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IRISH FORESTRYJOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF IRISH FORESTERSVOLUME 35 No.2, 1978. £2 PUBLISHED TWIGE YEARLY

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COMMONWEALTH FORESTRY BUREAUCovers the management of forest land and 'urban forestry'. Topics dealtwith include silviculture, arboriculture, dendrochronology, forestmycology and entomology, range, wildlife, freshwater fish, watercatchments, and nature conservation. About 6,000 abstracts from theworld literature are published in 12 issues annually, with author andspecies indexes, and there is a consolidated annual index of authors,species and subjects.Forest Products AbstractsCovers the harvesting, conversion, marketing and use of wood and otherforest products. Particular attention is given to the properties of wood,wood preservation, wood-based panels, wood-working machinery andtimber engineering. Pulp and paper are covered mainly from the point ofview of production up to the chip stage. About 4,000 abstracts, of whicha small proportion also appear in Forestry Abstracts, are publishedannually, with indexes as for Forestry Abstracts.The above journals are available in paper editions, microfiche andmicrofilm. The annual subscriptions for paper or microform are:Member Countries Non-memberof CABcountriesForest Abstracts £35 $160Forest Products Abstracts £24 $10 5There are special rates for two-year subscriptions and for combined paperand microform subscriptions.On-line ServiceThe contents of Forestry Abstracts since January 1973 are now available'on line' through the Lockheed Dialog system. Further information will besent on requent.Weekly Card TIde ServicesA 'current awareness' service is available as 'FA Cards', 'FPA Cards' oras 'CFB Cards'. 'CFB Cards' consists of the cards corresponding to bothjournals but without duplicates. Despatches are made 48 times a year, bysurface mail or by special 'airpost' (or by ordinary airmail to a fewcountries). Either thin card or flimsy paper can be supplied, in uncutsheets of 8 'cards'. They contain all the bibliographic data as in theabstract journals, and usually part of the abstract.Leading ArticlesBoth journals are prepared to accept review articles on particular topics,for which a small honorarium is paid. These are made available asreprints.Annotated BibliographiesThese are prepared as collections of abstracts from Forestry Abstracts,Forest Products Abstracts, and other CAB journals, relating to particulartopics.For full particulars of all CAB publications, please write to:Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Central Sales, Farnham Royal,Slough, SL2 3BN, Bucks., England.All questions relating to the Card Tide Services should be addressed to:Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, South Parks Road, Oxford, OXI 3RD,England.A full schedule of charges for the various card services, including carriageto different countries, will be supplied, along with specimens of 'card' and'flimsy' editions.

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IRISH FORESTRYCONTENTS(Authors alone are responsible for views expressed)COVER: Natural uneven aged stand of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)at Port Hardy, North-East Vancouver Island, British Columbia,Canada. (Photograph: J. O'Driscoll).Office Bearers and Councillors ............................................. 70Editorial ................................................................................ 7 1Articles:Proceedings of the Symposium "Wood for Industry inIreland", held by the Society in University College,Dublin, on 7th April, 1978:Physiological aspects of Wood Formation (John J.Gardiner) ................................................................. 78Irish Timber and the Sawn Wood Trade (L. U.Gallagher) ................................................................ 85The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain (G. K. Elliott) 92As the Grower sees it (F. J. Moriarty) ......................... 109Timber Production from Northern IreiCmd 1980-2004 (P.S. Savill and J. A. McEwen) ..... ..................... ........ 115As the Sawmiller Sees It (George Kidney) ................. 124The PUlpwood Scene (Francis M. Jackson) ................. 130Obituary ............ ...... ..... ................. ... ........................ ............ 138Review .................................................................................. 140Letters to the Editor ............................................................ 142Society Activities .................................................................. 145

Society of Irish ForestersPresident:F. MULLOY, "Lecale", 14 Rochestown Avenue,Dun Laoghaire, Co. DublinVice-President:N. O'CARROLL, 12 Mapas Road, Dalkey, Co. DublinSecretary:J . GILLESPIE, c/o Royal Dublin Society, Ballsbridge, Dublin 4Treasurer:M. L. CAREY, "Furze Lodge", Newcastle, Co. WicklowEditor:E. P. FARRELL, Department of Agricultural Chemistry andSoil Science, University College, Glasnevin, Dublin 9Business Editor:M. O'BRIEN, 17 Watson Road, Killiney, Co. DublinHon. Auditor:W. H. JACK, 22 Viewfort Park, Belfast BT 17 9JRTechnical Councillors:J. MACKIN, 36 Killeter Road, Castlederg, Co. TyroneL. P. O'FLANAGAN, Lough Park House, Castlepollard,Co. WestmeathJ. DILLON, 19 The Heights, Woodpark, Ballinteer, Dublin 16E. JOYCE, Ballydowling, Glenealy, Co. WicklowJ. J. PRIOR, Greenville, Portarlington, Co. LaoisAssociate Councillors:C. B. TOTIENHAM, Ballycurry Farm, Ashford, Co. WicklowMISS E. FURLONG, 150 Clontarf Road, Dublin 3Northern Regional Delegate:W. J. WRIGHT, Forestry Service, Department of Agriculture,Crown Building, Enriiskillen, Co. Fermamagh

IRISH FORESTRYVol. 35 1978 No.2EOTTORIALChangeTHE assumption that anything that can be done must be done runsthrough all of our lives today. An enormous potential for change isnow being realised and the waves of current which have surgedthrough society with the advent of television, supersonic airline travel,the microprocessor, have transformed our lives beyond the wildestimaginings of our forefathers. We are all figurative mutants, theproducts (or the victims) of this influence. We are changed by changeto accept change all around us and so change with change.Although the benefits of development are enormous, changepresents particular problems for decision makers in forestry. Thetemptation is great, particularly for the manager in the field, to adopta new technique, simply because it will do a job neatly, effectively,efficiently. The emphasis tends to be on efficiency. If the suitability ofa machine for a job can be demonstrated, for example, the naturaltendency is to accept it without further question.Fortunately, there are elements within forestry organisations whichcounterbalance these tendencies. New procedures are tested to checktheir efficacy, as well as their efficiency. Unfortunately, due topressures of time, there is a tendency to be satisfied with short-termresults. Adequate consideration is not always given to the possibleecological consequences of the introduction of new techniques. Theshort-term advantages of ploughing an iron-pan podzol with a thickmor humus layer can be demonstrated by growth response data, butwho can predict what may be the effect in twenty years or in the nextrotation? For this, long-term research is needed.This represents one of the great dilemmas facing the forestmanager today. He cannot afford to wait. Five years experimentation,it can be argued, is better than none at all. Perhaps so, but onthe other hand, short-term success can lure even the prudent intodecisions which may, in time, prove to have been ill judged.Of course long term experimentation is important, but, moreimmediately, what is required are research workers who can criticallyassess the experience of other countries and evaluate its relevanceto our own situation. For this we need people of broad experience,within our forest services, who are afforded the opportunity to workabroad and who can see a future for themselves within the researchwing of their own organisation at home.

72 Irish ForestryPROCEEDINGS OF SYMPOSIUMDISCUSSION ON J. J. GARDINER'S PAPERChairman: Mr. O. V. Mooney (ITGA)N. O'Carroll (FWS) asked Dr. Gardiner to comment on the lack of effect offertilisation in polestage crops on wood quality. He answered that according toresults of experiments carried out in Germany there was no effect on ring width inNorway spruce. Meanwhile in North America and in particular Scandinavia onScots pine the opposite was found to be the case. The positive effect did not appearto have any significant effect on wood density. Asked by O. V. Mooney (ITGA) ifthere was any change in the type of wood laid down as the tree aged, Dr. Gardinerreplied that unless accompanied by crown recession the effect of age was negligibleon the type of wood formed. T. McEvoy (FWS) wishing to clear up a point onfertilization asked if heavy application on a dense young crop increased the livecrown in area, volume and/or time. The reply was that such fertilisation extended theactivity of the live crown resulting in more early wood which, of course, was afunction of all three. G. Gallagher (FWS) asked if pruning vigorous trees had agreater effect on wood quality than on increment. Dr. Gardiner replied that the effectwas, in fact, quite short, lasting perhaps only two years.Declan WardDISCUSSION ON PAPERS BY G. K. ELLIOTI (PRESENTED BY DR.BOLTON) AND L. U. GALLAGHERChairman: Mr. T. McEvoy. Forest & Wildlife Service. Dublin.Dermot O'Brien (FWS): Might the break-even point of 7,OOOm J be different underIrish conditions?Dr. Bolton: Difficult to say, as break-even point sensitive to a lot of factors.Dr. N. O'Carroll (FWS): How many mills above 7,OOOmJ capacity in Ireland?L. Gallagher (IIRS): Two to three mills of this size in Ireland.Dr. Moran (IIRS) stressed the need to develop larger mills.Dr. Bolton: New mills tend to be large-up to 40,OOOmJ, but in general the trendwas for 25,OOOmJ.Mr. D. White (Lismore Estates): State aid is needed as at present the industry is in aprecarious position. Proper drying of homegrown timber needed.Len Gallagher (IIRS): On the question of drying, it is not fair to place all the blameon the sawmiller, as sometimes the architect/builder may be at fault.Chairman: Greater emphasis should be put on pines for strength and the joinerymarket. Has Dr. Bolton had any comments on LP (c)?Dr. Bolton had little experience with Lp(c) but suggested it might have much thesame grade as SP, though more variable.

Proceedings of Symposium 73Len Gallagher (IIRS): We are pleased with strength properties for Lp(c), also it hasgood woodworking properties. Knots are a problem for joinery work. The lucrativejoinery market is difficult to penetrate.Dr. Bolton: Where preservative treatment is required then Lp(c) might be chosen inpreference to SS.Prof. T. Clear (UCD): There is a need to relate stress grading to visual grading.Len Gallagher (I1RS) agreed with Prof. Clear's comment and this is being done atpresent. The disparity between visual and stress grading might give rise to lack ofconfidence in the latter.(Henry Phillips)DISCUSSION ON PAPERS BY P. SAVILL AND J. A. McEWAN, AND (THELATE) F. J. MORIARTY (REPRESENTED BY P. P. O'GRADY)Chairman: Mr. C. S. Kilpatrick, Forest Service, BelfastMr. M. Cassidy, expressing surprise at the high percentage of Sitka spruceplantations in Northern Ireland being managed on a no-thinning basis, questionedMr. Savill as to what silvicultural implications this might have. In reply, Mr. Savillsaid it was their experience that these stands, if thinned, would almost certainly suffersevere windblow. However, he did feel that, at conventional spacing, there is a loss intotal potential production under a no-thinning regime.Mr. L. Gallagher, addressing Dr. Savill, felt that, with no brashing, problemscould arise in relation to timber quality. Dr. Savill agreed this could be so but pointedto the high costs involved in brashing.Noting that at present approximately twenty-nine percent of total productioncomes from peat soils, Mr. M. Bulfin asked if the importance of such soils wouldincrease in the future. To this Dr. SaviU stated that eventually peatlands will accountfor about fifty percent of total production, but naturally will contribute less perhectare than mineral soils.Following questions from Mr. M. O'Brien, Dr. Savill said it was envisaged thatstands managed under the present no-thinning regimes would be c1earfelled whenthey reached approximately ninety-five percent of age of maximum MAL It wasdifficult to say what the assortments would be at that stage.Mr. D. McGlynn posed the question that if we are serious in our approach toproblems of quality, should we not consider making greater use of species such asDouglas fir and larches in our planting programmes. In answering Mr. O'Grady saidthat choice of species was limited to the type of land available for forestry. Ingeneral, land suitable for such species was not now coming to forestry. At this pointMr. McGlynn interjected to say that perhaps suitable land was available but at aprice.The final point was made by Dr. J. Gardiner who suggested that Mr. Savill waspessimistic in his remarks on the number of rings per inch in home grown Sitkaspruce. Dr. Gardiner noted that approximately half of the Sitka spruce in thecountry is of Y.C. 16 or less, thereby indicating timber with considerably more ringsper inch than suggested by Mr. Savill.K. Hutchinson

74 Irish ForestryOISCUSSION ON PAPERS BY G. KIDNEY AND F. M. JACKSONChairman: Professor T. Clear, Forestry Department, U.C.D.Professor Clear reiterated G. Kidneys' call for a grading system for Irish timber andthen invited questions from the floor.F. Cassidy. FWS, Roscommon.Q: M r. 1 ackson has already stated he does not favour the present system of timbersale by tender. What does Mr. Kidney think of this system?A: Mr. Kidney maintained that the only practical alternative is sale by publicauction. He said that at present there was a greater demand than supply inthe timber market.Q: Mr. A. Cosby of Stradbally Hall enquired about growing timber for a woodfueled boiler. This raised a considerable murmer within the audience but nothingconcrete was volunteered.General DiscussionThe Chairman, Mr. K. F. Parkin, Ministry of Agriculture, Belfast, invited allthe Symposium speakers to join him on the rostrum and answer questions fromthe audience. He anticipated great interest by the audience, who were mainlyforesters and timber growers, in what happens to the product they produce. Theindustry was close to a "take off point" and now was the time to hear the expertsspeak on harvesting, marketing and processing timber. He prompted theaudience to make the most of the panel.Q: C. S. Kilpatrick. How is the State to get involved in maximising communal gainfrom the timber resources?A: Dr. Bolton maintained that the State need not invest directly in mills but byensuring a large timber output would encourage large mills. At present it wascommon to see the big mills not getting an adequate timber supply and it wasimportant to remedy this situation. The State by providing an adequate andcontinuous timber supply could ensure that the larger and more economical millsprospered; this would be to the benefit of the community at large.Q: Tony Mannion, FWS. I would like to ask Messrs. Kidney and lackson if theyfeel that concession logging could have a place in the Irish forest industry?A: G. Kidney felt that this form oflogging popular in the USA and Canada was justnot on in Ireland.Referring back to the previous question he gave an emphatic no to State aid. Inaddition he did not favour large saw mills and he pointed out that many die bygetting big. Nevertheless he agreed with rationalisation and coming together. "Afterall" he said "not every saw mill can afford to purchase a stress grader; at £200,000each they were a large investment".Q: Seim Campbell, Irish Forest Products. Mr. Bolton maintained that a mediumsized sawmill would require approximately 20,000 m 3 of timber of at least 20cm top diameter per annum. On this premise the countries present productioncould support little more than 5 medium sawmills. This was not the case assawmill capacity was much greater than timber supply.A: Len Gallagher agreed that capacity at present was at least 30% in excess ofsupply but this he felt would be rectified in time. He also queried the minimum 20cm top diameter previously mentioned, saying that a minimum top diameter of17.5 would realise 140,000 m 3 of sawlog material per annum.Q: E. S. Flanagan, FWS. The State is by far the largest timber supplier to the

Proceedings of Symposium 75market and should sell by units and not by block. This would ensure that sawlogquality timber would not go to pulpmills.A: Mr. Kidney initially commented that he was surprised to hear Mr. Jackson'sestimate of 20% of sawlog timber being used by pulpmills. He felt the block salesystem had been adequate over the past years and besides he felt that thepulp mill factories could re-sell quality sawlog timber to the sawmillers.Q: E. S. Flanagan, FWS. Should the State take a more active role in disposal of itsproduce?A: Mr. Kidney quickly replied that this would imply that the State get involved inharvesting; he felt the timber merchants did this more economically.K. Parkin: In Northern Ireland it was decided after some deliberation that theState was better off in selling standing timber.Q: T. McEvoy, FWS. This year's British Standards have accepted home grownMSS to be equal to GS grade imported white.A: Mr. Kidney stated this only referred to non loading timber and not to that used inconstruction.Q: F. Cassidy, FWS, Roscommon. It is a shame that Irish timber has a stigmasomewhat akin to an Irish county home.A: Len Gallagher, IIRS. Irish timber indeed has this unfortunate stigma. Ouranswer at the IIRS is to extol its virtues and qualities where possible. In the pastIrish timber has suffered from poor presentation and careless finishing. I believelodgepole pine could be a good joinery timber and some Sitka spruce sawlogcould be upgraded into select load-bearing situations, i.e., agricultural outhouses.One must nevertheless be aware that rapid growth of timber generally reduces itsstrength.Dr. J. Gardener, UCD. We foresters can be our own worst enemies by lumpingall timber together. We should grow our trees for the timber we want. We mustaccept that fast growing spruce with less than 6 rings to the inch while it mightappear impressive growth could result in timber of inferior quality and hence of alower grade.G. Kidney maintained that a lot of our Sitka Spruce falls into an M 75 categorywhich is a high grade. In practical terms are we growing the best timber? Hebelieves we are, the Sitka Spruce he receives being ideal from his point of view. Inaddition he feels much of the pine would make good joinery timber.Len Gallagher, IIRS. With regard to the production of spruce sawlog heestimates that t is going to be in the better grades I and 2 and if this is marketedright then it could enter the lucrative construction market.K. Parkin: On that note of optimism we must draw these proceedings to a close.We are all concerned with Irish timber and would like to maximise its contribution toour economy. I feel there should be more communication between the marketing andgrowing sides of the industry.Finally F. Mulloy, the President of the Society of Irish Foresters thanked allspeakers particularly those who had filled in at such short notice and closed theproceedings.John Brosnan

76 Irish ForestryMEMBERS WHO ATTENDED THE SYMPOSIUM LISTED ON A COUNTYBASISAntrim (I t) Donegal (7) T. McEvoyD. McGlynnT. F. Bryans* N. Foley M. O'BrienG. N. Coates T. Gallinagh Dr. N. O'CarrollDr. D. Dickson J. Gatins H. PhillipsJ. E. K. Ellis P. Hand E. QuinnC. S. Kilpatrick J. Hanly W. E. QuinnK. McDonald C. Jeffers T. Rea*R. McKenzie T. Mannion G. Ryan*S. Milner M. SharkeyK. F. Parkin M. SheridanA. Simpson Down (6) M. Skehan*W. R. Wilson M. SwanD. Fitzpatrick J. C. Tucker*H. Forbes D. WardP. J. McElroy J. M. Wilson-Wright*J. McEwanCavan (4)R. Wilson-Wright*J. G. McNiffM. CosgraveDr. P. SavillJ. EnrightM. FrielFermanagh (6)E. Johnson Dublin (41) P. CarlinG. J. CunninghamI. Booth M. J. DevineClare (4) Dr. M. Bulfin C. I. FarmerS. Campbell W. J. WrightE. V. Switzer* Mrs. K. Clear* G. KidneyMrs. M. Switzer* Professor T. ClearMrs. J. Tottenham* P. ClinchR. Tottenham* J. DeasyJ. Dillon Galway (7)B. FitzsimonsP. Flynn J. CroninMiss L. Furlong *P. Hyde*Cork (11) Dr. G. Gallagher E. LynaghL. Gallagher P. McArdleC. Colthurst * Dr. J. Gardiner E. McGuinnessM. J. Doyle F. Jackson* V. O'ConnorD. Egan Dr. P. Joyce M. O'NeachtainE. Flanagan B. LawlerD. Griffin J. J. MaherM. Johnston * D. ManganD. Keane T. Moloney Kerry (3)D. McCarthy O. V. MooneyP. S. O'Brien F. Mulloy J. CarmodyP. J. O'Callaghan D. McAree J. MaguireT. J. O'Regan C. McCormack D. Walsh

Kildare (3)Proceedings of SymposiumMonaghan (4)Wicklow (33)77S. CarewE. FitzpatrickW. O'DwyerKilkenny (3)P. J. CorbettA. FinnertyJ. HealyLaois (6)B. CoUinsK. HutchinsonP. V. O'BrienP. O'LoingsighJ. PriorC. YoungLeitrim (3)A. DuffyF. NugentJ. RyanLimerick (6)M. FogartyJ. HorganE. LeahyM. O'DonovanP. WhiteS. WhiteLongford (3)L. DiffleyP. Glennon·M. C. Walsh·Louth (I)T. J. McCarthyMayo (6)S. CarneyP. DoolanJ. J. McEveyP. O'RourkeM. ReganV. Ryan• Associate MembersP. FitzgeraldJ. FlemingMajor J. Madden·D. Patton·OtTaly (I)M. ByrneRoscommon (2)M. CassidyJ. J. HanlySligo (I)J. FreemanTipperary (5)W. BerkeryP. BreathnachE. GriffinJ. MaddenF. ShekletonTvrone (4)W. J. BryanH. KerrJ. MackinMaj . Gen. D. Moore·Waterford (5)J. DoyleN. KavanaghJ. McLoughlinD. MagnerD. White·Westmeath (5)P. KelleherS. McNamaraP. J. MorrisseyL. O'FlanaganF. von Prondzynski·Wexford (6)D. BeirneT. KavanaghJ. KilbrideE. MorrisseyP. J. O'DonoghueJ. O'ReillyLord Ardee·J. Brady·J. BrosnanP. ButlerDr. M. CareyS. CaseyF. CollinsJ. CrowleyT. DonohueM. DoyleJ. FennessyH. M. FitzPatrickJ. GillespieS. HayesM. Holly·B ~ Hussey·E. JoyceJ. KellyE. LynchDr. D. McCarthyD. McGuireD. O'BrienT. Va CearbhaillP. P. O'GradyP. O'HalloranN. 0 MuirgheasaA. pfeiferT. PurcellS. QuinnN. Ryan·R. SweetmanJ. TreacyF. WatsonEngland (I)Lord Digby·

Physiological aspects ofwood formationJOHN J. GARDINERFunctionally the stem of a tree consists of three tissues - thephloem, the vascular cambium and xylem. The phloem and xylemarise from the vascular cambium. The cambium forms a completesheath in the tree covering the xylem from the root tips to the tips ofthe twigs. Each Spring when the cambium becomes active it starts todivide and splits off both new phloem and new xylem mother cells.These cells then pass through a process of differentiation, elongationand maturation before they are recognisable as xylem and phloemcells.However, differences are apparent between ring porous trees onthe one hand and diffuse porous and coniferous trees on the other inrelation to the initiation of secondary growth. In conifers and diffuseporous hardwoods, vascular cambium activity begins just below thebuds as they become active and then activity spreads gradually downthe tree as the leaves open. Removal of buds and twigs from suchtrees in early Spring prevents cambial initiation. The inference is thatauxin produced by the buds moves down the phloem and initiatescambial activity. Thus the spread of cambial initiation down the stemis determined by the movement of auxin.In ring porous trees, cambial activity starts before the budsbecome active, beginning all over the tree at approximately the sametime. The first large vessels in Fraxinus sp. for example, are formedbefore the leaves grow out. This suggests that there is either a greatdeal of auxin precursor present in the dormant cambial zone or thatthe cambial zone can manufacture its own auxin activator. Digby andWaring (1966) have suggested that the actual precursor is probablytryptophan and that this is converted to indole - 3 - acetic acid(IAA) at the time of cambial initiation. In ring porous hardwoodsthen a ring of large diameter vessels is formed over the whore treefrom trunk to twig at almost the same time and before the leavesappear. Decapitation will not prevent cambial initiation. Auxinapparently is still necessary to initiate cambial activity, but in ringporous trees it does not have to come directly from expanding budsand leaves where it is produced.However, there is an obvious dissimilarity between xylem formedat different times during the growing season. In conifers the earliestformed tracheids have a greater radial diameter and a thinnersecondary wall than those formed later in the growing season.Likewise in hardwoods there is a decrease in vessel diameter from the1. Forestry Department, University College, Dublin.

Physiological aspects of Wood Formation 79beginning to the end of the yearly xylem increment. The termsearlywood (Springwood) and latewood (Summerwood) are usedrespectively to distinguish between the initially less dense and thesubsequently denser wood, formed in a growing season.This transition from earlywood to latewood formation isassociated with two aspects of xylem cell differentation: (1)decreasing cell size and (2) increasing cell wall thickness. It is nowgenerally accepted that tracheid diameter is controlled by auxinsproduced in actively growing apical points. The most vigorous shootswith their developing needles appear to be the principal sources ofthese auxins. Auxins produced in the actively growing shoots aretransmitted to the developing tracheids in the stem. Supportiveevidence for this theory is found in experiments on the effect ofphotoperiod on wood formation in young trees of Pinus resinosa(red pine). In trees grown under long days (18 hour photoperiod)earlywood is formed and this is correlated with a high auxin contentin the rapidly growing shoot (Larson, 1962). Shoot growth and auxincontent are both decreased by transfer for two weeks to short days (8hour photoperiod) and latewood is now formed. Transfer of red pinefrom the short day )regime back to long days causes renewed shootgrowth, an increased auxin content and the deposition of a newincrement of earlywood. This is a situation in which a false growthring is produced.Direct evidence for the control of cell size by auxin is seen inexperiments in which IAA is applied to decapitated stems of pinegrowing under short day conditions. Wide tracheids are induced inresponse to IAA instead of the narrow ones formed previously(Larson, 1962). The normal acropetal progress of latewoodformation is then explained by the decreasing availability of auxin,especially to the lower trunk, as shoot growth in the crown declines.Auxin is available at high concentrations and for a longer time atsuccessively higher levels in the trunk and branches. Hence, thesequence of latewood formation, at least in terms of cell size, isacropetal. Such auxin gradients have been demonstrated within treestems.A similar case can be made for the regulation of vessel diameter inring porous hardwoods. When Robinia pseudoacacia plants weregrown under short days for three weeks, shoot growth, cambialactivity, and xylem production all ceased (Digby and Waring,1966b). When the plants were decapitated and IAA in varyingconcentrations together witha constant low level of gibberellic acid(GA) applied to the decapitated stem, cambial activity resumed andxylem was formed. In the experimentally induced xylem there was a­clear correlation between vessel member diameter and theconcentration of applied auxin (Fig. 1).

80 Irish ForestryFIGURE IThe effect of applied IAA on radial vessel diameter in Robinia pseudoacacia Concentration ofGA was 100 ppm in all treatments. (After: Digby and Wareing, 1966)87S~..6~e:a11:l> 54100 250 500 750 1000IAA concentration, ppmThis work also showed that auxin and gibberellin act together inpromoting normal xylem development. In addition, there is evidencethat developmental processes in the vascular cambium involve theinteraction of other factors. For example, in stem segments of willow(Salixfragilis), Robards et. al. (1969) discovered that the number ofcells in the differentiating xylem undergoing extensive growth in width(presumptive xylem members) was increased by separate applicationof an array of substances including auxins, G.A., 6 -furfurylaminopurine (a cytokinin), sucrose and myco-inosital (Table1).TABLE IEffect of chemicals on Xylem Differentiation in stem segments of willow. (After: Robards et ai.,1969).Treatment% of vessel member amongDifferentiating Xylem cells1. Control2. I A A3. G.A.4. 6 - furfurylaminopurine5. Sucrose6. Myco - inosital7. 2 + 3 + 4 + 52.8 ± 0.69.6 ± 0.59.2 ± 1.17.2 ± 0.512.6 ± 0.813.1 ± 1.731.5 ± 4.7

Physiological aspects of Wood Formation 81We may conclude then that the enlargement of differentiatingxylem members is regulated by seasonally varying concentrations ofendogenous substances flowing from the growing shoot and that thetransition from earlywood to latewood production occurs at the timeof cessation of extension growth of the shoot.However, tracheid diameter is only one measure of tracheidmorphology and the second measure - cell wall thickness is alsoinvolved in latewood formation. Many studies have shown that celldiameter and cell wall thickness are to a large extent independent andregulated by different physiological processes. Whereas cell diameteris primarily determined by the amounts of growth promotingsubstances reaching a developing cell, wall thickness appears to bedetermined by the amount of photosynthate reaching a developingcell.In the developing shoot, leaf or needle elongation follows shootextension, and as the new foliage begins to elongate,it requires largeamounts of photosynthate. New foliage is unable to manufacturesufficient photosynthate for its own building needs, so it importsphotosynthate from other parts of the tree. Therefore, a largeproportion of the stored and newly manufactured photosynthate in atree is directed towards the developing foliage and shoot. Gordon andLarson (1968) have shown that during the third to the seventh weekafter bud break considerable photosynthate is directed upwards intothe terminal shoot. At this time thin walled tracheids are formed inthe lower stem. Eventually, the current year foliage reaches adevelopment stage when it is self-sufficient in photosynthate andmuch more building material becomes available within the tree forwall thickening. Thus it has been shown experimentally that increasesin cell wall thickness in differentiating cells of the lower stem occur 7-9 weeks after bud break. At this time shoot extension is almostcompleted for the year and new foliage is almost mature (Richardson,1964).Another probable factor in determining the thickness of cell wallsis the length of time that cells remain in the cell wall thickening phase.Whitmore and Zahner, (1966) have proposed that earlywood cellsdifferentiate so fast that cell walls remain thin, but latewood cells staynear the phloem for a much longer time and wall thickening proceedsfor a longer time. In addition Daley and Leighton, (1968) haveshown that short days cause the production of an inhibitor thatpermits walls to be synthesized for a longer period, perhaps byretarding the breakdown of the protoplasm. It seems quite likely thatall of those theories are correct and that they should somehow becombined. For instance, conditions of high net photosynthesis mightincrease the rate of wall-thickening, whereas an inhibitor could

82 Irish Forestryincrease the length of time for thickening. Both would result in athicker wall.Irrespective of the mechanisms involved there seems to be nolonger any doubt but that the transition from earlywood to latewoodproductionis associated with:1. A declining level of growth promoting substances as extensiongrowth in the crown slows down or ceases.2. The availability to the differentiating xylem cells of products ofphotosynthesis, associated with the maturation of foliage of thecurrent year.In any consideration of wood quality then, it is important toremember that it is events taking place within the crown of the treewhich . determine the course of wood formation. Thus anyenvironmental factor that causes a temporary suppression of terminalgrowth will result in a reduction of tracheid or vessel diameter insome part of the stem, and any factor that promotes vigorousterminal growth activity will result in increased cell diameter. Thusthe crown size and vigour largely controls the type of wooddeposited. Since crown size and vigour can be very largely controlledthrough silvicultural practices such as spacing, thinning and pruning,it can be readily appreciated that the quality of wood produced canbe silviculturally controlled.Manipulation of stand density is perhaps the most powerfulmethod available to the silviculturalist for regulating wood quality.As a general rule, the open grown tree will have a long crown,extending almost to ground level. It will have very actively growingapical meristems and foliage. In addition there will be very little byway of an auxin gradient, since all points in the central stem will bevery near the crown. In addition the crown will manufacture verylittle photosynthate for export to the main stem, consuming almost allof its manufacture. Hence in an open grown tree or in young trees atwide spacing the wood produced will consist of cells with widediameters and thin walls. These are the characteristics of juvenilewood.As a stand of trees develops, the crowns gradually recede upwardswith age and stand closure. As this development proceeds the qualityof the wood changes and latewood begins to be laid down at the baseof the stem, though cells with juvenile traits will still predominate inthe wood laid down within the live crown. This is why one invariablyfinds a core of juvenile wood surrounding the pith within any woodystem. In general then it may be said: "that the width of the zone ofjuvenile wood depends upon the rapidity with which the crownrecedes," i.e. upon the rapidity with which the plan~ation closescanopy. This latter of course depends to a large extent upon initialespacement.

Physiological aspects of Wood Formation 83Once a plantation has closed canopy stand density can beregulated by thinning. The purpose of thinning is to provide moregrowing space for the remaining trees. Thus, following a heavythinning, upward crown recession slows, the foliage throughout thecrown thickens and the efficiency of the crown as a whole increases.The concentrations of growth promoting and growth inhibitingsubstances increase all over the tree. The availability ofphotosynthate also increases. Measurable changes in wood quality,such as an increase in the proportion of juvenile wood, a moregradual latewood transition down the stem, and a decrease in thepercentage of latewood in the lower stem, follow. The intensity ofthinning determines the degree of response.Pruning of live branches in analogous to artificially creating astand-grown tree from an open grown one. The purpose of "greenpruning" is to produce a longer length of clear wood by removing thelower branches. However, the resulting change in crown size mayaccentuate gradients of auxin and other growth promotingsubstances. Hence the proportion of juvenile wood within the crownmay decrease, the latewood transition down the stem may becomemore abrupt and the percentage of latewood in the lower stem mayincrease.The primary effect of fertilization is on crown and rootdevelopment. The effect on wood formation is secondary, and is theresult of crown development by increasing the photosyntheticefficiency of the foliage. Thus heavy fertilization of young stands canresult in a lowering of the wood quality because it increases crownand branch size and delays natural prunning. Young trees are in thestage of juvenile wood production and fertilization not only enlargesthe core of juvenile wood but also delays the transition to maturewood.Fertilization of pole-stage stands has been shown to have a muchsmaller effect upon wood quality. In pole stands, the crowns havegenerally closed and the base of the live crown has receded up thestem. Because of this crown-stem relation, moderate fertilization inpole stands generally results in increased growth of both earlywoodand latewood with relatively little change in wood quality. (Table 2).TABLE 2Effect of fertilizer upon wood properticisTn 37 year old Norway Spruce. (After: Seibt, 1973)Fertilizer Ring Width % Latewood Density(mm) g./cm .30 1.64 20.4 0.497NPK 2.01 23 .8 0.492NKCa 1.95 22.0 0.497NPCa 2.16 16.0 0.478PKCa 1.92 22.7 0.500NPKCa 2.18 20.5 0.490

84 Irish ForestryFrom this brief resume, it is apparent that environment plays adecisive role in wood formation by its effects on tracheid diameterand wall thickness. The effect of environment on these cell propertiesis indirect. The direct effect is on the vegetative growth of the crown,the production site of substances that regulate tracheid diameter andthe photosynthates that contribute to wall development. In short,crown attributes determine both timber yield and quality. Althoughour information on the physiology of wood formation is still meagrewe probably have sufficient knowledge of tree growth to be able tomanipulate the type of wood produced to our forestry needs. Perhapsthe biggest problem facing the forestry community today is decidingwhat type of wood will be needed in the future.Referen~esDigby, J. and P. F. Wareing. (1966). The Effect of Applied Growth Hormones on CambialDivision and the Differentiation of the Cambial Derivatives. Ann. Bot. N.S.,30, 539-48.Digby, J. and P. F. Wareing. (1966a). The Relationship Between Endogenous Hormone Levelsin the Plant and Seasonal Aspects of Cambial Activity. Ann. Bot. N.S., 30, 607-22.Doley, D. and L. Leighton. (1968). Effects of Growth Regulating Substances and WaterPotential on the Development of Secondary Xylem in Fraxinus. New Phytol., 67, 579-94.Gordon, J, C. and P. R. Larson. (1968). Seasonal Course of Photosynthesis, Respiration andDistribution of 14C in Young Pinus resinosa trees as Related to Wood Formation. PI.Physiol., Lancaster, 43, 1617-24.Larson, P. R. (1962). A Biological Approach to Wood Quality Tappi, 45, No. 6.: 443-48.Richardson, S. D. (1964). The External Environment and Tracheid Size in Conifers. In. TheFormation of Wood in Forest Trees. (M. H. Zimmermann, ed.), 367-88. Academic Press,New York.Robards, A. W., E. Davidson and P. Kidwai. (1969). Short Term Effects of Some Chemicalsupon Cambial Activity. J. Exp. Bot., 20, 912-20.Seibt, G. (1973). The Effect of Fertilizing on Wood Quality. Paper presented at JointFAO/IUFRO Symposium on Forest Fertilization, Paris.Whitmore, F. W. and R. Zahner. (1966). Development of the Xylem Ring in Stems of YoungRed Pine Trees. For. Sci., 12, 198-210.

Irish Timber and the Sawn Wood TradeL. U. GALLAGHER 1SummaryThe status of Irish timber is outlined in the context of the world and Europeantrade. The small size of the industry means that changes of supply can have aconsiderable effect on production. The present sawlog supply is given in relationto quantity and method of obtaining it. The requirements of the market andsome indications of the size and competitiveness of the homegrown sawn timberindustry are presented, concluding with a brief comment on its future.In making an appraisal of how Irish timber supplies the needs of thesawn timber trade a variety of factors, ranging from supply and costto the quality of the native material, must be considered. Not onlythat, but their relevance to and interdependence on each other mustlikewise be assessed before firm conclusions may be drawn. The factthat Ireland is a small country, with a late development in organisedforestry tends to accentuate shortcomings in any area. Bearing thisin mind, it is a worthwhile exercise to attempt to determine the placeof Irish grown timber in the overall timber trade, both now and in thefuture.The Status of Irish TimberIn terms of trade, a brief look at gross production statistics willbroadly categorise the relevance ofIrish timber. Of the world's timbersupplies, approximately half of the roundwood produced is used forfuel, the other half being processed industrially. About two thirds ofall industrial wood produced is sawn, and in 1968 this amounted to389,OOO,OOOm 3 • Europe consumed 75,OOO,ooOm 3 of this (Madas,1974). Ireland's consumption of sawn timber at 600,OOOm 3 in 1976,isexceedingly modest by comparison, and even more modest is thecontribution of homegrown timber to that market. But, for that veryreason, any changes in the production of homegrown timber, while oflittle relevance outside our country, can have a very significant impact onthe development of the home timber trade. Being an importing country,an increase in home produced raw material would have the addedadvantage of import substitution.In some lower quality products, such as pallet wood and fencing,both hardwoods and softwoods may be interchangeable but,normally, they each have their own separate end uses.Softwood consumption and production far exceeds that ofhardwood, and sawn softwood is the greatest single category oftimber used. In 1976, 517,OOOm 3 of sawn softwoods were consumed(C.S.O., 1977) equal to I,OOO,OOOm 3 of wood raw materialequivalent (WRME). Of this, 180,OOOm 3 WRME was homeproduced sawlog of 17.5em minimum top diameter (FWS 1977,Gallagher and Purcell 1976). A further estimated 50,OOOm3 ofI. Institute for Industrial Research and Standards, Ballymun Road, Dublin 9.

86 Irish Forestrysmaller wood was directed into the sawmill industry. Thus, 23% oftotal softwood sawlog consumption was derived from homegrownmaterial.The statistics for hardwood production are more difficult toascertain, as the greater proportion of homegrown material is derivedfrom private plantations, where records are not so readily available.However, Gallagher and Purcell (1976) estimate that 12,00Om3 ofsawlog are produced annually from plantations of 0.5 ha and larger.State plantations are not likely to produce more than 5,000m3 ofhardwood sawlog for a long time to come. Our own observationsindicate that hardwood consumption may be as high as 27,000m3indicating that a lot of the material is purchased as single trees andfrom small groves on farms not rated as having hardwoodplantations. In 1976, the imported hardwood saw timber WRMEamounted to 135,000m 3 . An estimated 16.6% of hardwood issupplied from Irish sources. Therefore, supplying approximately250,000m3 of sawlog, we provide for less than one quarter of ourneeds.Sawlog SupplyIn 1976 the state sold 227,654m 3 of softwood timber 20 cmdiameter breast high (D.S.H.) and over. This would have yieldedsome 142,000m 3 of 17.5 cm minimum top diameter sawlog. Of allsales from state plantations in that year, 85% were sold standing(F.W.S. 1977) and felling was either undertaken by the purchasingmill, or by contractors who either had an arrangement with asawmill, or who later sold their produce piecemeal; the formerarrangement is far more common than the latter. Most sales of Statetimber are by sealed tenders, a system not always favoured by thesawmilling trade, on the grounds that it militates against effectivestock control. As in previous years, a certain amount of pulpwoodtimber from state plantations would have found its way into thesawmills to be converted to pallet wood and fencing posts. In 1975,some 50,000m3 of pulpwood were diverted into sawn timberproduction. With the current financial and supply stresses in the sawntimber market and the drop in particle board production, the intakeof such material into the mills currently is likely to exceed this figure.Sales from private plantations range from the casual purchase of afew trees to a contracted sale of several acres of clear-felling. Manysmall mills exist through the former arrangement and, in certaincases, mills may contract to convert a farmer's own timber for him.Thus the collection of serviceable statistics is fraught with difficulty.In the case of larger estates, the sales would be reasonably negotiated,but in the case of many small parcels of trees, and less sophisticatedestates, there is enough hearsay evidence to suggest that the owners

Irish Timber and the Sawn Wood Trade 87often have a poor knowledge of the worth of their timber. Table 1summarises the proportion of State to private sawlog available.TABLE 1Available Homegrown Sawlog Timber(m' : 1978)SoftwoodsHardwoodsState Forests % Private Forests %volume m'volume m'142,000 59 40,000 1750,000 (1) 21 + 10,000 (2) 45,000 16 12,000 37+ 15,000 (2) 47Totalvolume m'242,00032.000%100(1) Estimated small wood diverted to sawn timber trade.(2) From areas less than 0.5 ha. in extent, including hedgrow and single trees.Hardwoods may be produced, in small lots, throughout thecountry with probably some greater emphasis on the larger estates ofthe midlands and south. Softwoods, on the other hand, can begrouped quite effectively into major areas of production.Approximately 70% of all sawlog is currently produced in thesouthern half of the country - that is south of a line from Galway toDublin (O'Flanagan, 1973), with the highest production in themountainous regions of Tipperary, Waterford and Wicklow. Thissituation will not change appreciably in the next 15 years, althoughfrom then on, crops in the western counties should make an impact.Of the total 7.8 million m 3 of softwood timber being grown atpresent,S million m 3 are in the 25 to 40 years old category, withgreatest volume in the 30 years old group. Within 10 years fromnow, the volume of available sawlog will have tripled. The relativeincrease in sawlog supply in the western counties will be by a factorof five in the same period. The Forest and Wildlife Service arecurrently managing their coniferous woodlands on a 40 to 50 yearsrotation. This means that, on average, sawmillers will be handlingtrees of approximately 24 cm diameter breast high (D.B.H.).These are not large trees and it is obvious that small logs will be thenormal produce from Irish forests. If there is any tendency to reducethe length of rotation, this could further reduce the average size ofsawlog available. The availability of homegrown sawlog issummarised in Table 1.Sawnwood Timber MarketThe latest date for which comprehensive figures relating to thetimber market are available, is 1976. As shown in Table 2, five times

88 Irish Forestryas much softwood as hardwood is imported. Softwood inconstruction accounts for 70% of the market. This includes structuraland joinery timbers, also shuttering and formwork. Pallet andboxwood account for a further 15% with fencing, furniture and otheritems completing the picture. At present, very little homegrowntimber is used for joinery purposes. There is a growing market forhomegrown timber in construction, subject to certain limitations.Where stress graded timber is specified, imported material is likely toreach acceptance before homegrown. The current visual grading rulestend to militate against selecting homegrown timber, generally on rateof-growthand knot-are a-ratio factors, although incidence of twistmay also pose problems. Mechanically stress graded timber tends toproduce far higher yields of high-grade material, suitable forstructural applications. The arguments as put forward by Knaggs(1977) for the proper sawing, drying and grading of spruce tocommand a good market apply equally to any homegrown softwoodtimbers. It is imperative that the material be presented in a form andcondition at least as good as the imported product. At present themajority of market outlets are not involved in stress grading, andproperly presented homegrown timber can be, and is being usedalongside imported timber. With the advent of more stringentspecifications, purchasers of homegrown timber are becomingconcerned that it can meet the requirements of a more demandingmarket. The principal producers are aware of this problem, and aretaking appropriate action to improve the quality of their produce.Small mills still have a large impact on the sale of homegrowntimbers, and are likely to continue to do so. In these mills, the sameattention to presentation is commonly not pursued. As a corollary, itis also evident that the impact of individual small mills is small andthus, poor presentation may not be too serious a factor. However, ithas given Irish timber a poor name, and as such it behoves all mills toimprove the image of the native product.TABLE 2Imports of Timber, 1976SoftwoodHardwoodm J£,000m J£,000LogsSquaresSawnPlaned1,84025,240381,1401,780951,29523,2873092,1603,32061,4401,4403003417,237376Sawn Equivalent403,84024,98666,1708,254

Irish Timber and the Sawn Wood Trade 89An examination of the relationship of homegrown timber to totalconsumption shows the extent to which our timber deficit must bemade up by importation. In 1973, the total timber consumption inIreland was 2.2 million m 3 WRME, of which 342,000 or 15.7% wassupplied from homegrown timber. At that time, softwoods accountedfor an average of 86.4% of the value of all timber imports at£54,269,000. These figures include all softwood uses. Softwoodlumber imports were found to account for 597,000m3, valued at£15,048,000, averaging 45.3% of volume or 28.5% of value of totalsoftwood imports (Bulfin 1974-5). In 1976, an estimated 403,840m 3of softwood logs, rough and planed lumber were imported at a totalvalue of £24,986,000 whereas 66,170m 3 of hardwoods, valued at£8,254,000 were imported. The import bill for solid timber was thus£33,240,000. The estimated volume of home produced timber was140,000m3, of which 116,000m 3 were of softwood and 20,000m3were hardwood. The value of the homegrown softwood market wouldbe approximately £10,000,000 or 28.5% of the total softwoodmarket. A considerable proportion of hardwood is converted to palletboards, and is therefore among the lower valued commodities. Themarket for hardwoods would hardly exceed £1,500,000. Thus, fromhome sources, and in terms of value we supply only 25% of the timbermarket.Capacity of the IndustryThere are an estimated 170 sawmills in Ireland well scatteredthroughout the country. If any discernible pattern does exist, it is illdefined. Perhaps the greater concentrations of mills are in the eastand south-following the areas of greatest timber production, with anoticeable scarcity in the northwestern counties. A detailed analysisof the structure of this industry, particularly as it relates to thesoftwood trade, is currently being evaluated by a committee consistingof trade and government representation.The majority of the mills are small with a throughput of less than2,500m 3 per annum. The employment in these mills ranges from 1 to4 people, averaging less than 3. There are six mills, large by Irishstandards, with a sawing capacity in excess of 10,00Om3. Althoughmost mills are small, even among the smaller mills the capacityexceeds current throughput. Of course many of these mills would notbe capable of increased production without expansion of staff andrationalisation of production. But among the larger mills there is nodoubt but that the equipment is under utilised. Within the past 2tyears, there has been considerable growth in the industry, with threemills expanding their milling capacities very considerably, and alsoinstalling drying kilns. Expansion is being considered by several othermills, and there is at least one new mill being erected, which will have

90 Irish Forestrya considerable capacity. Whereas the smallest of the sawmills tend tooperate inserted-tooth, circular-saw rack benches, frequently poweredby belt-drive from a tractor, and the rniddle-of-the-range mills operateband-saw rack benches, the modern and modernised mills areoperating automatic band mills, double slabbers and an array ofsophisticated semi-automatic conveyors. Thus, it is likely that presentcapacity exceeds supply by 20 to 30%.CompetitivenessThere certainly is optimism within the trade to allow for thissudden expansion, and it is equally evident that there is aconsiderable import saving opportunity in the industry. However,there is a limit to the supply of raw material, which is not nowmeeting the capacity of the industry. This will likely result in thefollowing effects, unless steps are taken to change the trends. Theprice of sawlog timber will remain high as long as it is in short supply.Further expansion of the industry by continuing investment on thepart of the major firms may ultimately result in the closure of someless competitive sawmills. This may not necessarily be beneficial, aslocal industry supplies not only local needs but local employment aswell. Trends in this direction require to be watched carefully. Theforest industry is a scattered enterprise, requiring a considerableamount of haulage of raw materials. Too much centralisation ofeffort could result in further extension of haulage distances. Atpresent, whereas smaller firms do not travel great distances in searchof timber, it is undeniable that most of the larger firms have to seekout timber wherever they can find it. Aspects of the competitivenessof the homegrown timber industry referred to in last year's Seminarshould be mentioned as they are of prime importance. Thepresentation of homegrown timber must equal that of the importedproduct if it is to be marketed alongside it. The present low price ofimported timber is putting a severe strain on the homegrown timberproducer to improve his standards of presentation, but this he mustdo if he is to establish a firm footing in the market.Future Development of Homegrown TradeThe present trend of increasing mill size and sophistication is likelyto continue, although there cannot be many large mills in Ireland.There is a growing awareness of the need to dry timber properly, andthe major mills are installing kilns or dehumidifiers. The implementationof grading rules such as stipulated in I.S. 193 (IIRS, 1978) is afurther step in tightening up specifications which will inevitably reflecton the homegrown timber trade. There is an undoubted pressure onthe trade to improve its product image. This, if achieved, will permithomegrown timber to enter more sophisticated markets. The

Irish Timber and the Sawn Wood Trade 91demand for timber is constantly growing to the extent that not only isthe E.E.C. a net importer of timber, but even Sweden is now in thatrole. As shown in fig. 1, the gap between production andrequirements is likely to continue expanding, which should improvethe price obtainable for Irish grown sawn timber. As long as we caneffectively increase our acreage of forest lands, producing sawlogtimber of quality and supporting an industry which is not too capitalintensive by today's standards, then it would appear that thesawmilling industry has a future in Ireland. By the turn of the centuryIreland could be a timber exporting country.700Millionsm 3 WRMEIIRequirements500Production3001001920 1940 1960 1980 2000Figure 1. Projected European Industrial Wood Consumption.ReferencesBulfin, J. 1974-75. Timber and Timber products trade 1966-1973. Econ.Rur.Sociol. 5:239-251.Central Statistics Office 1977. Trade Statistics of Ireland, December 1976. Dublin, StationeryOffice: SOp.Forest and Wildlife Service 1976. Report of the Minister for Fisheries on the Forest andWildlife Service 1976, 5Opp.Gallagher, G. J. and T. J. Purcell, 1976. An inventory of private woodlands. Seminar for theprivate forestry sector, 6 and 7 April 1976. Forest and Wildlife Service, Dept. of Lands, ISpp.Institute for Industrial Research and Standards (197S) I.S. 193P: 1975. Timber Trussed Raftersfor Roofs. Dublin, I.I.R.S., 22 pp.Knaggs, G. 1977. Utilisation of Sitka spruce in Ireland. Irish For. 34: 4S-51.Madas. A. 1974. World Consumption of Wood: Trends and Prognoses. Budapest, AkademiaiKiado, 130 pp.O'Flanagan, L. P. 1973. Inventory of Woodlands of the Forest and Wildlife Service, Dublin,Stationery Office, 94 pp.

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in BritainG. K. Elliott!IntroductionIndustrial softwood is defined for the purposes of this paper asconiferous sawnwood. Britain obtains sawnwood, either by importsor by its own coniferous resource. Imports predominate, andalthough the level of imports has fallen in recent years from anaverage of some 8.5 million m 3 in the early 1970's to some 6.5million m 3 since the economic recession following the rise in oil pricein 1973/74, nevertheless the home resource contributes less than 8percent of the demand. At the same time the level of supply of Britishconifers is expected to rise dramatically within the next twenty fiveyears, reaching double the present level within the next fifteen years.The effective utilisation of this resource presents a challenge to Britishsawmillers, to meet competition from imports and to maintain theadvantage given by sawmill sized logs, under terms of increasingcompetition from other wood using industries, notably pulping.A number of approaches are open in presenting a review of thepresent situation. I have chosen first to review the nature anddevelopment of the British resource, second to review the structure ofthe sawmilling industry in Britain, third to examine the end users ofall industrial softwood in Britain and quantify the present marketplace and future potential for British softwoods, and finally toexamine the market structure for industrial softwoods in order toidentify the technological and institutional characteristics which theBritish sector must meet to be commercially competitive withimports.The Nature of the British ResourceAt the present time almost 2.0 million ha. of land in Britain carriesa forest cover, 80 percent of which is high forest, almost equallyshared by the Forestry Commission and private ownership, (1)*.Three-quarters of the high forest carries conifers, and of this over 60percent is State owned. Seventy percent of the conifer resource hasbeen planted since 1950, and although the age class distribution isnot normal, being conditioned more by the availability of land forplanting than the dictates of classical management - a rapidexpansion of production can be expected within a relatively shortspace of time.In terms of species distribution, 41 percent of the conifer resourceis Norway and Sitka spruce; 36 percent is in pine and 23 percent is ina variety of other softwood species dominated by larch and Douglasfir.1. Senior Lecturer, Department of Forestry and Wood Science, V.C.N.W., Bangor, Wales.• Numbers in parentheses indicate bibliographic citation.

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 93The production forecasts from the conifer resource are shown inTable 1. The historical data from 1972 until 1976 are of interestsince they represent the platform for future development, illustratinga steady annual increase in the potential supply which will rapidlyescalate to the turn of the century. At this point it is useful to indicatethat under British conditions the supply of softwood is not immunefrom international competition. Whereas in 1972 almost all, 98percent, of the supply was actually taken up by the wood usingindustries, by 1976 - in the face of a falling market for woodproducts - the uptake fell to only 75 percent of the resourceavailability. The private sector in fact sold only 67 percent of it£availableresource in 1976, as opposed to 95 percent in 1972.TABLE 1Production Forecasts for Conifer Resource in Britain 1972-20000units x 1000 m 3 rowtdwood)1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1980 1985 1990 2000England 857 993 1,020 1,058 1,097 1,410 1,690 2,060 2,610Scotland 1,165 1137 1,201 1,218 1,314 1,460 1,790 2,340 2,880Wales 343 352 362 424 409 560 730 970 1,310Britain 2,383 2482 2,583 2,700 2,802 3,430 4,210 5,370 6,800Source: forestry Commission various.Table 1 shows that if the full resource potential is to be realisedmarkets outlets will need to be found for an additional 4.0 million m 3of coniferous timber by the turn of the century.Only part of this resource will be available as sawlogs. Using theconventional dividing line between small wood and sawlogs - 15 cmd.b.h.o.b. Table 2 divides the availability of coniferous woods usingthe production forecasts from 1975 to the year 2000. In fact theproportion of sawlogs remains remarkably consistent over thisperiod, at between 58 and 60 percent. Throughout the period both 'State and Private enterprise will supply the logs, but the distributionwill vary, State resources supplied 64 percent in 1975 and areexpected to supply 72 percent in the year 2000.Table 2 shows that during the next 25 years an additional 2.2million m 3 of sawlogs will become available, of these 860 thousandm 3 will be produced in England; 820 thousand m 3 in Scotland and550 thousand m 3 in Wales.The conclusion on the resource situation is clear. The stage is setfor a steady escalation in the supply of both small wood and sawlogsfrom the conifer resource up to the turn of the century. Thereafter theposition is not so clearly defined although the prognostications are fora continuing if not escalating supply of raw material.

94 Irish ForestryTABLE 2Production Forecasts for Smallwood and Sawlogs from ConiferResource in Britain 1975-2000 (units x 1000 m 31975 1980 1985 1990 2000Small Logs Small Logs Small Logs Small Logs Small LogsEngland 450 608 600 810 670 1,020 780 1,280 1,100 1,510Scotland 453 765 590 870 760 1,030 1,010 1,330 1,250 1,630Wales 178 246 240 320 300 430 370 600 510 800Britain 1,081 1,619 1,430 2,000 1,730 2,480 2,160 3,210 2,860 3,940Source: Forestry Commission various.The Structure of the Sawmilling IndustryThe evaluation of the softwood sawmilling industry based onBritish timber is made mainly from information available through theHome Timber Merchants Asscoiation of England and Wales,H.T.M.A Scotland, the Forestry Commission and a study completedby the international forest industry consultants lakko Poyry (2) in1974.Table 3 shows that there are 447 sawmills cutting Britishbroadleaved and coniferous woods. They range in size from anannual log intake of 500m 3 per annum to 40,OOOm 3 per annum.TABLE3British Softwood and Hardwood SawmillsGrouped According to Log Intake CapacityverysmallSmallSizeClassMediumModerateLargeAnnual Estimated Share ofLog Number Total Log Total LogIntake Of Intake Intake(m 3 /a) Mills (1000 m 3 /a) %500 60 45 2.01000 39 49 2.21500 42 74 3.32000 37 83 3.72500 45 124 5.53000 50 174 7.74000 42 189 8.45000 24 132 5.86000 18 117 5.27000 16 120 5.38000 10 85 3.49000 8 76 3.410000 20 225 9.912500 7 96 4.215000 16 280 12.520000 8 180 8.030000 2 65 2.940000 3 150 6.611.221.623.134.69.5Source: laako Poyry (1974)

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 9542 percent of the mills are between 500 and 2,500m3 capacity andthey cut some 13 percent of the roundwood availability.11 percent of the mills are over 1O,000m3 capacity .and they cut42 percent of the roundwood availability.In the present state of the sawmill industry it may be argued thatthe large proportion of small mills provides a great degree offlexibility to meet both changing local markets and to provide fordiversity and scattered distribution loosely matching that of logsupply. 61 percent of all mills are found in England, 32 percent inScotland and 7 percent in Wales.British sawmills fall into three general categories, those which cutpredominantly broadleaved species-24 percent of the total and mainlylocated in England; those which cut both broadleaved and coniferspecies - 42lercent of the total, and those which cut predominantlyconifers - 34 percent of the total and mainly located in Scotland.In Table 4 the distribution of soft wood sawmills is shown. Onceagain the accent is on small mills, 73 percent cut less than 5,000m3per annum. Only 4 mills, cutting more than 25,000m3 of logs evenbegin to approach the size of Scandanavian mills.EnglandScotlandWalesBritainTABLE 4Regional Distribution of Softwood Sawmillsin Britain According to Mill SizeVerySmall Small Medium Moderate25 8 5 529 35 10 134 4 258 47 17 18Large-,_ ..---_ .... ' . , .....Total1 442 891 14 144Source: U.C.N.W. 1978.The Scottish mills are more numerous, 62 percent of the total, andtend to be somewhat larger than the mills in England and Wales.The technical standards as well as the operational efficiency of theBritish solfwood sawmill varies greatly. It is axiomatic that no twosawmills are exactly alike. The small and very small mills use fewmachines, mostly of universal type such as rack bench bandsaws forlog breakdown, resawing and edging. The operation is labourintensive, relying for its profitability on low overhead costs, shorthaulage distances for logs, and local markets for sawnwood.The medium and moderately large mills base their operations onindividual sawmill machines usually devoid of a continuous flowlineof production. these are the "old style" mills with high machinery an~labour costs but with high recovery rates and a wide vatiety of wGll

96 Irish Forestrycut products. They tend to focus on the production of semimanufacturedgoods such as pallet wood, fencing, boxwood, miningtimbers and short-dimension stock. The mills are vulnerable toincreasing labour costs and the social facilities at many of the millsare below the general standards in British industry, so that even inthese days of high unemployment it is not always easy to attractlabour.There are few large capacity mills in Britain. Those which areinstalled, together with some at the higher end of the moderateclassification more recently built, feature continous flow lineproduction. Here the empasis is on machinery specialisation, logbreakdown (single bandsaw with carriage, or double bandmill withscrag chain) resaws (slab and cant resaws with efficient in-feeds)edging (multiple circular saw edgers) and trimming, sorting andgrading in green chain operations. In the larger mills transfer systems,including live rolls and turning devices are featured, and a smallnumber use a profile chipper in the log breakdown (green mill) sector.There is also considerable emphasis on safety.A number of features are common to almost all mills. First, fiveday per day - one shift per day is the predominant operatingpattern. Second, there is a big variation in log dimension and shape butfew mills operate a log sorting system, i.e. most mills are equippedwith flexibility in mind rather than cutting efficiency. Third, logs areoften received at the mill in multiple sawlog length but few mills havean efficient cross cut section, most rely on chainsaw cutting at the logdeck. Fourth, many mills feature old buildings and locations wherelog yard and green chain facilities are difficult to expand.Taken together these factors lead to a loss of efficiency, adverselyaffect profitability and make it difficult to modernise and mechanizewithout heavy capital investment programmes involving a highrebuilding component.The markets for British sawnwood are heavily biased towards thelower end of the market value sector. Sawn mining timbers, pallets,stillages, packaging and low cost buildings e.g. garden shedspredominate, so that a feature of the market is its low value added.As a consequence the British industry does not feature either thequality control, further processing or presentation which arecharacteristic of foreign wood imports. In addition the semimanufacturedgoods produced in British mills generally find local, orat the best, regional markets and attempts to market nationally arerare indeed. Sawnwood is usually sorted for subsequentremanufacture. Lumber is not graded to a nationally acceptedstandard, although some of the larger mills are considering machinestress grading in their programmes. Much of the production is soldunseasoned, few mills in fact have dry storage facilities. Anti-stain

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 97preservatives are not used, although pine particularly is subject toblue stain. Recovery rates however appear to be very reasonable, butlog intake - usually measured in green tonnes, is difficult to convertaccurately to sawn volume measure. With this proviso, recoveryappears to be between 50 and 60 percent yields tending to be highestfrom short logs producing short dimension stock.The analysis of the British saw milling industry's structure showsthat although it is well suited to flexibility, local and restrictedmarkets, and the production of semi-manufactured products, theremust be doubts as to its capability of expanding to meet the expectedincrease in sawlog supply from the conifer resource. Such expansionmust of necessity be based on fresh capital investment with particularreference to the potential market for sawn softwood in Britain.End Uses for Sawn Softwood in BritainBritain is the major importer of sawn softwood in Europe and oneof the leading importers of wood products in the world. In 1975imports of all timber products amounted to 30.9 million m 3 expressedas roundwood raw material equivalents and the British productionwas some 3 million m 3 of roundwood, almost 10 percent of the totalrequirement. Estimates of consumption in the year 2000 vary, butthe. the most conservative of estimates from E.C.E. data indicate aconsumption of 75 million m 3 roundwood raw material equivalent ofwhich 8 million m 3 might be expected to be produced in Britain.Coniferous species will dominate this production, and the forecasts(Tables 1 and 2) show that of the 7 million m 3 expected almost 4million will be of sawlog size. Even so the market for sawn softwoodwill continue to be dominated by imported raw material.Table 5 shows the level of imports of sawn softwood since 1950and details the imports since 1973, (3). Overall consumption hasfallen since this date, a direct reflection of the general economicTABLE 5Imports of Sawn Softwood into Britain (units x 1000 m' sawn)Yearly periodVolume1950-1959 6.3511960-1969 8.3181970-1972 8.5381973 9.8151974 8.5291975 5.2151976 7. 1811977 6.4261973. 1977 ----7 7 .'7 43 :':3'-29 .724.423.0Major Imports from (units, Percentage)Sweden, Finland, Canada, Russia18.616.316.91l.819.021.822.422.720.5Source: T.T.F. U.K. Yearbook of Timber Statistics 1976.T.T.J. Feb., 1978.

98 Irish Forestryclimate, to which wood products are not immune, and sawnsoftwoods because of their reliance on the construction industry areparticularly sensitive. Table 5 shows that in the five year period 1973to 1977 the average annual consumption was 7.433 million m 3 •During this period the Department of Forestry and Wood Science inBangor carried out a series of end use analyses for industrialsoftwood consumption. The results, applied to the 1973-1977 annualaverage consumption as shown in Table 6; Predominant in this enduse pattern is the dependence of consumption on the constructionindustry. Table 6 also shows the pattern of consumption in the Britishsawnwood sector which reached a production level of 670 thousandm 3 in 1975. In this sector the predominance of low value addedproducts, fencing and garden sheds, packaging - incliding pallets,and mining timbers is emphasised. Finally Table 6 shows the patternof consumption which can be expected of the British sawnwoodresources if the same percentage end use is postulated to 1990 and2000, total figures based on a 58 percent recovery from roundwood- a level reached in 1975.There is clear evidence from Table 6 that the future development ofthe British sawmill industry will depend upon its ability to expand themarket distribution into higher value added sectors. A closerexamination of the present market distribution is salutory.TABLE 6End Use Patterns for Imported and British Conifer Sawnwood(units of volume x 1000 m 3 )British SawnwoodImported SawnwoodEnd Use Percent Year Percent period1975 1990 200 1973-77Construction 9 60 167 207 67 4980Fencing/Garden Sheds 25 170 465 575 8 595Packaging/Pallets 31 210 577 713 12 892Mining 30 200 558 690 2 149Miscellaneous 5 30 93 115 ·11 817100 670 1860·· 2300·· 100 7433Notes• Contains identified en use components of Furniture 297,00Om 3 (4.0%) and D.I.Y.,223,000m 3 (3%)•• Assume 58 percent recovery from roundowws sawlog volumes quoted in Table 2.Source: Imported Softwood. T.T.TF. (1977).British Softwood and End Use Distributions, U.C.N.W., 1974, 1978:Mining TimberThe demand for sawn mining timber is not expected to increase.Mechanisation and the use of hydraulic roof supports restricts sawntimber use to cover boards and chocks which are competitively

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 99produced from low grade broadleaved species. By the turn of thecentury there is no doubt that the sawn mining requirement will fallquite dramatically from the 1975 level of 350 thousand m 3 from thesawn wood resource. From this fact alone there will be a need to findmarkets elsewhere for a substantial volume, perhaps some 200thousand m 3 of sawnwood by 1990. Fencing sheds and packagingrepresent together 56 percent of the British sawn softwood market.Their major competitor is boxwood from Portugal, as well asthe lowest commercial grades from Scandanavia and Russia. Thesesources and grades, particularly grades, are not expected to dry upduring the forecast period. Although expansion in the market placemight be anticipated the consencus of opinion among Britishsawmillers is that price competition may well erode their marketpresentation to not more than twice their present level. This leaves asurplus of nearly 300 thousand m 3 by 1990. In total thereforemarkets will need to be found for 0.5 million m 3 of sawn softwoodduring the next 15 years, outside the present market distribution. Themost likely area for development is in the higher value added markets,furniture, D.I.Y. and in construction.Both furniture and D.I. Y. sectors are highly specialised marketsfor sawn softwoods; the former being restricted almost exclusively topine and the latter, though not so species specific, tending to favourjoinery grades rather than general construction timbers. Both havehigh demands on quality which are difficult to meet. Both share withthe construction end uses a market requirement for guaranteedquality control, product performance and the need for far betterpresentation, than is characteristic of mining, pallets, fencing andsheds. It is then in the higher value added market sectors that thechallenge to British softwood lies.Market Structure for Industrial Softwoods in BritainThe considerable trade in industrial softwood from Scandanavian,Russion and Canadian suppliers into Britain is made by twopredominant factors. First every piece or parcel of wood is graded toan internationally recognised standard, so that the vendor andpurchaser have a common basis for nnegotiation. Second aconsiderable institutional market structure has been built up whichenables goods to be channeled between producers, from forest andsawmills, via shipping lines, to improters and merchants where eachsector may be separated by 100's or 1000's of miles and beset bylanguage, cultural as well as national boundaries. The whole issupported by financial institutions, brokers, agents and finance houses.The industrial softwood trade is therefore highly structured, based ona long tradition of experience and trust, and is rather moreconservative than it would like to believe itself to be.

100 Irish ForestryBy far the most important aspect of the trade is its reliance ongrading, and yet paradoxically technology has only recently been acharacteristic of grading rules. Initially grading was only concernedwith a description of the goods, based loosely on appearance, the bestbeing accurately sawn clear timber, the worst containing considerablequantities of natural characteristics such as wane, knots, pitchpockets, diagonal grain so that the piece hardly held together.However all pieces are graded.If the trade in British softwoods is to extend its market range intothe value added sector of construction and joinery it must firstrecognise the technical criteria which govern grading and fit itsproduct to these criteria, then it must decide on the institutionalfactors to be used in its market strategy.(i) Industrial Softwood GradingThe grading of industrial softwoods in Britain has undergoneconsiderable changes in the past decade. Commercial grading (Table7) formed the base of a clearly understood system designed for theeasy transfer of goods from shipper to end-user without the necessityof inspection. End use was never a feature of the system and qualityrecognition was confined to the super-imposition of shippers' markson grades, giving some allowance towards products arising fromsuperior mills cutting superior quality trees. Performahce recognitionwas less clearly understood and required consideration of strengthand quality for construction and joinery, these were identified byBritish Standards, by Codes of Practice and by Building Regulations.British softwoods do no figure in the Commercial Grades (see Table7), although they may be recognised as roughly equivalent to V andTABLE 7Commercial Grading of Industrial SoftwoodNorway, Sweden,Finland, E. CanadaRussiaPacific Coast ofN. AmericaNo. 1 Clear usually sold asNo. 2 Clear andNo. 2 Clear betterGrade IGrade IIGrade IIIGrade IV%510 Sold as Grade I65 Unsorted Grade II20 U/S Grade IIISold asunsortedU/SNo. 3 Clear usually sol-Select Merchantabld separa­No. 1 MerchantabltelyNo. 2 Merchantablor as SelectMerch.no. 1 merchantable. Grade VGrade VIGrade IV(Untskott orWracks)(Wracks)No. 3 Common

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 101VI from Scandanavia. By custom and practice this would identify thepotential market as, better qualities for carcassing and average andlower qualities for pallets, packaging and mixing timbers.Performance standards in construction are shown in Table 8, anextract from Code of Practice 112. Here, quite clearly entry intoconstruction is possible for Douglas fir, larch and pine. For sprucesthere are strength limitations which preclude such use if normaldimensions for building timbers are to be used. The use of larger sizesto meet strength requirements, though possible, involves marketdisadvantages. The CP 112 classification is made to ease designproblems when working with readily available stock sizes.TABLE 8Strength Groups of British Grown and Imported SoftwoodsStrength Admitted Basic Stress Dry ConditionGroup Species (up to 18% moisture content)(I = Imported)(B = British) Bending Compression Modulus of ElasticityN/mm 2 N/mm 2 Mean Minimum(--N/mm2--)SI Douglas fir (I)Douglas fir (B) 17.2 13. 1 9700 4800Larch (B)S2 Redwood (I)Whitewood (I) 8300Scots pine (B) 13.8 11.0 4500Canadian Spruce (I)S3 Sitka Spruce (B) 6900Norway Spruce (B) 10.3 8.3 3800W.R. Cedar (I)Source: Selected from Code of Practice 112 CP112 Part 2: 1971).The spruces are weaker, (4) first because they arise from youngertrees of merchantable size (a factor of site productivity); secondbecause for a given building component dimension they have lessrings per cm (a factor of the biology of tree growth); third within theannual ring the density of the earlywood zone appears to beconsiderably less than in the earlywood of European grown spruce (afactor of physiological significance).CP 112 bases its strength characteristics on the basic strength, i.e.on the strength of clear material free of strength reducing factors suchas knots and fissures. In practice, some strength reducing features arepresent in industrial softwood, and in design this is recognised bygrading each piece of each species into one of a number of stressgrades either visually or mechanically. The stress grades are assignedas a percentage of the basic strength derived from clear material.

102 Irish ForestryThus 75 grade is equivalent to 75 percent of the basic strength, thelost 25 percent being due to strength reducing factors. In 1971 CP112 recognised four grades - 75, 65, 50 and 40, two compositegrades 75/65 and 50/40, and two mechanical grades M 75 and M50. The system had become so unwieldy that if all possible specieslisted in CP 112 were combined with all possible grades, over 500bending stresses alone would be possible. Little wonder then thatarchitects continue to use such specifications as "Best possibleunsorted redwood north of latitude X", - a direct reference to thesupposed outmoded commercial grades.In 1973, a revised British Standard, BS 4978 "Visual stressgrading of timber" was introduced. This reduces the visual stressgrades to two, General Structural (GS) and Special Structural (SS).The system is heavily dependent on the use of the Knot Area Ration(K.A.R.) using both the size and position of the knot in the board,defining the serious hazard positions as in the board margins - theupper and lower quantile of the depth of the piece.Clearly too much time had been spent on minute details and theold CP 112 had become too complex and self defeating. The code ishowever tied in with many other documents which still refer tonumbered grades - e.g. the trussed rafter code. Notwithstanding,CP 112 is to be rewritten and new systems incorporating BS 4978are expected in early 1979.Events in Britain have been matched by events in Europe. TheTimber Committee of E.C.E. (Geneva) has recently agreed to try andharmonise stress grading (5). A system based on the K.A.R. is beingdiscussed, using three grade profiles which will also be linked tomachine grading. The grades apply at the moment only to Europeantimber but they offer a basis of a simple performance system basedon minimum stresses. The three units proposed are S 6 (18N/mm 2 ), S8 (24N/mm2) and S 10 (30N/mm2). Grade S 6 is almost exactlyequal to GS (BS 4978). S 8 is a slight improvement over SS and S 10is equivalent to the highest stress grade we have M75 (measured bymachine stress grader).For British industrial softwood the problem now is to meet the newlevels of specification. For visual stress grading the most debilitationginfluence is that of knots, a factor under some control in forestmanagement. Ring width specifications for by GS and SS are "notless than 4 per 25 mm" a rate of growth not likely to be exceeded insawlog rotations except on the fastest sites. Slope of grain limitations(GS 1 in 6; SS 1 in 10) are liberal for British timber; wane, checks,splits and pitch pockets are controllable in the sawmill. The problemof strength remains.The Building Regulations, (to which the building inspectorateoperates) in the 1977 revision include the GS and SS grades both

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 103visually assessed and machine graded. (MGS and MSS). In the spantables of these regulations most of the widely grown British timbersare included. A section of the origin and grade of timber applicableover common span ranges (Table to Rule 2 in Schedule 6 of theBuilding Regulations) is shown in Table 9. The purpose of Table 9 isthat of comparison rather than detailing the actual spans referred inthe Regulations.TABLE 9Tablew to Rule 2: Species: Origin and Grade ofTimber to which Tables 1-24 in Schedule 6 RelateSpeciesOriginGrade in Relation to Span Table1-12 13-24DouglasFirLarchEuropeanJapanesePineScotsRedwoodWhitewoodSpruceSitkaNorwayBritish orImported GS or MGS SS or MSSBritish GS or MGS SS or MSSBritish GS or MGS SS or MSSBritish GS or MGS SS or MSSImported GS or MGS SS or MSSImported GS or MGS SS or MSSBritishBritishM75M75Source: Building Regulations 1977.Clearly the doubts on the strength of spruce dominate the use of thismaterial in construction. No such doubts appear for the pines, larchesand Douglas fir. The advantages of machine grading for spruce arealso shown, indeed imperatively emphasised.(ii) Visual vs Machine GradingVisual stress grading evaluates the influence of strength reducingfactors on basic stresses by visual inspection. Inevitably there needs tobe an emphatic safety component in the quantitative estimates used,size and distribution of knots, fissures, wane etc., to ensure that theminimum stress value is reached. Machine grading on the other handinvolves a quantitative estimate of strength for each piece. Thus theactual, rather than the assumed strength is calculated. For Britishindustrial softwoods the comparison between visual and machinestress grading is salutory. Table 10 summarises such a comparison forstress grades 50 and 75. The implication for spruce especially is clear,although it is emphasised that the results presented do not representaverage values from commercial parcels.

104 Irish ForestryTABLE 10Stress Grading of British Industrial SoftwoodSpeoies Method of Grading Grade Out-Turn (%)75 50 RejectScots Pine Visual 6 40 54Machine 70 23 7Sitka Spruce Visual 4 34 62Machine 83 15 2Douglas Fir Visual 3 26 71Machine 14 43 43Source: B.R.E. 15 5/74Machine grading is not cheap, and the minimum throughout foreconomic use is some 7,00Orn3 per year. Dependent upon the range ofinf~ed and outfeed facilities required capital investment will be in theorder of £40,000 to £60,000, (1976 figures) for the minimumquantity. ' Because of the increased yield of acceptable or improvedgI'ade material machine grading can be cheaper than visual grading,especially where products are graded for a specific end use. Table 11shows the comparison of machine vs visual grading, based on 1973fig),lres, for an actual production run of grading for trussed rafters (6).The saving shown for machine grading is £3.96/m 3 , set against aproduction rate of 500 trusses per week the pay otT time for thecheapest machine (£20,000 at 1973 costs) is less than 50 weeks. Thisis of course setting machine grading in the best context.Basis of CostingsTABLE 11Cost of Machine Grading for TrussedRafter Manufacture Compared with Visual GradingTimber = £66/m3 using Russian Unsorted WhitewoodLabour = £0.98 per hourNo. Trusses = 144Timber used= 16.7 m 3DescriptionNormal yard operationSorting, grading, stackingRejectsMachine6 man hours2 man hours1.5%Visual6 man hours12 man hours12%CostingsLabour per m 3Rejects, reduce value by 50%Initial CostCost/m 3£0.470.50660066.96£1.063.86660070.9266.96Source: Serry (1974) Twinplate Conference.Machine grade Saving/m 3 3.96

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 105For general purpose grading in the construction industry the pictureis not so easy to define. To achieve a production run of 7,000 m 3 ofconstruction timber, say 40 percent of gross production, would requirea log imput of 30,000m 3 , assuming a 58% yield from logs. In otherwords a specialist mill, of very high capacity.For joinery timber there is no doubt that British softwoods,especially the pines, is an acceptable product. For the sprucesmachinery problems associated with the more rapid growth rates, andthe generally poor natural durability as well as difficulties inpreservative treatment will severely affect the potential of these speciesin joinery (7).(iii) Technological requirements - the end user's viewFigure 1 shows the results of a recent survey in Sandanavia in whicha wide cross section of end users were asked to rate a set oftechnological criteria from 1 to 9 points. 9 is extremely important, 1 isunimportant. The most striking feature of this information is theconsistently high geometric performance required throughout the end876UNITS• SCAFFOLDINGA BOARDINGo JOINERY• STRUCTURAL54320Figure 1.C/)C/) ..I W:I: W «> (!)I- Z Zu(!) I- 0

106 Irish Forestryuse range. Strength too is important, its value in construction isunderestimated in the graph because of the inclusion of roof sheathingin the figures. Consistency of board dimension is, of course, considereda sine qua non by sawmillers. From end users however there is strongevidence of the purchase of a higher than required grade to ensuregeometrical precision, sometimes moving into machine stress grades toachieve this end because here at least dimensional accuracy ismandatory.(iv) Institutional factors in the marketing of British IndustrialSoftwoodThere are a number of choices open to the British sawmillersmarketing the expected increase volume of industrial sawn softwood.1. To market within the existing institutional framework,summarised in Figure 2. Here access will be either at importer orI sHP_r.)_E_'R ____________ ~~--------------I-O-0_r~Jvia agenciesI.....-I-M-p-o-n~-E-R-- -----------·--~-;o--ll~t~ NUF{Nl£IWiPUL ___ ~6-L ___,~39__---I~----3-5---~~Figure 2. Outflow of Imported Industrial Softwood in Britain -U.C.N.W. 1972 - Adapted to 1977 conditions.Units % Imports. Source:

The Uses of Industrial Softwood in Britain 107merchant level or perhaps via the agents. The sawmiller in factbecoming the shipper. Goods will need to be presented as thoseimported, i.e. graded, package and dried to at least a 'shippingdry' condition. They will also be required to be supplied regularlyto both specification and quantity criteria. Considerableimprovement will be needed in all the technological areas whereBritish sawmilling is weakest to meet the demand and marketingvia the imported trade institutions.2. Production of timber in similar sizes, grades and specification tothose imported, but with the British trade carrying out its ownmarketing and distribution. One problem here is theundercapitalised state of the British trade, another is the lack ofexperience in national distribution and marketing. Of advantageis the promotion of a British product produced to Britishspecification. The imported trade cannot be expected toparticipate in such jingoism!3. Supply speciality items to large scale manufacturers. Theprerequisite is to identify the markets which are likely to producethe best returns. Among the value added markets some obvioustargets are timber frame housing, particularly walls, e.g. studs -a potential outlet for machine graded spruce, and roof trusses -potential for pine and Douglas fir . The advantage is in limitedmarkets supplied to exact specification,dimension, moisturecontent and preservative treatment if required.4. To supply a wide range of outlets, choosing to operate in thosewhich seem most profitable at the time. This is an extension ofthepresent marketing arrangements and it is difficult to see howthese can be organised into the value added sectors while at thesame time maintaining the profitability needed for capitalinvestment.At the present time there appears to be no easy solution on the basisof the present fragmented nature of the British industry. Doubtless asolution will evolve, clearly it must be based on the larger more efficientmills, probably it will arise from sawmills closely tied into captivemarkets through financial involvement with either the finished rawproduct or the sale of residues - an item important to allprofitabilitycalculations in sawmilling.There is a considerable challenge ahead for British'sawmillers, andthe structure of the trade will certainly be different in the year 2000from that presented today. The challenge is generated because of thesuccess achieved by growers facing the challenge of the need for moreindustrial solftwood for Britain's forest based industry. Their successwas achieved through considerable State participation in theiractivities. Little State assistance is available to sawmillers, perhaps it istime there was some!

108 Irish ForestryI. Davidson, J. L. (1974). "The availability and sawmilling of softwood timber in GreatBritain." Proc. P. R. L. Symposium Edinburgh - 1974.2. J aakko Poyry (1974). "Preliminary appraisal of alternative programmes for forest industriesdevelopment in Great Britain". Consultancy Rept.3. T. T. F.(1977). "U.K. Year Book of Timber Statistics". Timber Trades Federation, London.4. Harding, T. (1975). " An evaluation of home·grown Sitka Spruces". B. R. E . lriformationSheet, 15 10/75.5. Sunley, J. (1977). Modern Timber - a review of the Swedish Finnish Timber Council sawntimberSeminar. Timber Trades Journal. 17 December 1977 p. 19·23.6. Serry, V. ( 1974). "Doing the sums, Machine Graded Timberin Trussed Rafters". TwinaplateConference. London.7. Banks, W. B. (1973). "Incising of spruce to improve preservative penetration". TimberTrades Journal. June 1973.FORESTRYCOMMISSIONPUBLICATIONSRecent IssuesBulletins:No. 43. Nursery PracticeNo. 54. Seed Orchards£2.30£2.30Arboricultural Leaflets: No. 1. The Eternal Signs of Decay in Trees 40pNo.2. Honey Fungus70pNo.3. Sooty Bark Disease of SycamoreNo.4 Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Trees70pForest Records : No. 113 Free Growth of OakNo. 115 Dutch Elm Disease50p50pPriced publications available from Eason and Co. Ltd .• 4041 LowerO'Connell Street. Dublin and HMSO, 80 Chichester Street. Belfast, BT14JY of direct from the Forestry Commission, Box C24, Alice Holt Lodge,Wrecclesham, Farnham, Surrey, GU10 4LH . Free catalogue ofpublications available from the Forestry Commission only.

As the grower sees itF. J. MORIARTylHistoricalWhile there has been considerable development in Forestry overthe past 50 years in the Republic of Ireland, the total area underforest, now 5%, is still low by European standards.When the State was founded in 1922 we had a mere 1.300hectares of State forest. Increased planting programmes have broughtthe total area of State plantations to 290,000 hectares. The presentannual planting rate is just under 10,000 hectares and has been sosince the early 1960's.During this period of expansion a major change in sylviculturalpolicy took place which was to have a big impact on forestproduction. Earlier State plantings favoured European tree species,but over the past 20 years, mainly North American species were usedand results have shown the wisdom of this change.Current planting programmes in State forests reflect this patternvery significantly, and show over 85% of plants used to be SitkaSpruce and Lodgepole Pine.From the national pqint of view, forestry has a very important roleto play. Apart from the social, environmental and other benefits itprovides, its main aim is to produce a supply of wood and especiallyof sawlog. We are fortunate that in Ireland we can produce woodmore rapidly and more economically that any of our Europeanpartners. Growth rate here is four times the E.E.C. average.Forest development in the private sector, however, has notmatched the progress in State forestry. The planting rate increasedfrom approximately 100 hectares anpually in the 1940's to onlyaround 450 hectares in later years, bringing the total wooded area to82,000 hectares. Of this, however, nearly 40% is under scrub anddoes not contribute to the wood supply. Overall, this is a lowinvolvement in forestry by the private sector and certainlydisproportionate to the position in Northern Europe where in Swedenand Finland over 60% of forests are privately owned.ProductivityAge classifications in these stands are not in line. with sustainedyield management due to an irregular pattern of planting. During thewar years, premature fellings took place to meet nationalrequirements for timber, as State plantations carried much youngercrops.I. Late Forest and Wildlife Service, Dublin.

110 Irish ForestryConifer high forest in private woodlands represents about 18% oftotal area. In contrast with State forests, European coniferous specieswere more favoured. Broadleaf forests cover 40% of the area withoak, ash, beech and sycamore predominating.Table 1 shows the pattern of species distribution and averageproduction potential in State and private woodlands. In consideringthis table, we must not overlook the fact that better quality sites wereavailable in the private sector compared with the poorer, marginaltypes developed as State forests:TABLE ISpecies distribution and productivity in Irish WoodlandsState WoodlandPrivate WoodlandSpecies% of high % of highAverage forest Average forestYield Classarea Yield Class areaSitka Spruce 14 43 17 9Norway Spruce 16 10 16 5Lodgepole Pine 8 24 10 IScots Pine 9 7 8 7Japanese Larch 8 3 II 2Other Conifers 7 8Broadleaves 4 6 4 68Broadleaves in private ownership are mainly in the older age classes.The average rotation seems to be around 150 years. Many stands are notfelled due to amenity and other considerations. For these reasons, anannual yield based on the felling of 5% of standing volume may beappropriate and would give approximately 12,000 m 3 of timberhardwoods and 17,000 tonnes of firewood.Annual broadleaf production in State forest is much more limitedand is mainly to meet an annual commitment of approximately1,000m 3 of ash for sports goods.Annual production of coniferous timber in State forests is currentlyaround the half million cubic metre mark. This will double by 1985and quadruple before the turn of the century. At present 80% of allState plantations is in the "under 20 years" age category. It isreasonable, however, to predict that the sawn softweed requirementsof the country will be supplied well in advance of the year 2,000.Inventory calculations and predictions for State forestry werebased on current policy and conditions in 1968 and require updatingperiodically to cover policy changes, storm damage, etc. Crop instablHtyIn some fast growing Sitka spruce and coastal lodgepolepine stands suggest re-consideration of rotation lengths which couldresult in more sawlog material available for the market in the immediatefuture and which could be released as required.

As the. Grower sees it 111Current and future forecasts in market size classifications for theState forests are shown in Table 2.TABLE 2Production forecast (000 m') by size categoryYear 3-7 inch 7- 9 inch 9 inch+ Total(8-18 cm) (18-23 cm) (23 cm+)1975 296 64 60 4201980 426 87 129 6421985 690 136 246 10721990 934 184 320 14381995 1155 235 335 17252000 1331 289 410 2030Assessment of wood volumes recently carried out in privatewoodlands shows an annual current production from coniferous highforest of 69,000m 3 • It is expected that this rate of production will bestatic or nearly over the next 20 years. After that, a pronounced dropin sawlog production may be expected due to the imbalance in the agestructure.QUalityBecause of market requirements, the grower may be forced to considerchanges in silvicultural management in matters such as spacing,thinning and pruning. How reasonable these requirements are andwhat effect they would have on financial calculations will determinewhether changes will be implemented or not. There is an increasingawareness of the consumer's desire for better standards of qualityand, while accepting this as a responsible attitude in trade, forestowners are concerned that changes in this direction should not makeunreasonable demands on them.Due to the fact that over the years our national softwood requirementshave been mainly imported, consumer standards were naturallyinfluenced by wood which was slow grown and clean in appearance.It is true to say that in many instances such standards werefar in excess of job requirements and the resulting conception ofquality tended to set a bias against the faster grown home timber.More recently there has been a marked reduction in the standard ofimported timber.While accepting that Irish wood, particularly Sitka spruce, can beslightly lower in strength value than some Scandanavian or NorthAmerican produce, the grower is unhappy that the basis of comparisondoes not reflect the true position. Growth rate or ring widthjudged on a visual basis, does not accurately determine the strengthquality of the wood. It is only in machine grading that the interaction

112 Irish Forestryof all factors concerning strength can be judged, and, consequently,the results can show the wide variation between visual and machinestress grading. Under the proposed E.E.C. standard, Irish Sitkaspruce grades very satisfactorily with approximately 80% acceptanceunder the S6 and S8 grades.In the past, Irish, or native timber as it was known, did not enjoythe best of reputations and I feel it would be only fair to say that quitea lot of the criticism was justified. It was often the product of woodsplanted and tended more for amenity and game than for commercialtimber. It was sometimes poorly presented, was mainly unseasoned,and, at times, inaccurately dimensioned The sale of green timber hascontributed most significantly towards building up a consumerresistence to the home product. There is every confidence that Irishtimber, properly seasoned, will compete very favourably with the importedproduct and can capture the more lucrative constructionaloutlets.Lodgepole pine shows great potential for joinery and dressedtimber products. Judicious pruning of this species must, however, beundertaken if best results are to be achieved. Douglas fir is anotherhigh grade conifer which benefits considerably from this treatment ifgrown as commercial sawlog and, of course, it must not beoverlooked that it is also high quality transmission pole material. Thegood performance of spruce in machine grading tests suggests thatpruning is not entirely necessary for this species for most of it constructionaloutlets. Knots, especially dead knots, do however affectsuitability for use in joinery where finish is important.Financial returnJust as the labourer is worthy of his hire, so too the farmer, themanufacturer and no less the timber grower are all worthy of a fairreturn on their investments. The not inconsiderable investment by theprivate woodland owner is a personal one and also justifies a fairreturn. The major grower, however, on the Irish scene is the Stateand it is taxpayers' money that has been invested in the creation ofIrish State forests. It is, accordingly, incumbent on the State as agrower to look for prices for its produce which will repay the taxpayers'investment in afforestation, and at the same time provide thesaw miller and pulpwood processors with a raw material at a pricewhich will enable them to sell competitively and yield them in due coursea reasonable return on their investments. A system of competitive salegives the best prospect of a fair return to the taxpayer and gives equalityof opportunity to the timber users to acquire supplies.MarketingThe responsible grower sees and accepts the necessity for sawmil-

As the Grower sees it 113lers and processors to have a reasonable certainty of continuity of supplyof suitable timber at an economic price in order to maintainemployment, minimise overheads, encourage development andimprove efficiency and productivity.In the processing sector a scheme of part competitive, partnegotiated sale has already been developed and has operated satisfactorilyfor the past few years and the grower has indicated that thenegotiated element can be improved systematically in line with consumptionlevels and supply availability.In the sawmilling sector the grower has also indicated that he isprepared to operate a similar scheme and expects that a mutually acceptableone will be worked out before long.The grower, the sawmillers and the processing sector are, ofcourse, indebted to enterprising firms which purchase and harvest lotsof timber and exercise a most useful distributive function in cutting,sorting and selling the timber to its rational outlets based on log size.This, indeed, is an area where there is a challenge to the ingenuity andenterprise of Irishmen to develop an economical system of timberharvesting specifically designed for the climatic and terrain factors ofthe country. The grower, of course, cannot accept that he shouldalways be satisfied with a mere residual price after harvesting, transport,manufacturing costs and profit have been provided for. Hesurely cannot be expected to, when very often there is patent inefficiencyor lack of productivity in these elements.ProspectsTimber growing as an investment depends inevitably on the profitabledisposal of the end product. The fortunes of the grower and thetimber industries, are, therefore, interdependent. Healthy industriesare essential and it is desirable that these should develop to anordered plan and in harmony with the steady growth in availability ofthe raw material. This has been the pattern of industrial timberdevelopment up to now, and it would be most unwise to jeopardisefuture progress by unreasonable demands for premature fellings inthe short term, to avail of mere opportunistic markets.In conclusion one is prompted to ask, what does the future hold? Itis most encouraging to note that at present home-grown timber supplies20% of constructional wood requirements and tribute must bepaid to the sawmilling sector for achieving this. The growingavailability of both sawlog and smaller timber points to the inevitabilityof accelerated modernisation of sawmills and the creationof a further processing industry during the next few years. The capitalinvestment will be large and quality products of high added value willbe essential to justify such investment.

114 Irish ForestryStudies are already in progress to establish where the bestprospects lie. The rewards should be great to the economy as a wholein providing employment, in reducing the balance of payments, andin creating an improved standard of life for future generations. Ourchildren will surely enjoy both the material and environmentalbenefits through the foresight of the pioneer timber growers in the earlyyears of this century.FORESTRY BOOKSNew 24 page Catalogue ,of the world's books (approx. 600 titles)on requestNEW METRIC FORESTRY TOOLS AND MEASURESScribes, Pruning Saws, Marking Hammers, Diameter Tapes,Calipers, Test Borers, Timber Crayons, Number Tags, etc.LIST FREE ON REQUESTSTOBART & SON LTD.67-73 WORSHIP STREET, LONDON. EC2A 2ELABBEYLEIX SAWMILLSTel. 0502 - 31168•KILN-DRIED TIMBERSKILN DRYING ON CONTRACTHOME-GROWN HARDWOODandSOFTWOOD MERCHANTS•ALL TYPES STANDING TIMBER PURCHASED

Timber Production fromNorthern Ireland 1980-2004INTRODUCTIONP. S. SAVILLANDJ. A. McEwENlThere are 51,000 ha of State-owned forests in Northern Ireland andabout 13,000 ha in private ownership which together represent 4+% ofthe total land area. All volumes and diameters mentioned in this paperare overbark.Privately owned forestsLittle is at present known about the forests in the private sectorthough an inventory which is currently in progress will provide muchinformation when completed, in 1980. Preliminary estimates indicatethat only about one-third of these forests are managed in anyconventional sense: much of the remainder consist of scrub and areasof mature or over-mature broadleaved trees. It is impossible toestimate the present and future production with any precision but itcould amount to between 10,00Om 3 and 20,000m3 a year for theforeseeable future, of predominantly hardwood timber.State forestsThe remainder of this paper will be devoted to discussing possibleproduction from the 51,000ha of State forests. In terms of the areaplanted, the most common species are Sitka spruce (62%), lodgepolepine (10%), Norway spruce (8%) and Japanese larch (6%). A highproportion (39%) of the forest area is planted on peats and a further34% on gleys. The generally poor soil drainage and exposed climatemake many crops susceptible to windthrow and to minimise the risk,73% of all forests are managed without any thinning. Only 22% are"conventionally" thinned and the remaining 5% are managed asamenity and conservation areas. The overall average yield class is 13with Sitka spruce averaging 14.6.The quality of timber coming from Northern Irieland's forests islikely to be similar to that from other parts of Ireland and GreatBritain. Some features are:PruningNo high pruning has been done, except in a few "show"stands and crops which were thinned by the 'Scottish' eclecticmethod in the 1960's. In the majority of unthinned crops, nobrashing will be carried out until shortly before felling.I. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Dundonald House, Belfast BT4 3SB.

116 Irish ForestryGrowth RateThe final produce from thinned crops will normally havelarger average dimensions than produce of the same yield classfrom unthinned stands. Thinned crops will also have slightlymore open-grown timber with fewer rings to each centimetre.For example, yield class 16 Sitka spruce which has beenthinned will have about three rings/cm whereas an unthinnedstand will have about four.FormTrees grown in Northern Ireland tend to have rather lowerform factors than the average indicated by the ManagementTables (Hamilton and Christie, 1971), indicating relativelyshort, squat trees. Apart from this feature, which tends to benormal in the western parts of the British Isles, there are nounusual characteristics. However, a problem in later yearsmight be in the marketing of "south coastal" provenances oflodgepole pine, which usually have bad basal-sweep.RotsFortunately, widespread attacks of butt rots, such asHeterobasidion annosum tend to be rare, largely because suchdiseases do not usually thrive on acid soils, which predominatein Northern Irland; Heterobasidion is probably more commonin areas which were thinned and felled during the period beforestump treatment became routine, though probably less than 5%of all crops are affected.Inventory of State ForestsForecasts of timber production from State forests are made bymeans of a continuous forest inventory. The inventory is based on asystem of randomly located permanent sample plots which arestratified by S-year age classes and measured on a S-yearly cycle.Plots are located at an average intensity of one to every 31ha offorest, a density which should enable annual forecasts of totalproduction to be made with co-efficients of variation of no more than15%. However, forecasts of this precision can only be made for thewhole forest estate. Estimates for counties or individual species arenot so reliable though at present (1978) some 700 new plots are beinglaid out which are intended to improve precision. It is not possible toforecast for individual forests with an acceptable degree of precision.In each inventory plot, records are made of breast height diameter,by species, for all trees, . top height, soil type and managementintentions. These records are processed by computer to give annualproduction estimates. The method of forecasting is based on theBritish Forestry Commission's yield and production classes for, thinned stands (Hamilton and Christie, 1971) for all species except

Timber Production from Northern Ireland 1980-2004 117unthinned Sitka spruce for which yield tables for unthinned stands areused (Hamilton and Christie, 1974). The computer programmeallows the use of extensive options to permit the age of first thinningand the felling age to varied to take account of different managementstrategies. Allowances are made for over- or under-stocking and forthe space occupied by roads, rides etc. It is also possible to adjustestimates for expected wind damage and losses by fire and to incorporateallowances for stands that will be recruited in the future. These aspectsare discussed in a later section. From 1978 production forecasts will berevised and updated each year, as the previous season's measurementsbecome available.ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN PRODUCING FORECASTSIn producing any generalised forecasts of production it isnecessary to make many assumptions about the development ofcrops and probable rotation lengths in different situations. Most ofthese are relatively minor in character but two of the more importantassumptions are:1. There are an infinite number of choices available as to rotationlength and considerable debate has taken place about howrotations should be varied to take account of possiblewindthrow and different management strategi~s. It has beenassumed:i. The ideal rotation is that of maximum mean annualincrement (MMAI). This is assumed on all low wind-risksites.ii. On sites regarded as having a high risk of windthrow it isaccepted that crops will probably become unstable beforethey reach the age of MMAI and assumed that they will befelled when mean annual increment reaches 95% of itsmaximum. The effect of this is to reduce the maximumpossible sustained yield by 5% on susceptible sites.2. The British Forestry Commission's Management Tables whichhave been used for predicting growth assume that crops aresubject to "traditional" thinning patterns found in GreatBritain. This may not be so, and the development of localmodels at least for the more important species covering standsnot thinned would increase the accuracy of forecasts. Work onsuch models is in progress.FORECASTS OF PRODUCTIONBased on these assumptions, the es~ated annual production from1980 to 2004 from forests planted up to the end of 1969, is shown in

TABLE 1 Forecast of production 1980 - 2004Yield from Thinning Yield from Felling Total Yield 00Volume in cubic rne!l'es to top Volume in cubic meters to top Volume in cubic metres to topYEAR diameter of diameter of diameter of7em 14cm 20cm 7em 14cm 20cm 7em 14cm 20 em1980 40477 15877 5895 34773 24870 14372 75249 40746 202671981 42113 16732 6224 39231 27884 16229 81344 44616 224531982 43963 17705 6620 42090 29777 17174 86053 47482 237931983 45990 18695 6988 45279 31140 17620 91269 49835 246071984 47985 19669 7332 52212 36079 20694 100197 55748 28026Mean 1980-84 44105.6 17735.8 6611.5 42716.9 29949.8 17217.7 8622.5 47685.6 23829.21985 49798 20616 7669 6Il24 41636 23732 110922 62252 314011986 51362 21503 8003 79584 55108 31631 130947 76611 396341987 52722 22350 8347 88853 58981 32074 141574 81330 404201988 53937 23195 8736 101257 66645 35936 155194 89840 44672~1989 54521 23821 9052 121892 80962 42867 176413 104783 51919 C;;.~i Mean 1985-89 52467.9 22297.0 8361.3 90542.1 60666.2 33247.8 143010.1 82963.2 41609.11990 54585 24352 9408 145268 968Il 50256 199853 121164 59664 ~1991 54331 24800 9754 163564 108565 55838 217895 133364 65592 ...1992fl>53842 25147 10082 177384 Il7979 60211 231225 143126 702931993 53241 25441 10430 187101 123954 63156 240251 149394 73586-""1994 52444 25651 10771 212209 144044 75185 264652 169695 85956 ~Mean 1990-94 53688.3 25078.0 10089.0 177087.0 118270.5 929.0 230775.3 143348.6 71018.01995 51605 25876 Il177 226956 152502 77873 278561 178378 890501996 50717 26097 11611 228063 154423 80971 278780 180520 925821997 49714 26205 Il992 234735 160535 85705 284449 186740 976971998 48519 26152 12333 254615 173500 89876 303134 199651 1022091099 47282 26049 12662 308886 212629 109783 356169 238678 122445Mean 1995-99 49567.4 26075.9 Il954.9 250651.0 170717.8 88841.5 300218.4 196793.6 100796.52000 45894 25829 12920 364949 250057 123425 410843 275886 1363452001 44552 25584 13172 411541 277565 132701 456093 303149 1458732002 43897 25417 13261 438888 298532 143384 482785 323949 1566452003 43190 25200 13321 487232 329101 154421 530421 354301 1677432004 42422 24970 13388 544734 366798 169258 587156 391768 182647Mean 2000-04 43990.8 25399.9 13212.6 449468.7 304410.8 144637.9 493459.6 329810.8 157850.6

TABLE 2Estimated areas in thinning and due to be felled 1980-2004Area in Area due to Thinning FellingYEAR thinning be felled yield/ha yieldlha'1:l1985 5184.5 159.3 9.6 383.8 Cl1986 5333.0 194.1 9.6 410.1 >:l...l::1987 5456.9 226.4 9.7 392.5 !")1988 5557.0 249.9 9.7 405.1 g.1989 5605.0 292.0 9.7 417.4 ;:.ha ha m 'm'1980 4247.6 99.4 . 9.5 349.71981 4417.1 113.8 9.5 344.91982 4604.7 115.3 9.5 365.01983 4813.2 120.6 9.6 375.4 ::j1984 5011.4 135.1 9.6 386.5 ~

120 Irish ForestryTable 1*. Annual totals are sub-divided into contributions fromthinning and felling and also into estimated volumes by 7cm, 14cm,and 20cm top diameter classes. Table 1 shows that total productioncould increase from about 75,000m 3 in 1980 to 411,000m 3 by2000. The estimated areas which will have to be in thinning or felledeach year to achieve this production are shown in Table 2 togetherwith the estimated volume production per hectare.Production by SpeciesSitka spruce has always been the most important species inNorthern Ireland and its importance in future years will increaserelative to other species (Table 3). In the 1980-84 period Sitka,together with Norway spruce, will ,contribute about 54% to totalproduction and by the 2000-04 period for 82%. By comparison,other species are relatively unimportant. The larches will consistentlyprovide between about 20,000m 3 and 30,000m 3 a year and all otherconifers together will provide about the same, at least up to 1999.Hardwoods will provide 3000m 3 to 7000m 3 a year.TABLE 3Average annual production by species'OOO's cubic metresSpecies 198~84 1985-89 199~94 1995-99 2000-04Sitka spruce 33 73 152 206 360Norway spruce 14 21 25 30 46Pines 9 10 11 16 48Larches 19 24 27 29 25Other conifers 9 10 9 14 11Hardwoods 3 5 7 5 4Total 87 143 231 300 494-------.----- ---.--.- - ---_.Production by CountiesTable 4 shows that up to 1994, Counties Londonderry and Downwill be providing about half the total timber felled in NorthernIreland. Thereafter, Fermanagh and Tyrone will begin to assume fargreater importance and by the 2000-04 period Fermanagh will beproviding more than one third of the total. Antrim and Armagh willremain relatively small producers.By 1990 there will be a marked shift in importance towards thethree western Counties, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone whichbetween them will provide over 70% of total production.'Because of a scarcity of sample plots in some older crops, the forecast for the period up to1984 may be some 20% too high. A more accurate estimate will be available by the end of1978.

Timber Production from Northern Ireland 1980-2004 121TABLE 4Average annual production by counties'OOO's cubic metresCountyAntrimArmaghDownFermanaghLondonderryTyroneTotal1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-9912 15 24 246 13 17 1721 27 25 248 17 49 9724 45 79 7916 26 37 5987 143 231 3002000-0430263117389145494Size of material producedThe first three columns of Table 5 show the production of timberin the three top diameter categories, 7cm, 14cm, and 20cm. The 7-14cm class is normally considered suitable only for pulp, chipwoodand similar uses. Material of over 14cm but less than 20cm has, tosome extent conflicting demands upon it: it can be used in sawmills aswell as for pulp etc. Material of over 20cm top diameter is usedalmost exclusively in sawmills. The forecast indicates that during the1980-84 period, 55% of total production will be of material over14cm top diameter and by 2000-04 this will rise to 67%. Thecorresponding figures for material of 20cm or more top diameter are28% and 32%.TABLE 5EfTect of rotation length on total annual production and size of materialEstimated annual production in thousands of cubic metresPresent forecastReduced rotationsVolume to top diameter of: Volume to top diameter of:Period 7 cm 14 cm 20 cm 7 cm 14 cm 20 cm19HO - 84 87 48 24 99 49 : 31985 - -89 143 83 42 139 70 _ 31990 -- 94 231 143 71 229 III ·;91995 - 99 300 197 101 348 175 742000 - 04 493 330 158 414 237 1(>7POSSIBLE V ARIA nONS TO FORECASTWindthrowThe poorly drained soils and exposed climate of Northern Irelandmake many forests particularly susceptible to windthrow. Windthrowwill undoubtedly occur in d proportion of crops and upset theestimates given in Table 1.

.--.~ ..~ - - ~- --,.122 Irish ForestryIt has been argued that the rotations upon which the forecast inTable I is based are too optimistic and that a more realistic strategymight be to fell crops on high wind-risk sites at 20m top height andthose on the lower wind-risk sites at the age when mean annualincrement is 95% of its maximum. If these assumptions are made, theeffect on total production is summarised in the final three columns ofTable 5 and compared with the forecast given in Table 1, in the firstthree columns.One effect of reducing rotations in this way is, to increaseproduction up to 1999 but after 2000, longer rotations would resultin more production. The other major effect is that there would beconsiderably less larger sized timber. For example, Table 5 showsthat in spite of the fact that total production using shorter rotationswould be greater in the 1995-99 period there would be substantiallyless larger sized material.Production on peatsSome 40% of all plantations consist of Sitka spruce established ondeep climatic peats. On some peats regular inputs of fertiliser nitrogenare required to maintain growth. It is difficult, if not impossible, toallocate a yield class to these crops and be sure that they will remaingrowing at the rate indicated by that yield class. Forecasts ofproduction could be unreliable for this reason.However, assuming that crops on peat continue to grow at the rateindicated when the inventory was carried out, production will be asshown in Table 6. In the 1980-84 period crops on peats will becontributing 3000m 3 (4%) to total production. By 1990"94 it will riseto 19,000m (9%) and by 2000-04 to 59,000m 3 (14%). Thus, atleast in the early years, production from peats will not be verysignificant.It should be noted however that oligotrophic peats are the problemsites. The more fertile peats are already producing quite satisfactorycrops of timber in some areas and these are the main ones which willbe contributing in the short-term.FiresLosses from fires in recent years have averaged about 78ha a yearfrom stands younger than the first thinning stage. If fires continue atTABLE 6Average annual production from peat and other soil types'OOO's cubic metresSoil TypePeatOther SoilsTotal.-- _._ -.-1980-84 1985-89 1990-94 1995-993 8 19 2484 135 212 27687 143 231 300--.•...•---.- --_. --.- .. -- - - ~ -.-.2000-0459435494

Timber Production from Northern Ireland 1980-2004 123the same rate, losses could reduce total production by about 2000m 3a year during the final five years of the forecast period.RecruitmentThe forecast given in Table 1 assumes that production will onlyarise from the area actually planted up to 1969. No estimates forareas which have been planted since then are included but if theywere to be, recruitment might increase annual production by aboutl3,000m 3 in the 1995-99 period, rising to 19,000m 3 in the 2000-04period.CONCLUSIONSBy the turn of the century, production of timber from NorthernIreland State forests is likely to increase about ten-fold from itspresent level of 40,000m 3 a year. Sitka spruce will be the majorspecies and the west of the Province will be the main producing areain later years. About 2/ 3 of the total production will be of 14cm topdiameter or more and could be used in sawmills.An additional contribution of 1 0,000m 3 to 20,000m 3 a year may beavailable from privately owned forests, but a more accurate estimatemust await the completion of the private woodlands inventory in 1980.There are a number of factors which may cause variations to theforecast, the most important of which is the extent of future winddamage but, losses from fires, problems with growth on oligotrophicpeats and possible recruitment will also have an influence. However,balancing these factors against each other, it is thought that theforecast given in Table 1 should be reasonably realistic. It will bepossible to improve upon its reliability (particularly for the 1980-84period) each year as new inventory measurements are processed.AcknowledgementsThe authors wish to acknowledge the work of Messrs. R. J.Matthews, T. S. McConaghy and J. J. Brown, who carried out thefield work connected with the inventory, and Mr. D. J. Kilpatrick ofthe Department of Agriculture's Biometrics Division, who preparedthe computer programme and was responsible for processing all thedata and producing the forecasts.ReferencesHamilton, G. J. and Christie, J. M. (1971); Forest Management Tables (Metric). ForestryCommission Booklet No. 34, pp 2p1. H.M.S.O., London.Hamilton, G. J. and Christie, J. M. (1974); Influence of Spacing on Crop Characteristics andYield; Forestry Commission Bulletin No. 52, pp92. H.M.S.O., London.

As the Sawmiller Sees ItThe quality and suitability of home grown wood for theSawmill Trade.GEORGE KIDNEY!To me it is a great privilege and honour having the opportunity tospeak and discuss with you growers, researchers and sawmillers. Toobtain the very best utilisation from the country's forests we certainlyrequire the whole-hearted co-operation of all concerned.I am fortunate to be speaking in the afternoon, with the advantageof having listened to all the earlier speakers. I am glad too, to say thatI was in whole-hearted agreement with all the speakers and their mainthemes and objectives. However, the only possible exception mighthave been that I didn't very much like Peter Saville's comment aboutshort, thick things, nor do I like some of the other "curveous" andbulbous things which he sometimes grows. Curves are desirable andpleasant in a woman, but not in a tree for sawmill use.The principal species of tree grown in Ireland are well known to beSitka and Norway spruce. Therefore, those are the species I have inmind when I dwell on markets just briefly. The point has already wellbeen made and, without wasting time on statistics: I don't thinkanyone could possibly deny the biggest single market for sawn whitewood, and indeed red wood for that matter, is in the house buildingindustry. This, in my opinion, is much more important and relevantin Ireland than in some other countries. There is, and probablyalways will be, a big market for agricultural and civil engineeringneeds. There are many varied local and specialised markets forquality timber. Then there is, of course, the lower quality requirementmarket of pallets and different forms of fencing, to name but two.Even with expanding industrialisation the country will very quicklyreach saturation point from the point of view of a market for lowerquality timbers.The saw miller can select the market which suits him best, and itmight even be that at the present time, or in the very immediatefuture, a relatively large production by even a great number of millscan be absorbed in markets other than house building. Indeed, theymight even do it far more profitably in the short term. This would bea selfish attitude. However, there must be a case for at least the largersawmillers finding it absolutely essential to supply the house buildingsector. Without going into statistics, which can easily be supplied andeven were touched on here today, it is a fact that markets requiring alow quality, including those already mentioned, can very easily beI. Ballycassidy Sawmills Ltd., Enniskillen, Co. Fermanagh.

As the Sawmiller Sees It 125over produced. With the volume of sawlogs expected from Irishforests it is absolutely essential to sell into the building sector in a bigway to achieve the necessary sales volume for the logs comingavailable in the next decades. To reach this objective, moreexperience is needed at once in the production of timber for thebuilding trade. I repeat that even with huge expansion of industry inIreland that we can quickly reach a stage where packaging, fencingand the lower quality timbers will be over-produced; therefore notrealising the very best from the timber available. There could be a realproblem here with a very bad, or even disastrous, effect on allconcerned.Now let us deal with the second part of the question: The qualityand suitability of home-grown wood for the sawmill trade (somehowwe must get away from the home-grown tag; much better to say Irishwood). We will again confine our remarks to spruces, for the fencing,packaging, pallets and similar industries. There are very few if anyproblems with Irish whitewood. It saws well, machines well enough,and with the possible exception of some firs has perfect nailing andglueing qualities. True, there are some problems with preservativetreatment, but these can be overcome if necessary; and in any caseare no worse with Irish than imported whitewood.N ow to this very or all important, and becoming increasingly moreimportant, house building market. Again, and although I do not likerepetition, I would remind you the problem of going 'up market' ismuch more important in Ireland than most other countries. How doSitka and Norway spruce measure up to it, and can we reallypenetrate successfully the markets presently being filled by importedwood? I believe the answer to that question is, yes, we certainly can.However, let us be careful and recognise the very definite limitationsof the trees which are, and look like being, available in the future.Possibly no one would argue, and certainly I don't think that it wouldbe possible to fill all the building trades' needs for all their qualityneeds, with Irish wood. We have a useful and good wood, but there isa danger of over-selling it in the immediate future. No market can besuccessfully penetrated unless properties and characteristics of theoffered material satisfies and is available at an economic price.Without again going into the facts and figures on which we were wellinstructed and shown earlier, I think we all must accept the researchinformation which tells us that Sitka and Norway do not quite matchup to the imported whitewoods strengthwise. However, the word'imported' is often taken literally as perfection even though most ofthe testing was done a long time ago; however, a further word aboutthat later if time permits.Let us assume that everyone concerned, and certainly at least I do,accept as very reasonable the necessity and desirability of stress

126 Irish Forestrygrading and moisture content control in building timbers in allpositions where men's and women's lives, and money, are at stake.From what we have already heard today, and rightly so, it must onlybe a matter of time until certain timber grading is made mandatory inIreland as in other European (;ountries. I don't know what thosebuilding regulations and controls might call for by way of timbergrades and moisture content, but 1 do know that in England andother European countries all load-bearing timbers are required to be a75 or SS grade at 18% moisture content and that imported timber iscalled for at these grades. It is not unreasonable to ask for goodtimber, but it is unreasonable to discriminate and say where it shouldcome from. To say 'grade timber' may sound simple, and indeed Ibelieve it should be simple and possible. We have already heard andseen from Dr. Bolton today how difficult the situation is at present,and it is not necessary to go into details which I had noted. Verymany man years have been spent on research work, nevertheless, andcertainly so far as I know, it can be said that there is at present noway of grading spruces grown in the British Isles to standards wherethey can be used, or rather economically used, alongside oralternatively to imported whitewoods. Someone will say, and it canbe argued, that grading can be done quite satisfactorily visually. I amaware that there are many well-run visual grading courses, andindeed very many competent visual graders in the country.Unfortunately, at least from my point of view as a sawmiller, and as Iunderstand the rules at the moment, visual grading is a non-starter forour Irish grown spruces. This is purely on economic grounds becausetests have shown, and again we have been told today and I canconfirm from experience, that less than 8% can be expected to makea 75 or SS grade; again from my own experience, about 35% willattain to a 50 or GS grade with a huge balance being rejected. Eventhis 'is only obtainable after reasonable or high degree of selection atthe sawing stage. That is why I think visual grading for ourwhitewoods, is a non-starter. Happily, I think it can be said, thatSitka and Norway spruces are better than they look and withmachine stress grading the prospect begins to look viable. From ourown tests the figures become 83% M75 or MSS, 15% M50 or MGSand 2% reject. This, of course, again is obtained after quite carefuland reasonable selection at the sawing stage. However, it makes apretty strong case for machine stress grading. Still we must rememberthat these figures are for home-grown Sitka and Norway spruce gradeand not still comparable in the book with imported.Even if Irish standards were to accept Sitka and Norway spruceM75 or MSS for load-bearing work in building (and I am certainlynot presuming to suggest that they should) nevertheless, even thenthere would be an automatic discrimination and/or relegation of Irish

As the Sawmiller Sees It 127grown wood to a second quality type of product, and in the long runwould have disastrous effects on future marketing. Mr. Chairman,arguments substantiated by facts and figures can be presented tosubstantiate my case, but I don't think this is necessary at themoment, especially after what we have heard today. What I amsaying, and want to say forcibly, is I believe we need a new gradestructure, grades, if possible, irrespective of species or origin butwhich can be safe, meaningful, and not open to abuse ormisunderstanding. Mr. Chairman, may I just read you a shortpassage from a recent conference at the United Nations EconomicCommission for Europe, and I quote. "It is agreed that standards onstress grading give a basis for simplification of the U.K. system,based on 'characteristic strength'. This new standard has threegrades, each with equally spaced, characteristic strengths forEuropean redwoods and whitewoods, namely 18, 24 and 30Newtons per square millimetre. It is suggested that these should bethe only grades used within this range for structural purposes, andthat everything else should fit into the system. This would pose noproblems for Britain's major supplies of Baltic redwoods andwhitewoods and any machine grade of any species. The onlyproblems would be with existing Canadian grades, but Westernhemlock, which is the major Canadian structural timber, has verysimilar strength properties to European redwoods and whitewoods.The only big problem would arise with minor species when visuallygraded (and that's where we Irish come in). Major species will formthe basis of the grading system, and minor species allowed tocompete as long as they can be shown to have the same designstresses." Mr. Chairman, I merely submit that we should ask thatIrish timber be allowed to compete.Delegates, this is something which I have been thinking and, indeed,saying for a long time. Up until recently, in fact up until very, veryrecently, the people who were in positions to make decisions inEngland would not agree it possible. I am pleased to say, Iunderstand they now say it is possible, but of course only throughmachine stress grading. I am very well aware that if the powers whichbe were to only make standards which normally allowed for machinestress grading, then there would be a huge uproar in the timber trade,that is, the imported timber trade in general. Thereby lies a very bigproblem, but it is certainly the answer to our problem.The problem is with us today, and will increase each year as theforest produce increases. Something should, and must, be done aboutit, and in doing so, please remember although maybe we are nottimber exporters, certainly the effects of producing our own will makehuge savings to the nation. Let those who have it in their power to doso take a good look at Irish whitewoods with a more kindly eye and a

128 Irish Forestryview to having them allowed to compete, let us not just blindly followother countries. What of it if we have an Irish grade so long as it isadequate and safe. As already pointed out, and from the most recentcontact which I have had with work being done in England andelsewhere in Europe, it does seem quite possible to grade whitewoodsand redwoods irrespective of species or where it grew, and end upwith a standard, dependable product of three single grades dependingon the strength required. It is gratifying to note that in the most recentwork being done by researchers on our now somewhat more matureforests, all the strength qualities and densities of timber areimproving, even if only slightly. Futhermore, it must be rememberedas fact, and undeniable fact, that areas of countries which in pastdecades shipped only quality timbers, now sometimes ship not suchgood quality and timber which has been cut from second and thirdfellings of fast-grown trees. Not all imported wood, even thoughlooking reasonably free of knots, is as strong as that suppled in earlierdecades. Again, this is something which, after much pressure, otherresearch establishments in Europe have wakened up to and agreed. Idon't know that I would like to be quoted on this, but I understandthere are cases of disappointments with imported wood from foreignsources, even imported from sources on either side of the Atlantic.Mr. Chairman, I would like to wind up by saying Sitka andNorway spruce grown in Ireland or the British Isles is far from a badtimber; it is a very useful timber, and I believe it measures up quitewell to a large proportion of imported timber and is suitable for use incertain selected building markets. The opinions which I haveexpressed are very often personal, but as the result of much practicalexperience covering tests on approximately 2,000 cubic metres ofspruces in various sizes and taken from over a very wide and variedarea of Ireland. Supposing new grades were to be devised, and for thematter of discussion these grades were to be for Sitka and Norwayspruce grown in Ireland and to equal a strength of 75 or MSS inimported whitewood, then possibly from our own experience I wouldexpect opproximately 40 or maybe 45% to make that grade, withprobably 45 or 50% equal to 50 or MGS. Please be clear, this issuggesting a grade which does not exist and a grade which should beequal in strength to the imported grades. There would be the balancein reject. Remember also these are average figures and would assumea high degree of selection at logging and sawing stages. This pointcannot be over-emphasised and is extremely necessary. Quality andcare with careful selection and grading must always be in the mindsof not only the sawmiller, but also the forester, if the fullest value ofour fast-growing forests are to be realised to the best advantage. Thesawmiller could be unreasonable and ask for a square tree withoutany big knots. Well!!! If that is impossible, what is possible and

As the Sawmiller Sees it 129reasonable to expect? On this respect I was encouraged by Dr.Gardiner's remarks earlier today. From a sawmiller's point of viewand for construction timber we need (a) a tall tree, (b) little taper aspossible, (c) few knots as possible. I wouldn't dare to even suggest toforesters how this can be achieved, but from my own very laymanishobservations it seems to come from trees grown at not too wide aspacing.Finally it should be said that there is a duty on growers andsawmillers to convince and educate the public. Possibly it could beargued that the greater part of this duty falls on the shoulders ofgovernment growers to get out and convince other other governmentdepartments to buy Irish timber. However, we must certainly leaveall sentiment aside, and, indeed, issue a word of warning. Please,please ensure that representatives have thorough knowledge of theproperties of their timber and also that the stated quality and quantityis available. This, of course, can only come after the standards havebeen set.We must accept as reasonable that standards and grades fordependable timber must be set, but I personally am not sure thatstandards and grades available at the moment are suitable for Irishuses . If it is impossible to have an internationally acceptable simplegrading as earlier mentioned, then why not a special Irish gradewhich would be adequate for Irish users.The grower is certainly entitled to a proper and good return on his50-year crop, and we must make sure that it is used to the bestadvantage.Mr. Chairman, where it is possible, can we endeavour to have atall clean tree, and at possibly great risk to my body in this gathering,I would suggest such a tree appears to me to be produced fromforests which are well-managed and not opened up too much at anearly stage.

The Pulpwood SceneSupply position and market trends for panelboard,hardboard and pulp.FRANCIS M. JACKSON, F.C.I.S. 1l. PULPWOOD SUPPLY POSITION(a) World sceneIt is now well accepted, that in world terms timber will be in shortsupply for many years to come. Indeed it is likely that the supplyposition generally will become more acute with the expected increasein demand from developing countries. It would not be surprising,therefore, if previous sources of supply dry up, when these countriesnow with excess production, realise fully the potential of this valuableraw material and organise the manufacturing expertise so that thefinished product is more likely to be exported than the basic rawmaterial.This situation has, no doubt, contributed to the urgent reappraisal bythe E.E.C. of their forestry programme.(b) EuropeAs members of the E.E.C., clearly, we must consider the supplyposition in that context with the knowledge that traditional supplierssuch as Scandinavia, Canada and Ghana are already imposingcontrols. The E.E.C. had a rather vague policy but in November,1977, presumably because of the foregoing, and its own position as asubstantial nett importer of wood-good products and realising theurgent necessity to formulate and implement effective forestry policy,decided to set up a special forestry study group (headed by twoIrishmen) to produce an "opinion" which is scheduled to bepresented to the Commission in July next.The relevant facts pertaining to the E.E.C., in this regard arepertinent and give some indication of the seriousness of the overallsupply position:(1) Production in the E.E.C. is growing at 1% p.a.(2) Consumption in the E.E.C. is growing at 2% p.a.(3) At present the E.E.C. imports over 50% of its requirements inwood goods.(4) It is estimated that by 1980 E.E.C., imports will rise to 80% ofconsumption.(c) Republic of IrelandThe supply position in Ireland for pulpwood and waste is in excessof demand at present and some estimates put exports at 40,000 tons1. 19 Herbert Park, Dublin 4.

. ~,~ , -~- .-.The Pulpwood Scene 131p.a. Indeed for some years past, the principal grower, i.e., the State,has not sold its forecast of thinings so that a back-log has alreadybegun to build up. By 1980 raw material (pulpwood, slabs, sawdust,etc.) will exceed the existing mills' capacity by almost 375,000m 3and by 1985 this figure will have increased to over 1,000,000m3.The following index taking 1975 as the base year at 100, givessome idea of the additional quantities becoming available.YearIndex1975 1001980 1471985 2491990 3481995 4202000 498In practical terms, to absorb the extra raw material available in1985, the existing processing capacity would need to be doubled at acapital investment of the order of £20 millions plus. With a "lead-in"time of 4 years, the urgency of decision making in this field needhardly be stressed. Unless the material is processed in Ireland, theI,lnacceptable alternative will be to export in the round and bearing inmind the supply position in the E.E.C., and of our nearestneighbours, the U.K., this is not at all an unlikely eventuality.SupplyWhilst the supply position has been generally adequate over theyears, inevitably, each year one or other of the mills either runs shortof raw material or dangerously close to this. This raises the thornyquestion of the methods of marketing, harvesting and transport inuse.Tender SystemThe general view of the mills is that the "sealed tender system" isunsuitable. The mills average success rate is 18%. A completereappraisal of the present system is essential to adapt it to the needsof the industry and would, I believe, bring beneficial results togrowers and harvesters also. Guaranteed long term supplies of basicraw material is vital to the future of any industry. (It must be saidhere, however, that the Forest and Wildlife Service havemade some concessions in this regard). It is also a strongly held viewof the mills that the prices of raw material do not react quicklyenough to market fluctuations. If the State decides to engage in acommercial operation then it has to accept the criteria of thecommercial world.

132 Irish ForestryHarvestingThe mills were reluctantly compelled to enter the harvesting field toensure adequate supplies, but will admit from a "utilization" point ofview that the State has not benefited as up to 20% of the roundtimber used by the mills should have gone to sawmillers.Furthermore, individually, the mills have not the financial ortechnical resources to become efficient harvesters and the presenttender system does not allow of sufficient certainty to justifyinvestment in harvesting equipment, training, etc. A minimum of threeyears operations in anyone area is essential to justify the investmentinvolved. It has also more recently become noticeable that lack ofbrashing, undergrowth clearance, etc., have increased harvesting costs.What has happened here is that the cost, which should properly havebeen borne by the grower, has been transferred to the harvester. Inany event, it is doubtful if anything like sufficient R&D work hasbeen applied in the field of harvesting and utilisation, not alone herebut in the E.E.C. as well.TransportTransport from the woods to the factories is also less efficient thanit should be because:(a)(b)Most forest roads are suitable only for the smaller rigid bodiedtrucks.The overlapping caused by the "sealed tender system" resultsin, e.g., Dublin mills cutting in Waterford and Waterford millscutting in Wicklow.As delivered raw material costs represent up to 15% of total costof manufacture, and harvesting and transport costs represent up to60% of the cost of the delivered price of pulpwood, the importance ofimproved efficiency in these areas is obvious. Furthermore, anyimprovements in efficiency should be to the benefit of the growers aswell as the processors.At the present time, the prices of pulpwood delivered to Irish millsare generally on par with European prices, but as regards the twochipboard mills, drying costs are excessive because of the highmoisture content of the pulp compared to their Europeancompetitors. If sufficient financial resources were available to allowair drying a reduction in fuel oil drying costs of the order of 30%would be achievable. This was proven in extensive field tests. Thiswould reduce the country's oil import bill by almost £200,000 p.a.Power costs particularly regarding one of the mills are also excessivecompared to competition. Quality wise Irish timber is satisfactory forthe mills purposes.

The Pulpwood Scene 1331976 -Demand/PricesThe Irish mills expect demand for raw material in 1978 to besimilar to 1977 but it is unlikely that growers can expect any increasein prices - rather should a reduction be anticipated the reasons forthis will be seen following my comments on "finished productsmarket situation".ProspectsHowever, taking the overall world and E.E.C., situation - whilstthe short term prospect maybe somewhat less than encouraging -the longer term prospect must be very good. The question is when -but this is a task more appropriate to the economist.2. MARKET TRENDS FOR PANELBOARD, HARDBOARDAND PULP(a) EuropeThe history of the industry over the past 10 years, in terms ofreturn on investment, is not encouraging. A recent survey in Finlandshowed a return of 5.6% on capital invested. Generally speaking,there has been a crisis every 3-4 years. During the past two yearsthere have been 15 bankruptcies in such countries as U.K., Canada,U.S., Scandanavia, Belgium and Holland. This figure would havebeen much higher but for the intervention of governments in variousways, e.g., one or more of any of the following:(1) Interest free loans for stocking.(2) Amalgamations/mergers/rationalisations with capitalinjections.(3) Reduced prices for timber.(4) Employment subsidies.(5) Action against dumping.(6) Special credit facilities.(7) Control of markets.It is significant also that the mills which have weathered the storm,(without government intervention) over the past 4/5 years, despiteheavy losses, are generally subsidiaries of multi-national typecompanies which had the necessary financial resources, whereas theIrish mills are mostly small privately owned concerns lacking thenecessary financial resources.Indeed, but for the intervention of Irish State agencies, three of thefour mills at present operating would have also gone to the wall.Clearly the normal market forces of supply and demand no longerapply - will they ever again in the foreseeable future? - If so,when?

114 Irish ForestryOne has to assume that governmental intervention in this countryhad at least two objectives,(a)(b)the preservation of jobs andthe necessity to ensure that our forests will continue to bethinnedso that the nation will reap the benefit of the end product in the formof commercial quality sawlog.The European market has been and is still dogged by over-capacityand this has had its inevitable effect of selling prices. European millsare still operating at 60% of capacity despite efforts to controlimports, control markets, rationalisations/mergers, etc.As a consequence of this, both the home market and the mills' mainexport market, the U.K., have been similarly affected. Irish millsexport over 60% of their output to the U.K., which is itself animporter of over 60% of its requirements. The home market hassuffered badly from low cost imports which now represent over 30%of the total market. Whilst some inroads can be made into homemarket imports, it is unlikely to be significant in the short termbecause our economy is such an open one and proof of dumping isboth slow and difficult. As the finished products are bulky andexpensive to export - 15% of total cost - clearly the U.K., willcontinue to be our main export market.Expansion of the home market base in per capita consumptionterms - we lag somewhat behind Europe but are better than theU.K. - is likely to prove expensive, difficult, and will take years ofaggressive marketing to obtain additional increments. Clearly, ourmills have not the financial resources to engage in such an exercise, inaddition to which some of them would be in direct competitionanyway.CompetitionThe Irish mills are and will continue to face "subsidised"competition in some form or another. Unless, therefore, similarfacilities are made available to the Irish mills, they will continue tooperate at a distinct disadvantage with inevitable consequences.This is not to say that the Irish mills could not be made moreefficient by increased automation, expansion, specialisation,diversification, product development, research, etc., however, thehistory of the industry is unlikely to attract the private investmentnecessary if previous returns are anything to go by. If investment is to beobtained from any source a complete structural reorganisation of thescene is necessary.

The Pulpwood Scene 135New or Replacement ProductsAs yet no obvious replacement has appeared as an alternative tochipboard, paper pulp and hardboard, although the followingdevelopments have possibilities, e.g., medium density hardboard,waterproof boards, cement-bonded boards, wafer-board andmoulded chipboard. However, for traditional and other reasons,these products have not made a significant impact on the Europeanscene. For the foreseeable future, therefore, it seems that thinningsand waste will continue to be used to manufacture existing products.In any event, with a lead in time of four years to set up new plants,unless we are prepared to export or burn logs in the round the existingoutlets must be kept in operation.Costs/Selling PricesSome measure of the difficulties faced by the industry over the past3-4 years is seen from the following table of manufacturing costs andselling prices - base year 1974/1975 ..... _._-_ .. _ . ..... _ ----_.1974/75 1975/76Costs 100Selling Prices 100Selling Prices down 11%, Costs UP over 50%,__ ~._. _ A Recipe for Disaster ..1976/77 1978150 + 50%89 - 11%1978 - DemandAs to 1978 - European estimates suggest a 50/0-6% increase indemand whilst Irish mills are expecting a similar increase, although asyet there have been no signs of this expected increase in demand inthe first quarter of the year either at home or in the U.K.PricesOptimistic forecasts hope for marginal price increases during theyear, but with such a high level of overcapacity, personally, I wouldnot bank on any.Value of IndustryThe industry directly employs 1,300. Total output is almost £17millions of which £6.6 millions is exported. The processing ofadditional increments of raw materials from forests and sawmillscould by 1985 create an additional 1,000 jobs. This is deserving of toppriority.PoliciesThe maintenance of existing jobs and creation of new jobs needsan immediate and urgent reappraisal of present policies, where theyexist. It is heartening to note that studies/surveys presumably with

136 Irish Forestryvarying objectives are being carried out by the I.D.A., E.S.R.I.,I.I.R.S., and international consultants, Arthur D. Little, etc. Onemust ask, however, if there is an overall policy or will policy bedecided on following the findings of these reports. All interestedparties should have an opportunity to make a contribution.ProspectsAs with pulpwood, the short term prospects are not encouragingbut there would appear to be little doubt about the long termprospects bearing in mind the estimated shortage of the basicmaterials which should, in the long term, make the industryattractive.(3) CONCLUSIONS(a) If the proposition is valid that woods must be thinned to reapthe ultimate benefits, then over the next 4/5 years the existingprocessing plants must be kept in operation or at least untilmore economic alternative uses are found for thinnings andother wood waste.(b) All unused capacity should be utilized and where necessaryexcess material should be redirected where possible to sawmills,where similar comments re unused capacity also apply.(c) The alternatives to (a) and (b) are to close down the mills andallow up to 30% of our forests to remain unthinned withdisastrous sylvicultural results, or to find other outlets such asexporting in the round or burning, whilst at the same timeaccepting job losses of up to 1,300 plus and disimproving ourbalance of payments position by up to £14 millions p.a.(d) It will, I think, be accepted that the industry is unlikely toattract the investment - which it so badly needs - fromprivate sources - and there is only one other source left - theState - as "lender of last resort".( e) If the State is to carry out this role - and it is already asubstantial investor in three of the mills then it is entitled, atleast, to a detailed feasibility study and a Social Cost/BenefitAnalysis study to decide which course it must take and whatwould be the net benefit to the State.(0 Obviously one of the possible outcomes of such a study wouldbe the substantial savings involved in a rationalisation and/ormerger situation.(g) The benefits of integration units from stump through to sawmill- processing, etc., need no amplification here - examplesabound in the European context.

(h)(i)(j)(k)The Pulpwood Scene 137(a) to (g) inclusive all involve action by the State, which alsohappens to be our principal grower, and indeed brings intofocus the role of the State and its policy. if any. in relation tothese matters. The State's role as principal grower needs to beclearly defined - will it proceed beyond the forest gate? - it isnecessary that it should - on all known facts it can hardlyavoid doing so now.So long as Irish processors are forced to compete with variousforms of subsidisation and where the normal market forces areset aside because of the " right to work" and otherconsiderations, survival of our forest industry will hinge on theIrish Government putting Irish mills on the same basis as theircompetitors.The industry is fragmented enough as it is, but unless the pointsraised in (a) to (i) above and others are carefully studied now wemay lose out in the long term and wind up with an uncoordinated/unplannedsituation.I have advocated previously that it is essential to set up a"Timber Resource Board" or "Bord Adhmaid", if you wish,representative of growers, harvesters, sawmillers andprocessors with the stated responsibility of determining futureplanning and policy and its implementation. It is more criticalnow than ever - time is not on our side.

ObituaryJOHN KEVIN McGERTY (1919-1978)The sudden death of Kevin McGerty at hisholiday home in Rosslare, Co. Wexford on 7October, 1978, came as a great shock to hismany friends in the Forest and WildlifeService and outside.In a distinguished career Kevin's outstanding personal qualitiesendeared him to all his colleagues. Aged 59 years he had entered theCivil Service as an Executive Officer in 1938 and was assigned to theForestry Division, Department of Lands. Apart from a brief periodof 'exile' in the Land Commission from 1944 to 1948-and eventhen he was dealing with timber sales for the Commission and, in hisown definition, "circumventing the worst effects of timber pricecontrol by the Department of Supplies"-he spent his entire officialcareer in the Forest and Wildlife Service. As Personnel Officer incharge of Personnel during the 1950's and subsequently, he wasassociated with many of the initiatives which have. helped towards theprogress and continuing development of our Service. He was alsodeeply involved in the arrangement by which Society membersemployed by the Service are allowed special leave to attend daymeetings and seminars. Appointed Assistant Secretary in 1977, hispuckish sense of humour and deep humanity ensured that he wasnever distanced from his colleagues.In our deep sense of loss at his passing we extend sincere sympathyto his dear wife, Pat, to his sons, John and Brendan, and Anne, hisdaughter.A. W. DugganFlONAN J. MORIARTY (1923-1978)Fionan (Finian) Moriarty died as a result of acar accident, near Cashel, on the night of the4th March last. His untimely death was a lossof immeasurable magnitude to his wife andfamily, to the Forest and Wildlife Service, andindeed to his innumerable friends andcolleagues throughout the Service and in thehome grown timber trade.

Obituary 139Hailing from Kilmakerin near Cahirciveen i nduthaigh Iveragh,Fionan entered Avondale Forest School in 1942 and on completionof his training in 1945 was assigned to the then Baunreagh Forest.Transferring to Dundrum Sawmill in 1946, he was promoted MillManager in 1949 when it became a separate chargeship. Possessed ofimmense drive, vitality, objectivity, and enthusiasm, he was theprincipal architect in the first reconstruction and modernisationcarried out at Dundrum Sawmill during the early fifties and wasactively engaged in the development of the mill ever since. A skilledcraftsman himself in wood, he was early to see the potential oflodgepole pine as a furniture, joinery, and pannelling medium.Following his promotion to Inspector, in 1959, Cahir-in thecounty of his adoption-became his headquarters as UtilizationInspector for the next 15 years. Whilst there his wholeheartedinvolvement in parochial activities, his prowess as an organiser, andhis unbounded energy as a social worker were widely acclaimed.Transferring to Dublin in 1974, Fionan was promoted to Gr. 1Utilization Inspector in 1976, and, as his talents became increasinglyappreciated, was undoubtedly destined to achieve greater heights inhis beloved service.He was an ardent sportsman and a keen follower of Gaelicfootball. Never missing Croke Park on a Sunday when Kerry wereparticipating, he lustily joined in the "Come on the Kingdom" chorusgreeting the arrival of the lads in Green and Gold on the pitch. In hisyounger days he represented Tipperary in junior grade Gaelicfootball, while in later years, he became a keen and successful golfer,and had the honour of being the 1st captain of the Southern RegionForestry Golfing Society.Truly one of nature's gentlemen, Fionan was a raconteur minted inthe traditional Kerry mould. Those who were privileged to know himintimately will readily recall how his penetrating brown eyes sparkledwith glee as he recounted one of his many anecdotes, savoured withinformation and spiced with wit.Fionan was the personification of everything Irish, traditional, andChristian. His unobtrusive but steadfast dedication to the practice ofhis religion was a source of deep admiration and inspiration to all,and his altruistic disposition endeared him to young and old. All whoknew him in any capacity mourn his loss, and are the poorer becauseof his passing. May the O.R.S. of the Galtees lie lightly on his grave,and may the Lord comfort all who mourn his loss. In the words ofanother Kerryman of an earlier generation-"Ni bheith a leitheid annaris."P. Flynn

ReviewGosford Park Nature Trail;Baronscourt Forest Nature Trail Guide;Grace Drennan Woodland Trail, Pomeroy Forest;Ba/~vpatrick Forest - Forest Drive;all by the N.r. Forest Service.These four booklets prepared by the N.!. Forest Service indicate thatthey regard it as one of their responsibilities to inform and educate thepublic on their forest ventures and on the wider fields of Ecology andConservation. The justification for such engagement must derivefrom the simple fact that people do flock to the forests at week-endsthroughout the year. They do so obviously because they areinterested, and because they feel it their right to know what is beingdone with their money, and because they enjoy puffs of free freshforest air. I am sure that there are lots of other reasons.The usefulness of the leaflets will be measured by their being bothinformative and easily read by those at whom they are directed thecasual visitor, parties of school children and others interested innature study. The leaflets on Gosford Park Nature Trail and on thegrace Drennan Woodland Trail satisfy obvious criteria. They areconcise, easily digested on a stroll and widely informative, coveringas diverse topics as the signs to be sought in the vacinity of a badgersett, the use of nurse species in the Oak plantation, and the boringactivities of tree creepers on Sequioas. The Grace Drennan leaflet isparticularly good, containing questions, information, and notes forthe guidance of Group Leaders.I am not so sure about the format of the other two leaflets. Theywould not be easily read on a forest stroll or drive, consisting as theydo of a relatively long unbroken description of the formation of theforests, and some particular aspects which are notable such as thesignificance of spruce, and the presence of stouts. Thewalking/stopping reference point format is far more satisfactory(though the foresters concerned might prove me wrong).I am not, however, convinced about this thing called a ForestDrive. It seems to me a futile attempt to simulate Rocky Mountainconditions in Ireland, of which Gougane Barra is our saddest, mostexpensive example.This might be unfair carping. The N.I. Forest Service are to becommended for these leaflets and for the fine work they are doing inmaking their forests accessible and legible to the public.Michael Cregan

Review 141PUBLICATIONS RECEIVEDBritish Forestry Commission.Honey Fungus by B. J. Greig and R. G. Strouts. Arboriculturalleaflet No.2. 70p.Virus and Virus-like Diseases of Trees by J. I. Cooper.Arboricultural leaflet No.4. 70p.PORTLAOISE SAWMILLSMIDLAND FORESTRY LTD.Phone: 0502-21075/21678•FORESTRY CONSULTANTS &TIMBER VALUERS•SAWMILLING•ROOFING MATERIALS,FENCING MATERIALS &STAKES

Letters to the EditorDear Sir,In the aftermath of the April symposium I was wondering is therean optimum size diameter at breast height (DBH) tree for sawlog? D.G. Moore in his article "The Oceanic Forest" (Irish Forestry, Vol.33, No.1, 1976), claimed that 36 cm DBH was the size to aim for.Kevin Hutchinson mentioned 38 cm DBH during his talk onharvesting recently, as the size which Scandinavian foresters do notrecommend exceeding. Taking a look at a stand assortment table forconifers it is observable that at mean DBH 25 cm the volume above24 cm top diameter is 27.2%.At mean DBH 30 cm it is 54.3%At mean DBH 35 cm it is 73%At mean DBH 40 cm it is 83 .7%.That is, from mean DBH 25 cm to mean DBH 30 cm the volumeabove 24 cm top diameter jumps by 27.1%.From mean DBH 30 to 35 cm there is a jump of 18.7%.From mean DBH 35 to 40 cm there is a jump of only 10.7%.In his book The Economics of Plantations, W. E. Hiley, the patronsaint of compound interest, claims 72/10 approximates to thenumber of years at which a sum of money will double if it iscompounded at 10%. Thus a sum x compounding at 10% willamount to:X(2)1 at year 7X(2)2 at year 14X(2)3 at year 21X(2)4 at year 28 and so on.This exercise can be repeated for any rate of interest. It seems tome that for our coniferous plantations to make anything near 10%rate of interest, they must be treated in such a way that they grow tomean DBH 30 cm as rapidly as possible. In pursuing this of courseforesters must not forget about such things as timber quality,maintaining volume increment, and windblow problems. In all of theabove 'interior dialogue' I am working on assumptions about which Iretain an open mind. Should anyone feel like commenting I would beonly too delighted to draw them into the fray.Before I sign off could some utilisation expert help me out withsome data concerning wood density published by Dr. J. J. Gardinerand Declan Ward in Irish Forestry (Vol. 33, No.1, 1976). Theyreported a density 389 kg/m 3 in trees spaced at 2.4m x 2.4m. Doeswood with this density have enough strength to meet the requirementsof general construction timber? This espacement is an important onebecause at wider spacings, according to measurements taken in1974, in the same estate (Drurnhierney, Co. Leitrim) by Research

Letters to the Editor 143Branch, Crop Structure Section, F. W.S., there was a significantdecrease in volume increment. The 2.4m x 2.4m plots showed animportant trend in that average DBH was 24 cm in one and 27 cm inanother. The plots were 21 years of age at the time and had beenthinned once at 17 years.Tree Tops,Bailieboro, Co. Cavan.Yours sincerely,Erick JohnsonDear Sir,It is curious that the former editor could not understand P. MacOscair's letter on forestry in the landscape. His editorial, Vol. 32,No.2, was an exercise (sic) in obscurantism. Mac Oscair presented afair description of a commonly held view on aspects of therelationship between man and nature. I did not, on the other hand,understand what the editorial was attempting to say. Mr. Editorappeared to be objecting to "modern accepted attitudes towardsforestry and the landscape" because these attitudes did not concurwith propositions asserted by Hume and Ayer. He did not state whatthese objectionable modern attitudes were, and the role of Hume andAyer in his scheme was not at all obvious. Scientific method wouldappear to be close to his heart (or brain). Selective referencing ishardly acceptable scientific procedure. Precision of statement andcogent argument would also be a component of scientific method. Hiseditorial singularly lacked these properties. It is fair to assume,therefore, that he was not at all sure of his position.He does refer to a position called "a purely aesthetic standpoint".Is this particular standpoint his own, or Plato's? (or maybe stop no. 3on the Glendalough nature trail). Whence it's purity? Is itscientifically verifiable? In the 1920's, architects produced amanifesto towards efficiency declaring that Form follows Function.They rapidly retreated from that position of extreme naIvety. Theuntruth of that view also subsumes the view that beauty can besimply equated with efficiency.It is historically not a fact that the resemblance to nature as acriterion of beauty arose with the 19th century Romantics. Thechange in style from the formal classical landscape took place in thelate 17th century. The reference to 19th century decadence is in thatcontext irrelevant.Mr. Former Editor shares with Ayer that tiresome English need toengage in reductionism. Hence people enjoy forests because theyneed to indulge in fantasy, and ergo that indulgence is unscientificnonsense.

144 Irish ForestryCertainly the business of the fit of forestry into the landscape needsto be discussed. Landscapes last much longer than our lifetimes. Suchdiscussion is not usefully promoted by bellicose and confusedutterances falsely cloaked in "scientism". Perhaps Mr. Former Editorcould state his case in plain, even scientific, English. I shall be glad toconsider them. My bread and butter could well be at stake.30 Deramore Drive, Yours sincerely,Belfast.Micheid CreganCOMMENTYour former editor is not impressed by Mr. Cregan's verbal nitpicking,nor by his exercise (recte) in debating-society point-scoring.And if he can read into the editorial in question (Vol. 32, No.2), anysuggestion that indulgence in fantasy is nonsense, then hisinterpretative faculty is sadly malfunctioning. Your former editoragrees with the advice given by Mr. Mac Oscair in his second letter(Vol. 33, No.2). Finally, he can take no responsibility for Mr.Cregan's bread and butter.NOTEThe Editor has decided to terminate correspondence on theeditorial "Landscape with peasants" (Vol. 32, No.2, 1976) andsubsequent letters to the editor, and has accordingly offered "FormerEditor" the final right of reply.Editor: Irish Forestry

Day ExcursionVisit to Scotstown and LisnaskeaForests17th MAY 1978A group of approximately 90 members met in Scotstown village atthe start of this day tour. From there the party went by car to the firststop in Scotstown Forest. Mr. L. O'Flanagan, Divisional Inspectorand leader for the first half of the day, introduced the Forester-in­Charge, Mr. Moore and the Assistant Forester Mr. Fitzgerald.The first stop was in a 3 hectare blown area of P/54 SS, YC.22.The ground had been contour ploughed using a double mould boardCuthbertson unit. The slope at the scene of the blow was gentle andalso slightly saucer shaped. It was during the second thinning in 1974that the main damage occurred; the first thinning had been done atthe correct time.It was pointed out by members of the Research Branch of theForest and Wildlife Service that the obvious signs of a continuoushigh water table was evidenced by the broad flat root systemsspreading out mostly along the ribbon top. It was observed that theblow was less severe in an area nearby which had been mounded. Mr.O'Flanagan stated that the area as a whole was blowing at the edgesall the time.It was generally recognised that little could be done with thepresent crop beyond adopting a cautious approach to thinning or notthinning at all and hoping that, if a thinning policy was adopted, nosevere storms occurred. It was recognised, as was seen later in theday, that the possible cure lay in getting the replanted crop to rootmore deeply.The second stop was in a hectare plot of 7 year old SS that hadbeen thinned to waste; stocking having been reduced to 600 stems perhectare. The adjoining area had a Y.C. of 26. The Assistant Foresterexplained that every fourth line had first been cut out and after thisthe remainder was reduced to 600 per hectare by selection so as toleave the most even spacing. It was suggested that, as branching herewould be very coarse, green pruning should be done in a few yearstime. Dr. Gallagher stated that 30% of the canopy could be removedwithout affecting increment.The third stop was at a research plot laid down to test out variousmethods of ground cultivation and the response given by trees tothese methods as far as three factors were concerned:(1) Root depth penetration(2) Root width(3) Height Growth

146 Irish ForestryDr. Michael Carey explained that the soil type was a surface watergley derived from sandstone and limestone drift. There was a shallowpeaty horizon and the ground had a history of agricultural cultivationin the past. Mr. J. Dillon whose work provided all the data for thisstop, told the group that this experiment was one of six in the drumlinbelt; most of the others were in Co. Leitrim.In the experiment the following methods of ground cultivation andplanting were used:(1) Double Mould Board, D.M.B.: planting on flat beside ribbon,"flat" and planting on ribbon itself.(2) Agricultural, flat and ribbon(3) Mole ploughing(4) Planting on unploughed ground.The figures for height growth were available at 3 years (Table 1).Included here are the results at 6 years of a similarly ploughed plot inBallyfarnon).Table IMean height of Sitka spruce with various cultivation treatmentsScots town Ballyfamon3 years old 6 years oldHeight in metres Height in metresNo ploughing 0.61 1.33D.M.B. "Flat" 0.96 1.54Agricultur~ plough"Ribbon" 0.96 1.56"Flat" 0.82 1.53"Ribbon" 1.01 1.47Mole plough 0.83 1.53There was no significant difference between any of the abovemethods as far as height growth was concerned.The mole drainage plough we were told had been borrowed fromthe Agricultural Institute. The plough put mole drains, 2 metresapart, at a depth of 45 cm. Pipes 45 cm long were inserted at the endsof the moles where they entered the main drain so as to keep themopen. It was found in another experiment that the mole drain holeshad water flowing in them after seven years; they benefited from thefact that in the forest there are no cattle to poach or crush them. Itwas found that the summer was the best time to plough.The rooting results of a similar experiment at Ballyfarnon wereshown. This gave figures for root depth penetration, root width andstem height in the D.M.B., Agricultural and Mole ploughing plots.The results after 7 seasons are in Table 2.

Society Activities147Table 2Data on root development from some sample treesTree HeightmRoot DepthemsRoot SpreademsD.M.B.AgriculturalMole plough3.22.53.7222256220260205These results were certainly very significant for the second and thirdcolumns.Data from other experiments in Ballyfarnon and Drumkeeran wereshown where ripping had been introduced as another form ofcultivation. The ploughing combinations used and some results are inTable 3.Table 3Effects of cultivation treatment on height (m) of Sitka spruce after 3 yearsD.M.B.AgriculturalRippingCompete ploughingRipping and Complete ploughingBallyfarnon0.961.050.931.121.02Drumkeeran0.730.730.900.890.83The site at Drumkeeran was a more sticky gley. In both, however,water was flowing out of the ripped channels after this period of time.An interesting discussion followed on the merits of ripping. Theripper itself consists of two large tines, each one metre long. Theserupture and break up the surface for approximately 1 ft. on top. Ongley, the depth of rupturing is approximately 45 cms. and below thisa channel is made. Using special tines for the research plot, a depth of120 cm. was achieved, however, the more normal depth would beabout 75 cms. The ripper, pulled by a D.7 crawler would cost £59per ha. It was pointed out that ripping was, by and large, the onlymechanical option of cultivation open for replanting areas like thatseen at the first stop. The actual planting was done on top of theripped channel. Another factor that assisted drainage and thereforegrowth was slope, this was clearly seen at the last stop before lunchwhere growth was very vigorous. All in all it was felt that rippingwould give as good root depth penetration as mole draining. Thisbeing so, we could therefore hopefully achieve the stability requiredfor normal management practices to be followed in all but the moreextremely exposed sites.

148 Irish ForestryAfter lunch we moved into Northern Ireland and on to LisnaskeeForest. Mr. Bill Wright, leader from the afternoon, introduced Mr. N.Parker, District Officer and the Forester Mr. John Hendry.Mr. Wright explained that they in the North had now a no-thinningpolicy in most of their plantations. This was done after they hadexperienced no relief from windblow after thinning in most of theirplantations on gley soils. Most of their plantations in this area were atelevations over 700 ft. Their general policy at present was to bringthe rotation up to 95% of M.M.A.1. on moderate wind risk areas andthen clearfell. Their hope, more than their experience was that theprocess of natural selection would work to a degree and provide acrop, though slower grown, yet of large enough diameter and of goodquality to be saleable. They had not as yet worked out how it wouldbe possible to regulatye the flow but it would possibly be on the basisof clearing the more exposed areas first.To support their arguments, they showed us various areas wherethinning had been done and the windblow that followed was there tobe seen. They said that they were not touching these areas to take outthe blown timber as this, they felt, would lead to more blow; thisapplied particularly to blow edges.There followed a lusty argument between the management "heavyweights" on both sides of the border as to which decision was best.Both held on to their own points of view with the south maintainingthat its decision to thin had so far, in the main, paid off and that byreducing the rotations they would avoid the worst of the windseffects. For the future, they had the prescription now beinginvestigated by Research which held good promise.Mr. Milner and Mr. Saville on the Research side in the North,explained work they had done on drainage on gley soils. They hadexperimented with drains spaced at various distances apart andinserted bore holes at different distances from the drain edge. Theirconclusion was that these drains lowered the water table only to onemetre from the drain's edge. As a result of this their present advicewas that it was only necessary to put enough drains in to take surfacewater away and that any very elaborate drainage system was largelya waste of time.The meeting then concluded and the leaders and the various foreststaff and research staff were thanked for providing a very interestingand instructive day. The Ministry of Agriculture in the North and theForest and Wildlife Service in the South were thanked for makingtheir forests available for the excursion.M. J. SheridanNote: A report on the meeting at Barnesmore Forest on 21st September 1978, willappear in the next issue.

Society ActivitiesAnnual General Meeting 1978Council Report for 1 977149Council MeetingsSix meetings were held during the year. Attendence of Councillorswas as follows:L. Furlong, J. Gillespie ............ ............. ................. 6 meetingsM. L. Carey, E. P. Farrell,L. O'Flanagan, C. Tottenham ...... .... .. ................... 5 meetingsP. M. Joyce, J. Prior, M. O'Brien ........................ 4 meetingsE. Joyce, F. Mulloy, P. Savill ............................... 3 meetingsP. J. Morrissey, W. Wright ..... ... .. ... ...................... 2 meetingsSociety meetingsThere was a large turnout for the day study tour to BallycassidySawmills and General Moore's Estate, Mountfield, Co. Tyrone.Sunday meetings were held at Derryvullagh Island, Kilberry Bog,Co. Kildare and Donadea Forest. A successful symposium onSitka spruce was held at Belfield. The proceedings of thesymposium were printed in Irish Forestry, Vol. 34, No.1. A lectureentitled "Harvesting, the practice in Scandinavia" was presented byMr. K. Hutchinson at venues in Sligo and Dublin. The Societyexpresses its thanks to those who acted as field leaders and speakers.Guided Forest WalksAlmost six thousand people participated in walks last September,which were held at ~ 2 centres throughout the country. The Societywishes to thank Mr. J. Connelly who undertook the organisation ofthis event and those members who acted as Walk Leaders at thevarious centres. The assistance and co-operation of the Forest &Wildlife Service, Dublin and the Forest Service, Belfast, is alsoacknowledged.Annual Study TourThe Annual Study Tour, held in May, was based in Killarney. Asummary of Tour Events is given in Irish Forestry, Vol. 34, No.2.Our thanks are due to Mr. P. White and Mr. D. Walshe, tour leaders,and staff who assisted with the organisation in conjunction with theMeetings Sub-Committee.Annual General MeetingThe 35th A.G.M. was held on Saturday, March 26th, 1977, at theShelbourne Hotel, Dublin. \ The minutes are available in IrishForestry, Vol. 34, No.2. Under public business, Dr. C.P. Van Goor

150 Irish Forestrydelivered a paper entitled "Trends in Forestry Research and itsimplications for Silviculture" (published in Irish Forestry, Vol. 34,No.2, 1977).Society PublicationsIrish Forestry, Vol. 34, Nos. 1 and 2 were published. A revised"Why Forests?" was again issued with other literature in conjunctionwith the Guided Forest Walks publicity drive.ExaminationsThe 1977 examinations followed the revised Syllabus andRegulations, which were printed and issued during the year. Threecandidates presented themselves for the Foresters Certificateexamination held in December 1977. The results are not yetavailable. There were no candidates for the Preliminary Certificate.ElectionsThree positions of Councillor Technical for the period 1978-80were filled by election.New MembersA total of 48 new members were enrolled in the followingcategories:Technical 33 Associate 11 Student 4Signed:JOHN GILLESPIE(Hon. Secretary)MINUTES OF THE 36th ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING,Friday, 10th March 1978, in the Science Room, Royal Dublin Society,DublinThe President, Dr. P. M. Joyce in the chair, present were: Misses L.Furling, M. Aherne, E. McCreesh and B. Morrissey: Messrs. J.O'Driscoll, M. Carey, T. Moloney, D. McGlynn, T. McEvoy, J. J.Gatins, J. Fennessey, D. Mangan, D. McAree, D. O'Brien, R.McCarthy, J. Dillon, J. Connelly, J. Brosnan, F. Shekleton, L.Quinn, N. O'Carroll, L. O'Flanagan, J. Prior, S. Hayes, M.Sheridan, J. Gardiner, F. Mulloy, J. Gillespie. Apologies werereceived from P. Savill and W. Jack.Secretary's business: The minutes of the 35th Annual GeneralMeeting having been published in Irish Forestry, Vol. 34, No.2,were taken as read and duly signed. Adoption of the Council Reportfor 1977 was proposed by Mr. L. O'Flanagan and seconded by Mr.Shekleton.

Society Activities 151In reply to a question from Mr. McGlynn, Mr. Prior,Examinations Convenor, informed the meeting that two candidateshad been successful in the Forester's Certificate Examination. Hepoint out that this was the first time that the new Regulations andSyllabus had been in use and expressed the hope that an increase inthe number of members sitting the Society's examination wouldresult.In reply to a query from Mr. T. McEvoy, it was stated that therehad been a net increase of thirty in the Society's membership. It wasgenerally felt that the very successful 1977 Symposium had attractedmany new members.Dr. O'Carroll informed the meeting that progress was being madein the preparation of a new edition of "Forests of Ireland" and thathe expected publication within the year.Abstract of accounts: On the proposal of Mr. McGlynn, secondedby Mr. D. O'Brien, the Statement of Accounts was formally adopted.In response to comments from Mr. McGlynn and Mr. O'Brien, thePresident stated that the large balance held by the Society would beused in large part to finance the pUblication of the new edition of"Forests of Ireland". Regarding the amount of the Honoraria paid toofficers, the President pointed out that a great volume of work is doneby Councillors who are not in receipt of Honoraria.In reply to queries from Mr. Moloney, the Treasurer stated that anincrease in advertising rates should reduce the revenue loss on theJournal.Mr. Prior, in reply to queries from Mr. McEvoy, stated that theexamination fees had been increased with effect from 1978 and that theexceptional expenditure in 1977 was due to cost of printing the revisedRegulations and Syllabus. The Treasurer stated that fifty pounds listedunder Donations had been received from the Bank of Ireland.Mr. Dillon commented that secretarial expenses showed a decreasefrom the previous year and Mr. McEvoy noted that the fact thatCouncillors did not claim travelling expenses also contributed tokeeping down costs.Elections: The 1978 Council elections were confirmed as follows:President, F. Mulloy; Vice-President, N. O'Carroll; Secretary, J.Gillespie; Treasurer, M. Carey; Editor, E. Farrell; Business Editor,M. O'Brien; Honorary Auditor, W. Jack; Councillors, (Technical) J.Dillon, E. Joyce, J. Prior; Councillor, (Associate) L. Furlong.Presidential Address: The President in his address thanked theSociety and Council for their support and assistance during the year.He mentioned in particular three members to whom the Society isgreatly indebted: Bill Jack, the Ijonorary Auditor; John Connelly, theForests Walks Organiser; and Niall O'Carroll, currently working on"F orests of Ireland".

152 Irish ForestryIn welcoming Mr. Fergal Mulloy, the incoming President, Dr.Joyce expressed his satisfaction in handing over to a member whohad done so much for the Society.Other Business: Miss Furlong listed the following event for thecoming year: Symposium entitled "Wood for Industry in Ireland" tobe held in April; Day Study tours to the Monaghan/Fermanagh areaand to Kennedy Park to be held in May-mid June; Annual StudyTour to be held in the North East in September.In answer to points raised by Mr. McGlynn and Mr. Moloney, thePresident, Mr. Mulloy pointed out that the Society would be will toco-operate with other societies or organisations provided such cooperationwas in accordance with and furthered the aims of theSociety. In conclusion, Mr. Mulloy stated that, despite the fact thatthe majority of Councillors were employers of the Forest and WildlifeService, it was his opinion that the Society always maintained itsindependence.

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