Crop yield response to water - Cra

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The WP parameter introduced in AquaCrop is normalized for atmospheric evaporative demand,defined by ET o , and for the CO 2 concentration of the atmosphere. The normalized biomasswater productivity (WP*) proved to be nearly constant for a given crop when mineral nutrientsare not limiting, regardless of water stress except for extremely severe cases. Calibration of WPand normalization for evaporative demands has been based on the equation:(5)WP* =ΣBTrET O[CO 2]The summation is taken over the time intervals spanning the period when B is produced.[CO 2 ] outside the bracket indicates that the normalized value is for a particular air CO 2concentration. For most crop species, WP* increases as air CO 2 concentration increases,allowing the simulation of impact on yield under various CO 2 and climate change scenarios.The equation is directly applicable when Tr and ET o data are for daily time intervals. WhenTr and ET o are available for time interval larger than daily, the normalization requirescaution. Background information and more details on normalization, including that for CO 2concentration, are given in Steduto et al. (2007).In the literature WP is commonly normalized for evaporative demand using air vapourpressure deficit (VPD) instead of ET o . The choice of using ET o was made because it has beendemonstrated to be superior and accounts for advective energy transfer, which is ignoredusing VPD (Steduto et al., 2007). WP* is conservative for a given level of mineral nutrition,but may be reduced by nutrient deficiencies, particularly nitrogen. The calibrated WP* inthe model for various crops are for situations where nutrients are ample. For nutrient limitedsituations, the model provides categories of soil fertility stress ranging from mild to severenutrient deficiencies, with corresponding lower default WP* values.The conservative nature of WP* is demonstrated in Figure 5, where cumulative B vs.cumulative Tr are plotted in (a), and cumulative B vs. cumulative normalized Tr (Tr/ET o )in (b), over the season for sweet sorghum (a C 4 crop), sunflower, wheat and chickpea (allthree are C 3 ). It is seen in Figure 5a that the regression lines for different crops are linearbut with different slopes. This means WP is constant for each crop but differs among thecrops. In Figure 5b it is seen that normalization by ET o has coalesced the lines for the threeC 3 crops into one, meaning their WP* are very similar. In this study sunflower was grownin May-August, wheat in February-May, and chickpea in April-June. So growth of thesecrops occurred in periods differing in atmospheric evaporative demand. Normalizing by ET oaccounted for the difference in evaporative demand and showed that the three crops havevery similar intrinsic water productivity (very similar WP*).The single value of WP*, as show in Figure 5b, is used for the entire crop cycle for most ofthe crops. However, for crops with yields high in fat and protein content, more photosyntheticassimilates or energy is required per unit of dry matter produced after flowering and duringthe grain/fruit filling stage. For such crops, AquaCrop uses a single value for the WP* up toflowering, then declining gradually towards a lower WP* value to account for yield composition.AquaCrop: concepts, rationale and operation 25
figure 5 Relationship (a) between aboveground biomass and cumulative transpiration (ΣTr) and (b)between aboveground biomass and cumulative normalized transpiration [Σ(Tr/ET o )], during thecropcycle of sunflower (under two N levels and up to anthesis), sorghum, wheat, and chickpea(redrawn from Steduto and Albrizio, 2005).Aboveground biomass (kg m -2 )Sorghum (N1) Sunflower (N0) Sunflower (N1) Wheat Chickpea3ab2100 100 200 300 400 500 0 20 40 60 80 100ΣTr (mm) Σ(Tr/ET °)Harvestable yieldThe partition of biomass into yield part (Y) is simulated by means of a harvest index (HI). Forfruit or grain crops, published data on different species indicate there is a linear increase withtime in the ratio of fruit or grain biomass to total above-ground biomass, from the time nottoo long after pollination and fruit set until maturity or near maturity. In common usage, HI isthis ratio at maturity or harvest time. In AquaCrop, this ratio at earlier stages is also referredto as HI, for simplicity. For fruit/grain crops, HI is set to increase from zero at flowering, firstover a short lag phase, when the increase starts slowly but accelerates with time, followed bya steady phase with the highest, but at constant rate of, increase (Figure 6). For root/tubercrops, HI is the ratio of the storage organ biomass to the total biomass (root plus shoot). Thelimited published data on root/tuber crops indicate that instead of increasing linearly after alag phase, HI increases quickly shortly after storage organ initiation, then gradually slows untilmaturity. So HI is described by a logistic curve for these crops.A reference point is needed for the upper range of HI. This point, termed reference HI (HI o ),is the HI representative of well-developed cultivars adapted to their environments and grownunder optimal conditions without limiting inputs. Calibrated HI o can be changed based on gooddata for a particular cultivar. The progression of HI for fruit/grain crops is exemplified in Figure 6.The soilIn AquaCrop the soil is described by a soil profile and the characteristics of the groundwatertable (if any). In AquaCrop the soil can be subdivided vertically up to five layers of variabledepth, each layer (or horizon) accommodating different soil physical characteristics: the soilwatercontent at saturation; the upper limit of water content under gravity (commonly referredas field capacity (FC) for easy of reference); the lower limit of water content where a crop canreach the permanent wilting point (PWP); and the hydraulic conductivity at saturation (K sat ).From these characteristics AquaCrop derives other parameters governing soil evaporation,26crop yield response to water
Page 3: Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
Page 16 and 17: 1. IntroductionFood production and
Page 21: Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
Page 31: 3. Yield response to waterof herbac
Page 43 and 44: figure 7 The root zone depicted as
Page 47 and 48: threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
Page 50 and 51: also calculated by multiplying with
Page 53: FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
Page 57 and 58: figure 17ClimateInput data defining
Page 59 and 60: Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
Page 62: figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
Page 67: Applications to Irrigation Manageme
Page 72: Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
Page 75 and 76: for each planting date. If there ar
Page 77: ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
Page 83 and 84: Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
Page 88 and 89: Table 2Additional information and d
Page 90 and 91:
capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
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Figure 4 Relationship between relat
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Table 3 Sample calculation of month
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clayey soils. If supply is very lim
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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
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Fruit growth during this stage is t
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Season-long stressSeveral studies h
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Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
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Four crop-water-production function
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size distribution toward more favou
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Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
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Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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water stress and thus highly respon
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indicate that deficit irrigation ad
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Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
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Figure 10Response of marketable fru
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Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
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Figure 1 Production trends for plum
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soil water. In young orchards, post
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Figure 3 Relationships between rela
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Production trends for almo
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FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
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Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
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Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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nuts are rapidly expanding and late
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ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
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Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
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Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
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Figure 1 Production trends for pear
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(Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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out in Spain under more common grow
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Figure 4Relationships between the p
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Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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e saved, but this causes a reductio
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pear 389
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Figure 1 Production trends for peac
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Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
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The postharvest period is important
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the midday stem-water potential in
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PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
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FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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In applying RDI strategies an impor
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peach 407
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
Page 463 and 464:
Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
Page 465 and 466:
Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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