research in Health and Sport Sciences.Peyrot, M., Rubin, R.R., Lauritzen, T., Snoek, F.J., Matthews, D.R. & Skovlund, S.E. (2005). Psychosocialproblems and barriers to improved diabetes management: results of the Cross-National Diabetes Attitudes,Wishes and Needs (DAWN) Study. 22(10):1379-85.Pittas, A.G & Greenberg, A.S (2003). Contemporary diagnosis and management of diabetes. Handbooks in HealthCare, Newtown, PA.Purser, A.J., Weinberger, M., Cohen, H.J., Pieper, C.F., Morey, M.C., Li, T., Williams, G.R. & Lapuerta, P. (2005).Walking speed predicts health status and hospital costs for frail elderly male veterans. J rehab research anddevelopment. 42 (4); 534- 546.Singh, A.S., Chin A Paw, M.J.M., Bosscher, R.J & van Mechelen, W (2006). Cross- sectional relationship betweenphysical fitness components and functional performance in older persons living in long-term care facilities.BMC Geriatrics, 6:4Sinclair, A.J., Conroy, S.P & Bayer, A.J (2007). Impact of diabetes on physical function in older peoplehttp://care.diabetesjournals.org on 16 November 2007. DOI: 10.2337/dc07-1784.Taylor, J.D (2009). People with Type 2 diabetes can improve muscular strength. Science Daily, American PhysicalTherapy Association. Retrieved September 7, 2010, fromhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/09/090922132850.htmWells, KF; Luttgens, K. (1976): Kinesiology; scientific basis of human motion. (6 thSaunders Company.ed.), Phildelphia: W.B.Woo, A & Pang, M (2009). Palliative Care. Physiotherapy news Bulletin. Hong Kong Physiotherapy Associationnews Bulletin; Feb/ Mar; 13, 2.357

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011AppendixModified-Physical Performance Test Scores table1. Standing StaticFeetTogether:SemiTandem:Tandem:ScoreBalance________ sec.________ sec.________ sec.10s. 10s. 10s. 410s. 10s. 3-9.9s. 310s. 10s. 0-2.9s. 210s. 0-9s. Unable 10-9s. Unable Unable 0Time Scoring values ScorePre Post Pre Post2. Chair rise ≤ 11 sec =411.1--14 sec =314.1--17 sec =2>17 sec =1unable= 03. Lift a book andput it on a shelf≤ 2 sec =42.1--4 sec =34.1-- 6 sec =2> 6 sec =1unable =358

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 201104. Put on andremove a jacket≤ 10 sec =410.1 --15 sec= 315.1 – 20 sec =2>20 sec =1unable= 05. Pick up a pennyfrom floor.≤ 2 sec =42.1--4 sec =34.1-- 6 sec =2> 6 sec =1unable =06. Turn 360degreesDiscontinuoussteps = 0Continuous steps= 2Unsteady (grabs,staggers) = 0Steady= 27.Pre Post ≤ 15 sec =PrePost50-foottest..walk415.1--20 sec= 3359

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 201120.1--25 sec =2>25 sec =1unable= 08. Climb one flightof stairs.≤ 5 sec =45.1--10 sec =310.1 – 15 sec =2>15 sec =1unable= 09. Climb stairs. Number offlights of stairsup and down(maximum 4)TOTAL SCORE9-item score/36Pre-SET= Before Structured Exercise Therapy; Post-SET= After Structured Exercise Therapy; m-PPTB= modifiedPhysical Performance Test Battery; SD= Standard deviation.360

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 1: The scoring system for frailtyScoring:32/36 - 36/36 = not frail25/36 - 31/36 = mild frailty17/36 - 24/36 = moderate frailty< 17/36 = unlikely to be able to function in the communitySource: Brown, M. & Sinacore, D.R. (2005). Physical and Performance Measures for the identification of mild tomoderate frailty. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 55:M350-5Table 2: General characteristics of the subjectsVariable N Mean± SD Minimum MaximumAge (yr) 60 60.5± 10.41 30.00 72.00Weight (Kg) 60 79.3± 7.96 64.00 92.50Height (m) 60 1.66± 0.76 1.53 1.79SD= Standard deviation;361

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(3), 2011Table 3: Paired t-test values of the subjects pre and post structured exercise therapyPre-SETPost-SETVariables N Mean± SD Min Max Mean± SD Min Max t pBody weight (Kg) 60 79.26±7.97 64.00 92.50 78.47±7.83 62.50 92.50Standing Static balance 60 3.00±0.00 3.00 3.00 4.00±0.00 4.00 4.00 0.000 0.000Chair rise 60 3.87±0.35 3.00 4.00 4.00± 0.00 4.00 4.00 0.164 0.005Book lift 60 3.47±0.52 3.00 4.00 4.00±0.00 4.00 4.00 -4.000 0.001Put & remove jacket 60 2.80±0.77 1.00 4.00 3.80±0.41 3.00 4.00 -5.916 0.000Coin picking 60 3.67±0.49 3.00 4.00 4.00±0.00 4.00 4.00 -2.646 0.019360 degree turn 60 3.20±0.94 2.00 4.00 3.87±0.35 3.00 4.00 -3.162 0.00750-foot walk test 60 4.00±0.00 4.00 4.00 4.00±0.00 4.00 4.00 -10.396 0.000Stair climbing 60 3.13±0.35 3.00 4.00 4.00±0.00 4.00 4.00 -9.539 0.000mPPTB score 60 30.27±1.71 26.00 33.00 35.33±0.72 34.00 36.00 -14.148 0.000Pre-SET= Before Structured Exercise Therapy; Post-SET= After Structured Exercise Therapy; m-PPTB= modifiedPhysical Performance Test Battery; SD= Standard deviation.362