Crop yield response to water - Cra

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REFERENCESClearwater, M.J., Lowe, R.G., Hofstee, B.J., Barclay, C., Mandemaker, A.J. & Blattmann, P. 2004. Hydraulic conductanceand rootstock effects in grafted vines of kiwifruit. Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol. 55, No. 401, pp. 1371-1382.EC. 2004. European Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1673/2004 laying down the marketing standard applicable tokiwifruit. Official Journal L 300, 25/09/2004.FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database, available at link http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed on December 2011.Linsley-Noakes, C.G. 1989. Improving flowering of kiwifruit in climatically marginal areas using hydrogen cynamide.Scientia Horticulturae 38: 247-259.Miller, S.A., Smith, G.S., Boldingh, H.L. & Johansson, A. 1998. Effects of water stress on fruit quality attributes ofkiwifruit. Annals of Botany 81: 73– 81.Montanaro, G., Dichio, B., Xiloyannis, C., G. & Celano. 2006. Light influences transpiration and calcium accumulationin fruit of kiwifruit plants (Actinidia deliciosa var. deliciosa). Plant Science 170: 520-527.Montanaro, G., Dichio, B. & Xiloyannis, C. 2007. Response of photosynthetic machinery of field-grown kiwifruitunder Mediterranean conditions during drought and rewatering. Photosynthetica 45(4): 533-540.Reid, J. B., Brash, D. W., Sorensen, I. B. & Bycroft, B. 1996. Improvement in kiwifruit storage life caused by withholdingearly-season irrigation. New Zeal. Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 24: 21—28.Testolin, R. & Ferguson, A.R. 2009. Kiwifruit (Actinidia spp.) production and marketing in Italy. New Zealand Journalof Crop and Horticultural Science 37: 1–32.Wall, C., Dozier, W., Ebel, R.C., Wilkins, B., Woods, F. & Foshee, W.III. 2008. Vegetative and floral chilling requirementsof four new kiwi cultivars of Actinidia chinensis and A. deliciosa. Horticultural Science 43: 644-647.Xiloyannis, C., Massai, R., Piccotino, D., Baroni, G. & Bovo, M. 1993. Method and technique of irrigation in relationto root system characteristics in fruit growing. Acta Horticulturae 335:505-510.Xiloyannis, C., Dichio, B., Montanaro, G., Biasi, R. & Nuzzo, V. 1999. Water use efficiency of pergola-trained kiwifruitplants. Acta Horticulturae 498: 151-158.Xiloyannis, C., Dichio B., Montanaro, G., Lang A., Celano, G. & Mazzeo, M. 2008. Fruit morphological and physiologicaltraits influence calcium transport and accumulation in kiwifruit. Acta Horticulturae, 767:369-378KIWIFRUIT 497
5. EpilogueThis publication, Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 66, follows the tradition of FAO inproducing papers addressing pressing land and water issues and providing guidelines toimprove agricultural resources management.With this new I&D paper, FAO is providing an enhanced set of tools, methods and knowledge,for the analysis and assessment of crop production in relation to climate, to water supplyand shortage, to advance management strategies for improving crop productivity andwater saving. The targeted potential users are agricultural practitioners, including farmerassociations, irrigation districts, extension services, consulting engineers, governmental andnon-governmental agencies, research scientists, agricultural and natural resource economists.In the face of the increased threats of water scarcity worldwide, this publication comes ata time of great demand for maximizing the efficiency and productive water use. There isa need to sustainably intensify agricultural production in the face of incessant accelerationof competition for finite water resources, along with the uncertainties arising from climatechange.The tools and methods presented are effective as long as the user is fully aware of the strengthsand limitations of their applications. The user is urged to carefully read the various Chapters,so not to fall into simplistic and inappropriate assessments.Chapter 2 discusses the original FAO water production function method (I&D No. 33) ofassessing yield response to water. This empirical approach is mostly suitable when a quick andfirst approximation of yield reduction related to water limitation is needed. This method hasfound many applications, particularly in various interdisciplinary studies at regional or evennational scales, where generalized crop conditions prevaile and rapid assessments of yieldreductions under limited water supply are required. Caution is necessary as the simplificationintroduced limits its applicability for accurate estimates of yield responses to water.The use of AquaCrop (Chapter 3) is confined to herbaceous crops only, but with a widespectrum of applications from the plot to field level and can be scaled up to watershed orregional level through aggregation. It can be used for yield gap assessment, to benchmarkirrigation performance, and can assist in making informed water-related operationalmanagement decisions ranging from tactical to strategic. It can be used to optimize thecropping system in terms of crop and cultivar choice, planting time, and irrigation schedulefor a given soil-climate combination where water is limiting. AquaCrop is also particularlysuitable for the analysis of the impact of climate change scenarios on crop productivity,water requirements and consumption. Caution is required in the use of AquaCrop as itsperformance mostly depends on the accuracy of the input information and how well thecrop has been calibrated. A well-calibrated crop and accurate local parameters, particularlythe weather data, soil water characteristics, and phenology of the cultivar, are prerequisitefor high-quality simulation results. Therefore the users are recommended to not rely solelyon the crop file for the parameters of a particular crop, but check the AquaCrop web-page(www.fao.org/nr/water/aquacrop.html) for update of the crop parameters, and pay special498crop yield response to water
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
Page 450 and 451: Figure 4Effects of the level of app
Page 453 and 454: Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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Page 457 and 458: Under certain growing conditions, s
Page 459 and 460: ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
Page 463 and 464: Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
Page 465 and 466: Current season inflorescences becom
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Page 469 and 470: environments, rainfall pulses and l
Page 471 and 472: Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
Page 473 and 474: Table 3Yield and yield components o
Page 475 and 476: Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
Page 477 and 478: Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
Page 479 and 480: (McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
Page 481 and 482: Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
Page 484: Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
Page 487 and 488: Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
Page 491 and 492: Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
Page 493 and 494: Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
Page 495 and 496: Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
Page 497 and 498: FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
Page 499: Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
Page 503 and 504: operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
Page 505: Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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