Crop yield response to water - Cra

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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabriel Selles(INIA, Santiago, Chile)Contributing AuthorElias Fereres(University of Cordoba andIAS-CSIC, Cordoba, Spain)AvocadoIntroduction and BackgroundAvocado (Persea americana Mill) is a tree that has been known forcenturies in areas of Central and South America, but only recently hasbecome a commercial crop. In 2009, there were over 430 000 ha ofcommercial plantings with a world average yield of 8.8 tonne/ha, with Mexico(100 000 ha), Chile and the United States as the main producing countries.Other countries with significant exports are South Africa, Spain, and Israel(FAO, 2011). Figure 1 presents the production trends of the main producingcountries. Avocado fruit yields are comparatively low relative to those of otherfruit trees because of the high energy requirements of producing fruit, becauseof both its large seed size and its composition, rich in oil (Wolstenholme,1986). Average yields of the variety Hass, one of the most popular commercialcultivars, are around 12 tonne/ha, but may reach 25 tonne/ha in very goodyears, with the fruit containing up to 20 percent oil. There are three avocadoraces: Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indies, with different sensitivity in theirresponses to the environment. Avocadoes have evolved in volcanic soils thathave very low bulk density, acid pH, and very high pore volume. It is thereforenot surprising that this species is extremely sensitive to waterlogging and doesnot do well in heavy soils with aeration problems. Planting on berms or ridgesis customary when feasible to improve drainage around the areas close to thetrunk base. For this reason, sandy rather than heavy soils are preferred forplanting avocados. Avocados are also very sensitive to low temperatures, andeven light frosts (temperatures below -1 to -2 ºC) may cause significant damage.Among the three races, the Mexican is most tolerant to cold temperatures, asit originated in the cool highlands of Mexico.Growth and Development in Relationto Yield Determination.Vegetative growth occurs in two flushes; a strong one in spring and aweaker one in the autumn. Flowering occurs in spring (between earlyOctober and mid-November in the Southern Hemisphere) and is followedby fruit set. Heavy fruit drop takes place during the first 3-4 weeks afterfruit set, at the end of spring, leading to a first adjustment in fruit number,which is further adjusted with an additional fruit drop period, which takesplace around the end of summer, when fruit size is between 10-40 percentof mature size. Figure 2 depicts the developmental stages of the cultivarHass in Central Chile showing also two root growth periods occurring inearly summer and at the beginning of fall.442crop yield response to water
Figure 1 Production trends for avocado in the principal countries (FAO, 2011).MexicoChile USA Dominican RepublicIndonesia1 4001 2001 000800Production (1 000 tonne)600400350300250200150100500198519901995200020052010Figure 2Developmental patterns of avocado (cv. Hass) as observed in the Central Valley of Chile.Budbreak Roots FruitFruit dropFloweringFlower buds(1 000 000 15 000)# flowersGrowth rate (relative)15 000 300 300 150# fruit # fruitMayJuneJulyAug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb.Mar.Apr.(S. Hem.)Oct.Nov.Dec.Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June JulyAug.Sept.(N. Hem.)avocado 443
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Page 401 and 402: Figure 1 Production trends for peac
Page 403 and 404: Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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Page 409 and 410: PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
Page 411 and 412: FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
Page 413 and 414: In applying RDI strategies an impor
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Page 418 and 419: Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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Page 423 and 424: Figure 1 Production trends for pist
Page 425 and 426: There are two types of shoot growth
Page 427 and 428: FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Page 434 and 435: Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
Page 437 and 438: Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
Page 439 and 440: is completed within 20 days; therea
Page 441 and 442: or peach. However, because fruit is
Page 443 and 444: to a midday value varying between -
Page 448 and 449: The most critical developmental per
Page 450 and 451: Figure 4Effects of the level of app
Page 453 and 454: Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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Page 457 and 458: Under certain growing conditions, s
Page 459 and 460: ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
Page 463 and 464: Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
Page 465 and 466: Current season inflorescences becom
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Page 469 and 470: environments, rainfall pulses and l
Page 471 and 472: Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
Page 473 and 474: Table 3Yield and yield components o
Page 475 and 476: Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
Page 477 and 478: Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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Page 481 and 482: Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Page 487 and 488: Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
Page 491 and 492: Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
Page 493 and 494: Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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