Crop yield response to water - Cra

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attention to rough estimations or approximations involved in determining the local parameters.Questions and request for assistance regarding the model should be directed to the AquaCrophelp-desk at its dedicated e-mail address (AquaCrop@fao.org).The yield response to water of tree crops and vines is tackled through Guidelines for Trees andVines (Chapter 4), as the current level of knowledge and the complexity of perennial cropsprevented the development of a simulation model such as AquaCrop. Irrigation managementof fruit and vine production must be based on accurate estimates of crop water requirementsand on the crop-specific responses to water deficits, with emphasis on fruit quality. Generalconcepts and applications are discussed first, followed by sections on specific crops whereyield responses to water supply are generalized in the form of production functions. Formany of these perennial crop plants, there are trade-offs between fruit quality and yield,as the maximum net economic return is achieved at irrigation levels below those neededfor maximum yield. One outstanding example of this response is described in the section ongrapes for wine production. Given such trade-offs and the increased water scarcity of manyworld areas, guidelines on the use of regulated deficit irrigation are included in every chapter,under certain assumptions on the restriction levels of water supply. The focus is on providingguidelines to optimize the use of a limited water supply, taking into account the sensitivity ofcertain growth stages to water deficits.The perennial crops tackled in Chapter 4 are mostly grown in the temperate zones becauseinsufficient information prevented inclusion of some important tropical tree crops. Given thegrowing demand for fruit, this subject matter is now receiving increased attention in researchprogrammes. Guidelines for additional perennial crops will be introduced in future versionsof this publication. The synthesis responses of fruit trees and vines to water presented hereoffers guidelines not only for improving the efficiency of water use in plantations but, also,for dealing with situations of water scarcity, which are a major threat to the viability andsustainability of fruit production in many areas of the world.Included in this new publication is a CD containing a copy of each of the following: (i)this whole publication (I&D Paper No. 66), (ii) the original FAO water production function(I&D Paper No. 33), (iii) the FAO guideline on crop evapotranspiration (I&D Paper No. 56), and(iv) a document listing potentially useful free-ware software and the internet link.As next steps, the maintenance and development of the model AquaCrop has three aspects.(1) One is the continuous improvement of the model and refinement of the parameters forthe crops already calibrated. It is anticipated that a new version of the model, promptedby feedbacks from users and testing with more extensive experimental data sets, may bereleased on the AquaCrop web-page as and when warranted. Regarding the crop parameters,as indicated on the AquaCrop website, the thoroughness of the parameterization variesfrom crop-to-crop. As more experimental data becomes available for calibration and testing,refinement in the parameter values are expected, and they will be posted on the website.(2)Additional herbaceous crops are and will continue to be calibrated. These may include commonbean, millet, cassava, sweet potato, chickpea, forage crops and leafy vegetables. Some ofthese are among the so-called locally-important crops, to which particular attention will bepaid. New crop sections, as well as the calibrated crop files with the calibrated parameters,will be provided on the AquaCrop web-page as they are finalized. (3) As part of the ongoingdevelopment of the software, special versions will be made available for use with variousEpilogue 499
operating systems (e.g., Linux, Unix, etc.) and platforms for spatial analysis (e.g. GIS, DSS, etc.).For update, the user is recommended to visit the AquaCrop web-page periodically.Special attention will also be given to the community of AquaCrop users and data andinformation providers. An AquaCrop Network is established with the purpose of sharingexperience and scaling-up significant results. Particularly relevant is the scaling-up andpropagation of ‘training’ in the use and application of AquaCrop and of the Guidelines fortrees and vines, as well as of other related tools. Face-to-face workshops, training-of-trainersapproaches, distance-and e-learning methods and other capacity development activities arebeing developed to respond to this need.The overall goal is to reach out and engage a large community of users and potential users,and researchers with good experimental data, to enhance and expand the utilization ofthese tools, methods, and knowledge, and to improve them based on community inputand feedback. This will ultimately lead to an augmented capacity of the users to sustainablymanage water and crops while enhancing their productivity.500crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
Page 453 and 454: Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
Page 455 and 456: water stress should not be imposed
Page 457 and 458: Under certain growing conditions, s
Page 459 and 460: ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
Page 463 and 464: Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
Page 465 and 466: Current season inflorescences becom
Page 467 and 468: the actual timing of each critical
Page 469 and 470: environments, rainfall pulses and l
Page 471 and 472: Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
Page 473 and 474: Table 3Yield and yield components o
Page 475 and 476: Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
Page 477 and 478: Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
Page 479 and 480: (McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
Page 481 and 482: Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
Page 484: Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
Page 487 and 488: Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
Page 491 and 492: Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
Page 493 and 494: Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
Page 495 and 496: Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
Page 497 and 498: FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
Page 499 and 500: Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
Page 501: 5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
Page 505: Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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