Crop yield response to water - Cra

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Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(formerly University of California,Davis, USA; currentlyCooperative Extension Emeritus)Contributing AuthorJoan Girona(IRTA, Lleida, Spain)AlmondIntroduction and BackgroundAlmonds are grown under both rainfed and irrigated conditions;production in semi-arid zones, such as the western United Statesand Spain, reflects the drought tolerance of the tree. In many areasof the Mediterranean Basin, almond trees are grown on marginal soils inareas where annual rainfall does not exceed 300 mm, being important forerosion control and to prevent desertification. As a result of the limitedwater supply and poor soil conditions of the rainfed areas, tree densities arequite low and yields are also low and variable from year-to-year. However,they can be much higher when the water-use requirements of the treesare fully met and, in most areas of the world, this requires irrigation. Newirrigated almond plantations have expanded in recent decades in manyareas and are highly productive. Nevertheless, almonds are an importantcrop in very diverse agricultural systems, from very marginal to highlyintensive. In 2009, the cultivated area worldwide amounted to 1.8 millionha with an average yield (with shell) of 1.3 tonne/ha (FAO, 2011). Figure 1shows the recent trends in production of the major producing countries.Modern almond cultivation presents unique challenges to irrigation ingeneral and regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) in particular. These includedealing with multiple cultivars in each orchard, a long period betweenflowering and fruit maturity the need to dry the soil prior to harvest in orderto mechanically shake nuts from the trees, and a relatively late reproductivebud morphogenesis period. On the other hand, since the fruit is sold dry,many of the problems associated with fresh fruit production, includingphysical appearance, handling and storage are absent.The almond flower of most varieties is self-infertile; it cannot pollinateitself. Even for cultivars that are self-compatible, production is enhancedby cross-pollination. Thus, each orchard normally contains at least twodifferent cultivars with overlapping bloom periods to help the processof cross-pollination; the transfer of pollen from the anthers of a flowerfrom one cultivar to the stigma of a flower from another cultivar. Thistransfer is facilitated by the introduction of honey bees into the orchardduring flowering. To maximize pollen exchange, a common arrangementis single, alternating rows of each cultivar. The fact that two or morecultivars exist in a field complicates irrigation management in thatthe different harvest periods usually result in harvest-related waterdeprivation for one cultivar, while kernel filling is occurring in the othercultivar. Further, there is some evidence that different cultivars havedifferent stress sensitivities.358crop yield response to water
Figure 1 Production trends for almonds in the principal countries (FAO, 2011).1 600USA Spain Syria Turkey Algeria1 4001 200Production (1 000 tonne)1 000800600400200019851990199520002005 20082009Quality considerationsInsect damage, shrivel, kernel colour, and broken kernels are quality criteria worldwide.Additionally, marketplace differences result in cultivar-dependent crop values.Some markets also place a premium value on larger nuts; the United States, forexample.Description of the stages of developmentin relation to yield determinationAlmond trees require very low chilling and thus, vegetative growth and flowering begin veryearly in the season relative to other deciduous tree species; although plant breeders aim todevelop cultivars that bloom late to avoid chilling injuries. This earliness feature relates tothe evolution of almonds in mild, subtropical climates with prolonged summer drought. Theperiod from flowering to fruit maturation of almond is relatively long, depending on climateand cultivar; from late January-March to August-September in the Northern. Hemisphere, andthe sensitivity of each of the physiological processes during this time to water deficits must beconsidered to assess the impact of stress on the yield and quality of the fruit at harvest. Notonly current season impacts but those of subsequent seasons must be taken into account.ALMOND 359
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Crop yieldresponse to waterFAOIRRIG
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1. IntroductionFood production and
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Lead AuthorsMartin Smith(formerly F
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3. Yield response to waterof herbac
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The WP parameter introduced in Aqua
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figure 7 The root zone depicted as
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threshold and 1.0 at the lower thre
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also calculated by multiplying with
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FIGURE 14 Schematic representation
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figure 17ClimateInput data defining
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Table 1 Conservative crop parameter
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figure 18 The Main AquaCrop menu.di
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Applications to Irrigation Manageme
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Box 1 Simulating deficit irrigation
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for each planting date. If there ar
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ox 2 (CONTINUED)FIGURE 1 Difference
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Heng, L.K., Hsiao,T.C., Evett, S.,
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Table 2Additional information and d
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capacity (FC) and permanent wilting
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densities. This range is referred t
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Table 3Comparison of simulated with
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In Equation 3 C a is the mean air C
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REFERENCESAllen, R., Pereira, L., R
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Lead AuthorSenthold Asseng(formerly
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Figure 1 World wheat harvested area
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When nutrition is limiting, yield p
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wheat 101
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Figure 1 World rice harvested area
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Response to StressesBecause rice ev
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Lead AuthorTheodore C. Hsiao(Univer
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emergence to flowering is about 65
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ReferencesAyers, R.S. & Westcot, D.
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Figure 1 World soybean harvested ar
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A number of studies indicate that s
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ReferencesBhatia, V.S., Piara Singh
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Figure 1 World barley harvested are
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Barley development may be thought o
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The seasonal water requirements for
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Lead AuthorSuhas P. Wani(ICRISAT, A
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sowing usually starts in late Septe
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loss. If water stress is severe eno
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ReferencesFAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online
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Figure 1 World cotton harvested are
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Response to StressesCotton stands o
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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spring. In double cropping, sowing
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size as affected by soil water defi
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sunflower 171
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to produce energy (electricity from
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Response to stressLow temperatureSu
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Sugarcane 181
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Figure 1 World potato harvested are
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initiation, vigorous canopy, profus
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ReferencesBradshaw, J.E. 2009. A ge
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Tomato requires soils with proper w
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and there is frequent wetting of ex
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is so excessive that fruit setting
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Lead AuthorsMichele Rinaldi(CRA, Ba
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North Africa and near East ranges f
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Water use & ProductivitySugar beets
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ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
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Figure 1 Alfalfa harvested area (SA
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Water use & ProductivityAs a perenn
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SalinityAlfalfa is tolerant to rela
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Lead AuthorAsha Karunaratne(formerl
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Generally, the growing season begin
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FAO. 2011. FAOSTAT online database,
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*Flower and grain colour presented
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Figure 1 World quinoa harvested are
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with typical values around 10.5 g/m
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ReferencesAlvarez-Jubete, L., Arend
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Growth and developmentThe common me
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soils (EARO, 2002). Tef has some to
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tef 243
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Lead AuthorsElias Fereres(Universit
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equirements per unit land area for
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figure 6 The water balance of an or
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ox 2 Understanding the transpiratio
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Orchard transpirationTree Tr is det
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ox 4 Sample calculation of E dz , E
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ox 5 Computing olive tree transpira
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FIGURE 10 Crop coefficient (K c ) c
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For training systems on a vertical
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ox 7Consumptive and non-consumptive
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are seeking more precision in their
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ox 9 Examples of soil water monitor
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ox 10 (CONTINUED)The major limitati
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ox 12Definition of CWSI and an exam
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The water budget methodWith this me
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ox 15 Evolution of soil water under
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opening and photosynthesis relative
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that occur during the periods of fr
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The crop, where price can vary more
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Modify horticultural practicesPruni
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FIGURE 13Comparison of yield per un
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season. Thus the risks of salinity
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4.1 Fruit trees and vinesEditor:Eli
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Figure 1 Production trends for oliv
Page 317 and 318: Figure 2Occurrence and duration of
Page 320 and 321: The use of displacement sensors to
Page 322 and 323: Figure 4 Relationship between relat
Page 324 and 325: Table 3 Sample calculation of month
Page 326 and 327: clayey soils. If supply is very lim
Page 329: Lead AuthorDavid A. Goldhamer(forme
Page 332 and 333: Fruit growth during this stage is t
Page 334 and 335: Season-long stressSeveral studies h
Page 336 and 337: Table 1Published monthly crop coeff
Page 339 and 340: Four crop-water-production function
Page 341 and 342: size distribution toward more favou
Page 344 and 345: Lead AuthorSAmos Naor(GRI, Universi
Page 346 and 347: Apples tend to have a biennial bear
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Page 351 and 352: indicate that deficit irrigation ad
Page 353 and 354: Figure 7Effect of midday light inte
Page 355 and 356: Figure 10Response of marketable fru
Page 357: Failla, O., Zocchi, Z., Treccani, C
Page 360 and 361: Figure 1 Production trends for plum
Page 362 and 363: soil water. In young orchards, post
Page 364 and 365: Figure 3 Relationships between rela
Page 366: ReferencesAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S
Page 371 and 372: FIGURE 2The three stages of almond
Page 373 and 374: Figure 3Differences in the cultivar
Page 375 and 376: Indicators of tree water statusTo p
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Page 379 and 380: ReferencesAyars, J.E., Johnson, R.
Page 381 and 382: Table 2 (Continued)Year TreatmentWa
Page 383: Table 3 (continued)Potential900 mmA
Page 386 and 387: Figure 1 Production trends for pear
Page 388 and 389: (Elkins et al., 2007). The appearan
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Page 392 and 393: Figure 4Relationships between the p
Page 394 and 395: Data in Figure 5 suggest that there
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Page 401 and 402: Figure 1 Production trends for peac
Page 403 and 404: Figure 2bEvolution of vegetative (s
Page 405 and 406: The postharvest period is important
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Page 409 and 410: PHOTOPeach leaf appearance under th
Page 411 and 412: FIGURE 5Relation between the crop c
Page 413 and 414: In applying RDI strategies an impor
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Figure 1 Production trends of walnu
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1 100 mm, a team in California appl
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Figure 1 Production trends for pist
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There are two types of shoot growth
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FIGURE 3Time course development of
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Stage III was the most stress sensi
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(see Chapter 4), as in other specie
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Table 2 Suggested RDI strategies fo
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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is completed within 20 days; therea
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or peach. However, because fruit is
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to a midday value varying between -
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Lead AuthorRaúl Ferreyraand Gabrie
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The most critical developmental per
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Figure 4Effects of the level of app
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Lead AuthorJordi Marsal(IRTA, Lleid
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water stress should not be imposed
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Under certain growing conditions, s
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ReferencesAntunez A., Stockle, C. &
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Lead AuthorSVictor O. Sadras(SARDI
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Current season inflorescences becom
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the actual timing of each critical
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environments, rainfall pulses and l
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Figure 6Yield reduction with increa
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Table 3Yield and yield components o
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Figure 9Wine quality score as a fun
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Figure 11Wine attributes of Tempran
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(McCarthy and Coombe, 1999), but ev
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Figure 15Relative yield as a functi
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Shiraz, Grenache and Mourvèdre in
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Girona, J., Mata, M., del Campo, J.
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Lead AuthorSCristos Xiloyannis(Univ
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Figure 2Seasonal pattern of the lea
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Figure 5Fraction of the exposed and
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FIGURE 9Soil volume explored by roo
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Water Requirements and IrrigationMa
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5. EpilogueThis publication, Irriga
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operating systems (e.g., Linux, Uni
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Crop yield response to waterAbstrac
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Crop yield response to water - Cra

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