who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ...
who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ... who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ...
346Richard Byrne proposed that baby talk is an “unintentional way for teachinggrammar” (Byrne, 1995:122), and that it is “an ideal vehicle for helping the child… tolearn phonology and grammar” (ibid, 37). I find this idea compelling, although it seemsto me that the primary task of baby talk is to teach infants two-way question-and-answerbaseddialogical communication and, most importantly, to teach them to ask questions(or: to activate their genetic ability to ask questions). I do not need to argue that askingquestions with exaggerated question intonation is arguably the biggest part of baby talk.Infants’ particular interest in pitch modulations has been tested and confirmed (Fernald etal., 1989).• Question of chronology:When was the ability to ask questions born?If we try to link paleoanthropological data and this revolutionary change inhominid cognition and language, we must take into account that question intonation, theremnant of this cognitive and linguistic revolution, as well as the syntactic means offorming interrogatives, are one of the most widely distributed language universals allover the world. This universality strongly suggests that: (1) question phenomenonoccurred at one place and time, and (2) this happened before the wide dispersal of humanancestors from Africa (about 2 million years ago). Taking into account these factors, anyof the human hominid ancestors could have made this critical step in our cognitivedevelopment. If not earlier, this must have happened at least at the stage of Homo erectus.Barbara King wrote: “At present, Homo erectus seems to represent a kind of turningpoint for information donation among hominids” (King, 1994:109)Therefore, the time range for the emergence of the question phenomenon issupposed to be around 2 million years ago. Thus, the Australopithecines, with theirasymmetric brains and voluntary vocalizations, did not ask questions yet.According to this suggestion, Homo erectus was the first human to cross thecognitive threshold, leaving behind the animal kingdom. Consequently, there is no"difference of kind" between the cognitive and linguistic abilities of Homo erectus andHomo sapiens. This proposal complies with the idea about the equation of the taxonsHomo erectus and Homo sapiens as expressed by some anthropologists, who have mostlysupported the multiregional evolutionary model (Weidenreich, 1943:246; Jelinek, 1978,1981; Wolpoff et al. 1984:465-467; Wolpoff, 1989, 1999:395-97; Frayer et al. 1993).Although Homo erectus seems to be the best nominee for the first inventor of thequestion and for the role of first human, we should also consider the candidature of Homohabilis, the first human stone toolmaker (about 2.5 mya). I would suggest that Homohabilis might have possessed the ability to ask questions. As for Homo erectus, it musthave definitely had this cognitive-linguistic ability.
347Let’s Talk: Origin of SpeechThe emergence of articulated speech was one of the latest acquisitions of ourancestors. Articulated speech changed the form of communication and increased thespeed and efficiency of communication (Lieberman, 1984, 1991). The appearance ofarticulated speech must have affected the structure of the supralaryngeal tract(Lieberman, 1984, 1991, 1992), the basicranium (Laitman, 1983, 1985), the oral cavity(Duchin, 1990) and facial details (Krantz, 1980,1994). At the same time, despite all theseimportant changes, human self-developing emerged long before the appearance of articulated speech.cognition, mental cooperation and dialogiclanguageTherefore, according to the suggested model, the importance of articulated speechin the history of our species seems a little exaggerated. I share the opinion that "The mostbasic aspect is the neurological capacity for symbolic thought, the ability to form mentalimages of things... It is only of secondary importance just how these thoughts arecommunicated" (Krantz, 1973:26).Reviewing the vast literature about the origin of human language and speech, onemay be puzzled by the diversity of points of view on this problem. All the fossilhominids, including Homo habilis and even Australopithecines (Holloway, 1983; Tobias,1971, 1983; Falk, 1980), up to the Homo sapiens in the Upper Paleolithic (Washburn &Lancaster, 1971; Swadesh, 1971; Klein, 1989a), are among the possible candidates forour "first talking" ancestors. The most accepted is the assumption that language andspeech appeared in hominid history during the existence of Homo erectus.Even a brief survey of works connected with the problem of the origin oflanguag e and speech shows a diversity of methods. Scholars use the fact of the growth ofbrain size as the main indicator of the emergence of language and speech among the earlyhominids (see: Falk, 1975; Jerison, 1973), appearance of hemispheric asymmetry and theBroca and Wernicke areas in the brain (Falk, 1975; Holloway & De La Coste-Laneymodie, 1982; Tobias, 1983), comparative anatomy of supralaryngeal tract(Lieberman, 1984, 1991), basicranium (Laitman, 1983, 1985), anatomy of oral cavity(Duchin, 1990), preparation and standardisation of stone tools (Holloway, 1969), andeven the development of art (Davidson & Noble, 1989; Noble & Davidson, 1996). Usingthe same data, other scholars reach different conclusions. Some of them do not considerbrain size as important as the inner organization of the brain (Holloway, 1983), somewrite about the difficulties of identification of the specific Broca and Wernicke areas andtheir functions on the fossil endocasts, and some write about the presence of these brainareas in the monkeys' brains (Deacon, 1992:117). The methods and results of thereconstruction of the supralaryngeal tract have been challenged (Falk, 1975; Le May,1975; Arensburg et al. 1989; Frayer, 1992); causal links between the preparation andstandardization of stone tools and the development of language have also been criticized(Wynn, 1979, 1989; Graves, 1994).The suggested scenario of the emergence of articulated speech is based on humanmusical activities. I suppose that a study of some basic elements of human musicality(particularly singing) could give us important insights into the process of the emergenceof the later communication medium - speech.
- Page 295 and 296: 295European and Middle Eastern mono
- Page 297 and 298: 297This characteristic raises one s
- Page 299 and 300: 299is not only a linguistic problem
- Page 301 and 302: 301with all their communicative ski
- Page 303 and 304: 303cooperative (and not competitive
- Page 305 and 306: 305group and groom each other, they
- Page 307 and 308: 307hungry lion. And here comes anot
- Page 309 and 310: 309“attacking power” of the “
- Page 311 and 312: 311Singing in Peaceful Times:Toward
- Page 313 and 314: 313he changed his view and linked t
- Page 315 and 316: 315Gestural Theory of Language Orig
- Page 317 and 318: 317among hominids. The situation of
- Page 319 and 320: 319whistle with a whistle. The inte
- Page 321 and 322: 321referential function. In contemp
- Page 323 and 324: 323mental abilities, but even music
- Page 325 and 326: 325articulated elements, where the
- Page 327 and 328: 327development experts would unanim
- Page 329 and 330: 329years after 1996, if I see a new
- Page 331 and 332: 331• Why do we ask questions?This
- Page 333 and 334: 333With the emergence of the abilit
- Page 335 and 336: 335apes’ and humans’ mental abi
- Page 337 and 338: 337The fascinating fact about the T
- Page 339 and 340: 339curiosity cannot exist, although
- Page 341 and 342: 341• Question intonation is argua
- Page 343 and 344: 343A few cases of “wolf children
- Page 345: 345(2) Children under two and pidgi
- Page 349 and 350: 349article concluded with the sugge
- Page 351 and 352: 351are disposed to accept such a vi
- Page 353 and 354: 353articulated speech among the anc
- Page 355 and 356: 355speech (possibly in conjunction
- Page 357 and 358: 357function, while in the sub-Sahar
- Page 359 and 360: 359acquired, it is one of the most
- Page 361 and 362: 361millennia. So the historical dyn
- Page 363 and 364: 363of stuttering was mostly margina
- Page 365 and 366: 365when I reminded her of our conve
- Page 367 and 368: 367• A comparison of the stutteri
- Page 369 and 370: 369predisposition towards stutterin
- Page 371 and 372: 371There are some well-researched p
- Page 373 and 374: 373Developmental dyslexiaStuttering
- Page 375 and 376: 375mastery or correct usage of soun
- Page 377 and 378: 377• As the process of the declin
- Page 379 and 380: 379major African ground predators (
- Page 381 and 382: 381PostScript:Moral and ethics issu
- Page 383 and 384: 383(Jordania, 1989:240), believing
- Page 385 and 386: 385without turning these difference
- Page 387 and 388: 387Central African Republic, Bangul
- Page 389 and 390: 389polyphon y.” 4. Nailia Almeeva
- Page 391 and 392: 391aural tradition: Results and the
- Page 393 and 394: 3931. Tamar Chkheidze. “Peculiari
- Page 395 and 396: 395Krimanchuli (Yodel) in West Geor
346Richard Byrne proposed that baby talk is an “unintentional way for teachinggrammar” (Byrne, 1995:122), and that it is “an ideal vehicle for helping <strong>the</strong> child… tolearn phonology and grammar” (ibid, 37). I find this idea compelling, although it seemsto me that <strong>the</strong> primary task of baby talk is to teach infants two-way <strong>question</strong>-and-answerbaseddialogical communication and, most importantly, to teach <strong>the</strong>m to ask <strong>question</strong>s(or: to activate <strong>the</strong>ir genetic ability to ask <strong>question</strong>s). I do not need to argue that asking<strong>question</strong>s with exaggerated <strong>question</strong> intonation is arguably <strong>the</strong> biggest part of baby talk.Infants’ particular interest in pitch modulations has been tested and confirmed (Fernald etal., 1989).• Question of chronology:When was <strong>the</strong> ability to ask <strong>question</strong>s born?If we try to link paleoanthropological data and this revolutionary change inhominid cognition and language, we must take into account that <strong>question</strong> intonation, <strong>the</strong>remnant of this cognitive and linguistic revolution, as well as <strong>the</strong> syntactic means offorming interrogatives, are one of <strong>the</strong> most widely distributed language universals allover <strong>the</strong> world. This universality strongly suggests that: (1) <strong>question</strong> phenomenonoccurred at one place and time, and (2) this happened before <strong>the</strong> wide dispersal of humanancestors from Africa (about 2 million years ago). Taking into account <strong>the</strong>se factors, anyof <strong>the</strong> human hominid ancestors could have made this critical step in our cognitivedevelopment. If not earlier, this must have happened at least at <strong>the</strong> stage of Homo erectus.Barbara King wrote: “At present, Homo erectus seems to represent a kind of turningpoint for information donation among hominids” (King, 1994:109)Therefore, <strong>the</strong> time range for <strong>the</strong> emergence of <strong>the</strong> <strong>question</strong> phenomenon issupposed to be around 2 million years ago. Thus, <strong>the</strong> Australopi<strong>the</strong>cines, with <strong>the</strong>irasymmetric brains and voluntary vocalizations, did not ask <strong>question</strong>s yet.According to this suggestion, Homo erectus was <strong>the</strong> <strong>first</strong> human to cross <strong>the</strong>cognitive threshold, leaving behind <strong>the</strong> animal kingdom. Consequently, <strong>the</strong>re is no"difference of kind" between <strong>the</strong> cognitive and linguistic abilities of Homo erectus andHomo sapiens. This proposal complies with <strong>the</strong> idea about <strong>the</strong> equation of <strong>the</strong> taxonsHomo erectus and Homo sapiens as expressed by some anthropologists, <strong>who</strong> have mostlysupported <strong>the</strong> multiregional evolutionary model (Weidenreich, 1943:246; Jelinek, 1978,1981; Wolpoff et al. 1984:465-467; Wolpoff, 1989, 1999:395-97; Frayer et al. 1993).Although Homo erectus seems to be <strong>the</strong> best nominee for <strong>the</strong> <strong>first</strong> inventor of <strong>the</strong><strong>question</strong> and for <strong>the</strong> role of <strong>first</strong> human, we should also consider <strong>the</strong> candidature of Homohabilis, <strong>the</strong> <strong>first</strong> human stone toolmaker (about 2.5 mya). I would suggest that Homohabilis might have possessed <strong>the</strong> ability to ask <strong>question</strong>s. As for Homo erectus, it musthave definitely had this cognitive-linguistic ability.
Change language