Crop yield response to water - Cra
Crop yield response to water - Cra Crop yield response to water - Cra
Description of the stages of developmentin relation to yield determinationVegetative and reproductive growthAs with other stone fruit, peach flowering is immediately followed by vegetative growth in earlyspring. Peach chilling requirements, usually computed during dormancy as hours above 7 ºC, varywidely among varieties, but in some may be substantial. During the canopy development period,fruit set and initial fruit growth take place simultaneously. Figure 2a depicts the patterns of fruitgrowth for three cultivars differing in maturity and the relative rate of vegetative growth forthe late-maturing cultivar. Although early maturing cultivars bloom earlier than the late, initialfruit growth is very similar for the three types. In the early cultivar, such initial growth is directlyfollowed by a fast fruit enlargement phase (Figure 2a) that ends with fruit ripening. In the othercultivars, there is a slowdown in growth rate of the fruit, coinciding with the acceleration ofvegetative growth (Figure 2a). Vegetative growth, measured as seasonal shoot length or theincrease in trunk diameter, has similar trends for the different cultivars. Extension of primaryshoots occurs first followed by the growth of secondary shoots. In the early cultivars there aretwo peaks of rapid extension growth, the second one taking place after fruit harvest. In themedium and late-maturing cultivars, there is normally only one peak of fast shoot growth, butthere may be another one after harvest in some cultivars and environments. At some point inthe season, shoot growth slows and the rapid fruit expansion rate period begins (Figure 2b).This last fruit enlargement phase extends until the fruit matures prior to harvest, and the longerthis period, the greater is the accumulation of dry matter in the fruit and the larger is the finalpotential fruit size (Figures 2a and 2b).Because bud emergence usually occurs with a fully charged soil profile, water deficits affectingthe early growth stages of fruit and canopies are uncommon. When they occur, tree leaf areaand final fruit size will be reduced, because in the latter case, initial growth is mostly causedat cell division stage that sets the final number of cells that a fruit will have.Figure 2aEvolution of fruit fresh weight for early (A), medium (B) and late (C) maturing peach cultivars.Stages I, II, and III of fruit growth and postharvest (PH) maturing peach cultivars. Stages I, II,and III of fruit growth and postharvest (PH) for a medium cultivar grown in the NorthernHemisphere are shown.200150S-IIS-IIICFresh fruit weight (g)10050S-IABPH01-Apr.1-May1-June1-July 1-Aug. 31-Aug.1-Oct.Date394crop yield response to water
Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (shoot) growth (triangles) and of fruit growth (circles) in peach treesunder RDI (closed symbols) and under a fully-irrigated control (open symbols) at Lleida, Spain.14070Fresh fruit weight (g)120100806040IIIIII6050403020Shoot lenght (cm)2010001-Apr. 21-Apr. 11-May 31-May 20-June 10-July 30-Aug.While flower buds are quite resistant to freezing temperatures above -7 to -10 ºC duringdormancy, flowers and recently formed fruit are very sensitive to mild frosts, with minimumtemperatures below -2 to -3 ºC. Thus, peaches are very sensitive to spring frosts that cancompletely wipe out fruit production.Stages of fruit growthAs discussed above, fruit growth, measured by either increase in fruit volume or in dry weight,follows a double sigmoid curve in peach. From Figure 2 it can be seen that there are threeapparent stages of fruit growth, although in early varieties, it is difficult to detect more thantwo from periodic measurements of fruit volume. The first stage, defined as Stage I, startssoon after pollination and is a period of active cell division that ends around pit hardening,when the fruit has reached about 20 to 25 percent of its final size. Fruit growth slows in thesecond stage and this coincides with a period of active shoot extension and leaf development(Figure 2b). The duration of this second phase (Stage II) varies; in early varieties, it is hardlydetectable, while in very late varieties it can lasts for more than 40 days. Following Stage II,fruit enlargement resumes at a very high rate in what is called Stage III, proceeding more orless in an exponential fashion until harvest (Figure 2b). Dry matter accumulation in the fruitlags behind fruit enlargement, but also follows a double sigmoid pattern, less marked thanfor the accumulation of fresh weight, and more evident in late varieties but hardly detectablein medium and early varieties. The most relevant difference among cultivars varying in seasonlength, from early to late maturity, is the duration of Stage II (Figure 2a).Final fruit size is determined primarily by fruit load (number of fruit per tree), but tree size,canopy configuration and pruning, water and nutrient status are also important factors.The relationship between final fruit size and fruit load is cultivar dependent as shown onFigure 3 (Johnson and Handley, 1989) where these relationships are shown for several earlypeach 395
- Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
- Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
- Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
- Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
- Page 360 and 361: Figure 1 Production trends for plum
- Page 362 and 363: soil water. In young orchards, post
- Page 364 and 365: Figure 3 Relationships between rela
- Page 366: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
- Page 369 and 370: Figure 1 Production trends for almo
- Page 371 and 372: FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
- Page 373 and 374: Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
- Page 375 and 376: Indicators of tree water statusTo p
- Page 377 and 378: nuts are rapidly expanding and late
- Page 379 and 380: ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
- Page 381 and 382: Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
- Page 383: Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
- Page 386 and 387: Figure 1 Production trends for pear
- Page 388 and 389: (Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
- Page 390 and 391: out in Spain under more common grow
- Page 392 and 393: Figure 4Relationships between the p
- Page 394 and 395: Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
- Page 396 and 397: e saved, but this causes a reductio
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- Page 401: Figure 1 Production trends for peac
- Page 405 and 406: The postharvest period is important
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- Page 409 and 410: PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
- Page 411 and 412: FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
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- Page 418 and 419: Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
- Page 420: 1 100 mm, a team in California appl
- Page 423 and 424: Figure 1 Production trends for pist
- Page 425 and 426: There are two types of shoot growth
- Page 427 and 428: FIGURE 3Time course development of
- Page 429 and 430: Stage III was the most stress sensi
- Page 431: (see Chapter 4), as in other specie
- Page 434 and 435: Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
- Page 437 and 438: Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
- Page 439 and 440: is completed within 20 days; therea
- Page 441 and 442: or peach. However, because fruit is
- Page 443 and 444: to a midday value varying between -
- Page 446 and 447: Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
- Page 448 and 449: The most critical developmental per
- Page 450 and 451: Figure 4Effects of the level of app
Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (shoot) growth (triangles) and of fruit growth (circles) in peach treesunder RDI (closed symbols) and under a fully-irrigated control (open symbols) at Lleida, Spain.14070Fresh fruit weight (g)120100806040IIIIII6050403020Shoot lenght (cm)2010001-Apr. 21-Apr. 11-May 31-May 20-June 10-July 30-Aug.While flower buds are quite resistant <strong>to</strong> freezing temperatures above -7 <strong>to</strong> -10 ºC duringdormancy, flowers and recently formed fruit are very sensitive <strong>to</strong> mild frosts, with minimumtemperatures below -2 <strong>to</strong> -3 ºC. Thus, peaches are very sensitive <strong>to</strong> spring frosts that cancompletely wipe out fruit production.Stages of fruit growthAs discussed above, fruit growth, measured by either increase in fruit volume or in dry weight,follows a double sigmoid curve in peach. From Figure 2 it can be seen that there are threeapparent stages of fruit growth, although in early varieties, it is difficult <strong>to</strong> detect more thantwo from periodic measurements of fruit volume. The first stage, defined as Stage I, startssoon after pollination and is a period of active cell division that ends around pit hardening,when the fruit has reached about 20 <strong>to</strong> 25 percent of its final size. Fruit growth slows in thesecond stage and this coincides with a period of active shoot extension and leaf development(Figure 2b). The duration of this second phase (Stage II) varies; in early varieties, it is hardlydetectable, while in very late varieties it can lasts for more than 40 days. Following Stage II,fruit enlargement resumes at a very high rate in what is called Stage III, proceeding more orless in an exponential fashion until harvest (Figure 2b). Dry matter accumulation in the fruitlags behind fruit enlargement, but also follows a double sigmoid pattern, less marked thanfor the accumulation of fresh weight, and more evident in late varieties but hardly detectablein medium and early varieties. The most relevant difference among cultivars varying in seasonlength, from early <strong>to</strong> late maturity, is the duration of Stage II (Figure 2a).Final fruit size is determined primarily by fruit load (number of fruit per tree), but tree size,canopy configuration and pruning, <strong>water</strong> and nutrient status are also important fac<strong>to</strong>rs.The relationship between final fruit size and fruit load is cultivar dependent as shown onFigure 3 (Johnson and Handley, 1989) where these relationships are shown for several earlypeach 395
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