who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ...
who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ... who asked the first question? - International Research Center For ...
western Georgian polyphonic “trio” songs (discussed later) singers intenselylisten to each other and are very much mutually dependant. It would be moreprecise to say that in contrapuntal (or free) polyphony there is no hierarchybetween the parts, as none of them can claim to be more important than theother parts. So, I would suggest, that contrapuntal polyphony is not “free”, or“independent”, but rather “egalitarian”. Another fruitful idea would be todivide contrapuntal polyphony into two subtypes – (1) imitational polyphonyand (2) non-imitational, or contrast polyphony. As I wrote above regardingcanonic forms of polyphony, professional polyphony uses more imitationalforms, and folk polyphony mostly uses non-imitational forms of polyphony.(5) Ostinato polyphony is based on the constant repetition of a relatively shortmusical phrase (phrases) in one or several parts. As repetition is one of thekey elements of traditional polyphonic cultures, ostinato is present in most ofthe polyphonic traditions, both in vocal and instrumental music. Ostinato canbe present in one part, in two parts, etc. The most widespread form of ostinatocontains a repetitive phrase in one of the voices. Ostinato is mostly present inthe base, but it can be in the top part as well, and in rare cases in the middle ofthe texture. Like a drone, ostinato creates a powerful pitch reference point forother parts, but unlike the drone, ostinato is more melodically active. It is apowerful “engine” and the point of reference both for the melodic and metrorhythmicdevelopment of the song. One of the most colorful and specifictechniques of the use of ostinato in a top voice is yodel. In some polyphonictraditions (particularly in dance genres) ostinato principle becomes sodominant (in all parts), that no space is left for any other compositionalprinciple of polyphony in the entire polyphonic texture. In such cases thewhole texture is filled up with continuous ostinato phrases. Gabisonia callsthis subtype of ostinato polyphony “total ostinato” (Gabisonia, 1988:9). Sub-Saharan African music is filled with ostinato phrases. According to Arom, “allthe polyphonic and polyrhythmic procedures used in Central Africa… [couldbe described] … as ostinatos with variations” (Arom, 1991:39).(6) Heterophonic polyphony takes place when members of the singing groupsing different versions (variants) of the main melody. Another term – “variantheterophony” seems even better describing the essence of this type of texture.In a certain sense, heterophony is a “shadow of the unison”, as in everyculture with traditional unison singing there always a possibility of someelements of heterophony appearing. Although heterophony is present in mostof the major regions of the world, East European region with three Slavicpeoples seems to be the kingdom of very interesting (and sometimes verycomplex) forms of heterophony. In heterophonic texture unison andpolyphonic sections usually alternate. Subtypes of heterophonic polyphonymostly differ from each other according to the quantity and quality of thedifferences between the versions of the main melody, sung by differentperformers. Heterophonic polyphony differs from all other types ofpolyphony, because it can belong to(a) Polyphonic family (when the differences between the versions arewell defined), or it could also belong to28
29(b) Monophonic family (when the deviations from the unison areminimal). As it often happens in similar cases, where the differenceis purely quantitative (and not qualitative), we could also distinguishthe third subtype, strategically positioned between the “polyphonic”and “monophonic” subtypes. Adler suggested classifyingheterophony alongside homophony and polyphony as a third stylisticcategory (Adler, 1908:24). So, heterophony is strategicallypositioned in-between two great families of musical cultures:polyphonic and monophonic. Particular interest towardsheterophonic singing was expressed by the scholars interested inproblems of historical musicology, when discussing the practicalways of the emergence of the initial rudimentary forms of polyphonyfrom the “primordial monophonic” singing tradition. As thediscussion of the problem of the origins of polyphony (and definingthe place of heterophony in this process) is one of the aims of thisbook, I will be addressing this topic in the second and third parts ofthe book.(c)In some polyphonic traditions of East Slavic peoples (and some oftheir neighbors, see in a section discussing polyphonic traditions ofRussian minorities) there is a tradition of “thick” heterophonicperformance of the main melody, contrasted by only one singer ontop, who sings a functionally different from the main melody part(often a drone).(7) Overlapping polyphony takes place when two different parts, instead offollowing each other in antiphon, start overlapping. This means that the newpart comes in while the previous part has not yet finished its turn. Strictlyspeaking, overlapping is not an ordinary compositional principle. All the otherpolyphonic types are based on a certain principles of (1) melodic developmentof a part (drone and ostinato are in this group), and (2) vertical, or harmoniccoordination between the parts (parallelism, canon, counterpoint, chordalpolyphony and heterophony would be in this group). Overlapping polyphonydoes not belong to any of these categories.(8) Chordal polyphony, or homophony is a type of polyphony where parts aremoving in a steady progression of chords. Chordal polyphony mostly (but notalways) develops in a slow or medium tempo. All the parts here follow thesame rhythm, and the overall sound is very full. Subtypes of chordalpolyphony could be distinguished according to the harmonic language, basedon(a) Chords with the triadic structure, or(b) Chords with non-triadic structure.Chordal polyphony often uses drones in different parts.(9) Synthesis polyphony. As usual, real life is much more complex than anytheoretically constructed classification scheme. The same is the case with theclassification scheme of polyphonic types and subtypes. In regards ofGeorgian traditional polyphony Gabisonia suggested using the notion of“synthesis” types of polyphony for the cases when polyphonic texture
- Page 3 and 4: ContentsForeword and acknowledgemen
- Page 5: South Asia: India (Assam; Southern
- Page 9: more enjoying the traditional ‘Ho
- Page 12 and 13: 12the rest of the country does not
- Page 14 and 15: 141989:Let me briefly introduce som
- Page 16 and 17: ‣ During the last 20 years of my
- Page 18 and 19: 18Saharan African populations, than
- Page 20 and 21: and of course, Sheree Reece from th
- Page 22 and 23: 22Part 1.World stylesof traditional
- Page 24 and 25: used term, although not universally
- Page 26 and 27: 30 January, 1986). Hugh Shields gav
- Page 30 and 31: 30contains more than one compositio
- Page 32 and 33: 32rhythmic component in African mus
- Page 34 and 35: Gerhard Kubik, if you want to count
- Page 36 and 37: 36missionaries was very much aided
- Page 38 and 39: as witness recordings by barely a d
- Page 40 and 41: 40England provides an incredibly in
- Page 42 and 43: of West Africa is a well-known and
- Page 44 and 45: 44African populations played a cruc
- Page 46 and 47: 46unusual element of Tuareg culture
- Page 48 and 49: 48heterophony). European profession
- Page 50 and 51: 50famously declared that to verify
- Page 52 and 53: Out of these five main types of Rus
- Page 54 and 55: 54heterophonic and octave forms of
- Page 56 and 57: 56Ex. 3. Abkhazia. (Akhobadze, Kort
- Page 58 and 59: 58Balkarians and KarachaevisThese t
- Page 60 and 61: 60Ossetian polyphony is based on th
- Page 62 and 63: 62Garakanidze, who conducted a shor
- Page 64 and 65: 64in the southern part of the settl
- Page 66 and 67: 66Almeeva noted the presence of the
- Page 68 and 69: 68UkraineRegarding polyphonic singi
- Page 70 and 71: 70200), the difference between dron
- Page 72 and 73: 72BelarusBelarus is a part of the
- Page 74 and 75: 74Besides the drone and heterophoni
- Page 76 and 77: 76of the feast traditions and long
29(b) Monophonic family (when <strong>the</strong> deviations from <strong>the</strong> unison areminimal). As it often happens in similar cases, where <strong>the</strong> differenceis purely quantitative (and not qualitative), we could also distinguish<strong>the</strong> third subtype, strategically positioned between <strong>the</strong> “polyphonic”and “monophonic” subtypes. Adler suggested classifyingheterophony alongside homophony and polyphony as a third stylisticcategory (Adler, 1908:24). So, heterophony is strategicallypositioned in-between two great families of musical cultures:polyphonic and monophonic. Particular interest towardsheterophonic singing was expressed by <strong>the</strong> scholars interested inproblems of historical musicology, when discussing <strong>the</strong> practicalways of <strong>the</strong> emergence of <strong>the</strong> initial rudimentary forms of polyphonyfrom <strong>the</strong> “primordial monophonic” singing tradition. As <strong>the</strong>discussion of <strong>the</strong> problem of <strong>the</strong> origins of polyphony (and defining<strong>the</strong> place of heterophony in this process) is one of <strong>the</strong> aims of thisbook, I will be addressing this topic in <strong>the</strong> second and third parts of<strong>the</strong> book.(c)In some polyphonic traditions of East Slavic peoples (and some of<strong>the</strong>ir neighbors, see in a section discussing polyphonic traditions ofRussian minorities) <strong>the</strong>re is a tradition of “thick” heterophonicperformance of <strong>the</strong> main melody, contrasted by only one singer ontop, <strong>who</strong> sings a functionally different from <strong>the</strong> main melody part(often a drone).(7) Overlapping polyphony takes place when two different parts, instead offollowing each o<strong>the</strong>r in antiphon, start overlapping. This means that <strong>the</strong> newpart comes in while <strong>the</strong> previous part has not yet finished its turn. Strictlyspeaking, overlapping is not an ordinary compositional principle. All <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rpolyphonic types are based on a certain principles of (1) melodic developmentof a part (drone and ostinato are in this group), and (2) vertical, or harmoniccoordination between <strong>the</strong> parts (parallelism, canon, counterpoint, chordalpolyphony and heterophony would be in this group). Overlapping polyphonydoes not belong to any of <strong>the</strong>se categories.(8) Chordal polyphony, or homophony is a type of polyphony where parts aremoving in a steady progression of chords. Chordal polyphony mostly (but notalways) develops in a slow or medium tempo. All <strong>the</strong> parts here follow <strong>the</strong>same rhythm, and <strong>the</strong> overall sound is very full. Subtypes of chordalpolyphony could be distinguished according to <strong>the</strong> harmonic language, basedon(a) Chords with <strong>the</strong> triadic structure, or(b) Chords with non-triadic structure.Chordal polyphony often uses drones in different parts.(9) Syn<strong>the</strong>sis polyphony. As usual, real life is much more complex than any<strong>the</strong>oretically constructed classification scheme. The same is <strong>the</strong> case with <strong>the</strong>classification scheme of polyphonic types and subtypes. In regards ofGeorgian traditional polyphony Gabisonia suggested using <strong>the</strong> notion of“syn<strong>the</strong>sis” types of polyphony for <strong>the</strong> cases when polyphonic texture
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