Crop yield response to water - Cra

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The research results on preharvest impacts of stress on kernel filling are seemingly contradictoryand may reflect the importance of stress timing and cultivar differences. A study in Spain (Gironaet al., 2005) with cv. Ferragnes, reported that kernel dry weight accumulation was not influencedduring the first two seasons of an RDI regime that irrigated at 20 percent of ET c during late Junethrough the mid-September harvest (minimum predawn leaf water potential of -1.7 MPa inAugust) but was lower during the final two seasons of the study, which was attributed to thecumulative impacts of stress reducing the reserves of carbohydrates available for kernel fillingand to relatively low soil water levels during those years. However, a California study (Goldhamerand Viveros, 2000) with higher evaporative demand (minimum predawn leaf water potential of-3.5 MPa) and earlier stress reported significant reductions in kernel dry matter accumulationwith cv. Non Pareil in all experimental years. Dry matter accumulation in the hull and shell afterthree successive years of preharvest stress, diverged from the fully irrigated in late April, wellbefore there were differences in tree stress, as shown in Figure 3. This was likely because of earlyseason competition for carbohydrates. A study (Romero et al., 2004) with cv. ‘Cartagenera’ thatimposed an RDI regime that resulted in a minimum predawn leaf water potential of -2.5 MPa inlate July found no reduction in dry kernel weight at the mid-August harvest.A recent study with cv. Non Pareil in California showed that imposing water deficits primarilyfrom early July through an early September harvest over a four-year period did not reducekernel weight or nut load (Stewart et al., 2011). These workers attempted to maintain middaystem-water potential between -1.4 and -1.8 MPa during this period. The objective was reducedhull rot, a disease that damages the fruit (Teviotdale et al., 2001), while reducing consumptiveuse. Other efforts using this same philosophy have achieved positive results and this practiceis now being widely adopted by California almond growers with trees afflicted by severe hullrot. However, it should be noted that detailed analysis of the fruit components (hull, shell,and kernel) suggests that the impact of preharvest stress on hull splitting may impact kernelweights. In numerous studies, California researchers found that slight reductions of kernel drymatter accumulation occurred concomitant with the onset of hull split, while at the same time,there were slight increases in the rate of dry matter accumulation in the hulls. The net resultwas slightly lighter kernels (generally 2-3 percent relative to full irrigation) but no differencein the dry weight of the entire nut. They hypothesized that hull split resulted in some physicaldisruption in assimilate transport in the pathway leading to the kernel.It appears that there are two factors involving early season stress timing that can contribute toreduced kernel size: lower cell division and/or expansion, which is enhanced by carbohydratecompetition, and the disruption in assimilate transport to the kernels because of acceleratedhull split. These stress impacts may well be cultivar-dependent although comparative researchstudies are lacking.Of the two primary yield components of almond, fruit load appears to be the most sensitive interms of water stress impacts on yield. A study in Spain found that fruit loads were reduced inthe final two years of a four-year RDI treatment and attributed this to the cumulative impactsof stress on the bearing surface, and thus fruiting positions, of the tree. Another study inCalifornia also reported that yield reductions associated with water deprivation in August andSeptember (minimum midday stem-water potential of -2.5 MPa) were the result of a reducedbearing surface resulting from less shoot and spur growth. This study found that yields werereduced only after two years of stress. Other studies have found little impact of preharveststress on fruit load.362crop yield response to water
Figure 3Differences in the cultivar Non Pareil trees subjected to preharvest water deficits (720A)and those fully irrigated (Control) in: (a) dry matter accumulation in the hulls+shells andkernels with time in the third year of the stress treatments, and (b) corresponding predawnleaf water potentials. Adapted from Goldhamer et al. (2006).4.54.03.5aHull+Shell; ControlKernel; ControlHull+Shell; 720AKernel; 720ADry weight (g)3.02.52.01.51.00.50.0Mar. 15 Apr. 3 Apr. 22 May 11 May 30 June July 7 July 26 Aug. 140.0720AControlPredawn leaf water potential (MPa)-0.5-1.0-1.5-2.0b-2.5ALMOND 363
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
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Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
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The use of displacement sensors to
Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
Page 324 and 325: Table 3 Sample calculation of month
Page 326 and 327: clayey soils. If supply is very lim
Page 329: Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
Page 332 and 333: Fruit growth during this stage is t
Page 334 and 335: Season-long stressSeveral studies h
Page 336 and 337: Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
Page 339 and 340: Four crop-water-production function
Page 341 and 342: size distribution toward more favou
Page 344 and 345: Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
Page 346 and 347: Apples tend to have a biennial bear
Page 348 and 349: water stress and thus highly respon
Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
Page 360 and 361: Figure 1 Production trends for plum
Page 362 and 363: soil water. In young orchards, post
Page 364 and 365: Figure 3 Relationships between rela
Page 366: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 369 and 370: Figure 1 Production trends for almo
Page 371: FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
Page 375 and 376: Indicators of tree water statusTo p
Page 377 and 378: nuts are rapidly expanding and late
Page 379 and 380: ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
Page 381 and 382: Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
Page 383: Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
Page 386 and 387: Figure 1 Production trends for pear
Page 388 and 389: (Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
Page 390 and 391: out in Spain under more common grow
Page 392 and 393: Figure 4Relationships between the p
Page 394 and 395: Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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Page 401 and 402: Figure 1 Production trends for peac
Page 403 and 404: Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
Page 405 and 406: The postharvest period is important
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Page 409 and 410: PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
Page 411 and 412: FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
Page 413 and 414: In applying RDI strategies an impor
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Page 418 and 419: Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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