Crop yield response to water - Cra

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Care must be taken, however, to avoid misuse of the calculator’s versatility. For validation andparameterization of the model for a particular crop, such approximation should not be reliedon. The more the weather elements are missing the rougher the approximation of ET o , the lessreliable would be the simulated results and derived AquaCrop parameters.The daily, 10-day or monthly air temperature, ET o and rainfall data for each specific environmentare stored in their own climate folder in the AquaCrop database from where the programmeretrieves data at run time. In the absence of daily weather data, because the programme runsin daily steps, it invokes built-in procedures to approximate the required daily data from the10-day or monthly means. Again, the more approximate, the less reliable is the outcome. This isparticularly an acute problem for rainfall data. With its extremely heterogeneous distributionover time, the use of 10-day or monthly rainfall data completely grosses over the dynamicnature of crop response to water stress.Additionally, AquaCrop provides the mean yearly CO 2 concentration required for thesimulation, applicable for most locations. These yearly values are measured at the Mauna LoaObservatory in Hawaii and encompass the period from 1902 to the most recent available data.Several projected values can be retrieved from the AquaCrop database or entered by the user,following the climate change scenario to be investigated.Crop parametersAlthough grounded on basic and complex biophysical processes, AquaCrop uses a relativesmall number of crop parameters to characterize the crop. FAO has calibrated crop parametersfor several crops (Section 3.4), and provides them as default values in the crop files stored inAquaCrop database. The parameters fall into two categories, distinguished as conservative orcultivar and conditions dependent (see also Section 3.3).• The conservative crop parameters do not change with time, management practices, climate,or geographical location. Regarding cultivar differences, so far tests show the same valueof a conservative parameter is applicable to many cultivars, although some deviation maybe expected for cultivars of extreme characteristics. The decision to assign a particularparameter to the conservative category is based on conceptual and theoretical analysis, andon extensive empirical data demonstrating near constancy. Depending on extensiveness ofthe data sets used for the calibration, the calibrated value for a conservative parametermay require some small adjustment. This should be done, however, only if the adjustmentis based on high quality experimental data. Generally and in principle, the conservativeparameters require no adjustment to the local conditions or for the common cultivars, andcan be used as such in simulations. The conservative crop parameters are listed in Table 1. • The cultivar and condition dependent crop parameters are generally known to vary withcultivars and situations. Outstanding examples are life-cycle length and phenology ofcultivars. In Table 2, an overview is given of crop parameters that are likely to require anadjustment to account for the local cultivar and or local environmental and managementconditions. Reference HI (HI o ) is usually conservative for well developed high yieldingcultivars, and therefore is not included in Table 2 as a cultivar specific parameter. It isknown, however, that some special cultivar may have HI consistently either slightly higheror lower than the common cultivars. Adjustment in HI o would be justified in such cases.AquaCrop: concepts, rationale and operation 43
Table 1 Conservative crop parameters.Crop growth and development• Base temperature and upper temperature for growing degree days• Canopy size of the average seedling at 90 percent emergence (cc o )• Canopy growth coefficient (CGC); Canopy decline coefficient (CDC)• Crop determinacy linked/unlinked with flowering; Excess of potential fruit (%)Crop transpiration• Decline of crop coefficient as a result of ageingBiomass production and yield formation• Water productivity normalized for ET o and CO 2 (WP*)• Reduction coefficient describing the effect of the products synthesized during yield formation on thenormalized water productivity• Reference harvest index (HI o )StressesWater stresses• Upper and lower thresholds of soil-water depletion for canopy expansion and shape of the stress curve• Upper threshold of soil-water depletion for stomatal closure and shape of the stress curve• Upper threshold of soil-water depletion for early senescence and shape of the stress curve• Upper threshold of soil-water depletion for failure of pollination and shape of the stress curve• Possible increase of HI resulting from water stress before flowering• Coefficient describing positive impact of restricted vegetative growth during yield formation on HI• Coefficient describing negative impact of stomatal closure during yield formation on HI• Allowable maximum increase of specified HI• Anaerobiotic point (for effect of waterlogging on Tr)Temperature stress• Minimum and maximum air temperature below which pollination starts to fail• Minimum growing degrees required for full biomass productionTable 2List of crop parameters likely to require adjustments to account for the characteristics of thecultivar and local environment and management.Phenology (cultivar specific)• Time to flowering or the start of yield formation• Length of the flowering stage• Time to start of canopy senescence• Time to maturity (i.e. the length of crop cycle)Management dependent• Plant density• Time to 90 percent emergence• Maximum canopy cover (depends on plant density and cultivar, see Section 3.3)Soil dependent• Maximum rooting depth• Time to reach maximum rooting depthSoil and management dependent• Response to soil fertility• Soil salinity stress44crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
Page 16 and 17: 1. IntroductionFood production and
Page 21: Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
Page 31: 3. Yield response to waterof herbac
Page 40 and 41: The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
Page 43 and 44: figure 7 The root zone depicted as
Page 47 and 48: threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
Page 50 and 51: also calculated by multiplying with
Page 53: FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
Page 57: figure 17ClimateInput data defining
Page 62: figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
Page 67: Applications to Irrigation Manageme
Page 72: Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
Page 75 and 76: for each planting date. If there ar
Page 77: ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
Page 83 and 84: Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
Page 88 and 89: Table 2Additional information and d
Page 90 and 91: capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
Page 95 and 96: densities. This range is referred t
Page 97 and 98: Table 3Comparison of simulated with
Page 99 and 100: In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
Page 102: REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
Page 107 and 108: Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
Page 109 and 110:
Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
Page 113 and 114:
When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
Page 129 and 130:
Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
Page 159 and 160:
Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
Page 217 and 218:
Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
Page 261 and 262:
Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
Page 339 and 340:
Four crop-water-production function
Page 341 and 342:
size distribution toward more favou
Page 344 and 345:
Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
Page 386 and 387:
Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
Page 425 and 426:
There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
Page 437 and 438:
Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
Page 439 and 440:
is completed within 20 days; therea
Page 441 and 442:
or peach. However, because fruit is
Page 443 and 444:
to a midday value varying between -
Page 446 and 447:
Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
Page 457 and 458:
Under certain growing conditions, s
Page 459 and 460:
ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
Page 463 and 464:
Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
Page 465 and 466:
Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
Page 469 and 470:
environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
Page 487 and 488:
Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
Page 491 and 492:
Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
Page 493 and 494:
Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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