who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ...
who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ... who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ...
370'emotional intensity in communication', while Asian-Americans tend towards 'respect forsilence' (Taylor, 1994:54)". This seems interesting, as according to some publications,mentioned earlier, the incidence of stuttering among African-Americans is higher than inthe general USA population, so these words from the article may imply that theprevalence of stuttering (at least the referral rate) among Asian Americans in the USAmight be lower than among African Americans. The article does not provide anyinformation about the incidence or referral rate.In another article (Bebout & Arthur, 1997) the views of Chinese and Americanstudents on speech disorders are discussed. According to the results of the study, Chinesestudents in the USA believe that willpower is the most important element to fight fluencyproblems (unlike American students as a comparison group, who believe that the problemis innate and you can not do much to help yourself and become fluent). There is also aninteresting note in the article stating that according to some Cantonese speakers "...theydid not seek treatment for their own or their children's stuttering because such patternswould not have been considered a problem in their own country". These words imply thatthere might be a lower referral rate among the Chinese population in USA, although thearticle still does not actually say that Chinese stutterers in USA clinics are representedless than among the general population.Of course, these scattered bits of information, including our own preliminaryresearch of the prevalence of stuttering among Chinese, although based on the opinion ofprofessional Chinese speech pathologists, is not sufficient to finally conclude that theworld’s biggest population has a much reduced number of stutterers. Fortunately, thisquestion is not among the questions that cannot be answered precisely. More than abillion Chinese live on our planet, and a prevalence research among several thousandstudents from primary and secondary schools, conducted by professional and unbiasedspeech pathologists, should be able to give us a relatively precise answer to this question.Reasons? Plenty of them!Interestingly, there was no shortage of different explanations for the possiblyreduced number of stutterers among the Chinese. These explanations were expressed by avery wide range of people, from the world’s leading speech pathologist to ordinarypeople with some knowledge of Chinese culture. The most popular explanation, that theChinese do not stutter because both Mandarin and Cantonese are tone languages(“stutterers do not stutter when they sing, and Chinese constantly ‘ sing’ as they speak”),obviously does not work, because West Africans also speak tone languages, but havearguably the highest stuttering prevalence in the world.The monosyllabic and syllabic-timed character of the Mandarin and Cantoneselanguages was also suggested as the reason for the reduced prevalence, although thiscannot explain the reduced prevalence among Native Americans or the Central AsianKazakhs. Even infanticide was suggested, although stuttering is not something you wouldnotice when a baby is just born.
371There are some well-researched publications about stuttering in Japan (see reviewin van Riper, 1971:39; Bloodstein, 1995:131). It would be interesting to know if theAinus (carriers of the polyphonic traditions unique to East Asia) somehow have a higherstuttering prevalence in Japan to investigate whether the potentially higher prevalence inJapan (supposedly higher than in China) is due to the Ainu substratum among theJapanese.ConclusionsIt is too early to draw the final conclusions. The cross-cultural prevalence ofstuttering is not researched sufficiently. Although some regions of the world areresearched quite well, from the other regions information is very limited, and there is noinformation whatsoever from a few regions. However, there are a few regions that havebeen researched and show quite clear differences.• European and North American populations of European descent have about aroughly 0.8%-1% prevalence (Bloodstein, 1995).• African American, sub-Saharan African and West Indies populations (with themajor part of the population of African descent) show a higher prevalence (reaching up to4%, 5% and even 9.2% in some populations). West Africa could be the region with thehighest stuttering prevalence in the world. Unfortunately, no data is available regardingstuttering in Pygmy populations.• At least some populations of North American Indians have a significantlyreduced number of stuttering individuals.• According to preliminary evaluation, Native Australians also have a muchreduced number of stuttering individuals.• The same can be true for some North Asian and Central Asian populations,although the available information can be treated only as preliminary.• The same can be said about the biggest population of our planet – the Chinese.According to preliminary research, the number of stuttering individuals can besignificantly reduced, although more detailed study is needed for more decisive results.Therefore, the differences in the stuttering prevalence between differentpopulations on our planet can turn out to be very significant. For example, the prevalencedifference between some populations of West Africa and some populations of NativeAmericans can be more than 100 times bigger. In this context the use of the Europeanprevalence (0.8%) to characterize the stuttering prevalence of the world population ishardly a reasonable policy.It is not a bad thing to remember the dangers of generalization:• Europeans can drink milk, but most of the world’s populations cannot;• European professional music started as monophonic and later, under thepressure of traditional polyphonic singing practice it became polyphonic, but this changefrom monophonyto polyphony seems to be a unique occurrence in the history of music;
- Page 319 and 320: 319whistle with a whistle. The inte
- Page 321 and 322: 321referential function. In contemp
- Page 323 and 324: 323mental abilities, but even music
- Page 325 and 326: 325articulated elements, where the
- Page 327 and 328: 327development experts would unanim
- Page 329 and 330: 329years after 1996, if I see a new
- Page 331 and 332: 331• Why do we ask questions?This
- Page 333 and 334: 333With the emergence of the abilit
- Page 335 and 336: 335apes’ and humans’ mental abi
- Page 337 and 338: 337The fascinating fact about the T
- Page 339 and 340: 339curiosity cannot exist, although
- Page 341 and 342: 341• Question intonation is argua
- Page 343 and 344: 343A few cases of “wolf children
- Page 345 and 346: 345(2) Children under two and pidgi
- Page 347 and 348: 347Let’s Talk: Origin of SpeechTh
- Page 349 and 350: 349article concluded with the sugge
- Page 351 and 352: 351are disposed to accept such a vi
- Page 353 and 354: 353articulated speech among the anc
- Page 355 and 356: 355speech (possibly in conjunction
- Page 357 and 358: 357function, while in the sub-Sahar
- Page 359 and 360: 359acquired, it is one of the most
- Page 361 and 362: 361millennia. So the historical dyn
- Page 363 and 364: 363of stuttering was mostly margina
- Page 365 and 366: 365when I reminded her of our conve
- Page 367 and 368: 367• A comparison of the stutteri
- Page 369: 369predisposition towards stutterin
- Page 373 and 374: 373Developmental dyslexiaStuttering
- Page 375 and 376: 375mastery or correct usage of soun
- Page 377 and 378: 377• As the process of the declin
- Page 379 and 380: 379major African ground predators (
- Page 381 and 382: 381PostScript:Moral and ethics issu
- Page 383 and 384: 383(Jordania, 1989:240), believing
- Page 385 and 386: 385without turning these difference
- Page 387 and 388: 387Central African Republic, Bangul
- Page 389 and 390: 389polyphon y.” 4. Nailia Almeeva
- Page 391 and 392: 391aural tradition: Results and the
- Page 393 and 394: 3931. Tamar Chkheidze. “Peculiari
- Page 395 and 396: 395Krimanchuli (Yodel) in West Geor
- Page 397 and 398: 397ReferencesABDUSHELISHVILI, MALKH
- Page 399 and 400: 399ASAFIEV, BORIS. 1971. Musical fo
- Page 401 and 402: 401BLACKING, JOHN. 1973. How musica
- Page 403 and 404: 403BUCHER, KARL. 1923 (1919). Arbei
- Page 405 and 406: 405COOKE, PETER. 1998. East Africa:
- Page 407 and 408: 407ELSCHEKOVA, ALICA. 1963. “Der
- Page 409 and 410: 409GANDOUR, JACK, SORANEE H. PETTY,
- Page 411 and 412: 411HALPERN, IDA. 1975. “Music of
- Page 413 and 414: 413JELINEK, JAN. 1978. Homo erectus
- Page 415 and 416: 415methodologies? Erich Stockmann z
- Page 417 and 418: 417---- 1975. Music of Ainu. In Pro
- Page 419 and 420: 419KUTER, LOIS. Brittany. In The Ga
370'emotional intensity in communication', while Asian-Americans tend towards 'respect forsilence' (Taylor, 1994:54)". This seems interesting, as according to some publications,mentioned earlier, <strong>the</strong> incidence of stuttering among African-Americans is higher than in<strong>the</strong> general USA population, so <strong>the</strong>se words from <strong>the</strong> article may imply that <strong>the</strong>prevalence of stuttering (at least <strong>the</strong> referral rate) among Asian Americans in <strong>the</strong> USAmight be lower than among African Americans. The article does not provide anyinformation about <strong>the</strong> incidence or referral rate.In ano<strong>the</strong>r article (Bebout & Arthur, 1997) <strong>the</strong> views of Chinese and Americanstudents on speech disorders are discussed. According to <strong>the</strong> results of <strong>the</strong> study, Chinesestudents in <strong>the</strong> USA believe that willpower is <strong>the</strong> most important element to fight fluencyproblems (unlike American students as a comparison group, <strong>who</strong> believe that <strong>the</strong> problemis innate and you can not do much to help yourself and become fluent). There is also aninteresting note in <strong>the</strong> article stating that according to some Cantonese speakers "...<strong>the</strong>ydid not seek treatment for <strong>the</strong>ir own or <strong>the</strong>ir children's stuttering because such patternswould not have been considered a problem in <strong>the</strong>ir own country". These words imply that<strong>the</strong>re might be a lower referral rate among <strong>the</strong> Chinese population in USA, although <strong>the</strong>article still does not actually say that Chinese stutterers in USA clinics are representedless than among <strong>the</strong> general population.Of course, <strong>the</strong>se scattered bits of information, including our own preliminaryresearch of <strong>the</strong> prevalence of stuttering among Chinese, although based on <strong>the</strong> opinion ofprofessional Chinese speech pathologists, is not sufficient to finally conclude that <strong>the</strong>world’s biggest population has a much reduced number of stutterers. <strong>For</strong>tunately, this<strong>question</strong> is not among <strong>the</strong> <strong>question</strong>s that cannot be answered precisely. More than abillion Chinese live on our planet, and a prevalence research among several thousandstudents from primary and secondary schools, conducted by professional and unbiasedspeech pathologists, should be able to give us a relatively precise answer to this <strong>question</strong>.Reasons? Plenty of <strong>the</strong>m!Interestingly, <strong>the</strong>re was no shortage of different explanations for <strong>the</strong> possiblyreduced number of stutterers among <strong>the</strong> Chinese. These explanations were expressed by avery wide range of people, from <strong>the</strong> world’s leading speech pathologist to ordinarypeople with some knowledge of Chinese culture. The most popular explanation, that <strong>the</strong>Chinese do not stutter because both Mandarin and Cantonese are tone languages(“stutterers do not stutter when <strong>the</strong>y sing, and Chinese constantly ‘ sing’ as <strong>the</strong>y speak”),obviously does not work, because West Africans also speak tone languages, but havearguably <strong>the</strong> highest stuttering prevalence in <strong>the</strong> world.The monosyllabic and syllabic-timed character of <strong>the</strong> Mandarin and Cantoneselanguages was also suggested as <strong>the</strong> reason for <strong>the</strong> reduced prevalence, although thiscannot explain <strong>the</strong> reduced prevalence among Native Americans or <strong>the</strong> Central AsianKazakhs. Even infanticide was suggested, although stuttering is not something you wouldnotice when a baby is just born.